Subject Index

Note: Page numbers followed by b indicate boxes, f indicate figures and t indicate tables.

A Cased wellbore, 4, 4f
Anisotropic stress, 190, 191f breakdown pressure, 4–5
in parallel fractures, 184–186 hydraulic fracture from, 69
Arrested period, 57 Cauchy principal value, 94
Axial load, 199 Circular fracture, 11–14, 12f
energy consideration, 14–15
Complex fracture networks, 139–143,
B
149–153
Backpressure, 17 schematic, 181f
Backstress, 17 Complex fractures
Basis function, 29 examples, 190–195
Biot’s poroelastic parameter, 199 interaction among, 190–195
Bonding, 126–127 Constant height fracture
Borehole pressure, 100 KGD model, 6–8, 6f
Boundary conditions models, 5–11
3-D fracture modeling, 26, 26f PKN model, 8–11, 8f
natural fracture, 163–171 Continuity equation, 52
for turning fracture, 113, 113f Continuity of fluid mass, 161
Boundary element method, 181, 183 Control volume, 25f
Boundary integral method, 112–113 Convection
Breakdown pressure of interior node, 36f
cased wellbore, 4–5 mesh generation before and
deviated wellbore, 75f, 76, 77f, 78f after, 37f
for elastic hole, 1–2 Coordinate
experiments on, 198–199 for deviated wellbore, 70, 70f
hole, 1–2, 20, 74, 199 for turning fracture, 112f
initiation pressure compared to, 198 Coupled geo-mechanics reservoir
of open hole, 198–199 model, 139
pore pressure relating to, 199 Critical fracture inclination angle, 100
for poroelastic hole, 1–2 Crossing criterion. See Fracture crossing
of wellbore, 2–3 criterion
Crossing with offset, 133–134
C Cross-linked gel treatment, 149–153, 153t,
Calculated critical fracture angle, 101f 154f
Cased hole study
data used in, 82t D
deviated wellbore, 78–88, 82t Delaunay triangulation method, 39
for horizontal well, 126 Desktop Interface Separation Laboratory
for link-up of mini-fractures, Apparatus for Simulation of Hydrofrac
98–99 (DISLASH), 205–206
stress distribution, 78–88 Developed grid, curved fracture, 114f
228
Deviated wellbore
breakdown pressure, 75f, 76, 77f, 78f
case study data, 75t
cased hole study, 78–88, 82t
coordinate for, 70, 70f
experiments on, 200–201
fracture plane, 69, 76, 76f, 87–88
fracture propagation experiment for,
200–201
hole problem, 73
hydraulic fracture initiation, 70–78
in situ stress components, 71–73, 210–211
introduction to, 69
link-up of mini-fractures along, 69,
89–104, 201
perforation strategy, 78–88
stress distribution around, 70–78
tensile stress, 74
turning, 69, 105–132, 200
Diagonal swap triangulation, 39f
Direct crossing, 133–134
DISLASH. See Desktop Interface Separation
Laboratory Apparatus for Simulation of
Hydrofrac
Dislocation density function, 92, 93, 94, 95
Distribution effect, 153–155
Downhole pressure curve, 211–213
Down-hole pressure record, 3f
Dry zone, 12f, 14
E Flow rate distribution, 184
Echelon fracture, 129–130, 129f
Elastic hole breakdown pressure, 1–2
Elasticity equation
2D DDM, 181–182
general elasticity solution, 181
Element matrices, 29, 29f, 30f
Energy consideration, 14–15
Experiments. See also Fracture propagation
experiment
on deviated wellbore, 200–201
DISLASH, 205–206
in field, 133, 208–216
on fracture crossing criterion, 133–134,
135, 203–205
on fracture propagation, 199–200
fracture width and pressure measurement,
213–215
on horizontal wellbore, 200–201
Subject Index
on hydraulic fracture tip, 201–202
on hydraulic impedance method, 215
on in situ stress measurement, 209–211
introduction to, 197
in laboratory, 197–208
limitations, 197–198
massive hydraulic fracture simulation,
205–206
measured downhole pressure curve,
211–213
near-wellbore tortuosity estimation and
mitigation, 215–216
on open hole breakdown pressure, 198–199
scaling, 199
shear-induced dilation, 162
similitude analysis, 207–208
F
Far-field stress, 190
Field experiments, 133, 208–216.
See also Experiments
Filtercake
fines relating to, 19–20
fluid leakoff relating to, 19–20
poroelasticity and, 16–21
wellbore, 4
Fines, 19–20
Finite element formulation
3-D fracture modeling, 29
proppant transport, 55–57
Fluid flow equation, 140–141
2-D fracture, 107–108
horizontal wellbore, 107–108
for turning fracture, 113
Fluid leakoff
filtercake relating to, 19–20
leakoff coefficient, 18, 19
pore pressure, wellbore pressure, and, 17,
18f, 18t
pressure-dependent, 159
Fluid mass, 161
Fluid motion, 23–27
Fluid pressure
link-up of mini-fractures relating to, 99–100
net, 110, 110f, 111, 111f, 179–180
Fluid properties, 58t
Fracture containment, 199–200
Fracture contour, 60f, 62f
Subject Index
Fracture crossing criterion
experiments on, 133–134, 135, 203–205
fracture propagation experiment, 133–134,
135
testing, 203–205
Fracture element, 91f
Fracture front node generation, 34–35
Fracture geometry, multiple transverse, 188,
189f, 190
Fracture half length, 188t
Fracture inclination
angle, 89, 97, 98, 100
link-up of mini-fractures, 100
Fracture initiation pressure, 198
Fracture network, 133
complex, 139–143, 149–153, 181f
simple, 144–149
Fracture opening equation
natural fracture, 163
three-dimensional fracture modeling, 28–29
Fracture opening width measurement, 18–19,
19f, 55, 213–215
Fracture plane
2D DDM relating to, 183–184
deviated wellbore, 69, 76, 76f, 87–88
Fracture propagation
of 3-D hydraulic fracture, 30–33, 31f, 45,
45f, 102
case studies and discussion, 164–171
complex fracture networks, 139–143, 149–
153, 181f
containment, 199–200
criterion, 138–139
experiments on, 199–200
hydraulic fracture and natural fracture
interaction, 133–139, 144–155
introduction to, 133
of link-up of mini-fractures, 95
in naturally fractured formation, 133–176
parallel fractures, comparisons, 185f
pressure, 15, 20
proppant transport equation, 143
of shear slip, along natural fracture, 156–171
simple fracture network, 144–149
stress shadow relating to, 193
tip element, 142, 201–202
Fracture propagation experiment
conclusions, 202–203
for deviated wellbore, 200–201
in field, 133
229
on fracture crossing criterion, 133–134,
135
for horizontal wellbore, 200–201
in laboratory, 199–200
length history methods, 202
Fracture starter, 124–125
Fracture tip. See Tip element
Fracture toughness, 197–198
Fracture turning. See Turning fracture
Fractures. See specific fracture types
Fracturing
of horizontal well, 122–130
introduction to, 1
multi-stage, 177
of wellbore, 1–5
Friction factors, 213–214
comparisons, 214t
Frictional law, 162–163
Front movement, 32–33, 33f
G
Galerkin method, 29
Gas Research Institute (GRI), 214–215
GdK model. See Khristianovic-Geertsma-de
Klerk model
General complex fracture model.
See Unconventional fracture model
General elasticity solution, 181
Governing equations, 49–53
G-plot, 212
GRI. See Gas Research Institute
Grid plane, 114–115, 114f
Growth
in situ stress relating to, 5
link-up of mini-fractures and, 94–95
nonsymmetric, 106–112, 109t
GYCO-1 code, 23
H
High native fracture permeability, 164–167
Hole breakdown pressure, 74, 199
open, 198–199
poroelasticity effect on, 20
Hole problem, 73
Horizontal in situ stress, 105
Horizontal well
bonding in, 126–127
cased hole study for, 126
completion practice, 130
230
Horizontal well (Continued)
conditions, before fracturing, 124
echelon fracture, 129–130, 129f
fracturing of, 122–130
longitudinal fractures, 124, 124f, 125
multiple transverse fractures in, 186–190
perforation strategy for, 126–129, 126f
technology, 122–123
transverse fractures, 124, 124f, 125–126,
130, 180f
for unconventional shale reservoir, 186
Horizontal wellbore
experiments on, 200–201
fluid flow equation, 107–108
fracture propagation experiment for,
200–201
hydraulic fracture from, 105
net fluid pressure, 110, 110f, 111, 111f
nonsymmetric growth from, 106–112
pumping time, 109f, 110f
Hydraulic fracture
arrested period, 57
from cased wellbore, 69
closure of, 57
downhole pressure curve, 211–213
experiments on, 201–202
grid plane, 114–115, 114f
from horizontal wellbore, 105
in situ stress, 45, 45f, 199–200
initiation, 70–78
intersection angle, 135
mapping technique, 115
massive, 205–206
natural fracture with, 133–139, 144–155
process, 1
propagation of, 30–33, 31f, 45, 45f, 102
shut-in analysis, 57–58
stress distribution, 116
tip element, 201–202
turning, 112–122, 200
Hydraulic impedance method, 215
Hydraulically induced fracture wellbore, 1–2
I 94, 95
In situ stress
in 3-D fracture modeling, 43f, 44f, 46–47
deviated wellbore, 71–73, 210–211
growth relating to, 5
Subject Index
hydraulic fracture, 45, 45f, 199–200
measurement of, 209–211
mini-frac method, 209
vertical distribution of, in vertical wellbore,
105
Induced closure stress, 180, 181
Initiation pressure, 198
Instantaneous shut-in pressure (ISIP)
defining, 209, 210f, 216
wellbore, 2–3, 209
Instrumented fracture, 213
Instrumented rock test specimen, 201f
Interaction of hydraulic fracture with natural
fracture, 133–139, 144–155
Interior node
convection of, 36f
generation, 36–37
refinement, 38f
Interpolation between meshes, 40–41
Intersection angle, 135
ISIP. See Instantaneous shut-in pressure
Isolation plug, 177
Isotropic far-field stress, 190
K
Khristianovic-Geertsma-de Klerk (KGD)
model, 108
constant height fracture, 6–8, 6f
L
Laboratory, 197–208. See also Experiments
fracture propagation experiment in,
199–200
Leakoff coefficient, 18, 19
Length history methods, 202
Link-up of mini-fractures
borehole pressure in, 100
calculated critical fracture angle for, 101f
cased hole study for, 98–99
Cauchy principal value, 94
data used in study on, 98t
along deviated wellbore, 69, 89–104, 201
dislocation density function, 92, 93,
fluid pressure relating to, 99–100
fracture element, 91f
fracture inclination, 100
growth and, 94–95
Subject Index
introduction to, 89
Muskehlishvili’s method for, 89
from perforated holes, 89–104
problem formulation, 89–92
propagation, 95
by remote load, 96, 97f
results and discussion, 96–103
solution method, 92–94
stress intensity factor in, 95, 96f
Local stresses, 183
Longitudinal fractures, 124, 124f, 125
M
Mapping technique, 115
Massive hydraulic fracture, DISLASH,
205–206
Measured downhole pressure curve, 211–213
Measurement
fracture opening width, 18–19, 19f, 55,
213–215
of fracture width and pressure, 213–215
of in situ stress, 209–211
for propagating net pressure, 15
Mesh generation
3-D fracture modeling, 34–41
construction of elements, 39
before and after convection, 37f
interior node generation, 36–37
interior node refinement, 38f
interpolation between meshes, 40–41
node generation, on fracture front, 34–35
node insertion inside domain, 37–38
remeshing parameters, 59t
Micro-annulus, 126, 201
Micro-cracks, 15
Mini-frac method, 209
Mini-fractures. See Link-up of mini-fractures
Mode-I fracture, 28
Multiple perforation clusters, 177
Multiple transverse fractures
fracture geometry for, 188, 189f, 190
in horizontal wells, 186–190
input parameters, 187t
parameter influences on fracture half
length, 188t
stress shadow in, 186–190
Multi-stage fracturing, 177
Muskehlishvili’s method, 89
231
N
Natural fracture
boundary conditions, 163–171
case study and discussion, 164–171
continuity of fluid mass, 161
distribution effect, 153–155
fracture opening equation, 163
fracture propagation in, 133–176
frictional law, 162–163
hydraulic fracture with, 133–139, 144–155
intersection angle, 135
permeability, 161–162
pressure drop in, 161
shale formation, 133
shear slip along, 156–171
theoretical development, 159–171
Near-wellbore pressure loss (NWPL),
215–216
Near-wellbore tortuosity, 130
estimation and mitigation, 215–216
Net fluid pressure
horizontal wellbore, 110, 110f, 111, 111f
stress shadow and, 179–180
Neumann equation, 32
Newton method, 142
No native fracture permeability, 167–171
No poroelastic solution, 18–19
Node generation, 34–35
Node insertion, 37–38
Nolte-plot, 212
Non-Newtonian fluid, 65, 213–214
Non-orthogonal crossing, 138
Nonsymmetric growth
of 2-D fracture, 106–112
data used in, 109t
from horizontal wellbore, 106–112
NWPL. See Near-wellbore pressure loss
O
Open hole breakdown pressure, 198–199
Opening width
measurement, 18–19, 19f, 55, 213–215
time variation, 42f
P
P3D. See Pseudo 3-D fracture models
Parallel fractures
2D DDM for, 184
232 Subject Index

Parallel fractures (Continued) equation, 143

anisotropic stress in, 184–186 finite element formulation, 55–57
input data, 185t fracture contour, 60f, 62f
interaction between, 184–190 governing equations, 49–53
multiple transverse fractures, 186–190 introduction to, 49
propagation comparisons, 185f power indices, parameters, 51t
stress shadow in, two, 184–186 remeshing parameters, 59t
Perforated holes, 89–104 results and discussion, 58–65
Perforation strategy rock and fluid properties and pumping
deviated wellbore, 78–88 schedule, 58t
for horizontal well, 126–129, 126f shut-in analysis, 57–58
multiple perforation clusters, 177 time history, 60f, 61f, 63
Perkins-Kern-Nordgren (PKN) model Proppant-laden slurry, 65
constant height fracture, 8–11, 8f Pseudo 3-D fracture models (P3D), 65–67
for stress shadow, 186–187 UFM model, 139, 140, 149–153, 182, 188
Permeability Pumping schedule, 58t
high native fracture, 164–167 Pumping time, 109f, 110f, 117
natural fracture, 161–162
no native fracture, 167–171 Q
for unconventional shale reservoir, 167
PKN model. See Perkins-Kern-Nordgren Quadrilateral elements, 39, 39f
model
Plane strain condition, 67 R
Pore fluid, 3–4 Remeshing parameters, 59t
Pore pressure Remote load, 96, 97f
breakdown pressure relating to, 199 Rock properties, 58t
wellbore pressure, fluid leakoff, and, 17, Rock samples, 197–198
18f, 18t instrumented rock test specimen, 201f
Poroelastic hole, 1–2
Poroelastic solution, 18–19
Poroelasticity effect S
filtercake and, 16–21 Shale formation, 133
for hole breakdown pressure, 20 Shale reservoir. See Unconventional shale
no poroelastic solution, 18–19 reservoir
poroelastic solution, 18–19 Shear slip, 156–171
Porosity, 3–4 Shear-induced dilation, 159–160
Power indices, 51t experiments, 162
Power law fluid, 66 Shut-in analysis, 57–58
Premature screen-out, 122 Similitude analysis, 207–208
Pressure. See Specific types of pressure Simple fracture network, 144–149
Pressure drop, 161 Simulation, massive hydraulic fracture,
Pressure loss, NWPL, 215–216 205–206
Pressure measurement, 213–215 Slick water treatment, 149–153, 153t, 154f
Pressure-dependent fluid leakoff, 159 Slippage process, 134
Principal stress, 136 Slurry
Propagating net pressure, 15 flow equation, 55
Proppant concentration equation, 56 motion, 49, 50–51
Proppant transport, 53–54 property, 58–63
continuity equation, 52 proppant-laden, 65
Subject Index
Solid-free fluid, 49
Spiral fracture, 128–129
Starter crack, 87–88
Strain energy density, 116
Stress. See specific types of stress
Stress components, tangent plane, 90,
90f, 91
Stress distribution
cased hole study, 78–88
around deviated wellbore, 70–78
hydraulic fracture, 116
turning fracture, 116
Stress field expression, 177–178
Stress intensity factor
3-D fracture modeling, 30, 33
in link-up of mini-fractures, 95, 96f
Stress shadow
calculation, 179–180
complex fracture interaction, 190–195
flow rate distribution relating to, 184
fracture propagation relating to, 193
general elasticity solution, 181
induced closure stress, 180, 181
introduction to, 177
local stresses, 183
in multiple transverse fractures,
186–190
net fluid pressure and, 179–180
parallel fracture interaction, 184–190
PKN model for, 186–187
problem formulation, 177–184
in two parallel fractures, 184–186
T coordinate for, 112f
Tangent plane, 90, 90f, 91
Tensile strength, 198–199
Tensile stress, 74
Tension zone, 87–88
TerraFrac code, 23
Three-dimensional (3-D) fracture modeling.
See also Proppant transport
basis function, 29
boundary conditions, 26, 26f
correction factors, 182
discretization of equation, in time domain,
31–32
element matrices, 29, 29f, 30f
equations (2-24) and (2-29), 32
233
finite element formulation, 29
fluid motion, 23–27
fracture opening equation, 28–29
front movement, 32–33, 33f
in situ stress in, 43f, 44f, 46–47
introduction to, 23
material parameters, 41t
mesh generation, 34–41
P3D, 153–155
propagation of hydraulic fracture, 30–33,
31f, 45, 45f, 102
results and discussion, 41–47
stress intensity factor, 30, 33
time variation, opening width, 42f
time variation, radius, 42f
UFM, 139, 140, 149–153, 182, 188
wellbore pressure comparisons, 44f
Time domain, 31–32
Time history, 60f, 61f, 63
Tip element
fracture propagation, 142, 201–202
hydraulic fracture, 201–202
Tip screen-out, 59
Tortuosity, 130
Near-wellbore estimation and mitigation,
215–216
Transverse fractures, 124, 124f, 125–126,
130, 180f. See also Multiple transverse
fractures
Tri-axial loading cell, 199
Turning fracture
boundary conditions for, 113, 113f
boundary integral method for,
112–113
data used in study, 117t
of deviated wellbore, 69, 105–132,
200
fluid flow equation for, 113
fracturing horizontal well, 122–130
hydraulic fracture, 112–122, 200
introduction to, 105
mapping technique, 115
nonsymmetric growth, from horizontal
wellbore, 106–112
pumping time and, 109f, 110f, 117
results and discussion, 117–122
strain energy density, 116
stress distribution, 116
234 Subject Index

2D DDM. See Two-dimensional Vertical wellbore, 1

displacement discontinuity method cased, 4f
2-D fracture. See Two-dimensional fracture horizontal section, 2f
Two-dimensional displacement discontinuity vertical distribution of horizontal in situ
method (2D DDM) stress, 105
elasticity equation, 181–182
fracture plane relating to, 183–184 W
for parallel fractures, 184
Two-dimensional (2-D) fracture Wellbore. See also Deviated wellbore;
fluid flow equation, 107–108 Horizontal wellbore
nonsymmetric growth of, 106–112 breakdown pressure of, 2–3
stress field expression, 177–178 cased, 4–5, 4f, 69
vertical growth of, 106 constant height fracture models, 5–11
down-hole pressure record, 3f
U filtercake, 4
fracturing of, 1–5
Unconventional fracture model (UFM), 139, hydraulically induced fracture, 1–2
140, 149–153, 182, 188 ISIP, 2–3, 209
Unconventional shale reservoir, 133 vertical, 1, 2f, 4f, 105
horizontal well for, 186 Wellbore pressure
permeability for, 167 comparisons, 44f
net, 20f, 44f
V pore pressure, fluid leakoff, and, 17,
Vertical growth 18f, 18t
of 2-D fracture, 106 Width measurement, 18–19, 19f, 55,
factors controlling, 1 213–215