Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
A.B.Fetherston
1800s.8 With German and Belgian support, the fertile breeding ground for the formation of a
smaller 'chiefdoms' were brought together under diverse opposition movement.
Tutsi Mwami (or Kings) who used their privileged
positions to gain control over more land and people. In 1990 the RPF invaded northern Rwanda, and
This hierarchical system was further reinforced although they were partly successful, they did not
through education of ruling Tutsi elites and an succeed in overthrowing the MRND. This was in
explicit ethnic division of power. As Dorward part because Habyarimana asked for and received
argues, "colonial education fostered a psychology of help from Belgian, French and CIA-backed Zairian
'superiority' amongst the Tutsi minority, while troops.10 The MRND used the invasion as an
evoking smouldering Hutu resentment".9 excuse to harass, arrest and kill both Hutu and Tutsi
suspected of sympathising with the RPF.
The 1950s brought about the beginning of the Negotiations facilitated by the Organisation of
decolonisation process in Africa along with the Africa Unity (OAU) and the Tanzanian government
development of anti-colonial nationalist movements. between the RPF and the MRND regime worked out
Belgium was one of the slowest to react to these a power-sharing deal leading to the signing in 1993
independence movements. As with the short- of the Arusha Peace Agreement.
sighted and disastrous decolonisation process in the
Belgian Congo (now Zaire) Belgium attempted to Both sides agreed to the formation of a transition
retain the system it had put in place in Rwanda government followed by elections with the
largely by exploiting ethnic differences in an supervision and aid of the United Nations through
attempt to render opposition ineffective. The the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
already precarious situation in Rwanda was made (UNAMIR).11 Opposition to the Arusha deal within
worse by the death, in 1959, of the Rwandan king. the extreme right of Habyarimana's government was
A brief struggle to fill the resulting power vacuum strong since, under the agreement, the power of the
triggered the ascendance of extremist Tutsis who military would have been greatly reduced, and
attempted to carry out a policy of exclusion. Hutus vested interests including large networks of
revolted and took control of the area now known as corruption were directly threatened. Probably as a
Rwanda. result of pressure from these vested interests, as well
as the prospect that he would lose power,
During this contested and bloody decolonisation Habyarimana employed a number of delaying
period (1959-1962), the Hutu majority gained tactics in establishing a transitional government.
political control through elections. Although the
Tutsi minority (overall, Tutsis made up about 15% These delays not only hampered the deployment
of Rwanda's total population of three million) was and implementation of UNAMIR's mandate, but
meant to enjoy protection and safeguards under the increased tension and distrust among the RPF, other
new system, the new Hutu government set about opposition leaders, and the government. Sporadic
removing Tutsis from positions of influence and outbreaks of violence resulted, especially in Kigali.
power. Exiled in Uganda, the Tutsi leadership In late February two prominent opposition leaders
formed a guerrilla force which fought a series of were assassinated.12 By April the situation was
minor skirmishes, eventually provoking a brutal explosive, and the fatal plane crash was the spark
response from the Hutu-controlled government. which lit the most recent conflagration in Rwanda's
troubled history.
A struggle for power in neighbouring Burundi in
1972 generated a flood of Hutu refugees who fled
into Rwanda. Purportedly acting to protect Hutu Economic problems and the population explosion
from 'persecution', the then Defence Minister,
General Habyarimana, staged a coup bringing the Through these decades of political and ethnic
MRND to power with himself as President and upheaval, Rwanda's population has more than
established a government which held power for doubled from three million in 1960 to an estimated
twenty years. While Tutsis suffered dis- eight and a half million in 1991. Economic growth
proportionately under this regime, many Hutu who was severely hampered both by this population
had been a part of the previous government or who explosion (which made it one of Africa's most
opposed the new status quo were arrested and densely populated countries) and by continued
killed. Habyarimana's rule by terror and murder politically-motivated ethnic violence. These factors
displaced huge numbers of both Hutu and Tutsi, have contributed to Rwanda's classification by the
generated large numbers of refugees, and provided UN as an LDC (Least Developed Country). Further
complicating the problem is the fact that more than
70% of Rwanda's land is not arable. The part which According to Security Council Resolution (SCR)
can support agriculture is almost entirely in one 876, UN peacekeepers were responsible for
narrow band of land running through the country establishing cantonment areas for various military
around which Rwanda's population is concentrated. groups and the demarcation and patrol of a
demilitarised zone. Part of this work involved
The extreme need of countries like Rwanda, escorting and then monitoring a battalion-strength
coupled with Western 'aid fatigue', does not bode group (approximately 600) RPF fighters to a
well for the immediate or long term prospects of cantonment area within the city of Kigali itself. In
such underdeveloped areas. A recent report from addition, UNAMIR was tasked with helping the
the Economic Commission for Africa pointed out parties integrate their armed forces into a new
that Africa has a total debt burden of US$302 national army and assist in re-training the new
billion, and, at the same time, is in need of an force. Because of the power and corruption of the
estimated US$869 billion in aid to begin a process twenty-year old military regime, this was
which would lead to economic recovery. considered a crucial aspect of the Arusha agreement
and central for the prospects of long term peace in
This was confirmed by a recent UNCTAD (United Rwanda.
Nations Conference on Trade and Development) UNAMIR was also given responsibility for
report which noted that "although economic decline
of [the least developed African] countries taken
together was arrested in 1993, economic recovery
had not begun, and overall socio-economic
conditions remained precarious".13 Solutions will
have to be found on a regional basis, since, as
Rwanda and Burundi's linked histories illustrate,
political and economic instability in one country is
likely to spread to neighbouring countries.
Secretariat report, which outlined several community (particularly the US) to act. In the
alternatives for re-structuring the troubled mission, absence of any agreement in the Security Council
was tabled in the Security Council. Secretary- on action in Rwanda, France suggested that it
General Boutros Boutros-Ghali favoured expansion deploy French troops to do the job originally
of the mission and lobbied intensively to achieve a mandated in SCR 925 to create protected security
positive vote. The United States, however, still zones for vulnerable civilian populations.23
feeling the fallout of failures in Somalia, refused to
vote for expansion. Instead, the US got agreement Initially, this proposal for direct intervention
to reduce the mission to approximately 270 and received non-committal responses from Western
change its mandate (in fact, numbers never dropped countries. The RPF was vehemently opposed to the
below 440).17 UNAMIR's new mandate essentially move citing previous French interventions in
reduced the peacekeeping mission to an observer Rwanda in support of the Habyarimana regime as
mission, allowing it to act as an intermediary well as the (probably well-founded) suspicion that
between the parties and seek a ceasefire, to assist France was more interested in protecting its own
with humanitarian relief "to the extent possible" and vested interests in Rwanda than it was in fulfilling a
to monitor and report on further developments. humanitarian mandate.24 Ironically, strongest
endorsement of the French proposal came from
This was a less than adequate response to the some humanitarian aid organisations who argued
situation. However, under intense public pressure, that military intervention was the only way to stop
which was undoubtedly contributed to by the media the genocide. Medecins Sans Frontieres, for
coverage of the crisis,18 the Security Council was example, for the first time in its history, supported
forced to reconsider the possibility of expanding the military intervention.25
mission. After lengthy debate the Council passed
SCR 925 creating UNAMIR II.19 Caught between intense media attention and public
pressure and the Secretary-General's announcement
The new mission was humanitarian (i.e. did not that full deployment for UNAMIR II was at least
have a political function such as monitoring three months away, given continued problems with
elections) and authorised an upper limit of 5,500, attaining commitments from countries to contribute
largely military, peacekeepers.20 The mission was troops and materials to UNAMIR, the Security
to be put into the field in three phases taking one Council was forced to take action. On 22 June, the
month for full deployment.21 It was responsible for Council voted to allow the proposed French
"contributing to the security and protection of intervention. The measure passed by the lowest
displaced persons" by creating "secure margin ever for a UN authorised mission, with 10 in
humanitarian areas" and providing security and favour, none against and five abstentions.26
support for the distribution of humanitarian aid.
The French action, dubbed Operation Turquoise,
However, beyond the immediate emplacement of was authorised under Chapter VII of the UN
500 Ghanian peacekeepers and 150 military Charter, thereby allowing French troops to use force
observers, deployment of additional elements of the ("all means necessary"). The mission was
new mission was put on hold. By the end of May a mandated for two months and under French, rather
Secretariat report estimated that it would be at least than UN, control. The mandate was essentially the
four more weeks before Phase I was complete. same as the one authorising UNAMIR II (except for
Particularly problematic was procuring appropriate the use of force provision), and the point of the
equipment for the Ghanian troops, especially operation, according to the UN and France was to
armoured personnel carriers (APCs). This further provide a protective presence until UNAMIR could
delay was caused, in part, by the United States become fully operational. The French eventually
which, while voting with strong reservations for created a 'safe-zone' in south-western Rwanda.27
UNAMIR II, insisted on delaying deployment of the The RPF responded to this UN-French move saying
bulk of the force pending Security Council approval they would fight the French as well as former-
of a new Secretariat report on the crisis. government forces while reiterating deep suspicions
about French motives. They later pulled back from
At the same time, member states, especially the US that confrontational stance stating that they would
and Western European nations, were very reluctant reserve judgement on the operation and would not
to provide equipment and logistical support for the fight the French as long as French troops adhered to
operation.22 Among the five permanent members of their humanitarian mandate.28
the Security Council, France was the most vocally
critical about the unwillingness of the international
In late July, the United States began Operation 1 Dorward, D. (1994) 'Rwanda: The Politics of Ethnic
Support Hope based at Kigali airport. The US-run Cleansing and Violations of Human Rights', Human
mission, not part of the UN operation, was set up to Rights Defender, 3, 3: 4-5. Dorward says that President
re-open the airport and to operate round-the-clock Habyarimana's regime, the National Revolutionary
aid and military flights with the aim of doubling the Movement for Democracy (MRND), recruited and
controlled party militia called the inyarahamwe and that
relief currently getting to the area. A further 900
this militia as well as the youth wing of an extremist
US troops have been performing similar transport Hutu faction, the Coalition for the Defence of the
functions in refugee camps in surrounding Republic, called the impuzamugambi, were responsible
countries. By the time the bulk of French troops for much of the killing which ensued (p. 4). See also,
had withdrawn, UNAMIR had offers of troops Dorward, D. (1994) 'Rwanda and Burundi: The Politics
bringing its total up to 4,000 peace-keepers, of Ethnicity and the Psychology of Victimisation',
although by 20 August only 30% of the 5,500 Current Affairs Bulletin, 71, 1: 31-8.
authorised had actually arrived in Rwanda.33 While 2 UN Doc. S/1994/924, 3/8/94, para. 3; Dinmore, G.
Western countries take on the short term task of (1994) 'Rwandan Refugee Crisis Builds to Catastrophe',
providing relief transport, they appear to be leaving Reuter News Service, 17 July.
the far more difficult and dangerous re-building 3 UN Doc. S/1994/924, 3/8/94, para. 8.
4 UN Doc. REF/1079, 5/5/94.
work to the largely African UN peacekeeping force.