Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Atmosphere
The aerodynamic forces acting on a surface are due in great
part to the properties of the air mass in which the surface is
operating.
Air is a mixture of several gases. For practical purposes, NITROGEN-78%
it is sufficient to say that air is a mixture of one-fifth oxygen
and four-fifths nitrogen. Pure, dry air contains about 78%
(by volume) nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 0.9% argon. In ad-
dition, air contains about 0.03% carbon dioxide and traces
of several other gases, such as hydrogen, helium, and neon .
The distribution of gases in the air is shown in Figure 3-1. FIGURE 3-1 Distribution of gases in the atmosphere.
56
the end of the tube. Some of the mercury immediately
flowed out of the tube into the container, leaving a vacuum
in the upper end of the tube, as indicated in Figure 3-3. The
height of the column of mercury remaining in the tube was
measured and found to be approximately 30 in [762 mm] .
At sea level under standard conditions, the height of such a
1" column of mercury is 29.92 in [760 mm]. Therefore we say
[2.54 em] that standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is 29.92 in
FIGURE 3-4 Pressure of the earth's atmosphere at various altitudes. (Note: Metric equivalents given in round figures.)
Since air has weight, it is easy to recognize that the pres- is based upon standard conditions established by the Inter-
sure of the atmosphere will vary with altitude. This is illus- national Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The table also
trated in Figure 3--4. Notice that at 20 000 ft [6097 .56 m] the shows the density of the air in slugs and the speed of sound
pressure is less than half the sea-level pressure. This means at each altitude.
that more than half the atmosphere lies below the altitude of
20 000 ft even though the "outer" half extends hundreds of
Air Temperature
miles above the earth. Table 3-1 shows the pressures and Under standard conditions, temperature decreases at ap-
temperatures at various altitudes above the earth. This table proximately 1.98°C for each increase of I 000 ft [304.88 m]
Altitude p
p X 10',
ft m F c inHg kPa lb/frZ slugs/ft' c" ft/s
H IGH ALTITUDE
air applies an equal and opposite upward force to the wing.
LESS DENSITY This is the creation of lift and can be explained by Newton's
third law of motion, which states: For every action there is
an equal and opposite reaction. The angle through which an
airstream is deflected by any lifting surface is called the
downwash angle. It is especially important when control
surfaces are studied, because they are normally placed to the
rear of the wings where they are influenced by the down-
ward-deflected airstream known as the downwash.
The lift or support the airfoil receives from deflecting the
\JJII~\~·IOL-.---'.'~' t
) SAME HORSEPOWER
air downward can vary from 0 to 100% of the total lift re-
quired. On the other hand, if the wing is nosed downward, it
may scoop the air upward, causing a down load to be placed
on the wing.
LESS SPEED Lift can also be created by the way that the air flows
LESS DISTANCE
around an airfoil. In order to understand how this lift is cre-
ated, it is first necessary to understand Bernoulli's princi-
ple. Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss scientist of the eighteenth
LOW ALTITUDE
GREATER DENSITY
century, discovered that as fluid (air) velocity increases, the
pressure decreases, and as the velocity decreases, the pres-
r:}t>~~""'·~?"~~~~f1l sure increases.
FIGURE 3-6 Effect of air density on an aircraft in flight.
This principle can be written mathematically as
p+ IPV2 = constant
LIFT where
p =pressure
The unique feature of an aircraft as compared with all other
types of transportation vehicles is its ability to lift into the p = air density in slugs
V =velocity
air. The force of gravity acts on all bodies on or near the
surface of the earth and results in the weight of an object. In
The equation can be simplified as the following:
order for an aircraft to fly, a force must be created that will
overcome the force of gravity. This force is called lift. pressure +t X density X velocity squared = constant
t:t
STATIC
t:t
STATIC
kinetic energy, represented by its dynamic pressure (veloci-
ty) . Because the total energy is unchanged, an increase in
-DYNAMIC_. ~ -DYNAM IC+ velocity (dynamic pressure) will be accompanied by a de-
STATIC STATIC crease in static pressure (velocity). Therefore, it can be said
t:+ INCREASED VELOCITY
+:+ ~
that the sum of static and dynamic pressure in the flow tube
remains constant.
' DECREASED PRESSURE
W~/;;;;/7~ ~~
ilar decrease in pressure. Notice the similarity between the
shape of the remaining wall of the venturi in Figure 3-1 Oc
\"'///~mf ~~z and the shape of a wing.
The effect produced by a wing moving through the air is
STATIC PRESSURE= 2116 PSF 2014 PSF 2133 PSF illustrated in Figure 3-11 . When the air strikes the leading
DY NAMIC PRESSURE= 34 PSF 136 PSF 17 PSF
(VELOCITY) edge of the wing, the passage of the air is obstructed and its
TOTAL PRESSURE= 2150 PSF 2150 PSF 2150 PSF velocity is reduced. Some of the particles of air flow over
the upper surface and some flow under the lower surface,
FIGURE 3- 9 Bernou ll i's principle. but all separating particles of air must reach the trailing edge
of the wing at the same time. Those particles that pass over
the static pressure will decrease. The total energy of the the upper surface have farther to go and therefore must
airstream in the tube is unchanged . However, the airstream move faster than those passing under the lower surface. In
energy may be in two forms . The airstream may have a po- accordance with Bernoulli' s principle, the increased velocity
Lift 61
INCREASED Airfoil Terminology
V E LOCITY
Since the shape of an airfoil and its angle to the airstream
are so important in determining its performance, it is neces-
sary to understand airfoil terminology . Figure 3-12 shows a
typical airfoil and illustrates various airfoil-related terms.
The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading
edge (the forward-most tip) and the trailing edge of the air-
HIGHER foil. The distance between the leading edge and the trailing
PRESSURE edge is referred to as the chord.
FIGURE 3-11 Pressu re differential created by a w ing in flight. Notice that in Figure 3-12 there is more area above the
chord line than below it. This is typical of most airfoils. The
above the wing results in a lower static pressure than that mean camber line is a line drawn halfway between
existing below the wing. the upper and lower surfaces. This line is also referred to as
If an area of low pressure can be produced on the top of a the mean line or mid line. Any point on this mean line
wing, the higher pressure below the wing will create an up- should be the same distance from the upper and lower sur-
ward force, which is lift. This pressure differential is quite faces . The mean camber is the curvature of the mean line of
small, perhaps as small as 1%. Even this small difference, an airfoil profile from the chord.
however, can provide adequate lift, as demonstrated by the Camber is defined as the curvature of an airfoil surface
following example: Assume that we have an atmospheric or an airfoil section from the leading edge to the trailing
pressure of 14.70 pounds per square inch on the under sur- edge. The perpendicular distance between the chord line
face of a wing and a wing curvature and airspeed combina- and the mean camber line is camber. The degree or amount
tion producing a pressure of 14.49 pounds per square inch of camber is expressed as the ratio of the maximum depar-
on the upper surface of the wing. This situation provides a ture of the mean camber line from the chord to the chord
pressure differential between the upper and lower surfaces length. Figure 3-12 shows an airfoil that has a double con-
of 0.21 psi, acting upwards. This pressure is equal to 30.34 vex curvature, which means that it has camber above and
pounds per square foot (psf) (0.21 X 144), a wing loading below the chord line. Upper camber refers to the curve of
that is fairly common for many types of aircraft. The total the upper surface of an airfoil, and lower camber refers to
lift produced by the wing can be calculated by multiplying the curve of the lower surface. Camber is positive when the
30.34 psf by the square footage of the total wing area. departure from the straight line is upward, and negative
when it is downward. When the upper and lower camber of
an airfoil are the same, the airfoil is said to be symmetrical.
AIRFOILS . The shape of the mean camber line is very important in
determining the aerodynamic characteristics of an airfoil
The structure which makes flight possible is the airfoil. An section. The maximum camber (the maximum displace-
airfoil is technically defined as any surface, such as an air- ment of the mean line from the chord line) and the location
plane aileron , elevator, rudder, or wing, designed to obtain a of the maximum camber help to define the shape of the
useful reacti on from the air through which it moves. An air- mean camber line. These quantities are expressed as frac-
foil section is a cross section of an airfoil, which can be tions or percentages of the basic chord dimension. A typical
drawn as a silhouette. If the wing of an airplane were sawed low-speed airfoil may have a maximum camber of 4% lo-
through from the leading edge to the trailing edge, the side cated 40% aft of the leading edge. The maximum camber is
view of the section through the wing at that point would be sometimes referred to simply as the camber.
its airfoil section. An airfoil profile is merely the outline or The thickness and thickness distribution of the profile
shape of an ai1foil section. The word airfoil is often used are important properties of an airfoil. The distance between
when "airfoil section" or perhaps "airfoil profile" is meant. the upper and lower surfaces is called, simply, the thickness.
·A-~ - - -
Critical Angle of Attack
Beginning with small angles of attack, the lift increases as
FIGURE 3- 13 Airfo il profiles of different shapes. FIGURE 3-15 Airflow around an airfoil.
Airfoils 63
FIGURE 3- 16 Ai rfoi l in a stall.
path to traveL As air flows over a surface, a certain amount Air Density and Lift
of friction is developed. As the path gets longer, the friction -
al force continues to build until the energy available in the You have seen that the amount of lift generated depends
airstream is no longer sufficient to overcome it At this upon the shape ofthe airfoil, the angle of attack, and the air-
point, the airflow will detach itself, as is shown in Figure speed. Another factor that affects lift is the air density. Lift
3-16. With the loss of a smooth airflow over the top surface, varies directly with air density. At 18 000 feet, where the
pressure is no longer being reduced to create lift This angle density of air is just half as much as at sea level, an aircraft
of attack is called the stalling angle. At angles greater than would have to travel 1.414 (the square root of 2) times as
the angle of maximum lift, the lift decreases rapidly, as is fast as it would at sea level to maintain altitude.
shown in Figure 3-17. On hot days, the density of the air is less than on cold
For each critical angle of attack there is a corresponding days; on wet days, the density is less than on dry days. Also,
airspeed, assuming that other conditions, such as wing area density decreases with altitude. When the density is low, the
and air density, remain constant As the critical angle of at- lift will also be comparatively lower.
tack increases, the corresponding airspeed decreases; there- If an airplane flies at a certain angle of attack at sea level
fore, the lowest possible airspeed exists at the angle of and then flies at the same angle of attack at a higher altitude,
maximum lift (the stalling angle). Thus another name for where air density is less, the airplane must be flown faster.
the angle of maximum lift is the angle of minimum speed. On hot days, when the density is less, the airplane must be
The stalling speed of an airplane is the minimum speed at flown faster for the same angle of attack than on cold days,
which the wing will maintain lift when the density is greater. Therefore, the airspeed must in-
crease as the density decreases in order to maintain the air-
plane at the same angle of attack in level flight.
Velocity and Lift
A positive angle of attack causes increased velocity and de- Area and Lift
creased pressure on the upper surface of a wing and de-
creased velocity and increased pressure on the lower One of the factors that determines the total lift of an airfoil
surface. If the air flows slowly around the airfoil, a certain is the area of the surface exposed to the airstream. Lift
amount of lift is generated. If the velocity of the airstream varies directly with the area, other factors being equaL A
increases, the pressure differential increases and the lift in- wing with an area of 200 square feet will lift twice as much
creases. Lift does not vary in direct proportion to speed; lift as a wing of only 100 square feet, providing other factors re-
varies as the square of the speed. An aircraft traveling at 100 main the same. Later in this text, we will explain why more
knots has four times the lift it would have at 50 knots. lift can be obtained from a long, narrow wing than from one
in which the width more closely approaches the length.
MAXIMUM
FREE STREAM
TRANSITION REGION
30UNDARY
LAYER
EDGES
IGURE 3-19 In creas ing airspeed velocities in a boundary layer. FIGURE 3-20 Boundary layer airflow.
Drag 65
is the average wing chord. The formula used for calculating Figure 3-21 also illustrates that when the leading edge of
the Reynolds number is the airfoil is parallel to the airstream, the pressure drag is re-
duced. However, this does not eliminate all of the drag. The
V X d air flowing along the surface of the airfoil creates a friction -
v al force on the body. This force is called skin friction drag.
where Skin friction drag is caused by air passing over the air-
V = fluid velocity plane's surfaces, and it increases considerably if the air-
d = the distance downstream from the leading edge plane surfaces are rough and dirty .
v = kinematic viscosity of the fluid Most parts of an airplane, such as the fuselage, cowlings,
landing-gear struts, and other components, will have both
Using this formula, an airplane with a 60-in average wing thickness and surface area, resulting in both pressure and
chord, an airspeed of l 00 mph, operating at sea level on a friction drag.
standard day would have a Reynolds number of 4 700 000. Pressure drag and friction drag are both components of
For transport-category aircraft, a Reynolds number in the parasite drag. However, in calculating the total parasitic
millions is very common. drag force of an aircraft, another type of drag must also be
A term frequently used in discussing airplane design is considered. This type of drag is called interference drag
scale effect. This is the change in any force coefficient, such and is caused by the interference of the airflow between ad-
as a drag coefficient, due to a change in the value of a jacent parts of the airplane, such as the intersection of wings
Reynolds number. and tail sections with the fuselage. Fairings are used to
streamline these intersections and decrease interference
drag.
Several factors affect parasite drag. When each factor is
Parasite Drag
considered independently, it must be assumed that the other
The term parasite drag describes the resistance of the air factors remain constant. These factors are ( 1) the more
produced by any part of the airplane that does not produce streamlined an object is, the less the parasite drag; (2) the
lift. Parasite drag can be further classified into pressure more dense the air moving past the airplane, the greater
drag, skin friction drag, and interference drag. the parasite drag; (3) the larger the size of the object in the
One type of drag, pressure drag, is caused by the frontal airstream, the greater the parasite drag; and (4) as speed in-
area of the airplane components being exposed to the creases, the amount of parasite drag increases.
airstream. A similar reaction is illustrated in Figure 3-21,
where the side of the airfoil is exposed to the airstream. The
pressure against the front side is much greater than that
Induced Drag
formed on the back side, in the wake. This drag is caused by
the form (shape) of the airfoil and is the reason streamlining The term induced drag describes the undesirable but un-
is necessary to increase airplane efficiency and speed. avoidable by-product of lift. The pressure differential between
the upper and lower surfaces of the wing result in a vortex
being formed at each wing tip, causing a downward push on
the air leaving the trailing edge. This downward component
is termed downwash and produces a rearward component to
lift. The lift component is most effective acting vertically.
When the lift vector is tilted rearward due to the downwash,
----Jo·~/ ) ~ lift is lost. This loss of lift is induced drag.
~ 9~ Since induced drag is the direct result of wing-tip vor-
~
..
.
..__,
\ )
discussed in Chapter 4, has a great effect on the amount of
induced drag produced. Induced drag increases in direct
proportion to increases in the angle of attack. The greater
the angle of attack, up to the critical angle, the greater the
FORM DRAG amount of lift developed and the greater the induced drag.
The amount of air deflected downward increases greatly at
higher angles of attack; therefore, the higher the angle of at-
tack, the greater the induced drag. However, an important
point to remember is that induced drag decreases with
velocity.
Total Drag
SKIN FRICTION DRAG
The sums of both the induced drag and the parasite drag is
FIGURE 3-21 Form drag and skin friction drag. the total drag.
66 Chapter 3 Basic Aerodynamics
DRA G
HIGH ANG L E
OF ATTACK
LIFT
Jf of pressure at progressively forward locations as the angle
VECTOR / of attack is increased. The center of pressure is generally lo-
/-__RESULTANT cated at approximately the 25% chord position for most air-
~ VECTOR
./
R1 (LOW ANG LE OF ATIACK)
Rz (HIGHER ANGLE OF ATIACK)
R (HIGH ANGLE OF ATIACK)
3
CHORD
FI GURE 3-23 Relationship between relative wind, lift, and drag FIGURE 3-25 Center of pressure travel.
Drag 67
foils. On an airfoil with a 60-inch chord, this would locate performance airplanes with capabilities for very high-speed
the center of pressure at 15 inches aft from the leading edge. flight. The study of aerodynamics at these very high flight
While the CP travel will generally be restricted to the 25% speeds has many significant differences from the study of
(±10%) chord area, the CP can travel forward or backward low-speed aerodynamics. The behavior of an airfoil under
from these usual positions. For example, at a low angle of subsonic conditions is easily predictable. However, when
attack, the CP may run off the trailing edge and disappear operating at transonic and supersonic speeds, the reaction of
because there is no more lift. an airfoil is altogether different from that which is found at
The pressure distribution is different on the top and bot- subsonic speeds. The reason for this difference is the reac-
tom of an airfoil. This results in the center of pressure being tion of the air itself.
different on the two surfaces, with the center of pressure on
the lower surface generally being forward of that on the
upper surface. Because the resultant forces on the two sur- Compressibility
faces are not acting at the same chordwise location, a rota-
tion of the airfoil will result. This rotation situation is At low flight speeds, the study of aerodynamics is greatly
illustrated in Figure 3-25 by the letter M and the corre- simplified by the fact that air may experience relatively
sponding arrow. This tendency for rotation is called the small changes in pressure with only negligible changes in
pitching moment. Due to the pitching moment, most airfoils density. This airflow is termed incompressible since the air
are unstable by themselves and require some additional may undergo changes in pressure without apparent changes
method to stabilize them, such as the installation of a hori- in density, as is shown in Figure 3-26. Such a condition of
zontal stabilizer. airflow is similar to the flow of water, hydraulic fluid , or
One of the reasons for studying CP travel is that the CP is any other incompressible fluid. However, at high flight
the point at which the aerodynamic forces can be considered speeds, the pressure changes that take place are quite large,
to be concentrated; therefore the airplane designer must and significant changes in air density occur, as is also illus-
make provisions for the CP travel by preparing a wing struc- trated in Figure 3-26. The study of airflow at high speed
ture that will meet any stress imposed upon it. Technicians must account for these changes in air density and consider
and inspectors cannot change the design, but they can per- the fact that the air is compressible.
form their duties better if they know the characteristics and
limitations of an airplane.
Speed of Sound
A factor of great importance in the study of high-speed air-
flow is the speed of sound. The speed of sound is the rate at
which small pressure disturbances will be spread through the
So far we have discussed airflow and aerodynamic princi- air. The aerodynamic effects of pressure are carried through
ples with respect to subsonic airspeeds only. Developments the air at the same rate as that of sound disturbances.
in aircraft and power plants, however, have produced high- The speed at which sound travels in air under standard
sea-level conditions is 1116 ft/s [340.24 m/s], or 761 mph.
INCOMPRESSIBLE or 661 kn. The speed of sound is not affected by a change in
(SUBSONIC)
atmospheric pressure because the density also changes.
However, a change in the temperature of the atmosphere
changes the density without appreciably affecting the pres-
sure; therefore, the speed of sound changes with a change in
temperature. The speed of sound can be calculated with the
CONVERGING
equation
INCREASING VELOCITY DECREASING VELOCITY
DECREASING PRESSURE
CONSTANT DENSITY
INCREASING PRESSURE
CONSTANT DENSITY
a= 49.022 VT
where
a = speed of sound, ft/s
0
COMPRESSIBLE
(SUPERSONIC)
T = absolute temperature, R
The temperature of the air decreases with an increase in
altitude up to an altitude of about 37 000 ft [11 280m], and
it is then constant to an altitude of more than 100 000 ft
[30 488 m]. Therefore, under standard atmospheric condi-
tions, the speed of sound decreases with altitude to about
CONVERGING 37 000 ft and then remains constant to more than 100 000 ft.
DECREASING VELOCITY
INCREASING PRESSURE
INCREASING VELOCITY
DECREASING PRESSURE
For example, at 30 000 ft [9146.34 m] the temperature of
INCREA SING DENSITY DECREASING DENSITY
standard air is - 48°F [-44.44°C], and the speed of sound is
FIGURE 3-26 Comparison of compressible and 995 ft/s [303.35 m/s], or 589 kn . Table 3-2 illustrates the
incompressible airflows. variation of the speed of sound in the standard atmosphere.
68 Chapter 3 Basic Aerodynamics
The flight Mach numbers used to define these areas of
TABLE3-2 Variation of Speed of Sound with flight are approximate. A more accurate way to define these
Temperature
ranges for a particular aircraft is
Temperature
Speed of Subsonic. The aircraft maximum Mach number that all
Altitude, ft OF oc sound,kn local speeds will be less than Mach 1.
Sea level 59.0 15.0 661.7 Transonic. The regime where local speeds are greater and
5 000 41.2 5.1 650.3 less than Mach 1.
10 000 23.3 ~4.8 638.6
15 000 5.5 - 14.7 626.7 Supersonic. The aircraft's minimum Mach number when
20 000 - 12.3 --24.6 614.6 all local speeds are greater than 1.
25 000 - 30.2 -- 34.5 602.2
30 000 -48.0 -- 44.4 589.6
35 000 -·- 65.8 - 54.3 576.6 The airspeed when local flows start to reach Mach 1 is
40 000 69.7 -56.5 573.8 very critical to aircraft performance. For this reason, the
50 000 -69. 7 -- 56.5 573.8 free-stream Mach number that produces the first evidence of
60 000 69.7 --56.6 573.8
local sonic flow is called the critical Mach number. This is
shown in Figure 3-27. The critical Mach number is the
boundary between subsonic and transonic flight and is an
important point of reference for all compressibility effects
encountered in transonic flight.
Mach Number
Because of the relationship between the effect of high-
peed air forces and the speed of sound and because the
peed of sound varies with temperature, it is the ratio of
the speed of the aircraft to the speed of sound that is im-
portant, rather than the speed of the aircraft with respect to
the air. This ratio, called the Mach number (M), is the
true airspeed of the aircraft divided by the speed of sound
in the air through which the aircraft is flying at the time.
true airspeed
M = ----:-'---:: FIGURE 3~27 Critical Mach number.
speed of sound
Thus, Mach 0.5 at sea level under standard conditions
(558 ft/s [170 m/s]) is faster than Mach 0.5 at 30 000 ft (497
ft/s [151.52 m/s]).
Shock Wave Formation
Types of High-Speed Flight At speeds less than 300 mph [483 km], the airflow around
an aircraft behaves as though the air were incompressible.
Airflow speeds under Mach 1 are termed subsonic, airflow
Pressure disturbances, or pressure pulses, are formed ahead
at Mach 1 is considered sonic, and airflow speeds in excess
of the parts of the aircraft, such as the leading edge of the
of Mach 1 are called supersonic. It is important to note that
wing. These pressure pulses travel through the air at the
ompressibility effects are not limited to flight speeds at and
speed of sound and, in effect, serve as a warning to the air of
above the speed of sound.
the approach of the wing. As a result of this warning, the air
The speed of the air flowing over a particular part of the
begins to move out of the way. Evidence of this "pressure
aircraft is called the local speed. The local speed of the air-
warning" is similar to waves spreading across water. If peb-
flo w may be higher than the speed of the aircraft. For exam-
bles were dropped into a smooth pond at the rate of one per
ple, the speed of the air across the upper portion of the wing
second, at the same point, waves would spread out as is
i accelerated to produce lift. Thus, an aircraft flying in the
shown in Figure 3-28a. In Figure 3-28b, instead of drop-
Yicinity of Mach 1 will have local airflows over various
ping the pebbles in the water at the very same location, the
parts of the aircraft at speeds both above and below Mach 1.
point of dropping is slowly moved to the left each time.
ince there is the possibility of having both subsonic and su-
Each pebble still produces a circular wave, but the spacing
personic flows existing on the aircraft, it is convenient to
between the rings is no longer uniform and is more closely
define certain regimes of flight. These regimes are defined
spaced in the direction of movement. As already described,
as follows:
these wave disturbances provide a warning of the approach-
ing aircraft. Notice that the warning time (the distance be-
Subsonic. Mach numbers below 0.75.
tween the waves), however, will decrease as speed
Transonic. Mach numbers from 0.75 to 1.20. increases. If the speed of movement continues to increase
Supersonic. Mach numbers from 1.20 to 5.00. between dropping the pebbles, a wave pattern such as is
Hypersonic. Mach numbers above 5.00. shown in Figure 3-28c will develop. Notice that no advance
High-Speed Flight 69
WAVE DUE TO: warning is being sent out by the wave pattern. This is simi-
~ FIRST PEBBLE
¥ ~ SECOND PEBBLE
lar to an aircraft flying at the speed of sound. If the speed of
THIRD PEBBLE movement continues to increase between dropping the peb-
FOURTH PEBBLE
bles, the smaller wave circles are no longer completely in-
side the next larger ones. The circles are now within a
wedge-shaped pattern, such as is shown in Figure 3-28d.
This is similar to an aircraft flying at speeds above Mach 1
and illustrates how a shock wave is formed.
DIRECTION
OF MOTION
Transonic Flight
As has been previously discussed, an aircraft in the transon-
WAVE DUE TO:
ic flight area can be expected to have local velocities which
~
FIRST PEBBLE are greater than the free-stream airspeed. Therefore the ef-
~ --"SECOND PEBBLE
THIRD PEBBLE
fects of compressibility can be expected to occur at flight
FOURTH PEBBLE speeds less than the speed of sound.
Using a conventional airfoil shape, such as is shown in
Figure 3-29, and assuming the aircraft is flying at Mach .5,
the maximum local velocity will be greater than the free-
stream speed but most likely will be less than Mach 1. No-
tice that there is upwash and flow direction change well
ahead of the leading edge.
Assume that a speed increase to Mach .72 will produce
(b) WAVES FOR MOTION AT SUBSONIC SPEED the first evidence of sonic flow. This means that M = .72 is
the critical Mach number for this aircraft. As the critical
WAVE DUE TO: Mach number is exceeded, an area of supersonic airflow is
----- FIRST PEBBLE created and a normal shock wave forms as the boundary be-
_.--- --- SECOND PEBBLE
THIRD PEBBLE tween the supersonic airflow and the subsonic airflow on
FOURTH PEBBLE the aft portion of the airfoil surface. The acceleration of the
airflow from subsonic to supersonic is smooth and unac-
companied by shock waves if the surface is smooth and the
transition gradual. However, transition of airflow from su-
personic to subsonic is always accompanied by a shock
wave and, when there is no change in direction of the air-
flow, the wave formed will be a normal shock wave.
One of the principal effects of the normal shock wave is
(c) WAVES SIMULATING MACH 1.0 MOTION to produce a large increase in the static pressure of the
airstream behind the wave. If the shock wave is strong, the
WAVE DUE TO: / boundary layer may not have sufficient energy to withstand
FIRSTPEBBLE~ / the adverse pressure gradient of the wave, and airflow sepa-
SECOND PEBBLE / /
>0"'"" ""Z
THIRD PEBBLE
~
·
"' /
«...
~
FIGURE 3-28 Wave formation. FIGURE 3-29 Typical subsonic flow pattern.
NO CHANGE OF
FLOW DIRECTION
APPARENT AHEAD
OF LEADING EDGE FIGURE 3-31 Typical supersonic flow pattern.
High-Speed Flight 71
I
FIGURE 3-33 Shock waves at the edges of an airfoil. FIGURE 3-34 Normal shock wave formation.
72 Chapter 3 Basic Aerodynamics
1. The airstream is slowed to subsonic.
2. The airflow direction immediately behind the wave is
unchanged. 1-
z
UJ
3. The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave is 0
increased greatly. U::: DRAG DIVERGENCE
4. The density of the airstream behind the wave is in- ~ MACH NUMBE~
creased great! y. u CRITICAL
5. The energy of the airstream (indicated by total pres- ~ MACH NUMBER ---.........._-,
sure, dynamic plus static) is greatly reduced. The normal 0
TAIL WAVE
SHOCK WAVE
FORMATION
BOW WAVE
GROUND SURFACE
FIGURE 3-35 Expansion wave formation. FIGURE 3-37 Sonic boom wave formation.
High-Speed Flight 73
Hypersonic Flight
When the speed of an aircraft or spacecraft is five times the
speed of sound or greater, the speed is said to be hyperson- 1. What are the approximate percentages of the
ic. Practical experience with such speeds has been gained by principal gases in our atmosphere?
engineers working in the space program under the direction 2. What is the atmospheric pressure at sea level under
of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration standard conditions in pounds per square inch and
(NASA), with the result that certain hypersonic vehicles are inches of mercury?
now practical, with others to be developed. The principal 3. What effect does temperature have on the density
hindrance to hypersonic flight is the extreme temperature of the air?
generated by air friction at hypersonic speeds. New materi- 4. In simple terms, explain Bernoulli's principle.
als and cooling methods are being developed to overcome 5. Define airfoil.
this problem. 6. Define chord line and chord.
The high-velocity test of a space shuttle model is shown 7. Define camber.
in Figure 3-38. The shuttle enters the earth's atmosphere at 8. Explain the term relative wind.
hypersonic speed. The model shown in Figure 3-38 was 9. Explain angle of attack.
tested in a Mach 20 helium tunnel at NASA' s Langley Re- 10. What is the stagnation point of an airfoil?
search Center. The configuration developed by the NASA 11. Discuss the effect of air density with respect to lift.
Manned Spacecraft Center is being tested at a 20° angle of 12. How does wing area affect lift?
attack at simulated Mach 20 reentry speed. Row shock pat- 13. What is the cause of skin friction on a surface
terns from the nose and fixed straight wing are made visible moving through the air?
by exciting the helium flow with a high-energy electron 14. What does the term viscosity mean?
beam. 15. Describe laminar flow .
16. What is the boundary layer?
17. Define parasite drag.
18. Define induced drag.
19. Define resultant force.
20. Explain what is meant by the term center of
pressure.
21. How does the angle of attack affect the CP on a
wing?
22. Define the term speed of sound.
23. What is a Mach number?
24. Explain the term critical mach number.
25. What are the three types of shock waves?