PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Professorial Lecturer in Chemical Engineering ‘Cave Institute of Technalony McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY Auckland Bogoté Guatemala Hamburg Lisbon London Madrid Mexico New Delhi Panama Paris San Juan Sao Paulo Singapore Sydney TokyoPROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘To my wife INTERNATIONAL EDITION 1965 NATALIE W. KERN for her real b Exclusive rights by MeGras-Hill Book Co-Singapore er Teal help for mansfacrre and export. This book cannot be recesporl fom the country t which i it consigned by McGrew Hil 12345678920 SIP98765 the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. AML rights etserved. blication may be reproduced, stored in a retneval syxtem, or tansmited, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior writen permission of the publisher. ‘When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07-085353-3PREFACE in the object of this text to Provide fundamental instruction in heat z 2 has obtained additic ional information frm industial epplcati ion.PREFACE ‘The author has been inffuenced in his ows profesional dev velopment by slo extonded to Richard L, Cawood, President, and Arthur E, Kempler, ‘Vieo-President, for their personal assistance and for the cooperation of ‘The Patterson Foundry & Machine Company. Donard Q. Kuen Naw Yous, NY. ‘April 1960 CONTENTS, Pzrace. as BESSSR seer. 2888INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL APPARATUS CALCULATIONS ‘Todular hester, unbafled (sugar solution-stoam) SECEURREND gBUeEeELERUEEeReEEESeEEEsxii INDEX 70 THE PRINCIPAL APPARATUS CALCULATIONS ‘Longitudinal fin double-pipe cooler (gas oil-water) ‘Tubular longitudinal fin cocler (oxygen-watet). “Transverse fix erossfiow cooler (air-water). - Bas BE 88 888 88 CHAPTER 1 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Heat Transfer. The science of thermodynamics deals with the quanti- tative transitions and rearrangoments of energy asheat in bodies of matter. Hea tronafer isthe science which deals with the rates of exchange of heat in process {s identical. ‘The rates at which either process can be made to progress with an independent source or receiver, however, are inherently very different, Vaporization is generally a much more rapid phenome- non than condensation, Heat Theories. ‘The stady of heat transfer would be greatly enhanced by a sound understanding of the nature of heat. Yet this isan advantage which is not readily available to students of hest transfer of thermo outside the critical region, a large amount of energy is involved in the ‘transition, For the same suibstance in its different phases tho various thermal proporties have different orders of magnitude. Ax an example, the ape- 40%, the total change in the tem- 2 (2 4 4 BH) am perature gradiont will be — 20029) ar or — Fax, ‘Then at = the 6 op \Bas © Oyi ™ oe . an ‘When the flow af heat into and out of the cube is constant asin the eleady aradicnt ia — 2, and ab x + dz the temperature gradient is stale, £ does not vary with time, and dé/de = 0, in Eq. (2.12). °dt/éz in a constant and d%/az* = 0. dQ = dQj, and Eq. (2.8) reduces to Eq. (2.5) 4 - Sa where dody = dA. Substituting ‘dQ for d0’/d#, both terms having12 PROCRSS HEAT TRANSFER dimensions of Bta/he, the oleady-sfate equation is a dQ = kdA (2.44) Equation (2.14) applies to many of the common engineering problems. ‘Thermal Conductivity’ from Electrical-conductivity Measurements. ‘The relationship between the thermal and electrical conductivities of metals demonstrates an application of Fourier’s derivation incorporated. bar of metal as shown in Fig. 24 thas its left and right cross-sectional temperature baths at f and t, r6- spectively. By fastening electric of heat leaving both ends of the bar in the stoady state must be equal to the amount of heat received as electrical energy, J*R», where Re is the resistance in ohms, From Ohm's law pains Aue GEA) ~ 6 oe whore E, — B; is the voltage difference, « the resistivity of the wire in ohmeft and K, the reciprocal of the resistivity, is the clectrieal conductivity. az T= KA 15) ody _ de pattie (2.16) Substituting Eqs, (2.16) and (2.16) for 1*R*, a9 = pr = eur(#) B= xa(Zl ee am But this is the same as the heat transferred by conduction and given by CONDUCTION 13 Eq, 29). When t = 4 and equating (2.9) and (2.17), a * Gia — x (2) d=0 (218) But dt _ a dk a Bas 19) Differentiating, Ses) am If and A are constant for the bar, then K(dK/dr) is constant. Since K does nat vary greatly with ¢ or z, d#f/dz is constant, d'E/ds? = 0, and from Eq. (2.18) substituting Eq. (2.20) for d¢/ds* kag K=0 @2n aK ae (2.22) #olmsogee, K 2 ” 4 (2.23) constant. Upon integration of Hq. (2.14) when all of the variable ‘are independent the steady-state equation is sebeee q= tan 24) Given the temperatures existing on the hot and cold feces of a w reapectively, the heat flow ean bo computed through the use af this equation. Since kA/L is the conductance, its reciprocal B is the resist. ance to heat flow, or R = L/kA (hr)(°F)/Btu, Example 21. Flow of Heat through a Wall. Tho faces of « i. ota Peatneretane etait mt of Kaolin insulating brick. How much heat will escape through the wall? Selation. “The average temperature of tho wall willbe 900"F. From Table in the‘on ta OOO"F will not change this value appreciably. ° Siterent ro materials are placed toyetherindlsted by th ecbecriptao , nod icknose te the temperature difference across each layer to its resistance must same aa the ratio of the total temperature difference is to the total ‘For any composite eystem using actual temperatures conpuerion 15 Rearranging and substituting, atte = ty Oo RCFE Ue |) Rompe 4 ow of Het troughs Compose Wal The wall ofan oven con- sits slayer of bh nde be of Bia ot eal Wee ag) st he interfaces ofthe layers? ‘Seton; or the fbr, Re = Da/had = 8/18 X 0.68 % 1 = 0.98 (hiN"R)/(Ba) Anmulating brick, Ry = In/beA = 4/12 X 0.15 X 1 = 2.23 Boling brick, = L/h = 6/12 X 040 X t= 125 ‘Heat Joes of wall, @ = a/R = (1000 — 125)/4.45 = 822 Bta/hr or the individual layere: . Baample 25. of Heat through & Composite Wall with an Air Gap. To larteste the poor conduetivity ofa gas, mappone an air gap of 1 in. were ltt between ‘he inmalating brick and the icbiick. How much haat would be Jot through the ‘wall if the insito and outside temperatures are kent oonstant? atation, | From: Table 8 in the Appendix nf 572°F air bas a conductivity of 0.0985 ‘Bou/(he) NCH AE), and this tonaperatare is clone to the range of the problem, Rats ~ 0.35/12 X 8.0205 = 0.70 (hx) °F) (Btn. Bm AAS $0.70 om 54 te at any radius r is given by Qxrl if the heat flows out of the eylinder the temperature gradient for the16 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER incremental length dr is dt/dr. Fquation (2.14) becomes a= ore (- GZ) a/anint 229) Integrating, tm hint (2.30) When r= 7, (= 6; and when r = rq ¢ = yj whore ¢ and o refer to the inside and outside surfaces, respectively. ‘Thon 2xk( — b) 47 33 lgrdn 31) and if D is the diameter, te De nD s, 1. Big ig inal" ylindrcal resistance, i tent og 232) f= + 2B gt (2.33) Adding, 6 4 3H yyy De == 28 tog Bt + BEF tos Ft ea) ‘Bxampie' through a Pipe Well. |A glace pips has an outside diame- EeaiG AA ROUNT Gmaer of 80a be ud to traawort » ud sree cintains the nner suraee at 200°P. It is expectod that the outside of the Tipe wil be malntained at 175°E, What hest flow will veut? "Solution. k = 0.68 Btu /Chr) (fi) CB /tt) (see Appendix Table 2). <4). _ 2X 8.46 x 0.680000 — 170) oo BS, = PEE aio corse” See eustint If the inside diameter of a cylinder is greater than 0.75 of the outside Ginmeter, the mean of the tivo may be used. Then per foot of length At At hot (235) 9° * Dyed, ~ Da = Dye we ADs + DY/B where (D; ~ Di)/2 is the thickness of the pipe. Within tho plated haere eien ‘Da/Ds, Eq, (2.35) will differ from Bq. (2.34) by conpucrion Ww about I percent, Actually there are 1.57 ft? of external surface per linear foot and 1.31 ft? of internal surface. The heat loss per square foot is 343 @Btu/br based on the outside surface and 411 Btu/hr based on the inside surface. ‘Heat Lossfrom a Pipe. In the precoding examples it was assumed that, the cold external surface could bo maintained at a definite temperature. ‘Without this assumption tho examples would have beon indeterminate, since both Q and St would be unknown and independent in a single equa- tion. Tn reality the temporature ascigned to the outer wall depends not ‘only on the resistances betwoon the hot and cold surfaces but also on the ability of the surrounding eolder atmophere to remove the heat arriving, at tho outer surface, Consider a and carrying steam at a:tempers- (4 ‘ture & considersbly above that of desirable to report the data as s unit conductance torm k/L Btu/(hr)(ft? ofPROCESS HBAT TRANSFER 8 . connection 19 external surfs (°F of temperature difference). The unit conductance : een ara eo unt Feidance L/h intend of he reriproal ofthe Pipe wall: ork resistance for the entire surface L/kA. In other words, it is the con- 9" ree) (sy) Guetance por square foot of heat-flow surfsco rather than the oon- agulation: 71D, ductance of the total surface, ‘The unit resistance hae the dimensions insulation: orks , 9 = x37 Bo © ~ 4) @sy ‘Radiation and convection to air: = herDills — t.) 2) ‘or combining wo tun aga + Bk H+ BE oe Dh + dy) ‘The terms inside the parentheses are the four resistances, and of these the first two can usually be neglected. ‘The equation then reduces to ge ph 23), Ds, 2 35, 8 DP + RD; ‘From the abscissa of Fig. 2.9 it is seen that A, depends upon not only the temperature difference but the setual temperatures at the outside insulati the air, ia necessary for the’ calculation of the total temperature difference, and therefore tho mirtace coefficient h, eatmot be vomputed except by trial- and-error methods. o_o erin mai aba Brample 26. Heat Loss from ¢ Pipe to Air. A 2in. steal pipe (dimensions : * m 40 ®. TO ‘Table 11 in the Appendix) carries steam at 30°F. ‘bin igged eth to of rk ‘Teeperahire difference t-10),F wool, f ~ 0.038, and the surrounding air is at 70°F, What will bo tho beat loee per ‘pu. Boat camer by onveton en vdaton fom Bernt pip tempaatrk Enea foot? Paae ini es te ‘alien Anu b= LSP, f¢ — 70 = BOF, he = 2.98 Bea /Cn) RCP). ‘The reciprocal of the unit resstance, Jy sign oat rina/ (NEC) and is sometimes designated the eurface 104.8 Bea /(oe in 2 ‘Condensation of steam: a= hadi — ©) aay 1 RW, Ind, Eng. Chem, M6, 445-452 (1924). 1 ll, A, and N.C. Lae eginsring, 1%, 60-42 (1880)2 PROCRSS HEAT TRANSFER t= 1258" Cheek ‘The total heat loa g docs not appear to vary significantly for the diferent assumed ‘valaes off. This a bocauge the iurulstéon and not-the small surface coefiient affords the majorrecitance to heat How, | When the varistin in gis considerable for diferent ssiumed temperntares off, it indicates innufisient Snnuiation, ‘The Maximum Heat Loss through Pipe Insulation. It would scem at first that the thicker:the insulation the less the total heat loss. This is always true for flat insulation but not for euryed insulation. Consider a pipe with successive layers of cylindrical insulation. As the thickness of ‘the insulation is ineressed, the surface area from ahich heat may be removed by air than the resistance. Referring to Fig. 2.10, 7 the resistance of the insulation per linear foot, %., of pipe is, - iat Bem pein (236) Fro. 2.10. The eritioal rw Oaks sae and the resistance of the air per linear foot of ‘ips, slthongh a function of the surface and air temperatures, is given by R= ae (2.37) ‘The resisfance is a minimum and the heat loss a maximum when the derivative of the sum of the resistances’ with respect to the radius r is set equal to zero or aR ig Maint 4 Lat a alt hae ee 38) 1 1 ~~ ‘At the maximum heat loss r = r the critical radiua, or nop (2.39) Jn other words, the maximum heat loss from a pipe occurs when the critical radius equals the ratio of the thermal conductivity of the insula- tion to the surface coefficient of heat transfer. ‘The ratio has thedimen- sion of ft, It is desirable to keep the critical radius 2s small as possible conpuerion a were to cary @ hot fuid, there would be a certain hour hreniay could be determined from the cost. ot prota iat in lant heat-generating station. The tho ticles and initial ost of tho nae ne lost enter lation and the greater the annual fixed nomic thickness of the insulation, ‘Tho °t=#oo. form of such sn analysisis ahown in Fig. 2.11. ‘The most dificult partis * obtaining reliable initinl-installation-eoat date, ninco they vary peat ith plan to plant and with the amount ofimulting to be done ata at a i gb: J a2 F Schofield, Proc. Inter. Congr. Reri., th Cong. 8, 801-610a PROCESS HEAT TRANSPRR Since the drawing is symmettical about the vertical line BE, consider only the right half of the drawing bounded by ECF, Assume an arbi- traty auraber of isotherms 1, in the direction from B to B so thet, if & o 1 f* in constant, At = 2, Ata 1 vases wit thon ate = 2 kd, Tho greater the assumed number of isotherms the greater the precision of the renter ths Sent, coaldar Ui hat to fw from to oll ot fs rough ‘my lanes emanating from BC and forming the network indicated. Now pel. * conpueri0N 23 ‘The total heat flow from BC thus requires 1 = Qne/k(é, — 42) lanes, whore Q is the total heat flow. Figure 2.12 was constructed in this manner starting with six isotherms, ‘PROBLEMS 2.3. furnace ixencloood by walle made (fram inside out) of 8 in. of kaolin firebrick, 6 in, of kaolin innulsting brick, and 7 in. of fireclay brick. What ls the heat om per ‘equare foot of wall when the jaside of the fornaoy ia maintained at 2200°F and the outside at 200°F? ‘22. A fumace-wall is to consist in serin of Tin, of kaolin frebeck, 6 in, of Kaolin imagoente bricks cannot withsiaad » ise lemperatare above 1500°F, and the low {ade bricks cannot exoeed 600°F, What ¢hicknea of the wall wil give « hos! loan ot in excuse of 1500 Btu /(a2 (19) when tho extrome face temperatures ar 250 ant 200°, respectively? 24. A Gin TPS pipe ia covered with thse rsistancen in scion consisting from the inside outward of 3 i. of kapok, Lin. of rock wool, and 35 ia-of powdered magnesite applied os a plaster. If the inside surace in masitained at 600°F and the outside at 1OI°F, what i the heat loos pr oquare foot of outed pipe sutaco? 2A. A Din, IPS line to a drigerated procom covered with 3 in. of kapok caries 25% NaCl bri at °F and at » ow rat of 90,00 bfir. ‘The outer surface of tne ‘apok wil be maintained nt 00°F. Whats the equation for the Gow of best? —Calcu- late ‘the heat Loakage into the pipe and the temperature ris of the Suid for 60-f atructurally supported roof of the saane material when exposed to the name differenoe in temperature?er PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER 4 G,, Cy Go Satherand contest oe ‘Volumetric specific heat, Btu/(ft*)("F) Specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/Gb)°F) zt woes ot ‘Stroma fo loctromotive free Fanusecoticiet of heat transfer, Bra/(s)(0CF) 1 Garret, amp K ‘Flectrical conductivity, t/obm-ft k ‘Thermal conduetivity, Btu/(ar)(te*)(F/tt) L Thickness of wall or length of pipe, ft = @ Oe ¢ 4 & ‘ ‘ a r Hest, Boa “Heat ‘flow, Btu /(hr) in £2) Resistance to hoat low, (hi) °F) /Bta Resistance to electri flow, chs ‘Temperstare at any pot, “F Tamperetore difereace promoting ext fow, °F i 3 CHAPTER 3 CONVECTION Introduction. Hest transfer by convection is due to fluid motion. Cold fluid adjacent to s hot surface receives heat which it imparts to the ring, although in most process applications it is induced by circulating the hot and cold fluids at rapid rates on the opposite sides of pipes or tubes. Free- and forced-conveetion heat transfer oceur at very different speeds, the latter being the more rapid and therefore the more common. Factors which promote high rates for foreed convection do not necessarily have the eame effect om free convection. It is the purpose of this chapter to establish a genoral mothod for obtaining the rates of heat transfer particularly in the presenee of foreed convection. and the average temperature of the air, Since the distance from the pipe surfaeo to the region of averago air temporature is indefinite, the resist noe cannot be computed from R, = Ls/kad, using & for air. Tnstesd ‘and the heat transferred from the pipe as evidenced by the quantity of steam condensed in it. The resistance for the entire surface was then computed from RZ WICH /Bea Ji desired, Z, can also be calculated from this value of Rand would be the length of a fictitious conduction film of air equivplent to the eom- bined resistance of conduction, free convection, and radiatios. The length of the film is of little significance, although the concept of the fictitious film finds numerous applications. Instead it is preferable to 25 SVNOWLEd QO TONAL LUSHAAINA AUVASIT26 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER directly wit reciprocal of the unit resistanco A, whieh has an Ss Fr ae rouce the te of the unit resistance Z/k ia 90 Hi a weet ich Guide having a variety of physical propertios and under va re oof agitation traafer beat. ‘Other factors influence the CONPRCTION ‘oanaidered to be on the inside or outside of the pipe. With so many ‘The rate of shear is proportions! to the velocity gradient du/dy. Ap- plying Newton's rule, if ris the shear shreas, roe @3) ‘chore 1 is the proportionality constant or sti rele in deformation and is oquivlet8 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER by u = Vy/¥. Rate of shear = $= 5 3) roy os) where y is called the viscosity when V and Y bave unit values. ‘The actual force roquired to move the plate is +A. If F is the pound- force, L the length, and @ the time, the dimensions of the visoosity are a HPL FO BeTy "LE of using the pound-mass M, where F = Mg and 9 = L/¢, the accelera- tion of gravity, MLL Mw BS GOT 8 ‘When evaluated in cgs metrie units « is commonly called the absolute ‘viscosity. = —_Stammass__* ** centimeter X sevond ‘This unit’has been named the poise after the French scientist Poiseuille, ‘This ia ailarge unit, and it is customary to use and speak of the centi- ‘poise, or-one-hundredth poise. In engineering units ite equivalent is defined by = Pound-pass * foot X hour ‘Viscosities in centipoises can be converted to engineering units on multi- plying by 2.42. This unit bas no name, Another unit, the kinematic ‘viscosity, is also used because it occurs frequently in physical systems and produces straighter graphs of viscosity ve. temperature on logarithmic coordinates. The kinematic viscosity is the absolute viseosity in centi- poises divided by the specifi gravity. ss = Shsolute viseosity ‘inomatie viscosity ear ‘The unit of kinematic viscosity is the stokes, after the English mathe- rmatician Stokes, and tho'hundredth of the stokes is the centistokes. temperature, The commonest is the Sybolt viscometer, and the time of efflux from a standard cup into a standard receiver is measured in convection 29 seconds and recorded as Saybolt Seconds Universal, 88U. Conversi factors from the time of efflox to centistokes for the Saybolt and ether viseometers are given in Fig. 13," . and olher oat Transfer between Solids and Fluids: Streamline and Turbulent neha, Wo, BA. Turbulent fow in pipes Reynolds? observed that the type of flow assumod «tubo was influenced by the velocity, density, and 1 Figure numbers which are not preceded b; Reynolds, Papers : ® 0, *Betantific of Oxborne ” ie versity Pres, London, 1801, Osborne Reynolds,” p, 81, Cambridge Uni.30 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER CONVECTION Tine flow. Streamline flow is, in fact, s form of conduction whose study different groups of variables, each group having the net dimensions of ‘will be deferred to a later chapter. ‘The speed with which heat is the dependent variable. As » very simple Mlustration consider the con- Jarred to or from a given liquid to n tube is considerebly lese for stream ‘inuity equation which is frequently written in elementary physics and fine than for turbulent flow, and in industrial practice itis almost always thermodynamics texts in the form jjminable to aveid conditions such ss low liquid velocity which promote ws streamline flow. wt (as) ‘Dimentional Azalysis, A method of corrclating a number of varisbles where w = fluid flow rate, weight/time ato e engl equation expressing an effect is known as dimensional analy: wv = fluid velocity ia conduit, length time St cally cans pena ‘ensein te 4 = cross section of the conduit, length % length = length? i from basic laws deri example is 9 m= ppecifio vol : tan of ron of pda fms Nero's eto weight tumo, length X Fength X length/weight = length/ frevitational constant, Still other effects can be doscribed by difer Why doos Eq. (8.5) have this parti ‘ffjal equations, and the course or extent of the phenomons dediiced by ode tht their ef dimenion ae tho amen then ofthe depend moana of the caleulus, Numerous examples of this iype are encountered ent variable t, namely, weight/time. An eqt ine pe depend in elementary physics. ‘Tn still other types of phenomens there is ineufi- numbers and dimensions must be correct with respect nvok the end both. +e ot information to permit the formulation of either differential equations Checking the dimensions slone, writing for the variables in cen clear picture by which fundamental laws may be spplied. This last ‘their individual dimensions, Eq. 6.) {Gap mus: bo suid experinentally, and the corlaton of the ser Weieht tions is an empirical approach to ‘equation. ‘Equations which can Sygiakt — emai length’ weight be obtained theoretically oan also be obtained empirically, but the reverse time * Tengah = “imo Ge) 5 a pment has presented by far tho most extensive proof of the mathe Iti fdgmant has presented by far the . It in seen that the dimensions on the left side are identical wit matical principles underlying dimensional analysis. Because it operates dimensions of the group ouly when the auisbler ol the greupareaaneed aly upon the dimensions of the vasiables, it does not directly produce in the particular manner indicated by the formuls. The three inde- vakerical resulta from the variables but instesd yields s modulus by pendent variables above give an answer in weight/time only when winch the observed data can be combined and the relative influence of Reranged in a single way, ua/o. Consereely t may be dedueed thatthe Thevarisbles established. As such, itis one of the important comorstones of an equation ia determined only by its dimensions; ‘he form which oo. Gf empirical stady. Tt recognises that any combination of « sumber duces dimensional equality represents the Bro- Ghd dimonsion, such as 5 Ib or 5 ft, possesses two identifying aspects, one tho variables. Any physival aqustion may be writ Telationship among SF pure magnitude (numerical) and the other quantitative dimensional) ‘terms of & power series containing all the variables, Tl the forin were not Fundamental dimensions aro quantities such as length, time, and tempers Known in the llustration above and it was desirod to ind a relationshi fare which are directly measurable. ‘Derived dimensions are those /hich must exiet between the variables: ‘end ‘be . veh are expreaid in terms of fundamental dimensions such as veloo- by a power series such as may be expremted lengthtime or density ~ mase/length'. ‘The end results of & Fy casional analysis may be atatod 08 follows: If « dependent variable (0, 0, 9) = awutatr + aluruat +--+ = 0 B7) having given dimensions depends upon some relationship smong ® group ‘The factors a and a’ are dimensionless proportionality constants, Since we ha ins alg te on sn the dimension of al she cansecutre terms of the ewina wep idenlca: i ‘a way that the se group are identi not neoossary to consider 4 She dependent varialo, The independent variables may also bo relsted ‘one oan write ‘ny of the terme beyond the fist, Accordingly jnauch a way that the dependent variable is defined by the sum of several ewer) =1 as 1 Bridgman, P, W., “Dimensional Ansty," Yale University Prom, New Haven, where ¢ indicates the function, Axbi sng b= 100 tat bitrasily setting b= —1 « 1981,32 PROCKSS HBAT TRANSFER ‘will not appear in the final equation exised to a fractional exponent, w= vate @s) Substituting dimensions, Weight _ o( ley" X (lengthyé x (ose) (@.10) Time Time Ii a group of independent variables will establish numerical oquality ‘with @ dependent variable, tho samo is true of their dimensions. Equa- tion (3.6) imposes this condition, ‘The exponents ¢, d, and ¢ snay then assume such valves as are necessary to effect the dimensional equality Detween the loft and right sides. ‘The remainder of the solution is merely ‘to evaluate c,d, and e by simple algebra. Summing the expononts of the dimensions on both sides and recalling that an exponent of zero reduces & cumber to unity, Z length, 0 = c + 2d + 36 ‘Solving for the unknown, d is found to be +1. The three exponents are then e = +1,d= +1, ande = —1. Substituting these in Ea. (8.9), ws aati = at @1y) ‘Inasmuch 25 this is an exact relationship, the proportionality constant « fs equal to 1.0 and , w= ‘Thusby purely algubraie means the correct frm ofthe equation hasbeen to employ other dimensions suth as temperature and a derived heat unit H, the Btu or lorie, ‘a moshanial and seni! ngning 1 curacy ou of unitof foree and the unit of mass. Tn the preceding illustration the weight ‘was employed. The relationship would hold whether the pound-mass or Ggran-maas or the pound ores (poundal) or gram-force (dye) were used convection 33 Tapia 8.1. Dmevaions ax Users Pimensiona:* Force = 7, heat =H, length = Z, mass = M, temperature = 7, time = 0, The foree-pound is the poundal, the forcegrasa is the dyne TE in ihe pound the forcegram in the dyne Sym- a ‘Quantity: consisient engineering and metric unite Dimen- 4 | Acocteration of gravity, fer, em, 4. [ven otc, tyne ue Kx | Conversion from kinetic energy to beat mn Mian $y | Gonverin rom fr oa aie 5 aye ke z Lye a & E ® L ¥ a @ myo ’ ayers Fun P Bh Fits ? PL/s z ayer . be : Pas ‘ ma [Roast conde Blu /tanceyer/e, eatfomeyfemnec/ | H/tTe =| Thermal diffusivity, 1/hr, em?/eee ; Sian as T7170 ue Het (EVE) Oa Btu, 7C)fom) (ve) foal ire Lye ” Pais “ Mile 2 | Work, (orceb)f),(oree-) fem) x "Fore yet without beat change tha sutoraaliy dane we FER 8 long as the weight was always troated in the enme ‘gutem in whch the mas ea fundaneatal dimension 96 6, 8 ‘From the acceleration equation, force = mass X acceletation, F = Mie. In another set of dimensions it may be more convenient to consider forcea PROCESS HBAT TRANSPER fundamental ‘hich expressed by ON EeTOF 3 the dimension, in which case mass is " " Substituting dimensions and ar! itrarily Fr M = Fe. equal to 1, ‘teary sting the exponent of aP/at, ‘When some of the variables are commonly expressed in units of foree f- aur + MN! (aen\* such ae pressure FZ! and other variables by units of mass such as the B 4) Xt) \ta) rey G14) density MZ", it is necessary to introduce dimensional constant into the ; series expression before solving for the exponents. ‘The constant relating Summing exponents, ‘M and F naturally has the dimensions of the gravitational acceleration 2s constant L@*, A similar situation also arises when describing a phe- BL, -8 -a+b~ae~d+ ‘aomenon by which a work or kinstie energy change occurs in a system. 2M, O-eta+ ‘Some of the vatiables may ordinary be expreseed in terms of foot-pounds 0, b-d-2 (foree-pound X foot) and others in terms of hest energy such as the Solving simultaneously, Btu. A conversion factor which is the beat equivalent of work must be toa introdueed fo convert FL to H, or vice verse. ‘The constant isthe kinetic tral ‘energy equivalent of the heat HZ+/H¢. A number of common variables 4 and dimensional constants are given in Table 3.1 together with their net q- @) dimensions in a six-dimension system. Typical sets of engineering and Zé aetrie unite are included. : . . ‘Analysis for the Form of a Fiuid-flow Zquation. When an incompressi- Substituting back in Eq. (3.13), ble fiuid flows in a straight horisontal uniform pipe with a constant mass © rate, the pressure of the fluid decreases slong the length of the pipe Gf = admire = sae (Due) owing to friction. ‘This is commonly called the preanwre drop of the OR 2.15) system, AP. The pressure drop per unit length is referred to sa the where @ and —d must : pressure gradient, dP/dL, which haa been found experimentally to be Yesient tm of aimee iver ten ent a A con influenced by the following pipe and fluid properties: diameter D, veloo- which is identical with up and corresponds te the so eas SeityG, ity w, fluid density p, and viscosity 4. What relationship existe between foot of flow ares. To obtain the dep ieee flow per equare ‘the preesure gradient and the variables? aP by AR, dl by the length of pip ree ae 8) replace Sokition, ‘The pressure has dimensions of force/area, whereas the ‘equivalent g, ibetituting for Ky its density is exproseed by mass/volume 0 that a dimensions) constant relating Af to F must be included, Ky = ML/F@. The same result ap = Seu(bay* aay be seccmnplished by including the acceleration constant ¢ along with Dave @.16) ‘the variables above. While the viscosity is determined experimentally where Duo/u ot DG/u is the Reynolds nuunber. as a force offeot and has the dimensions F#/Z*, it isa very small unit, and Analysia for the Form of a Forced-convection it is more common in the engincering sciences to uso the absolute vis- heat transfer by forced convection to an i Zavation. |The rate of coaity M/L# in which the conversion from force to mass hss already been furboleat Bow in a pipe of uniform col A Content aeelngin made. found to be influenced by the focity u dont Using the sasoe method of notation aa before, Semen condetity By vty a8 wl oh nie dita af te nate relocity, vitoosity, density, end diameter fe DwomKn 6.19) ees of the fivid film the pipe wall through which the eat genet, a te condvoted, and they also influence the extent of Avid musing,” fis we : §~ Derek: 013) aiato a ee36 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER tion, What relationship holds between the film coefficient or rate of heat transfer, ky = H/@LA7 [euch as Btu/(hr)(ft*)}CF)], and the other number ha = 9.0, Dw Ke Bs ane briteeky na jana 7) ain=«C8) (2) (6h) © (aay Ga) Summing exponents, BH, ladt+f~i | BL, -2=a—~B+e—f-g+R BM, O=b—dto+i baa d=1-~f fmf g=l-fr-a@ i=0 Subwttting ack, hy = apt DW pK (3.19) or collecting termes, p-(@Q" am a, d 1 — ‘must be evaluated from a minimum of three sets of sae esta data ‘i Rbetitating ‘the mass velocity for up in the above, e-NG) em ‘The dimensionless groups AD/k and tu/k, like the Reynolds number convection ar Dup/ of DG/u, have been assigned names to houor earlier investigators in the field of ffuid mechanics and beat transfer. A list of the common ‘groups and the names assigned to them are included in Table 3.2. ‘Tanur 32, Comox Dumxsroxunes Gaovrs One of the useful aspocts of dimensional analysis is its ability to pro- vide a relationship among the variables when the information about a phenomenon is incomplote. One may have spoculated that both fluid {fiction and forced convection are influenced by the surface tension of the fluid, ‘The surface tension could have been inoluded as a variable and ‘same token, the equations obtained above may he considered to be prodi- cated on incomplete information. In either case a relationship ix obtainable by dimensional analysis. Consistent Units. In establishing the preceding formulas the dimen- sions wore referred to in general terms such as length, time, temperature, te.” In order that the not dimensions of the variables may be obtained by cancellation among the fundamental ard derived dimensions, all must employ the same basic measured units. Thusif several variables employ ‘dimensions containing length such as velocity L/@, density M/L', and ‘thermal conductivity H/0LT, each must employ the same basic unit of length such as the foot, Accordingly, when substituting values of the variables into « dimensionless group, it is not permissible to signify the38 ‘PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Slowntnn frome ante a Sys nish, sand etl others in ‘uted into the dinesoatm groupe Meee 20 | am algebraic solution. In general, it is desirable to solve for the dimension- Jess groups appearing in Table 3.2. * Buckingham, B,, Phys. Rev, 4 345-876 (1014). *Trdgman, 0. ot CONVECTION 30 Analysis for a Port-neerinEaaion he Theorem, ete.) =O = Sioncony) = 323) “(Gy us , GY GA) © Gey @y CRY a2 txpoosus atin catty umeaad oe Stn not be possible to obtain either a Reynolds number or a Prandtl number,40 PROCESS HEAP TRANSFER Assume f=1, ¢=0, ¢~0. Solving the simultaneous equations above, bed = 1,9 =0jm= 1,5 =, n=¢(P#) x ry Toprevent the hc tetm andi the velocity or density from appearing again, asume a= 0, = 1, f=0. All the exponents will have now ppoated in one or more eolutions, ‘Assume a= 0, ¢=1, f= 0. Solving the simultaneous equations above, b= 0,d =0,g=—I,m=1i=0, n-8 $) +Ch 2g) -9 29 AD ‘Dup' ou" . 4p = 0() (2) . Sterne ona tes ~ (22) @)-<2Y GY om where the proportionality constant and the exponents must: be evaluated from experimental data. ‘Development of an Equation for Streamline Flow. Since streamline flow is » conduction phenomenon, it is subject to rational mathematical analysis, On the ‘assumption that the distribution of velocities at any ‘cross section is parabolic, the indide surface ‘of the pipe is uniform, and the velocity at the wall is zero, Graetat obtained for radiel conduction {to a fluid moving in a pipe in rodlike flow Bohn —ay (@) Gan where t; and are the iilet and outlet temperatures of the fluid, ¢, is the Uniform inside pipe surface temperature, fy — fs the temperature differ- ‘The final expression is o Temperature of the fuid flowing in the pipe, ia considered to be infurnced 1 Grnote, Inj Ann. Phy, 8, 387 (1885). For areviow of the treatment of conduc tion in moving Btlds a0e'T. B. Drow, Trane, AICHE, %6, 32 (1931). convECTION 4 jin radial conduction by the length of path Z,-the rate of flow specific hhoat, thermal conductivity #, and the temperature dliference between the pipe inside surface and the fuid temperature 60 that Al; = ty — . feo t= alte at (6.28) Solving by the method of dimensional analysis, hohe (8) At (8.29) or aera @y (8.30) which is similar to Eq. (3.27). Now note that neither Ke (2.29) containe hor the Vsamnity go But Q = beds at ar (2) ner ‘wolts — 4) = hye DL Ate ‘and substituting @ = A in Eq, (3.30), Deb (DG Be GE ea Now synihetically introducing the viscosity by multiplyii i Be SN) by yas on Saiag LY Malvina thee torm and the temperature difference was simply the difference between any42 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER inside the pipet ‘Pferring to Fig. 3.6, the constant temperature of the inside pipe wall fs shown by the horizontal line f,. If the specific heat is assumed con- a 4 s i 4 \ ta] 1 i. Lo a ‘Temperature diference between a fxd and « pipe wall, Pena stant for the liquid, the rise in temperature is proportional to the total ‘heat repeived by the liquid in passing from the inlet temperature {1 to the ‘outlet temperature t, and if hy is considered constant dQ = heddca 633) ‘The slope of the lower line defining the temperature difference At a8 a function of Q is Ss = em) where Aly = & — hand Ah = 4 — te Eliminating 4Q from Eqs. (3.33) md G34), Spay [ME am ‘Integrating Q = BAGH hs 336) s/s “The expression f= isthe logarithmic mean temperature diference, abbreviated LMTD, and the value of hy, which has been computed from Q = hAcAte when Af; is the logarithmic ‘mean, ia a distinct value of convection 8 fa W the value of At; were arbitearily taken as the arithmetic mean of ‘Ais and At, the value of A; would have to be designated to show that it does not correspond to the logarithmic mean. This is usually accom- plished by affixing the subscript or m for arithmetic mean, a8 hy of ha. When A’, and Al, approach equality, the arithmetic and logarithmic means approach each other. Q = Welly — f) = Bidets (37 From the observed values of the experiment and the calculation fiven in Eq, (8:8), hs oan be computed from of Ah, a8 emt e (te — AEN tae B= wet (838) factors which affect h, are those encountered in the dimensional analysisconvection 45 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER “4 the pipe-turface thermocouples sto brought out throvgh the geakete en the ends of the test soction, The pestormance of the experiment requires the selection of an initial fs calming sections, Next the liquid passos through s ooolar where its termmerature ia returned to t. The annulus of the test section is con-WAY TRANSPEBR 46 PROCESS HUAT TRANSF! convacrion « and thermometers appear elsewhere.” ‘The same is true of equations to a aan entton id Row through standard orioes when the propertin of the |, 26 BBormonovene| | ane~wecennanson quid vary. FE t SERRSIZSSETR TBvaluaton of a Forced Convection Equation from Bxperimental Dela. sS ‘Anan example of correlation, data are given in Table 2.3 which, wee 2k ie an ed by Morris and Whitman? on heating ga oil and straw oll with Boa tna nT le wih i a te rg 3 oiaton, ae crea] conductivities may bo obtained from Tig. 1 B ti | cseveanaas: eee oe 2 eae epacic heats from Fig. 4. Both aro plotted in the Appendix = aaa | | REQRSEgeeskages E y|. | SERSESS8R8888 | | S888R2 | e ale | RRCSESSERESEE | | SAMARETSRENES ¥ | |seeeeegeeeees |,/ eeeeeseeeceeeee | HSA iif > emeniuaeg | +100} e 4 é aang eee 3 ae = 3e 30 pase | fap | ideas Stniaaebiamn Ae Ab 7 [iedezanaseens | afanneaveeses vat erm a ea Agp | sbasedasteses |§) agestsuacseccss with °APT as parameters. The thermal conductivity of the metal wor aa L . | sseseseseeses |!) sgegeseteegeass whoa by Moris and Whitman to be 35 Btu/ (hr) (2) CE/At and constant, ° ‘Sthough thi is higher than the value given ip Appendix Table 3- Only: rl sudcnsdacdeve |2| Sesavekenseeege Colatns 2, 8,4, ae 5 in Table 33 were observed where a = oS |) REXRASNSRERSRIT th = oil inlet temperature, be moscenasomcan meceneNanonene’ ty = cil outlot temperature, “F F - |Seggungegesss| | sggggaus' renenes 1. Gaeperatare of over pipe ouxace averaged from thermocouples [* LSRRRRRRRARERR |_RARRRERARSARERE | = weight flow, Ib far L = |ageenmeazanas| | isenzesneessnea «re Git oto in correlating a forood convection equation i to determine Senaceancusagay wee the date arein turbulent flow, otherwise on attempted correlation by Sees Ba G8) would be incorrect. In column 11 the Reyaolds aunbere p< Svebeo eal ing the ae nn el dare eeny be found in Table 11. Fluid properties have been obtained Le rae eza temperature (i + 4)/2. ‘The Reynolas numbers all exceed Pe |RESSSSS58e8¢3| | RRSzRazESgRISLY “Amaten ntt Pp, Tempe Te Menon sod Gila Le]. oe — ‘Science and industry, ‘aisha blag Corporation Non or 3 BERRRRERRRESE | | SVSSCSTSESESRES + Marts, F. H., aad W. G. Whitmn, /48 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘2100.in substantiation of turbulent flow. Equation (3.26) ieigiven aa Poe EF GY e w) NE and a, p, and g oan be found algebraically by taking the date for three test points i igebraic Solution. This method of correlation is demonstrated ‘by wa the three ‘points B4, #12, and C12 in Table 3.3 which include lange range of K,D/k, DG/s, and cp/k as calculated presonty from flow and uid properties and tabulated in columns 9, 11, and 12. C12: 191 Bid: 350 q = 0.407, end the final equation is » Px oosse "ey" ‘When the equation is to be used frequently, it can be simplified by fixing aa8 the eae oot of the Prandil number and solving for new values of aand p. ‘The simplified equation would bo AD. payee ( en " & = 0.0089 e t Graphical Solution. Yor the correlation of a lange number of points the gtapbical method is preferable. Rewriting Eq. (3.26), 2gy'y am which is an oqustion of the form yaar 8.40) CONVECTION 40 ‘Taking the logarithms of both sides, Tog y = log a + log 2 ‘which reduces on logarithmic coordinates to an equation of the form veatpe a1) On Togarithmie coordinates the entire group (hD/k)(o4/b)-* is the ondi- atte y in Ea. (8.41), the Reynolds number is z,p isthe slope of the data when plotted as y vs. z, and cis the value of the intercept when Plog 2 =0 which ooours when the Reynolds number is 1.0, To plot valuee of dz 5 RD/RCca/Y~, tho exponent ¢ must. be sasumed. "Tha eeost ‘satisfactory assumed valuo of the exponent will be the one which permits Observed teat data: Wight flow of gas ci, wo = 722 tb/hr ‘Temperature of ofl at pipe inlet, ty = 7.1°F ‘Temperature of oil at pipe outlet, fg = 106.9°F Average temperature of outside pipe surface, fw — 210.1°F Physical data and calculated results: Heat load, Btu/hr: Average oll temporature ~= 71 + 1069 yo gop Average specific heat, ¢ = 0.472 Btu/(Ib)(°F) = wells ~ ts) = 722 x 0.472(106.9 — 77.1) = 10,180 Bta/ae ‘Tomperature of pipe at inside surface, ty: . LD. of }4-in. IPS = 0.62 in; 0.D, = 0.84 in, Length, 10.125 %t; surface, 1.65 ft?x” PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Thermal conductivity of steel, 85 Beu/ (hr) (*) CF /ft) a 10,180 © y097 Bia oe 23 X 1007 |, 0.84 = 28.7F fate — 2B Nog BE = 04 ~ FcR Ta we 8 OO 308. ‘Bf in expression Q = feAc Att inlet, At, = 208.7 — T7.1 = 131.6F peers = 208.7 — 100.9 = 101.8°F 131.6 —- 1018 28) A= MTD ~ giog pastors) STE G @ 10,150 _ 5s er he qo, = THB KIT 58.6 Btu/{hr)( ft?) ithe thermal conductivity of the ofl will be considered constant at 0.078 Bea/(ex) te C/A). . 6 X 0. i . Noselt nusaber, Nu = 22 = SACI = 95.5; dimensionless = 12,000 @ w 722 xT Mass velocity, @ = =ps7a~ GIF KRHA X 9 nT OES o/c) is fool viscosity from Fig, 3.8 at 92°F is 2.22 oontiposen [gram-mas/1 en (of 3.22 X 2.42 = 7.80 1h/(ft) (hx). : DG _ 0.62 Reyoolds number, Re = PE = “Fp x 42,000 X 7755, oe ‘= 2280, dimensionless 0.472 X 7.80 ‘ s Prandti number, Pr = & = “SE IETS = 472, dimensionlees ‘Asoume values of g of 1.0 and 34 respectively. se a= Mo/Py = 075 potted in Fig. 3.9 Sovond trial: jx = Nu/Pr* = 0.88 plotted in Fig. 3.10 ip ‘ oo “te vaten of tha Si tral in whch te odin it = 3B /(F ‘umber of liquids and this oan be {ines result, one f¢ ech thoi provide but fiom for & to Peovished ‘by adjusting the exponent of tho Prendt] number, By seruming a value of ¢ = ¥4 and plotting the ordinate j= =2/(): sts pono to obtain the single line as shown in Fig, 3.10. By drawing CONVECTION $1 ‘the boat stright line through the points of Fig, 3.10, the slope can be measured in the same way as on rectangular coordinates, which in this particular ease is found to be 0.90, By extrapolating the straight line ® 150 mt M 4 80] 8 6 5 50) # 40) 4 2 0 3 4 ao} 3 ex a Pra 08] we 8 by 6] ¥ ; on 4 os 3 a2} 2 os q ‘as ae tar oe" 2 eae peo BE Wie, 29, lok of Be va ja wih Prandil Fro. 30, Plot of Bevin with Prana ‘sponses of Lo. exponent of 36. until the Reynolds number is 1.0, & value of a = 0.0115 is obtained as the intercept. ‘The equation for all the data is thus Po oons (22) @ (6.42) ascamod = 1 are plotted in Fig. 3.9 where two distinct =| into a i ft etal poe ther yeeros Tt is the object of a good correlation I a on ‘called the isothermal unt 1 but the procedure involves an additional consideration which is deferred Correlation of Fiuid Friction in Pipes. When a fluid flowa in a pipe iothermally, it undergoes a decrease in pressure, From Kg. (8.16) it in seen that for isothermal turbulent flow this pressure drop is « function of tho Reynolds number and, in addition, to the roughness of the pipe2 PROCRSS HEAT TRANSFER Rewriting Eq. (8.16) ia dimensionless form, =e. (2y* rei 7 where J" is one of the dimensionless factors found in the literature to designate the friction factor and AP is tho pressure drop in pounds per square foot. For combination with other hydrodynamic equations it is more.convenient to use a fiction factor f so that po SP ted _ « aL ~ Ret ‘When experimental data are available, it is thus convenient to obtain a correlation by plotting f as a function of the Reynolds aumbor and the conventional Fanning equation as shown in Fig, 3.11. The Fanning ‘equation comprises the first and second terms of Eq. (3.43) and is usually written as AF = AP/p where.AF is the prossure drop expressed in feet of quid, or . _ sox ak = FED (8.43) (3.44) For the portion of the graph corresponding to streamline flow (Re < 2100 to 2300), the equation for the pressure drop may be deduced from thearetical con- siderations alone and has been verified by experiment. The equation is 326 aD (345) By equating (3.44) and (3.45), since each applies at the transition point from streamline to turbulent flow, the equation of this line, known as the Hagen-Poiseuille equstion, where f is used with Eq. (3.44), is oF = f= 05 G48) To the right of the transition region in turbulent flow there are two Jines, one for commercial pipes and the other for tubes. Tubes have ‘smoother finishes than pipes and therefore give lower pressure drops when | all other factors aro the same. ‘This is not so af streamline flow where ‘the Suid at the pipo or tube well is assumed to be stationary or neatly stationary and the pressure drop is not influenced by roughness. The equation of fin Eq, (3.44) for fuids in tubes in turbulent flow is given by | t t CONVECTION 83 Drew, Koo, and MeAdams! within +5 per cont by J = 0.00140 4 799125 wan For clean commercial ron and steel pipes an equation given by Wilson, 020 0.55] (8.470) ie Th ra Sezgeo Jar A8ott o10 ae 0 Merete a $B dimensionless ‘Fa. 2.1, Frietlon factors for flow in pipes and tubes, ‘McAdams, and Seltzer* within +10 per cent is J = 0.0085 + 0.204 es ne eu ,, {teat be seen that, ifthe transition from stream is given by Dup/u = 2400, approximately, thon the velociy oy aie in a pipe changes from stroamline to turbulent flow ig . . _ 2300 wt Dp or water fowing in In TPS pipe at 100%F, the visolity is 0.72 ceati- er, TB B.C. Koo and W. H. McAdams, Trot, AICAE, 98, 60-72 (1692) : R aan Bs W. H. MeAdasas, and M. Settee, Ind. Boo, Chen. ta totes 2a a sere 470)Bs PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER CONVECTION 55 X 100 (em)(s0e) oF 0.72 X 242 = 1.74 Ib/(H) L +L tho temperature of tho fuid is T, and the temperature at the Be oe ae diameter f the pipe 00a, ot 1.00/12 = 001 inside surface of the pipe wall ist, Of the total fluid flow along the axis " im cf the pipe, sscume that m Ib/(hr)(t*) impinges on the pipe wall where ten — POLE — 707 ttf, or 0.196 fps its velocity falls to zero and its temperature approaches the temperature O0er x 623 ‘of tho pipe wall, t, Each particle of fluid which thus contacta the wall For air at 100°F the visoosty is 0.0186 X 2.42 = 0.0447 Tb/(f8)(br) and gives up its axial momentum and upon returning to the main body of the ‘the density is approximately 0.075 Ib/ft* ‘Then for the sare pipe ‘fiuid has ite axial momentum renewed at the expense of the energy of the Sensity ” main etream. The constant los and renewal of momentum are the an = 2a Sag = 100 f8/hr, ox 4.19 foe cause of the pressure drop, ‘The traction or drag on unit area of the pipe 0.001 x 0 fia eetion 5 val obtained by equating to drag on unt length of pipe rall to the Reynolds Analigy. Both heat transfer and fluid friction in product of the pressure gradient and the cross-sectional area of the pipe, turbitcat dow have boon trested empirically, whereas their streenuline- which reduces to radmt G48) ‘att pore where r is the drag. Sinco the drag is assumed to be equal to the loes of ar momentum of the Buid, mueradat (49) mn be ‘The rate of hont transfer between the fluid and the wall is given by . mCIer dL(T ~ ty) = WaT (8.50) wor cor from Eqs. (8.49) and (3.60) _ WaT it re, 21% Mowextip seas bebwoet nH and» boundary Le "SUT a (3.51) A li ic ii sble accuracy. ‘In simple terms the last two members of Eq. (3.51) state fiow equivslants may be studied theoretically with reasonable scours ‘Tsbulent How is of greater importance to industry, yet this empircis ‘Host actually given up to pipe wall i cs cr orPPipe anderlanding of both flds could be iooenced by experiments: i = Wear we foo hy= TL = (ass) setpetter understood if they were directly relatod. The analogy between Ser Ut — 1) ¥ 7 fransfer of fd momentum ean bo related. A simplified proof follows, ra Referring to Tig, 8.12 a fuid in amount Wib/br and spooiio beat Cj ara eae 0 Fe Suan, Inthovection ofthe pipebetwom Land | ti intresting to notin a, (3.9) that an equation has ben ota for the hest-transfer coeficient which involves the frietion factor and 5 Reynolds, op. cit, pp. 81-85. \56 PROCHSS HWAT TRANSFER ‘Which can be determined from an experiment in which no heat was trans- Torred. Like’ most derivatious which require a number of assumptions, ‘the use of Eq. (8.63) applies only to a small range of fluids, particularly permanent gases. Tt was Reynolds as quoted by Stanton! who preidicted that the coeff- cient of heat transfer obtained from Eq. (3.53) should be affected by the ratio of the thermal conductivity and viscosity of a specific fluid. While uid in-turbulent flow is not turbulent. ‘a laminar layer exists near the pipe wall through which conduction must occur. "Prandtl? and Taylor? indepen i i of its inner circursforence is ¢’, the hest flow per square foot of layer is given by ’ q- Hee) 8.54) where kis the mean conductivity for the layer. Assume that the transfer of heat and momentum is carried through this layer by molecular motion ‘without disturbing its laminer flow, The inner suriace of the layer moves with a velocity u’ in streamline flow, and writing (u — w’) for u in Eq. (3.53), rr - ¢) Qa MT — 8) = ay (3.55) From the definition of viscosity given by Ea. (3.4), ts § (8.56) where y is the viscosity of the fluid in the layer. From Eq. (3.54), e-4=9 = 08 8.57) And from Eq, (8.55), r-r- Me) G58) Combining Eqs. (3.57) and (8.58), r--0(%+4-3) 6.50) * Stanton, T. E,, Phi. Trans. Roy. Sec. (London), A 190, 67-88 (1807). + Brandt, L., Piyedk Z., 9, 487-480 (1928). Taylor, G.1., Brit, Ads. Comm. Aero., Repl. and Meme 272 (1917). t CONVECTION 87 ‘The corrected value of fy becomes oo + “Ow ae @.00) ETC Ee Substituting r’ for the ratio w/u and eliminating r by means of Eq. (3.48), 61) or in dimensionless form using ¢ for C and & f¢ ‘ rin dim ing. 4 for h;as usually given in the as i GIF Fre (62) Equation (861) is the Prandtl modifieetion of the Reynolds asal which i> sometimes called the Prandil analogy. ‘The dimensioues Prandtl group ou/k bas appeared earlier in this chap E numerically equal to 1.0, Eq. (3.61) reduces to Eq. This ii approximately the ease for petmanent gases. While Ea. "i notable extension of the Reynolds anlogy, it too has ita PROBLEMS. 3.1, The hent-transfer coeficient A from a hot horizontal pipe to a gus by free cone density p, viscosity », thermal cocficient of expansion p cf the diameter D perenne otra a elt mai Sepa ems wen wall, chermal conductivity #, latent heat of vaporisation 2, vi va 7 . As viscosity ay and the tasty of the vapor. Extabish » dmvensonlom expreaion forthe hese renee $4. The rata of cooling of bot ool in sil air has been found to be inftuenced , ean nll aie res {he-pecic host, themal condutivty b deasty » and vioumity «of the pe to Jonge ‘of the solid 1, and the temperature difference af between thé surface of the aold stones MaPeatueof the gas.” Estalch a diensiolem equation for She rte ‘34 When a fuid flows sround a aphere, the farve exerted by the fd has heen58 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Sound to be a function ofthe visosity 4, density ¢ and velocity wof the gxs, and the digmeter D of tho sphere. Eatablish an exprestion for tho preamare drop of the fuid ‘a fanction of the Reynolds number of the gas. 12.5. ‘The heating of gax ofl ond straw cil in a pipe han been found for a }4in. TPS pipe to follow Ea. (8.42). SP x oms("2)”(@)" stile ie temperature zai fom 130 10 130°F._ Tn the abeence of any additional heat-transfer dota, calculate the het-runaer coedicint in the Hin. 1P8 pipe, How dogs thie compare widh the value af hy when th same quantity of gas oil Sows in a ‘ide, TPS pipo as oaltlated by tho simo eqstion? The data will be found in the ilaetration in the chapter. ‘3.6. Using Hq. (5.42), it in deste to circulate 4000 Ib far of amyl acetate through 1 Hin, TPS pipe while its temperature ie rased from 190 to 180°. (6) From date tevalable in the Appendix ou the phytial properties of amyl acctate caleslate the Ireat-raaafer cooicient, Tt may be neceeary to extrapolate some of the data, @) Do £be sams for 6000 Ib/hr of ethytene glycol in the mame pipe when heated from 170 to 20°F. 1 only one point ia given for n property, such as the Unermal eonduetivity, and iis lower than the average temperature, its un wil ataally introduce a slight factor of salty. * fr heating water in « pipe while rteam is circulated on the outalde, Note thet G’, ‘te reported maas velocity, is not in consistent units, SGbeas RSERESE ‘Viscorton snd conduotiviten cam be found in the Appendix. The specie heat ond Rarity should bo taken ut 0, Ratablich an equation ofthe form of Bq, (2.6) ning {Si the data, (int, To seve time in the lection of the exponent of tho Prandil ‘pambes, take three random point such asthe fre, lat and an intermediate one and solv algebraically.) ‘3A. On cooking a 9B8°API gas oll with water Morrie and Whitman reported the following for 10135 fof 34 TPS pipe: ‘8.47. Ons }4-n. IPS pipe 10.196 ftlong Moris and Whitentn reported the following agai Ee ShSee). g beeeale SRE SE8E EEEE EES8 Ess Bobes esSealr ML crs 165 am 252 292 34 ar a m™ 485 05 356 on 618 633 ono me 61 REE EnSeE sag8 §6) Hatablish an oquation of the form of Eq (8.26) forall the data. (8) Combine ‘4s With hat of Prob. 2.10 lain one creation for both ele “¢) Suntano PROCRSS HBAT TRANSFER convection 6 ‘Acceleration of gravity, ft/hr® Heat unit, Blu Heat-transfer eveflicicit in general, Btu/(hr)(ft*}(F) Hrent-teanafer coeficeat based on the inside pipe surface, Btu /(hr)(ft*\°F) Hoat-transfer cocficient based on the outalde pipe murface, Btu /(hr)Gt!)(F) Factor for heat transfer, dimensicaless Conversion factor between kinetic energy and heat, (maatb)({t)/Blu ‘wien the exponent ofthe PrandH nuthber is 4, and plot ogether with therdata for the illustration in the text on heating. What oonchasion may be'drawn? ‘3.10. Sioder anil Tate! obtained Yata.on the cooling of a 21°API oll flowing on the ingide of eopper tubs having an inside diameser of 0.62 in, and 5:l ft ong: Gonversion factor between force and mass, mase-lb foree-Ib ‘Thermal conductivity, Btu/(oe)() (08/10) Length, ft Fundamental dimension of mass, masse Mass velocity perpendicular to inside pipe surface, Ib/(he)(t') ‘Pressure drop, Ib/i* ‘Thermal resistance on inside of pipe, (hr) (U8) (°#)/Btu ‘Thora resistance on outside of pipe, (bx) (0) (°F)/Biu Rediug, ft babe geese SOP PASAT RRORI RET pay Peo es e Beko BR us. 208. 300. 200. 202. | ma. 208. 24 134 188. ‘ 41” ‘Tesiperatarediference for heat tcamaor, “F ra ° at, Temperature diferene between outede pipe Guid and outdo pipe wall, “F Velocity in genora, /hr w Velocity of laminar layer, ft /ar Speco velume, ‘The temperature fyi for the inside surface of the tube. Insamuch as theee dae fall Ween eae ase tee below a Reynolds tumber of 2100, obtain sa equation of the form of Eq. (8.2). The % foe a iscontyof the oil is 24.0 centpoies nt 200°F und 250 ceatipoies wt 100°F. Tatar- Sy Cont ata sate an ota) smoiate viscosities can be obtained by drawing a straight lin on logarithmic paper as e Deaee re ordinate shown in Fig. 88, (The hint of Problem 9.7 is applicable.) i Re thetttea propor ity a, i |e me, br Peremaliy content, mening NOMENCLATURE FOR CHAPTER 3 $B cts) A/ Heaitranafermufoce, ft? + Dimonsinlea group, @ Fluid flow are, ft > Density, bie 2% ‘Thioknoas of laminar layer, ft + Shear sires, fh/ftt C— Boecific heat of hot fluid in derivations, Btu /(ib) CF) . + Reale © pectic heat of cold Suid, Btu/Mb)F) D__Taside diameter of pipe or tube, ft F Fundamental dimension of fore, foreo> Soperecrinte . AF Prossure drop, ft of liquid : aq Constant bE ee ect emt se de @ Mags velocity, Tb (hr!) § Inside « pipe or tube 1 Ind. rig, Chem, 98, 1420-1485 (1896), F& Ontaide «pipe or tubeRADIATION 63 ‘The Origins of Radiant Energy. Radiant energy is believed to origi- alo within the molecules ofthe raiatiog body, th aloes of ouch tues. cules vibrating in a simple harmonic motion as linear cecllators. ‘The ‘eniistion of radiant enctgy is believed to represent a decrease in the ampl- fdas ofthe vibration within the moleue, whe an absorption of ney CHAPTER 4 repremnte an increase in its essence the quantum theory postulates pApLATION that for every frequency of radiation thore i. emall mimi pulaaton | f energy which may be emitted. This is tho quantum, and a amaller Introduction. All too often radiation is regarded as a phenomenon quantity cannot be emitted although many such quants may be emitted. indent oly te Ho, unin bi In this chapter it will be seen ‘Tho total radiation of energy of ‘a given frequency emitted by a body is an this is not the case ‘and thst radiation, as a third means of trana- integral number of quanta at that frequency. "For diferent frequencies, fening bent, difare grealy fi from conduction and convection. In heat ‘the number of quanta and thus the total energy may be different. Planck conduction through solids the mechanism consists of an enetgy transfer | showed that the energy associated with a quantum is proportional to the through a body whose molocule, except for vibrations, romain continu- : frequency of the vibration or, if the velocity of all radiation is considered ously in fixed positions, In convection the heat is first absorbed from a sonst, avery proportional a due wavelength, | Thosradian energy souree by particles of fuid immedistely adjacent to it and-then trans- ofa given frequaney may be pictured as consisting of successive pulses ferred to the interior of the fluid by mixture with it. (Both mechanisms of radiant energy, each pulse of which has the value of the quantum require the presence of a medium to convey the-heat from a source ton | for a given frequency. receiver. ( Radiant-heat transfer does not require an intervening: The pictur of the atom proposed by Bobr is helpful to a clearer under- wehiecs eae be transmitted by radiation acrom an abeolute vest} standing of one posible origin of radiant energy. oso ae pe: ‘Wavelength and Frequency. Tt is convenient t0 mention the charso- sumed to travel about the nucleus of an atom in elliptical or! re a Prema nie before deuming the Origine of $n cinepane from the nario "The ovenont eral does poms aint co Radiant energy is of tho same nature as ordinary visible definite energies comprising their kinetio and potential energies, by virtue light. It is considered, in accordance with( Maxwells electromagnetic of their rotation about the nucleus. The potential energy is the energy st cosa of er anlatng ‘socompenied by » mag required to remove an electron from its orbit to an infinite distance from netic field oscillating in phase with it. wc College physics texts usually Se mslee A given electron in an orbit st a given distance from the ‘reat the theory in detail, amucleus will have a certain energy. Should a disturbance oceur such a8 “The variation with time of the intensity of the elootrie field passing a ‘the collision of the atom with another atom or electron, the given electron _ given point can be represented by a sine wave having finite length from may be displaced from its orbit and msy (2) return to its original orbit, wee to crest and which is 2, the wavelength. The oumber of waves (2 paso soot obit whowe drone poe» Giferent energy, oF (@) passing a given point in unit time is the frequency of the radiation, and tntirely leave the system influenced by the nuclous. If tho transition i the product of the frequency and wavelength is the velocity of the wave. from an orbit of high energy to one of lower energy, the readjustmentis For travel in a vacuum the velocity of propagation of radiation is very ‘tad by th aan of th exc eneey ‘neatly 186,000 miles/sec. For travel throngh a medium the velocity is Another origin of radiant energy may be attributed to the changes in somewhat less, although tho deviation is generally neglected. the energie of son and molec themes without reference to Uti "The wavelength of rediation may be specified in any unite of length, individual electrons, If two or more nuclei of the molecule are vibrating but the mieron, 1 X 10~‘ems, is common. _ All the known waves incnded ‘with respect to each other, 2 change in the amplitude ot muaplitudes of in the electromagnetic theory lie between the short wavelengths of comic ‘vibration will cause a change in energy content. A decrease in amplitude rays, lees than 1X 10- micron, and thé long wavelength of radio above the result of an emission of radiant energy, while an increase is the result 1% 10" mlcrona. Of these, only waves in the region between the near the absorption of radiant anergy. ‘The energy of « molecule may be and far infrared with wavelengths of 34 to 400 microns are of importanco changed by an alteration of its kinetio energy of translation or rotation, to rediant-heat transfor as found in in onlinary industrial equipment. ‘and this will likewise result in the emission of radiant energy. / A decreaseot PROCESS HBAY TRANSFER 1 RADIATION 65 snvelécity ta:the dmission of radiant energy, whilean increase red Lent is a faribettor source of energy than white heat, Were it corresponds ti the doles for this fact, the near-vhite incandescent lamp would require race energy for illumination and give off uncomfortable quantities of heat. ‘When dealing with the properties of radiation, it fs necessary to difler- entiate between two kinds of Properties: monochromatic id total A monochromatic property, sueh as the maximum values refers to a single wavelength. A total property indioates that it w che emitted from a substance. pletely only at the absolute | & = —t x s energy emitted from the surfaces of solid bodies is generated by energy- level changes in molecules near and on their eurfaces, ‘The quantity of radiant energy emitted by a solid body is consoqyently a function of the surface of the body, and conversely, radiation ineident on solid bodies ‘is absorbed at the surface. The probability that internally generated ‘radiant encrgy will reach the surface is far greater for hot radiating gases ‘than for solids, and the radiant energy emitted by a gas is a function of the ‘gus-volume rather than the surface of the gas shape. Ta Liquida the situ- ation is intermediate between gnees and solids, and radiation may orig- inate somewhat below the surface, depending on the nature of the liquid. ‘The Distribution of Rediant Energy. A body at a given temperature will emit radiation of a whole range of wavelengths and not a single wave- ° te. ini i infinite var 2, wavelength merons ‘Via 41. Intensity of monochromatic radiation for hot body s dtferent temperatures a * 1, intensity of manoctromete erin Biulthr FY? Krnicron) & tu 1 4 if i 2 2 ments on a given body will produce curves as shown in Fig. 4.1 for each ebromatic radiation literally means given: temperature. The curves are plots of the intensities of the radiant experimentally it actually refer to a ‘pou oe each ne wavelength but energy I, Btu/(br)(ft*}(micron) against the wavelengths in microns \ as wavelengths cannot be resolved individual “Mon releugtia, since determined at numerdus wavelengths and connecting points. For any ae not important to th direct solution of engineering potions Woe given-tomperature each curve possesses a Wayilength at which the amount necessary for the derivation of basic radiation relationsh ‘ee of spectral enorgy given Kass pow Ty YOM uy Jo 100y arunbe sod [qe gary omy Aq poynrare wy ABsoue FURL, “poowly wae 9q eo [Tea YoRe Jo UoHMEPET OM OBB OFTUE Jo TEAL O44 JOG “VoINOS en ° om) 0} 08g pereTper sopuTemar otf PUT ‘pequoegs oq yun aud garg om Pe ‘mous poyyras Azone oy}. omg “IUarETp 04 TH Aron jo Fux. on a= JT OM ‘soR}AWETD GUaIOYIP eABY PUT soTPOG FowA you ar comeyd ht ‘oma om JL "SeIpOq JoRIq 0} pandas uoxsenoEp HurPHOad oq, “GP (ogy) worenbg Mg = 5 unyn o uwo a PI 6a/ OM SAT ARDY HIND IC, Jo souN TolTwIVG Ow, waoMieq ARsoug jo omUTTH SResrwo ory ‘Ape quON o Apo s FE(FT'Y) ‘Ba moML “AOR ATA " pan “bg ‘reaomoyy “woonannd 04 stv V¥ = D 30} peALop sea (02'¥) (omned/ene ons'e = GED — Lown) exv0 = " ‘U00GE = OOP + 006 = SL AsOYT = OOF + OOOT = . ja Femepoag Ot FE TAMOTY of (,) (0H) ED/MT empundne yor © imi of a. 29099 os} Pouca og mE HEMEL Aer armour COVER-UP OB UAE SL, oq ‘sorpoq oua are don Frmumary “,000T PAY Gog 70 aanquseclaray WTHYETO SYs 3 01 X Vereduoy aynyoage orp Jp saaod TMos om 04 TraORO ore Ava oli ios ous, soumg oR] omy nocajoq uoepME “Tp UU se ea yore 2d © wou LOTR yvoy mp ¥mY SHES = ven ‘gor _ (908) Frac emay Tv Wy onsmo w open wary OM Fa (Oe) BORNE : [)-@)] oe - cen pde-ot X 110 = 2 sensed Y) Ga ~ y= a = & b — of somparoduio} $u636u09 ore) wex [hg 78 Je poareyuymr soueyd ong woasateq 4o0§ arenbs Jad oBaeqoxo qo otf Put y Sanessoqtt poqiosqe 6 soatooar 31 £zoua op Te ‘Apoq youq v yo uorpuyop amy Aq ‘avogiadie 2e mop yxy ow Lya0 Husarmins pure mu Yowe ZUR Fue'= Mg puooes ayy wos paw fo = My st yay oy woss AB1009 OY} of 2 ae ‘worpoq Zon re cad a sro Og “yreograian wt 101900 1H) PO tartar tat taht TD ogy Jo soBpo omy zax0 pu sormos oy} Jo safe arp. waxy yho sre) TOA ‘BORS per Jo guMoUre oy yr o8 ‘BiG AeyUBUY axe souNd guNIpEL 20 feeonquored ur w304 ogy Srpusdeg. aL NOIEVIGVE HRdSNVUL LVEH S8TOONE ¥e% PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Rample 42. -Radlaton between Planes with Diferent Emisivitie, I the two wale i Bcample 41 have eiavtice of 08 and 03, respectively, what i the not exchange? Solution: = cartes sie ~ ORY = For portect black bois the valu waa 600 Btu/ Gert) Radiation Intercepted by = Shield. Sappoce two infinite and parailel planes are separated by a third plane which is opaque to direct radiation between the two and which is extremely thin (or hn nit thermal oadetviey) shown a Pe, 3, Tho net exchange between the two initial as Ba (4.28). = tT (4. @- aay Foret tt OD eq but ¢ » e, the net exchange from | to 3 ia given by 1895 Biu/Caeytte) hooF L gin (fa) + (fer) = 1 When ¢: = (Q, and for the simple case where n shiolds are amployed, ete eae - ee = 5 RADIATION 7 where @ is the exchange if the initial planos were not separated. Spheres or Cylinders with Spheriesl or Cylindrical Enclosures. The falls on seas ~ () 1! (1 — 4)F:As Salis on As. If this analysis is continued as before, the energy exchange will again be represented by a geometrical series end the net exchange between the inner and outer sphere is given by (4.32) ‘Sometimes it is convenient to represent the net effect of the radiation in the same form employed in convection; namely, Q = hAxlTs — Ts) (4.33) here hy is @ fictitious film coefficient representing the rate at which the radiation pases from the surface of the radiator. ‘The values of Q in Bigs, (4.82) and (4.38) are identical, but the value in Ey. (4.32) is related to the mechanism by which the beat was transferred. Eq. (4.93) is statement of the heat balance as appliod before in the Fourier equation to conduction snd convection. Fishenden and Seunderg* have treated a ‘umber of interesting aspocts of the subject. 'Yighenden, M., and O. A. Saunders, “The Calculation of Heat Trensminon,” Bis Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1932.RADIATION 9 reflect some of the incident energy, but only a part of it will retum to Pl ae a Fra. 45. Boetion view betwean two platen, BEE _- sides, anglo aba’ must equal a; and the side a’ corresponding to a both are black bodies, the radiation from plate 1 to plate 2 is proportional to the normal surfaces exposed to each other and inversely to the square of the distance between them. 0.2 = Hadi aay 39 where J; is the proportionality constant dimensionally equal to the intensity of radiation. Substituting the original surfaces, 401-4 =F 000 a1 008 as 24: dds (435) ‘An important relationship exiats between the intensity I, and the emiseive power E. In Fig, 4.6 let dus, be the solid angle which is by definition ‘the intercepted area on a sphere divided by r*. dA, is a small plate in80 PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER the center of the isometric plane of the base, ‘Then doy 2 245 reine dB rd esinedaap * (4.38) ‘From Eqs. (4.38), (4.35), and (4.36), #2, = 1 sin wos ade 48 =e (437) neh (4.38) Substituting Eq. (4.38) in Eq. (4.35) the net exchange between 1; and T, is 08 a1-¢08 as AAs dAs aq = Meaveo ands AAs yiry — ry) (4.39) If 008 au cos a ¢Aa/ar? is written Pa, Fa is known as the configuration or geometric factor. For some aystems it is very difficult to derive, but for o ol i+ <4 cA chad Tacit basen poral | tetueen he planes —] Foca a 4 3 a 1 | of ee een Side or diateter Reto Fetance bsinern planes Fue. 47. Radinton between parallel planes. (Hetil) several basic arrangements it is fairly simple, Hottel' has integrated a number af esses, the commonest of which are plotted in Figs. 4.7, 4.8 and 4.9. Equation (4.99) can thus be written in integrated form Q= Awl — TH (4.40) \ Hottel, HL C., Mech, Bag, 82, 600 (1980). RADIATION rl A a aS oS LY Dimension ratio ta/Ly ae Fro. 48 Radiation tween on elemeut sod wpe plane (atl) Anat fasion deiner aon fet ie =| See Pa ae 7g ait A, ala nt eedIf the two surfaces are gray and.therefore nonblack, from Eq. (4-26) eh mutcn om » Ppa « Dut Clee the radntion Lam 4 arte apie carping stam #4 900°? and pang through the center of 1-by “Ht galanin secon dust at 70°F and hows Gules is insulated. dan int Tale nthe Apne = O58 fof cera me or 0 0.0 (Table 4.1) “rate eee = RADIATION Ey PROBLEMS 41, A Din. IPB stoe! pipe carrica stosm at 325°P through 8 room at 70°F. What rt vaoggconsita oft fin that ager af mabeien, Tas wa anova of 28 or cent skin pant tobe invetinted. What prcntags ving in hat ow can 1b affected ‘48, molien pac compound i caso in the amar of two conoantsi stal 408, Calculate the radiant-best loa from s furnsce through a 2in-diameter peep door when the inside teraperature is 1760°F and. the outside temperature ia 70°F. ‘Consider the eoirion dye to a black body. 41. A bare conereto pump Louse 10 by 20 by 10 ft high is to be ested by pipes ‘id nthe once Sor, wat in be nod atthe sting modi to maintain ducting and reradisting? ‘Tha pumps cover « negligible area of the Boor. (6) What sation! beat wil be requ the Boor aren is doubled by enlarging the rom to by 20) ‘48. A>bath of molten sine is located in the corner of the foor of azine dipping room 20 by 20 by 10 ft high. Zine melts at 787°F, and the ceiling could be maintained at 90°F in the summer by conduotion throogh the roof. (2) What heat will e radiated from » 14¢# bath? () Ifthe bath ia moved to the center of the room, what heat will ‘be radiated? Hoartrane void auton to mdatin, Btu /Ta) 090)z sae ROR PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER radiation, cre) Teta oe emo, s/o) Nomber of rditon sede Heat fow or net heat exchange, Btx/(hr) Fatletivity, dimensionless; rediua, Renmei ‘constant, 0.578 X 10-4 Hua/(or}Gt)CR4) ‘Tyanenisavity, dimenaionlons Sobsecipts Black body Source Receiver ‘The Temperature Difference. A temperature difforence is ie the diving outer is th immesiat eject for study. In the experimental data of Chup. 3 the temperature of the inside pipe wall f, Was calculated from the reported value of the outside pipe-wall tenoeatre te ‘The logarithmic mean of the differences % — ty and — t was used to calculate 44, The reported temperature of the pipe industrial equipment to measure ibe average pipe-wall temperature. the inlet and outlet temperatures of the hot. and gold fluids are acer ea meamutS_an here aro. raced. tos the, procss Temperature vs. pipe length, 1 vs. Z, for a system of two con- centric pipes in whieh the annulus Guid is cooled senebly and the pipe Tan similar except that one is a plot of tvs. I: od the cine plot oft a tho heat tsensferred. When the suids travel. in the 3 ims “in cither caso varies nocording to one ourve ait proceeds along the length of the pipe, and the temperature of the snnulus fluid vaties according to Bn vem at mab ana ec te ed cence will be very sll, a significant factor in heat tranafer. The definition of approach. for other types of equipment will be discussed in Chap. 7, 85rs \. Usis ji L = Oisthe ‘erin dante bebran We UNO CUTE ig eran ie natigivin By. TA2) and 6.2 bring together two streams each having » particular film coof- - ah a) cient snd whose tamperatnren vary from inlet to. eet For con UO” WTA) Fk, venience, the method of calculating the temperature “ea eae Heroafter Eq. (6.3) will be referred to simply as the Fourier equation. the two should employ only the process temperatures, since thes Birt ust a8 By was obtained from hy = Q/AiAt in Eq. (8.2) using thermo- se couples, 0 U can be obtained from U = Q/A At using process tempera- ee ‘tures alone. In experiments involving sensible heat transfer between two. fiuids, Eqs. (5.2) and (5.4) ean be used to obtain either individual film coefficients, and it usually is, it may be neglected. If one film coefficient {s small and the other very large, the muall eoefficiont provides the major ‘resistance and the overall coefficient of heat transfer for the apparatus is ‘very nearly the reciprocal of the major resistanos, Suppose hi(Ai/A) = 10 and A, = 1000 Btu/(br)(H?)(CF) Br = }40 = 0.1, Re = ooo = 0.001, and ZR = 0.101, A variation of 50 per cent in R. does not materially influence Q, since « value of hy = 600 will change 2R only from 0.101 to 0.102. @When a significant difference existe, tho smaller coofcient inthe, | i ‘ture difference was obtained from a stady of T’ —tvs.Q. However, there is an advantage to a derivation based on T — £ vs. D, since it permits ff88 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER idéntifiention of the temperaturo difference anywhere! along the pipe length. Later, when mere ‘complex flow patterns ;are éncountered, this information will be essential. Although two fluids may transfer heat difference. This point cannot be overemphasized: Any flow pattern formed by two fluids must be identified with its unique temperature difference. For the derivation of the temperature differenco between the ‘two fiuids of Fig'S.1 in counterflow, the following assumptions must be “1, The overall coefficient of heat transfer U is constant over the entire Jength of path. qs. iy 2. The pounds per hour of fuid flow is constant, obeying the steady- state requirement. ‘3. The specific heat is constant over the entire length of path. 4. There remo partial phase changes in the system, ic, vaporisation or condensation. ‘The derivation is applicable for sensible-heat changes and when vaporization or condensation is isothermal over the whole Jength of path. ~ ‘5. Heat losses aro negligible. Applying the differential form of the steady-state equation, 4Q = U(T — ba" al, (6) where a” is the square feet of surface per foot of pipe length or a" dix dA. From a dierentil heat balance, aQ = Wear = wedt 68) where @ is the limit a5.dQ varies from 0 to Q. At any point in the pipe from left to right the heat gained by the cold fluid is equal to that given up by the hot fluid. ‘Taking balance from L = OtoL = X WC(D — Ts) = welt — 4) 6.7) from which . T=T+ pe =Mt+pet-w) 8) From Eqs, (5,5) and (5.6) substituting for 7, dQ = wedt = ott fu-w era, ) 7 TEMPERATURE 89 ‘and Lare’the only variables, Collecting terma of ¢ and L, Ua’ a | / et a 69) Te ‘This right-hand term is of the form a 1 late = 5 98 (a + bu) Intograting dL between-0 and L and dt between ty and fs Th (6.10) wal " we we ™ & =1 ) Th Wolt ‘To simplify this expression substitute for 7 i the numerat sion from Eq, (5.7), expand the denominator, and cancel ‘ous oor uA L 1 M4 we ~ Gee A ja Substitute for tve/ HC the expression from Eq. (5.7) Since wo(és ~ ) = Q and substituting Ais and Ais for the hot an “ene nin er 7. het and colt IMTD. Equation {239 a annie ners [e = UAMt=UAXT (5.134) and ® soa eager At=LMTD = {i= 4) — (Trt) _ ty — ty Oh OTs =a} inna O14)90 PROCESS HNAT TRANSFER Parallel Flow. Referring to Fig 5.2 for the ease where both fiuids flow in the same direction, the basic equations aro essentially the same. | For the steady state, dQ = UT = a" al dQ = WOa? = —wedt since ¢ declines in the direetion of inereasing values of 7. hheat balance between X and the left end, but ‘Taking the WOU? — Tr) = welts — ‘Again considering the hot terminal diflerence Ala = T, ~ ts a8 the grealer temperature diference in parallel flow and At, = Ts — tx the lesser tem- pa Eat (T= A) yg Ale ah ev) VA tmanjan =O) Relation between Parallel Flow and Counterflow. ‘Tt may appear from the final form of the derivations for two flow arrangements that ‘there is little to choose between the tw: examples which folloy demonstrate that exeept where one fluid is isothermal (such as condensing ‘stoam) there is a distinct thermal disadvantage to the use of parallel flow. ‘apparatus ato temperature of S00°F and is to be cooled to 200°F by s oold tid cal 100°F and beat to 150°F. Shall they be directed in parallel ow or tentertow? “Scio Tei convealent to write th temperature in th form employed bere sr to elise thatthe log menn always omowhat lo than tb arithmetic mean (Ate + Oh) /2 (@) Counterflow: Het fuid Cols fo (B,) 800 — 180-44) = 160 (Ais) (Fp 200 — 100) = 100 (At) 30 (a — af) lp = Ate 0 IMTD ~ 5g ah/ ah, ~ LTE Hee ~ PF ») Parallel flow: ato it 200 — 180s) = 50 (4h) ‘than for counterfiow. . 2 ke 9 TEMPERATURE 1 seprts comin enue rete Sab eee soomest accor,92 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Lastly, when one of the fluids proceeds through the apparatus isoth nally (condensing steam), parallel flow and counterflow yield ‘identi temperature differences, Example 5.4, Calculation of the LMTD with One Isothermal Fluid. A cold uid is heated from 100 to 275°F by ateun at 300°P. (0) Counterflow: Hot fui Cold fui 300-25 = 25 300 = 100 = 200 () Parallel fone: ‘Thene are identical, Heroafter, unless specifically qualified, all temperature arrangements vill be assumed in counterflow, Many industrial types of equipment are actually a compromise between parallel flow and counterflow and receive additional study in later chapters, . ‘Heat Recovery in Gounterflow. Very often a counterflow apparatus is available which has a given length L and therefore a fixed surfsce A. ‘Two process streams are available with inlet temperatures Ts, 4 and flow rates and specific heats W, C and w, c, What outlet temperatures \eill be attained in the apparatus? . ‘This problem requires an estimate of U which can be checked by the methods of succeeding chbpters for ¢ types of counterfiow heat- transferequipment. Rewriting Eq. = ua) =) wells =) = UA ee oy Rearranging 16) Since WO(T, ~ T:) = welts — th), we/WE = (Ti — TAM —x). This means that the ratio of the temperature ranges can be established with- ‘out reeourse to actual working temperatures. Calling this upique ratio R without s subseript Substituting in Eq, (5.16) and removing logarithms, z Sm granoien (a7) TEMPERATURE 93 "To obtain an expression for 7 alone, ange hem Substituting in Bq. (6.17) and solving, 7, = CORT + [1 ~ etraroreopiey, T= Reta (6.18) For parallel flow it becomes 7, = Rb momen, + [eeanncery — IRE Tear “RF Dawaere———#.19) 4: may be obtained from 7 by applying the heat balance WC(Ts — Ts) = welts — 41) clamps, take ‘case of an e and outlet as obtained from the data. is Sit sade of Morris and Whitman through use ‘Bxaraple 6.5, Celeulation of and hs. Calculation of point Beg: Ant y= 1097 Inlet ab 90.7: Sah GY" GRRE)” 0 Faoor Busanmncrmy — (Z) = (9x88 X42 a 59 = 0078 x gly x 0016 x25 5 ~ 18 anaTRUPRRATORE 95 where U is the average value for the incromont or a PROCS HEAT TRANSFER Outlet at 120.2°F: cross 2)” - Gstasseia)” - iyo 300 we 5 _ (0495 2200 x 240yie £0078 3)" - Csi)" ~ a8 Since U = a'(1 + 0), substitute for U, 2 Ay = 0.078 X ge9q X O.O11 X 3800 X 3.23 ~ 190 at ouitlet a ad ‘At the arithmetic mean (114,3°F) he = 174.5, which is only 3.6 per cent in error of the PTF UOT —H ~ we ‘experimental valve of 182 but the variations against A, at the arithmetic moan are From the heat balance obtain the expression for 7’ in terms of ¢ and 2 ppeg 22) 100 = -200 per cent and (FHS) 100 = 489 pert. separate into parts, ‘From the above it is seen that under actual conditions the variation 1 Lt vay_ faa TREAT OT TORE Ju + R= THF, we Tutegrating, (20) dQ, the heat traneferred over incremental lengths ofthe pipe aa = dA, 1 4 Rt, +(R— 4} lan tind using tho averago values of U trom point fo point in th difrential aaa rromy | RSB EES mth) ce a= cg Th ei fy rn 7a, ion a gives Q = UA At very costly. This is a spt 1 to indi ‘the increase in the scoursey of the result does not warrant the effort, Uaing the aubseript 1 to indicate the cold terminal and 2 the hot terminal Cofburn' has undertaken the solution of problema with varying values of U hy assuming the variation of U to be linear with temperature and by K=cdthn) Wasa +yn) deriving an expression for the true temperature difference accordingly. ‘As before, ‘Theratio of the LMTD for constant U and the true temperature difference MM she for varying U is then used as the basis for establishing a single overall coefficient which is the true mean rather than the arithmetic mean. and factoring Bq. (6.21) Assume: fat jy Tatty A 1. The variation of U is given by the expression U = a'(1 + ¥/t) Tidy — Ura ” Tsay * we (6.22) 2. Constant weight flow Combining with Q ~ wo(t, — t,), 2 Consant specie Pia Dott am) Ove whole transfer path er the er Ps Equation (6.23) is » modification of Hq. (6.18) which accounts for the Q = WES - Ty) = welts — 4) variation of U by replacing it with UJ, and U7, where d = Oand 4 = A, Since H = we/WC = (P,— 7:)/\le — 4) oF generalized as in Fig. 6.1, repactiely This unttifetoy, however, ae it require ten (TT, salouta individual film coefficients to obtain Uy and Us. ‘Col- a Gap bum shoe to obtain eile overall oaicen, Us a which al the surface can be regarded to be transferring : The heat balance for the differential area aA ia given by defined by heat at theL MED. Usia then 9 = UCT — aA = weat Q _ Wide Vian 4 (ae — an) Colburn, AP, Ind. Hang. Chem, 46, 873-877 (1988). 42> Uyany0. an, ~ 9 (inayat (62)96 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Substituting Us = (1 +840, w(t) da — a! Ta (+ Wh) A at a“ fn Bits wy bo identified by finding f,, the temperature of the properties ve hae eed ‘arid at which such a value of U, exists. Tat F, be a fraction. By multiplying the temperature rise of thy con trating (fm) strat by Fe and adding the resulting fractional rise to ‘the lower terminal temperature of the stream, a temperature is ob' so bf which to evatuate heat transfer properties and esleulate Ay, hey an Un Up = a(t + bite) = (5.25) whch 5.26 Be heh 28) cis the caloric femperature of the cold stream. By definition, let bok Ten U Ole Knee aie Bt, ‘and substituting the equivalents in Eq. Le¥e gw 44 kee) Tem from which QE) mit fea KF Ke apes Equation (6.27) has been plotted in Fig. 17 in the Appendix with Uy- Ur tia= Ue Ur W rameter, where ¢ and h refer to the oold and het, terminals, Roettely “ie calorie fraction F. ean be oblained from Tig. 17 by computing K, from Us and Us and At/At for the process conditions. ‘The caloric temperature of the hot fluid T+is T, =P, + FAT: ~ 7) (6.28) and for the ookd Suid watt Pla- 0) 29) (6.27) Ke Colburn in the i of K, where the shes correlated in the insert of Fig. 17 the vahues of Ky ‘onirelling fm is thet of a petroleum cut. A correlation of this type oon _TBMPERATURE 97 be made in any industry which deals with- particular group of fluids by obtaining a’ and ¥ fram proporties and eliminates the esleulation of Us and U.. If-on apparatus tranefers hest between two petroleum cuts, the cut giving the largest value of K, is controlling and can be used directly to establish F, for both streams from the figure. Thus, whenever there is a sizeable difference between Uy and U, the LMTD ix not the true temperature difference for counterflow. ‘The LMTD may bo retained, however, if a suitable value of U is employed to componsate for ite use in Eq, (6.13). Brample K6. Calculation if the Celocie Teasperature, A 20°APT enude oil ia cooled fom 300 to 200°F by heating cold GO°APT gatoline from 80 to T20°F in a counterfow apparatus, At what Suid temperatures should U be ovnluated? 180 Jat 0 [a Gasoline, 4 = 120 — 80 = 40°F, K, $0.10 ‘value of K corresponds to the controling hext-tcansfer coefTgieut which, is smumed to establish the variation of U with temperature. ‘Then, af 200 = SE = ora 7 0887 Fe 0.495 from Fig. 17 Caloric temperature of erude, 7. = 200 + 0.425(900 — 200) = 243.5°F, Calorie temperature of grecline é = 80 + 0.426(120 ~ 80) = 97.0°F. Bt should be noted that there can be but one caloric mean and Uist the factor Fy ‘spplies to both slveaso# but is determined by the controlling stream, side caloric temperature is T, and the inside caloric temperature ¢, and A/Rie = fe = Bi Ai/A) = he X (ID/OD), where the subseript io refers8 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER TEMPERATURE 90. ‘of the coofficient inside the pipe referred to the outside sur flow outward toward the wall to maintain the increased velocity. ‘This tothe vale of 4 ja a radial velocity component which actually modifies the nature of the Ab Bh ek streamline flow. If data for heating an oil in s given temperature range “FROR +R. Ro i i ‘velocity distribution are the reverse of liquids. PROBLEMS 3. For a soneentri-pips heatteanafer spparatos having s Jin. TPS mor pipe ‘te film coefisent hz has been computed to be 10.0 Btu/(hr)(t8\(F). By suitable calealton thre difrent fis, whe cand trough the enna. will have fl. how doos the value of the annul ooeficientaifect the value of tha overall concent? A (@) Por values of bj = 100 and A, = 800, what error rongis in the calculated. alae of U for & conomtrio pipe header appratn evi » 2.4 TFS inner Pipe when the motal resistance ia obtained from Ba = La/ad Saslead of (23/2kq) 1Cofbarm, A. P, Trane. ATCAE, 29, 176-210 (1989). ‘Blader, E.N., and. E. Tate, Ind. Bng. Chem. $6, 1420-1496 (1996).LIBRARY UNTVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS 100 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER the pipe realsthace is eipifted entirely, (6) What aro the errors are him 1 and 5, = 807 SLED te LMTD from the srithmetic means of the two terminal differ- counterfiow, (6) in parallel fow? (int, “Tyishand-error nofution.) ‘BT. Atiline ia to be cooled from 2000 150°F fn a concentrio-pipe apparatus having “Ta of exer pipe price by 900 Th of ween eniring a8 LOOT. A valve of “tying abet om 1360 1A To vl of Oa the ltr! ed ‘at the hot terminal U, ia 58. At what liquid temperntares abowid U for the overall teaser be computed 10. The caloulation of the caloric temperatures can be accomplished directly by cvliating& and Vin U =e! {1 8ehtr a ren fempentre rags, tho bot 1. i. {rom 300 t0200°F. Between what caloric emsperaturen isthe hoat transferred, and hhow do these deviate from the moan? “ Re (allowed), 28 after « petiod of service, the appbratos no longer delivers a quantity of heat equal to the, process arco: — (nearly, si spotrcmedia and must be elesned 5 (wns, since vain somewt with 22) Wumerieal valuoa oftthe dirt or fouling factors for a variety of provest and in Eq, (6.2) for turbulent flow services tate provided in Appendix ‘Table 12, ‘The tabulated fouling facor sg ated t protect the changes rom Gelen o b= G@* (nearly) ‘nthe required process for-n period’ of about a year to a year anda the bost uso of available prosture is to i i half, Actually the purpose of the tabulatéd fouling factors should be Sh incensed leona tho esa cot of tho appara, Itis ‘onsiderdd from enother point of view. In designing a process plant smstomaty to allow a. peeooure drop of 6 to 10 pal for ke eochangar or Containingmany heat exchangers but without alternate or epare pioves of battery of iecchongors falling a single exchanger heat-transfer equipment, the process must be discontinued and the equip- ‘the flow is by gravity. Forweach pumped stream 10 psi is fairly standard. ment cleaned 8 soon as the'“Gimt exchanger becomes fouled. It is For gravity flow the allowable presse drop i» detevained by the elev ‘practi ee den everyme one chant a tal tion of the storage vessel above the final-outlet ¢ in fect of fuid. ‘The by tabulated fouling can be arranged 60 feet of fluid may be converted oly the exebngis inthe pres Deoome dirty af the sume Oe, Teneo tye to pounds per square inch by multiplying ofsarvioe. Atha tine all un bo dimaated and clanod during ioe ‘Tho presours drop in pipes can be computed from the Fanning equati Ghutdown. The tabulatd values may dle fom thow eneountored by [ea, Gi), tang an appropriate value of f from Eqy GAG) oe Ea, ‘experience in particalar services. If too froquont cleaning is neseasary, & (8.476), depending upon the type of flow, For the np Sele dramatic | Ra ng ern na ei is vain f. 4 . er by De hest than the process requirements when newly placed in sevice and The equation may then be modified to give that it wilf deteriorate through operation, as a result of dirt, until it just ap = MOL 6.14) fulfills the process requirements, The-caloutation of the temperatures 2ge'D, (6 delivered initially by‘a clean exchanger whose surface has boon designed ‘Where several double pipe exchangers are connected in eories, annulus to for Uo but which is operating without dirt and which is consequently annulus and pipe to pipe as in Fig: 6, the lmgth in Eq (2.44) of (6.14) ‘overurfaced is not difficult. Referring to Eqs. (5.18) and (6:19) use J is the total for the entire path. Te for U and the: actual surface of the exchanger 4 (which is based on ‘The pressure drop computed by Eq. (3.44) or (6.14) does not inelude 075), This calculation is also useful in checking whather-or not a clean the pressure drop.encountered when the fiuid enters of leaves exchangers. ok nate vil beable to dativer the prooom baat roqurements when it J} or the inner pipes-sf double pipe exchanges comnenied in series, the becomes dirty. Sf entrance Joss is usually negligible, ‘but for annul it may be significant. ‘Pressure Drop in Pipes anid Pipe-Annull. ‘The presnuve-drop allowance The allowance of.a presture drop of one velocity head, V?/2¢/, per hairpin jn‘an exchanger is the static fluid preasure-which may be expended to will ordinarily suffice. Suppose water flows in an annulus with » mass drive the duid through the exchanger. ‘The pump selected for the eiren- velocity of 720,000‘Ib/(hr)(ft). Since » = 62.5 ¥b/ft* (approximately), Tation of a prosets fluid is one which develops suficient head at the ¢ 720,000 mew dosited capacity to overcome the frictional losses caused by connecting V = seo, ~ B00 S08 7 82 fo110 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘The preagure drop per hairpin will be 3.2*/(2 X 32.2) = 0.169 ft of water ‘or 0.07 pai. Unless the velocity is well above 3 fps, the entrance and exit lonsos may bo neglected. Values of V?/2¢/ areplotted direotly against the mass velocity for a fluid with a specific gravity of 1.0 in Fig, 27 in the Appendix. ‘The Calculation of a Double Pipe Exchanger. Ail the equations developed previously will be combined to outline the solution of a double pipe exchanger. The calculation consists simply of computing A, and ‘Fourier equation Q = Und At. ‘Usually the first problem is to determitie which fluid should be placed Flow ares, int | Annus, in. ‘Exchanger, IPS. — jAsnclus] Pipe } dy a 3 xiq | 119 | 2.80 | oop | 0.40 axin | aes | 1.0 | aa | oe ax ass | aay | 127 | 0.60 + au | rss | isa | 0.58 In the outline below, hot- and cold-fluid temperatures are represented by upper and lower case lotters, reepectively. AU! fuid propertion are indicated by lower ease letters to eliminate the requirement for new ‘nomencisture, ‘Process conditions required: Hot fluid: Ty, Ty, W, c, 8 oF p, wy k, AP, Ras or Rag Cold fluid: t,t, 1, 2 oF 6, a, AP, Ras or Re ‘The diameter of the pipes must be given or assumed. A convenient order of calculation follows: (Q) From 7, 7, ts fe check the heat balance, Q, using ¢ at Tus and tne PEs (@ X10 = Ay Beu/Car} CF) (6,150) (40) Convert fi to ties hue = Bi A/A) = he X ID/ov, Annulua: (©) Flow ares, a, = x(D} — Dp/4, 1 Equivalent diameter D, = 4 % flow area_ = Dt (6.5) a)2 PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER 16") Mase velocity, Ge = 10/am Ib/ Car) ft") (@) Obtain pat 7.0r t. Ib/ift Gut /(bx){Ft?), w Tb / (He) be) Ds. Re ‘the Reynolds aumber, (1?) From Fig. 24 in which ja = (heDa/A)(0H/t)*a/ma)* v8. DEe/a obtain jx. ; (6) From ¢, », and f, all obtained at 7 or «compute (eu/K)™. {@) To obtain h, multiply jx by (k/D.)(ea/k)* (¢ = 1.0)-or mig" ey" EGY X10 = he Buu/(s) UVF) (6.181) + Overall-corficients: Compute Ue = hhe/(ks + he), Btu/Cr) Ge) CF). 67) & Compute Upfrom 1/Up = 1/Ue + Ra __ 6.10) Festor should equal or excecd:the required dirt factor by using the jext larger integrat number of hairpins. Calculation of AP- ‘This requires a knowledge of the total length of path adtisfying the hest-transfer requirements. Inner pipe: (1) For Re, in (6) above obtain f from Eq. (8.46) or (8.478). (2) AF, = 4fG*L/2go*D, ft. (45) AF po/144 = BP, psi. fpr ouain 1p = OP4= DD ~ Be py ~ Or > Do. 64 @) Obtain Di = 3505, Dy ~ Or~ Pd (4) / Compute the' frictions! Reynolds number, Re — DiGa/u. For Rey ‘obtain f from Eq. (3.48) ar (3.476). (@) AF. = $GLI209°D,, ft. a) (@) Entrance and exit losses, one velocity head per hairpin: TV" oa Maing a= py fe/bairpin (ARs + AFi)p/144 = SPs, pai. ‘There is an advantage if both fiuids are computed side by side, and the ‘use of the outline in this manner will be demonstrated in Example 6.1, -eontipoise X12.42, Brom D.ft, COUNTERFLOW - us + Bsimpld'®i, Double Pips Bestope-Teluone Buchanger. It io devired to heat (9820 Ibi. f oold bensene from 80 to 120° Fusing hot toluene which is cooled from {160 to 100°F, The specific gravitice'at G8"F are O88 and 08%, respectively. The Jptherflaid properties willbe found inhe Appendix. A fouling factor of 001 should ‘be provided foreach stream, and the allowable preanue drop on each siream i 10.0 i. ‘A nurober of 20-¢ hairpins of 2- by 1}éin, TPS pipe are available. How many ‘alrpine are required? ‘Solution: (1) Beat balance: Benzene, ty = 51% a 100 c= 0.495 Blu /0b) CF) Fig. 2) @ = 9620 x 0.426(120 — 80) = 167,000 Btu/hr Hotuene, Toy = EIN A pom <= 4.44 Blu/8)¢F) Px 2 W > canto op; ~ 8 Me (9) TAETD, (000 the metiod of Chap. 3): Flt uid Cold fia Dis, 100] Higher temp me | a 00 [tavwrtomp [eo | ofan 2 Jats LHD » sgn” EF = 78SF aw (e/ss)**zoay be asmmed equal to 1.0, Toy = Y4(160 + 100) = 190°F ty = 14(190 + 80) = 100°F ‘Proveed now to the inner pipe. A shock of Table 6.9 indicates that the flow area afk ine piper gmaterthan thao the annus. Plc th ners, bose {nthe inner pipe. (Dy = 1.66/12 = 0.138 ft = HDI = DOME = #(0.1725! — 0.128)/4 = 0.00806 fi Eaquiy diam, D, = (D}— DDAD: (iq Om) Dy = (04725 — 0.189 0.188 = ao7eate eX OT151/4 = 0.0104 fet4 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Cold uid: ‘anor pipe, bensme (8) Mase vel, Gp = w/t ~ - Mb / Gxt) ~6890/0.00058 =, 767,000 1h /An)> | | = aenofo.n1od = oxsenn /CAR OF» rat) AB 100", w MOT Gm b/ean | = Os x Ea "Athenee eynolde Pee Reynolds no, Rey = Re, = PB Be, = 7 en 5761000 )0.99 = 8000 ‘= 0.185 045,000/1:21 = 89,500 ju = 187 (Fig. 24) ) (1) Ja = 236 Fig. 24] a BA Tao, c= 044 peu/onyCP) Ae OTF «= 04R6 Bru /MICT) Re bay [Mable 4] | = 0.001 Bea/(br)(te*) CF /f) [able 4] Cy om (Cer Cay et en 5 san or x MB ams x1 |, sexton seamen ay oR 00 he = Be X BB Ea. (6.591 = a3 x LE = 270 Now proceed to the annulus. (1) Clean overall coafficiont, Uo: a = pegs = a ts ~ 19 Beal) en ‘Design overall confficient, Un: Onan a0) Us Ue ‘Ry = 0.002 (required by problem) hay tom Up = 115 Bra/(oe) ECP COUNTERFLOW 115 ‘From Table 11 for 1}4-in. IPS standard pipe there are 0.435 It? of external surface por foot length. Required length = G5, w 116 inte ‘This may be fulfilled by connecting three 20-ft bairpine in series. (14) The eurface ssppliod wil actually bo 120 x 0435 — 52.2 fit, ‘Tha dict facta will accordingly be greater than required. The actual design eoeflicient is. Un = gig = 1 Bia/aan yer) nen Spa = SB wom onde amy Pressure Drop 2) Di for proanre drop differs from D,] (1) For Bey = 88,00 in (8) above Ben DD ia. (64) 1 9088 + gears [Bq. @.470)) = (0.1725 — 0.138) = 0.0845 16 . : ng, = Die 0.0085 + glia — 00087 a | ¢ = 0.88, » = 625 X 0.88 = 55.0 = CnAs x 787,000/099 = 20,500 ww rable 6] om6e J =. 0.0085 + se ppp ~ 00073 ar, = ia, (8.476) = 4X 0.0087 2 948,000 x 120 FAIS X10 XSLO"K OLS aan A check’ of Uy and Us given 161 anit 198, repectively, and K, = 037, Fro Mig. 17 for At/ais = 2%q = 0.5, Fe = 0.43, wheross in the sobrtion above the arith- etic mean temperatures were ued. ‘The avithmolle mean sarumes 7. ~ 0.80, lowever since the ranged a1 woall for both fds, the ecrur ia too small to be sig- aifeant, ’ ¢ she ranges of the fide or their visosbos woe larga the error might be ‘ensiderable for 7, = 043. Doublo Pipe Exchangers in Serjes-parallel Arrangements, Referring ‘to Example 6.1, it is soon that a caloulsted proseuro drop of 9.3 pei is6 “PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER obtained, against an allowable pressure drop of 10.0 pei. Suppose, how- | overthat the oaleulated preasure‘drop were 15 or 20 psi and-exoeeded the ‘always:be examined frst whenever the allowBble pryeoure drop cannot ‘be met. ‘A solution is.still possible, however, even.hen all the above have failed, When two double pipe exchangers sxe vonnected in series, the arrangement is shown in Fig. 6.5. Suppowo that the stream which is too large to be sccommodated in several exchangers in series is divided in half” ‘and each helf traverses but ome exchanger through the inner pipes in COUNTERFLOW 47 Ne. 6.6. Dividing a stream,in balf ‘hile keeping the flow area constant. produces about one-inth of he series prewar dtp, non @ and I wil tow of ono dd ‘vile tho latter refers to the disetion of lw between two fluids. he Tree Temperature Diference for Serioa-peralol Arrangements. is de identical with the LMTD for the process ot ditions ltBough both af “the exchangers:operate in eounterflow. Consider the'two exchangers in Fig. 6.6 designated by Land 1. The Por exchanger I, ‘onining all the surface, Q = WOR - 7) = YA x ut and tarp, = Cg be a8 Sebiting in Ha (0.10), = ee In B07 TSO Rt Rearranging, TA, = i= taf “Tea m= TH) (6.16) (6.17) (6.18)1s PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER Let _@=79 ~ een, “HWE Paine on ‘Similarly for exchanger 11 Qn = WOM — 1) = YA x UMTDs (6.20) (Ty — #) — (7 — ty) tains = FR aren en Tet ee Bene We vn Rae 62) Since ¢ and C' were assumed constant, Rha RY R= sq . (6.33) Let =n rT s-fot Mae M = RS ‘Similarly let RSet wat and from Eq. (6.19) Ls UA awe = rea In yg (6.24) and from Eq. (6.22) We> wets (625) COUNTERFLOW M9 and equating Eqs, (6:24) and (6.25), i-g 1-s TPs "1 Rs ‘Therefore Adding Eqg. (6.24) and (6.25), UA 2R" 1-8 Wen ee ee | Om in which 7 is the only unknown, and since M™ = M™, 1 ba + 40 + 7) ~ “nro 6.7) ‘Bquation (6.27) is « quadratic whose solution is Q=UAN= wet iT!) 6.80) at ye FE (63 It is convenient in this derivation to employ « definition for the true lemperate ference in terme of the maximum ‘temperature span UT: ~ h) (6.32) ‘Equating (6.81) and oan, Fa - Maen) *120 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Binco M = (Fy —-Ts)/(Ps — ti), tdefine PY = (2 — AAT: ~ by and UA/WC = M/y; thea P4M=1 0 M=1-P Substituting in Hq. (6.29), BPO te] LSP ~ opt) a[(e) ip) +a] om If developed in generalizedsmanner it can be shown that, for one serice hot stream anal n parallel cold streams, Eq. (6.24) becomes 1-P et 7 +] (6.350) or where 7 Ti-T: * ¥-3G=8) For one series cold siream-and m parallat hot streams, =P" n_. 1)". pw = = 23-2 pilee[ a - {) +R] (6.350) a m= zo) peeRat and RY = ‘Rxample 6.2. Calculation ofthe Trae Temperature Difference. A bank of double pipe exchangers operates with the hot fsid fn serie from 300 to 200°F and the col where fin nx paral streams fom 190 o S07. ‘What is tho true temperature differ,.-= REE a0! = TESTS ato ~ Bubstituting in Bq. (6350) and solving, + ~ 0.242. af =0242(600 — 100) = 28.6°F ox ‘ie LAETD wold be 37°F, aon era 7 yr cnt woul Be nny ite srchengss wits « 8-Viscosity Correction, ¢. For heating or cooling fluids, the use of Fig. 24 with an assumed value of (4/14)* = 1.0 also ‘assumes 4 negligible deviation of fluid properties from isothermal flow. ‘For nonviseous fluids the deviation from isothermal flow during heating ‘COUNTRRELOW ian or cooling does not introduce anjappreciable error in the esleulation of the he&t-tratisfor cocfficiont. When the pipe-wall: temperature differs tren i ° . ' hy'Eq. (6.81) or by (5.82) from uncorrected vialues of he/ds and hue/ ty, which are then corrected accordingly. by multipliestion by 4 and $, respectively. ‘The corrected coofticients where ré 1.0 are he =v. (6.36) hee = «& ts) by (6.37) Similatly for éwo resistances‘in serios employing the viscosity corrections fr dition Sn thera sn over ie te = js (6.38) Brample &8. Double Pipe Tube OX-Crude Ol Exchanger. 6000 Ib/hr of a 24°APTTubo oil mat be cwcled from 450 to. 350°F by 72,500 Ib /br of 84°API mid-conti- ‘dbtained from Fig. 14. Por the lube oll, viscoities aro 1.4 centipoiaes at 500°F, 2.0 1 00°F, and 7.24 900°F, Thee visors are great enough to inlzoduso an err if (e/n)®4o0 1 is somumed. olution: 4) Heat Balance: Lae oil, @ = 6000 '082(450 ~ 310) = 427 000 Btu/ar ap ruseol @ = 73400 ORG — B00) = 47,000 Bente at: Hot Fluid Gold Fluid itt since Ue ow ato ofach too sual Asoane sa a sehr an ‘two parallel streams. At = 876F (0.850)122 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER (Caer amperes: Se Bh 0887 Kew OF Pe = 0.905 ie 1? TT, = 360 x O.05(450 ~ 360) ~ 280.5°F 620 1, = 800 X 0305(810 ~ 200) ~ 906°F 629) rocesd now to the inner pie. ‘Hot fuid: anna, abo ot Gold fect: inner pipe, crude of (ay rom nnn, Dy = 3008/12 = 02664] (4) low are, D = 2007/12 = 0172 Dy 238/12 = 0100 ft ay = De Oh TEx 0173/4 = 0.3 sit Thee Osonn 4 = 0.0006 + | Since two paral streams have bows 09- is ‘numed, 1/2 Thor will fow in each pipe. (©) Mase vel, O, = w/t» ec () Ae 350572, n= 20 0p ©) MILF, n= 088 op 230 24d © 7.25 b/E) Oe) "= 088 x 342 ~ 201 B/C) (he) Fig. 141 Wig. 14 Re, = Dafoe {2q. (.6)}| Re» = DGy/n os x 335,000/7.35 = 6,000 T0173" x 1,580,000/2.01 = 183,600 If omly 2 hairpins in seren are required, | L/D wil be 2X 40/018 = 614. Use 1/D = 00. Ox = 05 Fig. 244] (0 jn = 320 = 0067 Beata) (MCRAE) Og. 1]E = o-eaey- |e Onn ieh(Z)%m a CBI] @ bende 5 (2)Me tes. @.t0n A _ a5 30067 X 408 he _ 800 x 00s x 2.82 qo 5c oe = 42.7 Boa/ (or) (°F) eke at Berane me (n= we atte OM ge ROD. ‘at (Ba. (5-810) = BS X 2067 /058 = 2 - Now proceed fom (4) to @) to obtain, Okt eT OS 8) | arr x 2a = 180 Tie. 4} = 810 | 9 = Gin pe = 66 X 2.42 = 16.010/(1)(02) = (201/1.96)84 = 10 nearly: ino ie. 14) a. Hh = wine ney 090i. 21} = Set eq. @301 noke 164. (636))| = 297 x 1.0 287 COUNTERFLOW 198 (18) Clean. overall coeficient, Ve: hohe _ 207 X'384 Dem OK ~ gar ama ~ O40 Be/Oe) NCR) (62) {@8) Design overntt coefficient, Va: rel eR U5" te* (6:10) Ba ~ 0008 0.008 = 0.08 (he Un 2382 + 0.006 (hr) t)(°F) Bea Summary 38.4 [houtido] 237 ve «MO Us a (am) Barface: an, seul aise ‘External suriaco/lin ft, 6” = 0.622 ft Required length = gijdy = 278 inf ‘Thin is equivalent to more than six 204 burping of 240 in feet. Since two paraie, Mabie 11) ‘The corrected dirt factor willbe Be = 1/U ~1/Ue = 1/24.5 ~ 1/84.0 = 00114. 1) Di = =D) Pe oa ~ OAH = a. 84] ) For By 193,00 n (above Bal = Din BS Ly = 0.008 + gta = 00076 = 0.058 X 335,000/7.25 = 2680 (Bq. (3.470) J = 0.0088 + Boy = 0.0182 70% 9 = ons xOTE ME eo oar» = ens x 0778 LL a pee cece er eh (Fig. 6) MEL om ar, = aX 0.0088 X: 390 Ta OREO OOD = 167 99 = as ~ sate ~ 12 51 x 4 tp BIKES og Allowable 4P, = 10.6, sa0(B) -0(g2%,) -owe Her ed te ese re oa) ee av roped bo sry gh Saws ap, = OST LOA) X 484 5 pai | grat, oF about 69 pa. -”324 PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER 5 —_ pt: Masts the fouling ator whi) Ue = Sand Vo = 2,0) Ve = Wana“ 50, and (@) Uc = 110 and Uo = 1001 Which do'you conaider reasonable to 9 hee da a ble pe oxeh ersiced becauso no data were availsblo on ‘€. A double pipe exchanger was ov oe foe during operation atthe mvernge in GEO per month, What dirt factor should Ihave boos gpecified for 6 é-month cleaning oye? : 63, Onrylene coming from storake st JOV'F is to be hited to 160°F by cooling 18,000 lb far of butyl aleabo! from 470-to 140"F. Available for the purpose are five ‘2041t bairpin double pipe exchangers with annul and pipes each connected in seriea. ‘6.10. 6890 Ib hr of toluene ia cooled from 100 to-100"F By heating amyl nestate froin 90 0 00°F using 1Sthaicpins. ‘The exchangersare by 1340. IPS. Allow ing 10 pa pressure drope ana providing a mininram dit taetor of 0.004 (o) how many Salon ae rsd) how tall eye ange and) what eho Sl ak RRPOR VGH ESTAR HF ras ONpxpaS COUNTERFLOW 125 6.11, 15600 Ter of 20°API gis of (oe Example 6.3 in tet for viscosity) ia trom 480 to 350° SAP _Spenmoy by Din 8 ete pe ‘under presoure from 220 to 230°F is are required. Preagure drops 13 Toei ere permite along wit hn Bt tartar of OA, () How many "aipine are required? () How shall thyy be arranged? (e) What i the Gal dirt. factor? 16.12, 100,000 Ib fur of nitrobensene is to bo eoeled from 325i0 275°F by bensene ‘peited from 200 to 300°R. rent haian f hy Bins dbl pe wil *pocamployed, and pressure drops of 10 pei ate permisible. A minimum dirt factor of (0004 is required. (a) How inany hairpins are required? (3) How shall they be ssranged? (©) What is the final dirt factor? mpagen . ARE r r Noseanctarons FOR CHAPTER 6 Specific heatof hot fuid in derivations, Btu/Qb)(F) A constant, Specific heatyot cold fluid in derivations or clther fuid in calewations “Btu/qb)CF) For annuli Dis the ouside diameter of inner pio, Dis the inside dazno- ter of the outer pipe, ft Equivalent diameter for hesttransfer and pressure drop, ft aguvalent dametor for heat-tranfer and prearare drop, in. ‘Outside diameter 8 ‘Mas velocity, ‘pranee Acceleration of gravity 4.18 X 10° ft/ne* > Aseertion of rviy 32.2 ie are de dice, outs Pee een erred tthe pe Bea /(end HCP) ‘Heat-transfor factor, dimensioniees Caloric factor, dimensionless ‘Thermal conductivity, Beu/(bs) (CR i) ‘Pipe length or length of path, ft ‘Temperature group (Ts — 7.)/(0', — 4), dimensionless ‘Number of parallel streams Outaide diameter, fierPROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 4 Ry Onan et ni, iad ir toro deter, Qed EUYCE/ = ate— Se Frontcrature in guoea islet an out of kot fu - 7 ‘TT, Ts ‘temperature in. , inlet and hot: F 7” Calorie temperature of hot uid, “F 1-2 PARALLEL-COUNTERFLOW: ta Cokdfuid temporatare in general, inlet and’ outlet of cold uid, °F SHELL-AND-TUBE EXCHANGERS i cold a ‘True ot effective temperature difference in Q = Und at INTRODUCTION ‘ita fy Cold- and hot-terminal temperature difterence, °F Te, U> Overall couficieat of heat tronsler, clean coeficient, design conficient, Bou tae) CF) vy ‘Yalocity, pa ¥ ‘Weight flow of hot fuid Thar w ele fw fo ltr + ‘constant, dimensionless » icone te te cori temperature, centpoine X 242 = 8 te) (be) wi tayo beer ey as ah ne. 2. The tubes are128 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER actually packed in the tube sheet by means of ferrules using a soft metal -prossures up:to 300 pai, Greater wall thicknesses may be obtained for qrester pressures. Shella above 24 in, in diameter are fabricated by rolling steel plate, © gues YO, SEN L iG = BBS: IBN ERE. NA 3 (a) Square pit © }-Triangulor pi it Ad)-Trianglar gil 4 pitch ‘Bitch (obSauare gh Gnceonng pie ‘ra, 73, Common tube layonte for exthangars oter and 1 in. OD are most common in heat-exchanger design. Thedsta ‘of Table 10 have been arranged ios manner which will be most useful in heat-transler calonlations. ‘Tabe Pitch, Tube holes cannot be rifled very close together, since ‘400 mmall g widés of metal between adjacent tubes structurally weakens the tube sheet, The shortest distance jacent tube holes 5 the clearance 5 Hemant wa ‘are now fairly standard. ‘Tubes a. square or triangular patterns as shown in Big, 7.36 Bia, 74, Vired-bend tubular exchanger, channel covers (4), ‘The tubes are expanded into both tube sheets and are equipped with transverse baffles (5) on the shell side. ‘The ealoula-