Coal Formation

Process
Coalification
Process
Rosielyn Montejo

2
How does coal form?

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 Coalification Process

Coalification Process

Coalification is the alteration of vegetation to form peat, succeeded by the

transformation of peat through lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, semi-anthracite
to anthracite and meta-anthracite coal.

Coalification is the degree of transformation.

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Coalification Process

biochemical
phase

geochemical or
metamorphic
phase.

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 Coalification Process
Coalification Stage ASTM Rank Stage Predominant Changes

1. Peatification Peat Formation of humic substances, increase

in aromaticity

2. Dehydration Lignite to sub bituminous Decrease in moisture content and CO2

and H2O ratio, increase heating value

3. Bituminization Upper sub bituminous to high volatile Increased vitrinite Ro, increased
bituminous fluorescence, decrease in density and
sorbate accessibility, increased strength

4 Debituminization Uppermost high volatile to low volatile Decreased fluorescence, decreased H/C
bituminous ratio, decreased strength, cleat growth

5 Graphitization Semi-anthracite to anthracite to meta- Decrease in H/C ratio, increased sorbate

anthracite accessibility, strength ring condensation
and cleat healing

Source: Taylor et al. (1998), according to Levine (1993)

 Coalification Process

Increase compaction of peat Decrease in Moisture

Increase in Coal Rank Decrease in Oxygen
Increase in Calorific Value Decrease in Reactivity
Increase in Carbon Content Decrease in Percent of Volatile matter

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Conditions required
for coal formation
Eriel Jielini A. Lucin

8
 Physical Properties of Coal

Direct contact of the coal to

igneous material

Minor intrusion

Deep-seated major intrusion

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 Physical Properties of Coal

Temperature

Rise in temperature associated

with the depth of the burial
↑ Geothermal
↑ Depth ↑ Temperature ↑ Rank
Gradient

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 Physical Properties of Coal

Time

↑ Time = ↑ Temperature

Faster ‘cooking time’ = higher coal rank

• Contact metamorphism

Slower ‘cooking time’ = lower coal rank

• Subsidence and depth of burial

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 Physical Properties of Coal

Pressure

Compaction

Peat and Sub-bituminous

Pressure ->Physico-structural coalification

Temperature -> Chemical coalification

Shear planes -> Frictional heat

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Types of Coal
Eriel Jielini A. Lucin

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 Types of Coal

Sub-
Lignite
bituminous

Bituminous Anthracite

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 Types of Coal
Properties Lignite Sub-bituminous Bituminous Anthracite

Characteristics brown-black coal Denser and harder Harder and Denser Highest rank of
(lignite) (sub-bituminous) coal
Plant Structures - Alternate bright and dull
bandings
Carbon Content 60% - 70% 71% - 77% 77% - 87% 87 %

Moisture content 25% - 50% 12% - 25% Highest heating

value
< 8300 BTU/lb Sub-bituminous A Low volatile bituminous Semi-anthracite
8300-9500
Sub-bituminous B Medium volatile bituminous Anthracite
9500-11000
Sub-bituminous C High volatile bituminous Meta-anthracite
11000-13000

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Chemical
Properties
of Coal
July Bazar

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 Chemical Properties of Coal

Coal Analysis

Proximate Analysis Ultimate Analysis Other Analysis

• Forms of Sulfur
• Moisture • Carbon and Hydrogen • Carbon dioxide
• Ash • Nitrogen • Chlorine
• Volatile Matter • Sulfur • Phosphorus
• Fixed Carbon • Oxygen • Ash Analysis
• Trace Element Analysis

Thomas,L.(2013).Coal Geology
Proximate Analysis

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 Proximate Analysis

Moisture

• the water that exists in the coal at the site, time, and under the conditions it is sampled

Ash

• the water that exists in the coal at the site, time, and under the
conditions it is sampled

• represents the bulk of the mineral matter in the coal after losing the
volatile components

https://www.sgs.com/en/mining/analytical-services/coal-and-coke/proximate-and-ultimate-analysis
Thomas,L.(2013).Coal Geology
 Proximate Analysis

Volatile matter

• a measure of the nonwater gases formed from a coal sample during heating

Fixed Carbon

• a measure of the amount of non-volatile carbon remaining in a coal

sample

https://www.sgs.com/en/mining/analytical-services/coal-and-coke/proximate-and-ultimate-analysis
Thomas,L.(2013).Coal Geology
Ultimate Analysis

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 Ultimate Analysis

Carbon and Hydrogen

• respectively accounts for 70-90% and 2-6% of the organic substance of coal and are thought
to be the most important constituent of coal

Nitrogen

• can pollute the atmosphere through 〖𝑵𝑶〗_𝒙 emissions during

combustion of coal

Speight, J.(2005).Handbook of Coal Analysis

Thomas,L.(2013).Coal Geology
 Ultimate Analysis

Sulfur

• it is important to measure the sulfur content in coal samples to evaluate the potential sulfur
emissions from coal combustion

Oxygen
• component of many organic and inorganic compounds of coal as well
as the moisture content
• present in hydroxides, oxides and sulfate minerals when coal is
oxidized

Speight, J.(2005).Handbook of Coal Analysis

Thomas,L.(2013).Coal Geology
 Ultimate Analysis

Forms of Sulfur

• three forms of sulfur in coal: organic sulfur, pyritic sulfur and sulfate minerals

Carbon dioxide

• carbon dioxide in coal occurs in carbonate mineral matter fraction

Speight, J.(2005).Handbook of Coal Analysis

Thomas,L.(2013).Coal Geology
Other Analysis

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 Other Analysis

Chlorine

• can cause corrosion and fouling and when present in flue gas can contribute to air pollution

Phosphorus
• undesirable for large amount to be present in coking coal used in
metallurgical industry since it contributes in creating brittle steels
• in boiler, it causes foul odor

Thomas,L.(2013).Coal Geology
 Other Analysis

Ash analysis

• can cause corrosion and fouling and when present in flue gas can contribute to air pollution

Trace element analysis

• coal contains diverse amount of trace elements in their over-all
composition such as lead, mercury, boron and titanium that may have
detrimental effects to the environment and metallurgical industry
when present in high amount

Thomas,L.(2013).Coal Geology
28
 Moisture Volatile Matter Carbon Content Calorific Value Oxygen Content

Coalification Stage As Recieved Dry Ash Free Dry Ash Free Asrecieved Dry Ash Free
Peat ~75% 69 - 63% <60% 3,500 kcal/kg >23%

Lignite 35 - 55% 63 - 53% 65 - 70% 4,000 - 4,200 kcal/kg 23%

Sub-bituminous C 30 - 38% 53 - 50% 70 - 72% 4,200 - 4,600 kcal/kg 20%

Sub-bituminous B 25 - 30% 50 - 46% 72 - 74% 4,600 - 5,000 kcal/kg 18%

Sub-bituminous A 18 - 25% 46 - 42% 74 - 76% 5,000 - 5,500 kcal/kg 16%

High Volatile Bituminous
12 - 18% 46 - 42% 76 - 78% 5,500 5,900 kcal/kg 12%
C
High Volatile Bituminous
10 -12% 42 - 38% 78 - 80% 5,900 - 6,300 kcal/kg 10%
B
High Volatile Bituminous
8 - 10% 38 - 31% 80 - 82% 6,300 - 7,000 kcal/kg 8%
A
Medium Volatile
8 - 10% 31 - 22% 82 - 86% 7,000 - 8,000 kcal/kg 4%
Bituminous
Low Volatile 8 - 10% 22 - 14% 86 - 90% 8,000 - 8,600 kcal/kg 3%

Semi-Anthracite 8 - 10% 14 - 8% 90% 7,800 8,000 kcal/kg 3.5%

Anthracite 7 - 9% 8 -3% 92% 7,600 - 7,800 kcal/kg 4.5%

Meta-Anthracite 7 - 9% 8 - 3% >92% 7,600 kcal/kg 5%

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Combustion
Properties of
Coal
Chylka dela Cruz

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 Combustion Properties of Coal

Calorific Value

the amount of heat per unit mass of The gross calorific or higher
coal when combusted. heating value.

Is often referred to as specific The net calorific or lower heating

energy (SE) value.

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 Combustion Properties of Coal

Calorific Value
Type of Moisture of C% H O Ash Calorific Uses
coal Air dried at % % % value
40degrees (kcal/kg)
celsius
Peat 25 57 6 35 2 5400 Power generation and domestic purpose

Lignite 20 67 5 20 8 6500 Manufacture of producer gas, thermal power

plants

Bituminous 4 83 5 15 7 8000 Formetallurgical coke, coal gas, boiler, etc

Anthracite 2 92 3 2 3 8600 Boilers, metallurgical fuel, domestic

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 Combustion Properties of Coal

Ash fusion temperatures

Four critical temperature points

Initial Fluid
Softening Hemisphere
deformation temperature
temperature temperature
temperature (FT)
(ST) (HT)
(IT)

moulded sample has

fused down to a mould sample has
first rounding of the lump, the width of fused down to a lump
apex or corners of which equals its the height of which is mould has collapsed
the sample occurs height half of its width as a flattened layer.

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 Combustion Properties of Coal

Ash fusion temperatures

Temp at reducing Temp at oxidizing

conditions =< conditions

difference

Directly proportional with ash content

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 Combustion Properties of Coal

Coking tests

Gray–King coke type Plastic layer test

Fischer assay Vitrinite fluorescence

Audibert–Arnu dilatometer

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 Combustion Properties of Coal

Coking tests

Gray–King coke type

• Finely crushed coal is heated slowly in a sealed tube, and the appearance and texture of
the coke residue is compared with standards and assigned a letter, the Gray–King coke
type.
• Values range from A, no coking properties at all, to G where the coal has retained its
volume and forms a well-fused product
• Swells = superior coking properties

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 Combustion Properties of Coal

Coking tests

Fischer assay

• testing low-rank coals to low-temperature carbonization.

• The percentages of coke, tar and water driven off by the dry coal are determined

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 Combustion Properties of Coal

Coking tests

Gieseler plastometer

• coal passes from a solid form through a fluid or plastic state to become a fused porous solid
• Temperature range and viscosity
• coal sample is pressed around a spindle under torque

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 Combustion Properties of Coal

Coking tests

Audibert–Arnu dilatometer

• Coals shrink during carbonization, such volume changes that accompany the heating of a
coking coal are measured with a dilatometer.
• record the length of a coal sample to define the extent of contraction and dilatation, and the
temperatures at which these changes begin or end.

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 Combustion Properties of Coal

Coking tests

Plastic layer test

• Coal is heated in the absence of air and a steel needle is inserted into the coal.
• The amount the needle penetrates is measured and is a determination of the coking
property of the coal
• Measured in mm

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 Combustion Properties of Coal

Coking tests

Vitrinite fluorescence

• Coal is heated in the absence of air and a steel needle is inserted into the coal.
• The amount the needle penetrates is measured and is a determination of the coking
property of the coal
• Measured in mm

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 Physical
Properties
of Coal
Norberto Aquino

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 Physical Properties of Coal

Density

Hardness and Grindability

Abrasiveness

Size Distribution

Float-Sink Test

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 Physical Properties of Coal

Density

True Density – coal mass per unit volume, excluding the pores in the coal. It is an important
indicator for calculating the average mass of a coal seam and in coal quality research.

Apparent Density - coal mass per unit volume, including the pores in the coal. This parameter
is necessary for calculating coal reserves and in the transportation, crushing, and combustion
of coal.

Bulk Density - the ratio of the total mass of coal grains filling a container using the free-
stacking method to the vessel volume. The BD is used when estimating the mass of a coal pile
or calculating the coal capacity of a coke oven.

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 Physical Properties of Coal

Hardness and grindability

Coal hardness reflects the coal’s ability to withstand external mechanical actions.

Coal hardness reflects the coal’s ability to withstand external mechanical actions.

Hardgrove Grindabilty Index - Coals with a high HGI are relatively soft and easy to grind.
Those coals with low HGI values (less than 50) are hard and difficult to grind into a pulverized
product.

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 Physical Properties of Coal

Abrasiveness

Abrasion index is an index that shows the abrasive properties of coal on the part of the
equipment used to grind the coal before being used as fuel in certain combustion systems.

The higher the index the abrasive coal the higher the maintenance costs of the coal
grinding equipment.

A coal called abrasive when it’s abrasive index 400-600, and referred not abrasive when it’s
abrasive index <= 10.

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 Physical Properties of Coal

Size distribution

Size distribution in a coal depends on the mining and handling it undergoes, together with its
hardness, strength and its inherent degree of fracturing.

The size of coal particles affects coal preparation plant design, which in turn is related to the
sized product to be sold.

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 Physical Properties of Coal

Float-Sink Test

Determines how much coal can be separated from rock and minerals in fluids of different
densities

The particles in coal are of different relative densities. The densities represent the varying
amounts of mineral matter present.

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Thank you!