CEMENT

“Cement is a crystalline compound of calcium silicates and other calcium compounds having
hydraulic properties” (Macfadyen, 2006). Cements are considered hydraulic because of their
ability to set and harden under or with excess water through the hydration of the cement’s
chemical compounds or minerals. There are two types which those that activate with the addition
of water and pozzolanic that develop hydraulic properties when interact with hydrated lime
Ca(OH)2.

Type of cements

Types of cement Composition Purpose

Rapid Hardening Cement Increased lime content Attains high strength in early
days it is used in concrete
where form work are removed
at an early stage.
Quick setting cement Small percentage of Used in works is to be
aluminium sulphate as an completed in very short period
accelerator and reducing and concreting in static and
percentage of gypsum with running water.
fine grinding
Low heat cement Manufactured by reducing tri- It is used in massive concrete
calcium aluminate construction like gravity dams
Sulphates resisting cement It is prepared by maintaining It is used in construction
the percentage of tricalcium exposed to severe sulphate
aluminate below 6% which action by water and soil in
increases power against places like canals linings,
sulphates culverts, retaining walls,
siphons etc.
Blast furnace slag cement It is obtained by grinding the It can used for works
clinkers with about 60% slag economic consideration is
 and resembles more or less in predominant.
properties of Portland cement
High alumina cement It is obtained by melting It is used in works where
mixture of bauxite and lime concrete is subjected to high
and grinding with the clinker temperature, frost, and acidic
it is rapid hardening cement action.
with initial and final setting
time of about 3.5 and 5 hours
respectively.
White cement It is prepared from raw It is more costly and is used
materials free from iron oxide. for architectural purposes such
as pre-cast curtain wall and
facing panels, terrazzo surface
etc.
Coloured cement It is produced by mixing They are widely used for
mineral pigments with decorative works in floors.
ordinary cements.
Pozzolanic cement It is prepared by grinding It is used in marine structures,
pozzolanic clinker with sewage works, and for laying
Portland cement concrete under water such as
bridges, piers dams etc.
Air entraining cement It is produced by adding This type of cement is special
indigenous air entraining suited to improve the
agents such as resins, glues, workability with smaller water
sodium salts of sulphates etc cement ratio and to improve
during the grinding of clinker. frost resistance of concrete.
Hydographic cement It is prepared by mixing water This cement has high
repelling chemicals workability and strength.
http://theconstructor.org/building/building-material/cement/types-of-cement-composition-
uses/5974/ Copyright 2015 The Constructor Civil Engineering Home

Raw Material of Cement

The raw materials needed to produce cement (calcium carbonate, silica, alumina and iron ore)
are generally extracted from limestone rock, chalk, clayey schist or clay. Suitable reserves can be
found in most countries. The raw materials are extracted from the quarry by blasting. They are
then crushed and transported to the plant where they are stored and homogenized. They’re been
heated at high temperature form a rock-like substance that is ground into the fine powder.

http://www.lafarge.com.ng/wps/portal/ng/2_2_1-Manufacturing_process 2016 Lafarge

Manufacture Process of Cement

Cement is the basic ingredient of construction and the most widely used construction material. It
is a very critical ingredient because only cement has the ability of enhancing viscosity of
concrete which in returns provides the better locking of sand and gravels together in a concrete
mix.

A) Manufacture Phase

Production of cement completes after passing of raw materials form the following six phases.

1. Raw material extraction / Quarry

2. Grinding, proportioning and blending
3. Pre-heater phase
4. Kiln phase
5. Cooling and final grinding
6. Packing and shipping
Phase 1:

B) Phase 1: Raw Material Extraction

Generally cement plants are fixed where the quarry of limestone (raw material) nearby. This
saves the extra fuel cost and makes cement somehow economical. Raw materials are extracted
from the quarry and by mean of conveyor belt material is transported to the cement plant. There
are also various other raw materials used for cement manufacturing. For example shale, fly ash,
mill scale and bauxite. These raw materials are directly brought from other sources because of
small requirements.

Before transportation of raw materials to the cement plant, large size rocks are crushed into
smaller size rocks with the help of crusher at quarry. Crusher reduces the size large rocks to the
size of gravels.

Figure 1: Extraction of raw material and crushing material

C) Phase 2: Proportioning, Blending and Grinding

The raw materials from quarry are now routed in plant laboratory where, they are analyzed and
proper proportioning of limestone and clay are making possible before the beginning of
grinding. Generally, limestone is 80% and remaining 20% is the clay.

Then, the cement plant grind the raw mix with help of heavy wheel type rollers and rotating
table. Rotating table rotates continuously under the roller and brought the raw mix in contact
with the roller. Roller crushes the material to a fine powder and finishes the job. Raw mix is
stored in a pre-homogenization pile after grinding raw mix to fine powder.

Figure 2: Proportioning of raw material at plant cement laboratory

D) Phase 3: Pre-heating Raw Material

After final grinding, the material is ready to face the pre-heating chamber. Pre-heater chamber
consists of series of vertical cyclone from where the raw material passes before facing the kiln.
Pre-heating chamber utilize the emitting hot gases from kiln. Pre-heating of the material saves
the energy and make plant environmental friendly.

Figure 3: Preheating of raw material

E) Phase 4: Kiln Phase

Kiln is a huge rotating furnace also called as the heart of cement making process. The raw
material is heated up to 1450oC. This temperature begins a chemical reaction so called
decarbonation. In this reaction material (limestone) releases the carbon dioxide. High
temperature of kiln makes slurry of the material. Kiln is heating up from the exit side by the use
of natural gas and coal. When material reaches the lower part of the kiln, it forms the shape of
clinker.

Figure 4: Rotary kiln

F) Phase 5: Cooling and Final Grinding

After passing out from the kiln, clinkers are cooled by mean of forced air. Clinker release the
absorb heat and cool down to lower temperature. Released heat by clinker is reused by
recirculating it back to the kiln. This too saves energy.

Figure 5: Clinker cooler

Then, final grinding. There is a horizontal filled with steel balls. Clinker reach in this rotating
drum after cooling. The steel balls tumble and crush the clinker into a very fine powder. This
fine powder considered as the cement. During grinding gypsum is also added to the mix in
small percentage that controls the setting of cement.

Figure 6: Rotating ball mill

G) Phase 6: Packing and Shipping

Material is directly conveyed to the large storage tanks of cement from grinding mills. Further,
it is packed to about 20-40kg bags. Only a small percent if cement is packed in the bags only for
those customers whom need is very small. The remaining cement is shipped in bulk quantities
by mean of trucks, rails or ships.

Figure 7: Transportation of cement from storage tanks

H) Manufacture Process Cement Flow Chart

http://www.engineeringintro.com/uncategorized/cement-manufacturing-process/
30 August 2012 Jalal Asfar

GYPSUM PRODUCT

Gypsum is an evaporite mineral most commonly found in layered sedimentary deposits in

association with halite, anhydrite, sulfur, calcite, and dolomite. Gypsum (CaSO42H2O) is very
similar to Anhydrite (CaSO4). The chemical difference is that gypsum contains two waters and
anhydrite is without water. Gypsum is the most common sulfate mineral. Varieties of gypsum
known as satin spar and alabaster are used for a variety of ornamental purposes. However, their
hardness limits their durability.
Gypsum rock is slightly soluble in water it not usually found above ground in wet or damp
areas, but may be found underground, where it is not affected by the water table. The presence
of gypsum on or just below the surface of the ground is often indicated by changes in
vegetation; some plants thrive on gypsum-rich (alkaline) soil where as others are not at all
tolerant those conditions.

Gypsum rock is usually white or colorless, although it may sometimes have grey, yellow, pink
or brown hues. Gypsum is much softer than minerals of similar colour, such as calcite or quartz
and is the only one that can be scratched with a fingernail. If a piece of gypsum rock is held
over a flame it will turn cloudy and opaque and give off water.

Gypsum is also produced as a by-product of the phosphate fertilizer industry, but in some cases
this is slightly radioactive and little use is made of it at present, except as an additive in the
manufacture Portland cement. Most recently by-product gypsum is also available from flue gas
desulphurization which a process for cleaning up emissions from chimneys to reduce the
quantity of sulphurous gases flowing into atmosphere.

ftp://ftp.shef.ac.uk/pub/uni/academic/A-C/ar1mb/PA_GypsumProcessingAndUse.pdf

Uses of Gypsum

1. Manufacture of wallboard
2. Cement
3. Plaster
4. Soil conditioning
5. Hardening retarder Portland cement

http://geology.com/minerals/gypsum.shtml 2005-2016 Geology.com

Manufacture Process of Gypsum Products (Board)

1. Raw material
High quality gypsum rock is extracted at quarries or mines near plants or transported by
cargo ship, rail or truck.

2. Crusher
Large rocks are crushed into small pieces. At some plants, the crushed rock undergoes a
surface drying process before going to the grinding mill.

3. Grinding mill
The mill reduces small rocks to a very fine, chalk-like powder called land plaster.

4. Calcine system
The land plaster is heated in large kettles to remove most the water from the plaster.

5. Stucco Holding Tank

Calcined land plaster called stucco is fed from a holding bin to the mixer by a screw
conveyor.

6. Mixer
In the mixer, water is added back to the stucco to form a slurry and foam is added to the
slurry to make the wallboard more lightweight.

7. Forming station
The board forming line starts with two large rolls of recycled paper or fiberglass mats.
The slurry is poured onto the bottom sheet and is immediately covered by facing sheet
from the other roll. This “sandwich” passes through a pair of forming plates or rolls
which determine the thickness of the board. The face paper or mat wraps around the
sides of the sandwich to enclose the edges of the board.
 8. Board line
The board line travels down a long conveyor line in a single continuous piece. During
this trip, water rehydrates the stucco, causing it to harden.

9. Cut-off knife
At the end of the line, a blade cuts the hardened board into various lengths.

10. Transfer table

Here the cut lengths are turned face-side up to protect the face or mat, then fed into the
kiln.

11. Kiln
The board kiln completes the drying process, leaving the gypsum board virtually
moisture-free.

12. Bundler and stacker

The bundler “books” the gypsum board by putting two pieces together with the face on
the inside. It is trimmed to exact lengths and the pairs of boards are taped together to
further protect the board face. The bundles are stacked for transfer to the warehouse for
shipping to customers.

Manufacture Process of Gypsum Board Flow Chart

http://www.buildgp.com/DocumentViewer.aspx?repository=BP&elementid=10257 2010
Georgia Pacific Gypsum LLC

QUARTZ SAND

Quartz is a chemical compound consisting of one part silicon and two parts oxygen. It is silicon
dioxide (SiO2). It is the most abundant mineral found at Earth’s surface and its unique
properties make it one of the most useful natural substances. Quartz is the most abundant and
widely distributed mineral found at Earth’s surface. It is present and plentiful in all parts of the
world. It forms at all temperatures. It is abundant in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks. It is highly resistant to both mechanical and chemical weathering. This durability makes
it the dominant mineral mountaintops and the primary constituent of beach, river and desert
sand. Quartz is ubiquitous, plentiful and durable.

Uses of Quartz

1. The most useful natural materials.

 2. Has a hardness of seven on the Mohs Scale which makes it very durable.
3. Chemically inert in contact with most substance.
4. Has electrical properties and heat resistance.
5. Its luster, colour and diaphaneity make it useful as a gemstone and making glass.

Uses Quartz in Glass making

Geological processes have occasionally deposited sands that are composed of almost 100%
quartz grains. These deposits have been identified and produced as sources of high purity silica
sand. These sands are used in the glassmaking industry. Quartz sand is used in the production
of container glass, flat plate glass, specialty glass and fiberglass. Quartz sand particles are
colorless or slightly pink, while feldspar sand has a pink or amber color. When quartz sands are
crushed they produce particles with sharp, angular edges that are sometimes used to make
sandpaper for smoothing wood. Some quartz sand is found in the form of sandstone.

http://geology.com/minerals/quartz.shtml 2005-2016 Geology.com

Manufacture of Glass (Quartz Sand)

1. The raw material include the used glass, are weighed and mixed to the right proportions
and transported by conveyor belt to the furnace. Precise adjustments and corrections to
the mix are necessary owing the ration of used glass with its ever-fluctuating
composition.
2. Forming glass
Glass container manufacture is a high temperature process which the raw materials are
melted into glass at 1590oC which flows via a series of channels to the glass forming
machine. The glass forming machine portions off single drops from the constant flow of
glass. There are then fed into various processing stations.

3. Quality assurance and Packaging

Every single one of the 10 million glass containers produced daily is tested for
compliance with prescribed quality characteristic by a series of linked devices.

http://de.verallia.com/en/about-glass/glass-production 2010-2016 Verallia