OCTOBER 2008

and processed products

DIET AND FOOD PROCESSING

T he different facets of our

diet reflect the varied cha-
racteristics of this essential acti-
vity. Interactions between need,
pleasure, culture, tradition, sha-

© Christophe Maître - Inra

ring, etc., are particularly com-
plex. Like Marcel Proust and his
madeleine, we can all expe-
rience a sensory perception that triggers a vivid
memory of the past, corresponding to a particular
food. In our subconscious, healthy foods are asso-
ciated with "natural" or "unprocessed" products. It
suffices to see how the media use this image to
flatter these ideas, even though they are far from
being true!
Human food engineering always consists in utili-
sing, adapting and processing nutrients from the
environment to best satisfy both our vital needs and
our hedonic pleasures. Only a very small proportion
of our diet is made up of products consumed in
their natural state, without any processing. The need
to store cyclical foods – produced as a function of
seasons or climatic constraints – was probably the
initial trigger for the development of process enginee-
ring applied to foods. It also became necessary to
ensure chemical and microbiological safety, to take
account of economic constraints relative to trade
and commerce, as well as hedonic characteristics.
Development of these technologies has met with
considerable success, if we remember how humans
have been capable of overcoming numerous barriers
to ensure secure subsistence for the majority of the
population, although there are still many gaps to fill.
Environmental pressures – in the broadest sense
of the term – make it more than ever necessary to
pursue research that will further optimise food
processing technologies. This research must serve
the need for sustainable development and comply
with the constraints of global trade, while taking
account of the increasing wealth of knowledge on
health and safety. This is a major challenge, par-
ticularly since acceptability to consumers must be
central to strategic thinking about the paths that
need to be investigated.
Xavier Leverve
Scientific Director, Human Nutrition
and Food Safety
CONTEXT
80 % of the food we eat are has been
processed
(INRA calculation based on statistical data (sales by sector)
from the Ministry of Agriculture), France.
Between 1960 and 2006, the share in
household expenditure devoted to the
consumption of:
• meat-based prepared foods, doubled,
• fish-based prepared foods increased
four-fold
• vegetable and potato-based preserved
preparations almost doubled.
• biscuits, crackers and long-life pastries
increased by 3% per person per year.
(Source : INSEE première (09/08), data for 2006)
Inra - october 2008

LABORATORY - INDUSTRY
TRANSFER
Interview with Marc Vignolle and Catherine
Laurent-Gressel, who head R&D operations
for the Marie Uniq group of companies and
were involved in the CANAL research pro-
gramme on the technology-aided design of
new foods (2002-2006). Marie manufactures
fresh and frozen prepared dishes, quiches,
tarts, pancakes, pizzas and exotic meals, etc.
Its sells products under its own brand name,
under distributor brands, at export and to
catering outlets. Marie has six factories in
France and belongs to the British Uniq group
of companies.
What were the reasons for your involvement
in the CANAL research programme?
Marc Vignolle: We particularly wanted to gain a
clearer understanding of the water transfer that
occurs between the pastry and filling of quiches
and tarts, which causes us problems. The pro-
ducts become softer during their shelf-life, with a
peak after around ten days. CANAL gave us
some ideas on how to reduce these transfers,
based on studies using model foods, such as
simplified sponge cake, gelatine, etc.
How would you analyze your partnership
with the researchers?
M. V.: The scientists allowed us access to data
and analyses of which we had previously not
been aware. The main challenge is to establish a
Generating knowledge
on raw materials of plant
or animal origin, and what Monique Axelos,
Head, Science and Process
happens to them during Engineering of Agricultural
processing Products Division (CEPIA)
T he Science and Process Engineering of
Agricultural Products Division (CEPIA) gene-
rates knowledge on raw materials of plant or animal food design in a context of industrial application.
origin, and what happens to them during proces- Thirdly, we characterise technological sequences; i.e.
sing. In particular, we seek to identify different all operations that transform raw materials into foods
aspects of the quality of products and foods, to with targeted gustatory and nutritional characteristics.
encourage the development of innovation and aid for Our approach integrates all technical, economic,
decision-making, and to assess the risk/benefit ratios ecological and regulatory constraints at the diffe-
that prevail in different agri-food sectors. Our priority rent stages of processing.
is to adapt the characteristics of foods to consumer
demands, in terms of nutrition, pleasure and ease of
Lyophilizator in Versailles
use, while according particular attention to the imple-
mentation of ecologically-compatible processing
operations. Three approaches are adopted. Firstly,
we study the structure and properties of raw mate-
rials as they change over time: ripening of fruits,
grain and seed filling, transformation of muscle into
meat or the transformation of milk components, etc.
Secondly, we seek to understand the physical, che-
mical and enzymatic processes that lead to the
development of complex foods such as mousses,
yoghurts or cheeses, sweet pastries, charcuterie
and baked products, the aim being to model these

link between scientific findings and real products.
Our plenary meetings sometimes take on epic
proportions when discussions between scientists
focus on a differential equation for water transfer!
The role of the programme coordinator has been
crucial because he has displayed a remarkable
ability to summarise and render the science
understandable to us, while listening to our views.
Model foods have a much simpler composition
than real foods, the behaviours of which are not
always precisely identical. For this reason, indus-
trial formulation is a combination of numerous
factors. So this period of transfer from the labora-
tory to industry is the weak link in the chain.
Catherine Laurent-Gressel: Our collaboration
has continued notably through efforts made with
trainees to move from model foods to specific
foods in our range, and to develop a pilot tool. Our
scientific partnership has enabled us to save a lot
of time because many tests have been performed
by the research laboratories. We are continuing
to request assistance from the researchers regar-
ding the pilot stage.
processes in order to propose tools that will aid with
A TOOL TO STUDY THE BAKING OF BREAD
A fully-equipped oven installed at the INRA
Centre in Nantes enables scientists to deter-
mine the importance of cooking in the manufacture
of bread. By continuously measuring the mass,
volume and temperature inside the dough during
baking, they have been able to study the transition
of dough into crumb, and formation of the crust.
They have shown that without radically modifying it,
baking fixes the alveolar structure of the bread which
is essentially established during kneading and pro-
ving. Apart from its importance to flavour and texture
through the formation of a crust, baking also affects
the nutritional qualities of bread, because accor-
ding to recent studies carried out in Nantes*, the
crust-crumb ratio and density of bread influence its
© Inra
glycemic index (remembering that a high glycemic
index increases the cardiovascular risk).
Further studies are being planned around use of
this experimental oven: because of the increasing
importance being paid to the energy consumed
during cooking, it should enable the development of
new, low-energy cooking technologies. This tool is a
good illustration of the trend towards a multidiscipli-
nary approach to the in-depth investigation of the
mechanisms that govern living organisms.
Guy Della Valle, INRA, Research Unit on Biopolymers,
Interactions and Assemblies, Nantes
* AQuaNuP project in collaboration with INRA in Dijon and
University Hospitals “Hôtel Dieu” in Paris.
Cereal fractionation platform in Nantes

Will there be any extensions?

C. L.-G.: This was the first programme in which
we have been involved. We have now formed
good relationships with several research teams,
and have initiated new collaborative projects on
the technology and nutritional quality of the foods
we manufacture: cooking, flavour, salt content, etc.
Indeed, INRA performs numerous studies that
can clarify our understanding of consumer beha-
viour, which is very valuable to SME in the agri-
food sector, such as the Marie group.

© Yves Popineau - Inra © Frédéric Stucin/MYOP


PRESERVING NUTRITIONAL
QUALITIES
Catherine Renard,
INRA, Joint Research Unit for the
Safety and Quality of Products of
Plant Origin, Avignon
W e study the impact of
storage and processing
on the physical (texture, colour)
and nutritional qualities of fruits and vegetables,
using the tomato as a model of fleshy fruits. At the
molecular level, biology indicates the genes and
enzymes involved in the physical properties of fruits;
for example, aquaporins control the water content.
We also monitor the fate of polyphenols, vitamin C,
carotenoids, etc., during processing operations: coo-
king, grinding, dehydration, freezing, high pressures,
pulsed electrical fields. The passage of polyphe-
nols from fruits to drinks is a major area of research.
Some soluble polyphenols are diffused in juice, but
others, such as tannins, remained concentrated in
the pulp.
Furthermore, the fate of molecules changes depen-
ding on the intensity and duration of heating, the
pH, or the oxygen or metal ion content. We have
modelled what happens from ingestion to the sto-
mach, where the presence of myoglobin (a source
of iron) from meat oxidises the entire gastric bolus.
But the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids
leads to components that are harmful to health. The
presence of antioxidants such as carotenoids and
polyphenols inhibits this phenomenon. We are cur-
rently studying the oxidation of tomato carotenoids
during processing into tomato sauce.
Glutenin Glutenin filament Starch grain
Bond C-C Amylase gluten film
0,1 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 µm
THE PROTECTIVE EFFECTS OF MICRONUTRIENTS
Patrick Borel
INRA-INSERM-Universities
of Aix-Marseille I and II,
Joint Research Unit for Lipid
Nutrients and the Prevention
of Metabolic Diseases, Marseille
O ur laboratory studies the mechanisms of
action of lipid micronutrients, and particularly
vitamin E (found in plant oils and cereals) and caro-
USING
FERMENTATION
Pascal Bonnarme,
INRA-AgroParisTech, Joint Research
Unit for Food Process Engineering
and Microbiology, Versailles-Grignon
F rance is reputed for the
variety and quality of its
cheeses. These characteristics
are linked to the existence of a broad diversity of
micro-organisms – belonging in particular to sur-
face microflora – that are involved in cheese ripening.
Until now, the control of ripening was considered
in an empirical fashion. Now that the genomes of
several of these micro-organisms have been sequen-
ced, scientists can develop molecular tools to study
the principal functions associated with ripening, par-
ticularly deacidification and the production of volatile
sulphur compounds. We are studying the microbial
metabolisms that give rise to these functions.
Furthermore, we are trying to understand the global
function of cheese ecosystems by characterising
their constituent micro-organisms, the dynamics of
their populations and their interactions within the
ecosystem. We no longer conduct these studies in
pure cultures but within a reduced cheese ecosys-
tem with the same qualities as that of a real cheese.
In addition, our experimental facilities allow us to
produce cheeses in a microbiologically-controlled
environment, and to verify our results under real-time
conditions. The team benefits from a large collection
of strains of cheese micro-organisms which serve as
experimental materials.
Fragment of pericarp Bread
alveolus
10 µm 100 µm 1 mm 1 cm 10 cm
tenoids (pigments of plant origin found in carrots,
tomatoes, salmon, etc.). Our team focuses in parti-
cular on the mechanisms of action and bioavailabi-
lity of lipid micronutrients, which have antioxidant pro-
perties and have a proven role in the prevention of
certain diseases (cardiovascular, ocular, neurodege-
nerative, etc.). This work is of interest to the agri-food
industry because the presence of micronutrients in
a food does not mean it is necessarily efficiently
absorbed. This is particularly true for lipid-soluble
Inra - october 2008
DESIGNING
NEW FOODS
Marc Anton,
INRA, Research Unit on Biopolymers
- Interactions and Assemblies,
Nantes
T he CANAL research pro-
gramme on the techno-
logy-aided design of new foods
(2002 - 2006) has enabled the development, in part-
nership with industry, of new products that respond
to consumer demands, thanks to the design of deci-
sion-making tools: measurement methods, simula-
tors, demonstration modules, etc., all arising out of
our research. The scientists have been working on
four projects focused on "model foods": control of the
stability of aerated dairy emulsions (whipped creams,
milk-based mousses); modelling of the texture of
alveolar solids (bread, pastries, cereals, biscuits);
control of the transfer of matter in composite foods
(pâté, filled biscuits, sandwiches, etc.); study of the
stability of fruit flavourings in sugar, yoghurt or packa-
ged sponge cake.
The knowledge thus generated has given rise to
50 publications and presentations. Close interac-
tions with industry have enabled the development of
formulation parameters, processes and analytical
methods. New manufacturing technologies have
been tested: for example, a membrane emulsifica-
tion system that comprises a ceramic ultrafiltration
module with 500 nm pores that can emulsify two
liquids. This technology represents an interesting
alternative to standard emulsification, as it consumes
much less energy and causes less denaturing of
the ingredients. We are continuing to explore poten-
tial applications for this process.
The complexity of foods can be
analysed at different scales;
the example of bread
vitamins such as vitamin E, which are absorbed
poorly and to a variable extent. Most manufactu-
ring operations integrate objectives such as conser-
vation and organoleptic criteria, but do not optimize
the bioavailability of nutrients absorbed in the diges-
tive tract. To control this bioavailability, we are stu-
dying the effect of factors such as the molecular
structure of micronutrients, the structure of the foods
in which they are incorporated, the effect of other
nutrients or the genetic characteristics of individuals.
Inra - october 2008

A TEAM: PROMOTING QUALITY

PLATFORMS WITH HIGH-TECHNOLOGY
AND HIGH-PERFORMANCE TOOLS
Jean Pierre Renou,
Joint Research Unit
“Quality of Animal Products
Research Unit” (QuaPA),
Clermont-Ferrand

Food process engeneering

T he Quality of
Animal Pro-
ducts Research Unit
and microbiology

Milk
(QuaPA) focuses on
Ren
n
how manufacturing processes affect the nutritio- • Dairy technology
nal and sensory qualities of animal product-based
foods, particularly meat products and cheeses. Sensorial analysis
Cereals Nantes
Nan
ntess Dijon
We analyse the phenomena that govern the phy- Biopolymers • Cereal fractionation Lipids-Flavours
sical and biochemical changes that occur during • Biopolymers
the processing of these solid products; for exam-
ple, by studying the transfer of heat and matter. To Clermont-F
ont-Ferran
and
an
Theix-Lyo
Theeix Lyyo
yon
Meats SANTÉ
achieve this, we have adopted an integrative
approach with studies at different scales: spatial Imaging of biological systems
(from the molecule to the macroscopic structure) INRA Rese
main site
and temporal (from production to consumption).
We have thus studied the mechanisms gover- Inra cluster Enzymes
Biotransformations Fruits and vegetables
ning the distribution of salt in different food pro-
Experimental pla Montp
Mon
Montpellier
ducts (smoked salmon, sausage, etc.) in order aimed at transfer t Toulouse
se

to optimize their salt content and improve salting
operations. Indeed, salt plays an important role in
food by guaranteeing satisfactory microbiologi-
cal safety while preserving organoleptic qualities.
But an excess of salt contributes to the emer-
gence of cardiovascular diseases. However, a
salty taste depends not only on the salt content but
also on how this ion (sodium chloride) binds to the
protein macromolecules surrounding it. In addition,
the diffusion of salt is directly correlated with water
distribution in the product, and hence its texture.
We have characterised these molecular interac-
tions by developing specific magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) techniques. We will now be able to
build a predictive model applicable to fatty and
salty protein foods.
A PROJECT : TRUEFOOD
Instrumental platform
for detailed analysis
A platform is a cluster on the same site of the high-
technology and high-performance tools necessary
for experimentation. Their vocation is to be open to
all our academic or industrial partners.
A FEW PROGRAMMES
Some examples of ongoing European projects
- CAFE: new methods for the management and control of
food processes
- HEALTHGRAIN: ensuring full exploitation of the nutritional
potential of cereals
- TRUEFOOD: improvements to quality and innovation in
production systems for traditional European products
- LYCOCARD: the role of tomatoes and their derivatives
(lycopene) in preventing cardiovascular disease
National Programme for Food Research
- INCALIN: integration of the global behaviour of food
Wines, ciders, cereals
• Oenology
• Cereal fractionation
• Polyphenols
Some results obtained during
the CANAL programme
- New methods for the analysis of dispersed systems
- A software to characterise foams and predict their quality
and stability.
- Models that describe changes to the alveolar structure
of cereal products.
- Models for the transport of water and solutions in media
with a variable water content (gelatine gel, cereal base,
etc.).
- A mathematical tool to quantify and predict the intensity
of aroma stimuli in the mouth while consuming a food.
This model should also lead to decision-making aids
for the design of industrially-produced foods.

S ome of our research is being carried

out in the context of the integrated
European project TRUEfood: Traditional
United Europe Food. Its purpose is to ensure
that traditional food products can benefit from
scientific innovations and advances in terms
of quality and health safety. Its ultimate aim is
to increase the competitiveness of SME,
which generally do not benefit from a fully-
fledged Research and Development depart-
ment. This project runs until 2010 and invol-
ves 36 partners from 17 European countries,
including eight INRA research units.
products during manufacture
- PASTALEG: design of durum wheat- and legume-based
Mediterranean foods: contribution of the structure
CONTACTS
Laurence Prévosto, Communication Manager
of components to their nutritional and organoleptic qualities
laurence.prevosto@avignon.inra.fr
- REACTIAL: prediction and control of the appearance or
disappearance of reaction markers during the processing Monique Axelos, Head, Science and Process
or storage of foods Engineering of Agricultural Products Division
- TEMPANTIOX: innovative techniques to obtain fruit-based monique.axelos@nantes.inra.fr
processed products with optimised organoleptic
and nutritional qualitie Websites:
- VDQA: low-alcohol quality wines www.inra.fr/inra_cepia/
- TAYLORPACK: development of biodegradable active www.international.inra.fr/the_institute/a_brief_over
packaging systems appropriate for the storage view/key_documents
of fresh fruits and vegetables
Director of Publication Pierre Establet INSTITUT NATIONAL DE LA RECHERCHE AGRONOMIQUE
Composition Catherine Donnars, Magali Sarazin, 147 rue de l’Université 75338 Paris Cedex 7
Pascale Mollier Tél. : + 33(0)1 42 75 90 00
Photographs Inra, Layout Patricia Perrot Fax : + 33(0)1 42 75 91 72
Graphical creation Chromatiques Editing
© Inra Mission communication www.international.inra.fr