National Taiwan Ocean University Angle Modulation Fundamentals

國立台灣海洋大學
國立台灣海洋大學 National Taiwan Ocean University
National Taiwan Ocean University

 4.1 Basic Definitions
通訊與導航工程學系  4.2 Properties of Angle-Modulated Waves
通訊原理  4.3 Relationship between PM and FM Waves
 4.4 Narrow-Band Frequency Modulation
Fundamental Communications Theory
 4.5 Wide-Band Frequency Modulation
Fall 2018
吳家琪助理教授
Lecture 7. Angle Modulation
National Taiwan Ocean University 4.1 Basic Definitions
 Another way of modulating a sinusoidal carrier wave-
 4.6 Transmission Brandwidth of FM Waves
namely, angle modulation
 4.7 Greneration of FM Waves
 The angle of the carrier wave is varied according to the
 4.8 Demodulation of FM Signals information-bearing signal.
 4.9 Theme Example: FM Stereo Multiplexing  Angle-modulated wave, where Ac is carrier amplitude.
 4.10 Summary and Discussion s (t )  Ac cos[ i (t )]
 The average frequency in hertz
 i (t   t )   i (t )
f t ( t ) 
2t
 Instantaneous frequency of the angle-modulated signal
s(t):   (t   t )   i (t )  1 d  i (t )
f (t )  lim f (t )  lim i t   
2 t 2
i
t  0 t  0
  dt
 i (t )  2f c t  c , for m (t )  0
國立台灣海洋大學國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University
 Two commonly used methods phase modulation and 2. Frequency modulation (FM) is that form of angle
frequency modulation, modulation in which the instantaneous frequency fi(t) is
1. Phase modulation (PM) is that form of angle varied linearly with the message signal m(t),
modulation in which the instantaneous angle θi(t) is f i (t )  f c  k f m (t )
varied linearly with the message signal m(t), as shown
by t
 i (t )  2  f i ( ) d  2f c t  2k f  m ( ) d
t
 i (t )  2f c t  k p m (t ) 0 0
 The phase-modulated wave s(t) is correspondingly

described in the time domain by
 The frequency-modulated wave is therefore
s (t )  Ac cos  2f c t  2k f  m ( ) d 

t
s (t )  Ac cos[ 2f c t  k p m (t )]
 0
 Table 4.1 summarizes the basic definitions embodied in 4.2 Properties of Angle-modulated Waves
the generation of angle-modulated waves.  Figures 4.1(a) and 4.1(b) are the sinusoidal carrier and
 These definitions apply to all kinds of message signals, modulating waves, respectively. Figures 4.1(c), 4.1(d),
be they of the analog or digital kind. and 4.1(e) display the corresponding amplitude-
modulated (AM), phase-modulated (PM), and
frequency-modulated (FM) waves.
 Property 1 Constance of transmitted power
1 2
Pav  Ac
2
where it is assumed that the load resistor is 1 ohm.
 Property 2 Nonlinearity of the modulation process

m(t) = m1(t) +m2(t)
s (t )  Ac cos[ 2f c t  k p ( m1 (t )  m 2 (t ))]
s1 (t )  Ac cos[ 2f c t  k p m1 (t )]
s 2 (t )  Ac cos[ 2f c t  k p m2 (t )]
Figure 4.1 Illustration of AM,
s (t )  s1 (t )  s 2 (t ) PM, and FM waves produced by
a single tone. (a) Carrier wave.
(b) Sinusoidal modulating signal.
(c) Amplitude-modulated signal.
(d) Phase-modulated signal. (e)
Frequency modulated signal.
 Property 3 Irregularity of zero-crossings  Property 4 Visualization difficulty of message

 Zero-crossings are defined as the instants of time at waveform
which a waveform changes its amplitude from a positive  The difficulty in visualizing the message waveform in
to negative value or the other way around. angle-modulated waves is also attributed to the
 The irregularity of zero-crossings in angle-modulation nonlinear character of angle-modulated waves.
waves is also attributed to the nonlinear character of the
modulation process.  Property 5 Tradeoff of increased transmission
 Two special cases
bandwidth for improved noise
performance
1. The message signal m(t) increases or decreases linearly
with time t.  The transmission of a message signal by modulating the
2. The message signal m(t) is maintained at some constant angle of a sinusoidal carrier wave is less sensitive to the
value, positive or negative. presence of additive noise
4.3 Relationship Between PM and FM Waves

 An FM wave can be generated by first integrating the
message signal m(t) with respect to time t and then
using the resulting signal as the input to a phase
modulator, as shown in Fig. 4.3(a).
 A PM wave can be viewed as an FM wave produced
by the modulating wave dm(t)/dt.
 A PM wave can be generated by first differentiating
m(t) with respect to time t and then using the
resulting signal as the input to a frequency
modulator, as shown in Fig. 4.3(b). Figure 4.3 Illustration of the relationship between frequency modulation
and phase modulation. (a) Scheme for generating an FM wave by using a
phase modulator. (b) Scheme for generating a PM wave by using a
frequency modulator.
4.4 Narrow-Band Frequency Modulation  Modulation index of the FM wave

f
 The two-stage spectral analysis described above provides  i (t )  2f c t  sin( 2f m t )
fm
us with enough insight to propose a useful solution to the
 The phase deviation of the FM wave is given as
problem
f
A sinusoidal modulating wave 

fm
m (t )  Am cos( 2f m t )  Then  i (t )  2f c t   sin( 2f m t )
 The instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM wave is  The FM wave is
f i (t )  f c  k f Am cos( 2f m t )  f c  f cos( 2f m t ) s (t )  Ac cos 2f c t   sin( 2f m t ) 
f  k f Am
s (t )  Ac cos( 2f c t ) cos  sin( 2f m t ) 
 The quantity ∆f is called the frequency deviation,
representing the maximum departure of the instantaneous  Ac sin( 2f c t ) sin  sin( 2f m t ) 
frequency of the FM wave from the carrier frequency fc.
 If the modulation index is small compared to one

radian, the approximate form of a narrow-band FM
wave is
s (t )  Ac cos( 2f c t )   Ac sin( 2f c t ) sin( 2f m t )
cos  sin( 2f m t )   1
sin  sin( 2f m t )    sin( 2f m t )
 The envelope contains a residual amplitude modulation
Figure 4.4 Block diagram of an indirect method for generating a that varies with time
narrow-band FM wave.
 The angel θi(t) contains harmonic distortion in the form
of third-and higher order harmonics of the modulation
frequency fm
 The previous equation defines the approximate form of  We may expand the modulated wave further into three
a narrow-band FM wave produced by the sinusoidal frequency components
modulating wave Amcos(2πfmt). 1
s(t )  Ac cos(2f ct )  Ac{cos[2 ( fc  f m )t ]  cos[2 ( f c  f m )t ]}
 From this approximate representation, we deduce the 2
modulator shown in block diagram form in Fig. 4.4. 1
sAM (t )  Ac cos(2fct )  Ac{cos[2 ( fc  f m )t ]  cos[2 ( f c  f m )t ]}
 This modulator involves splitting the carrier wave 2
Accos(2πfct) into two paths.
 The basic difference between and AM wave and a
 One path is direct; the other path contains a -90 degree narrow-band FM wave is that the algebraic sign of the
phase-shifting network and a product modulator, the lower side-frequency in the narrow-band FM is
combination of which generates a DSB-SC modulated reversed
wave.
 A narrow-band FM wave requires essentially the same
transmission bandwidth as the AM wave.
Phasor Interpretation
 We may represent the narrow-band FM wave with a
phasor diagram as shown in Fig. 4.5(a).
 A resultant phasor representing the narrow-band FM
wave that is approximately of the same amplitude as
the carrier phasor, but out of phase with respect to it.
 The resultant phasor representing the AM wave has a
different amplitude from that of the carrier phasor, but
always in phase with it.
 The phasor diagram for the FM wave should be
contrasted with that of Fig. 4.5(b).
Figure 4.5 Phasor comparison of narrow-band FM and AM waves for sinusoidal
modulation. (a) Narrow-band FM wave. (b) AM wave.
4.5 Wide-Band Frequency Modulation  The complex Fourier coefficient

 Assume that the carrier frequency fc is large enough cn  f m 
1 /( 2 f )
~
s ( t ) exp(  j 2 nf m t ) dt
m
1 /( 2 f ) m
s (t )  Re[ Ac exp( j 2f c t  j sin( 2f m t ))] 1 /( 2 f m )

 f m Ac  exp[ j  sin( 2 f m t )  j 2 nf m t )] dt
 Re[ ~
s (t ) exp( j 2f t )] c
1 /( 2 f m )
 The complex envelope is  Let x  2f m t

~
s (t )  Ac [ j sin( 2f m t )] Ac 
~
cn 
2   exp[

j (  sin( x )  nx )] dx
s (t )  A [ j sin( 2f (t  k
))] 1 
  exp[ j (  sin( x)  nx )]dx
c m fm
J n ( ) 
 Ac [ j sin( 2f m t  2 k )] 2 
cn  Ac J n (  )
 Ac [ j sin( 2f m t )] ~


s (t )  Ac J n (  ) exp( j 2nf m t )
~
c
n  
s (t )  exp( j 2nf m t )  

s (t )  Re  Ac  J n (  ) exp[ j 2 ( f c  nf m )t ]
n
n  
 n   
 In the simplified form

4.5 Wide-Band Frequency Modulation

Properties of Single-Tone FM for Arbitrary Modulation
s (t )  Ac J
n  
n (  ) cos[ 2 ( f c  nf m )t ] Index 
 In Fig. 4.6, we have plotted the Bessel function Jn()


versus the modulation index  for different positive
Ac
S( f ) 
2
J
n  
n (  )[ ( f  f c  nf m )  ( f  f c  nf m )] integer values of n.
1. For different integer (positive and negative) values of n,
we have
Jn() = J–n(), for n even
Jn() = –J–n(), for n odd
2. For small values of the modulation index , we have

J0()  1,
J1()  /2,
Jn()  0, n > 2
3. The equality holds exactly for arbitrary .

J
n  
2
n ( )  1
Figure 4.6 Plots of the Bessel function of the first kind, Jn(), for
varying order n.
 The spectrum of an FM wave contains a carrier 4.6 Transmission Bandwidth of FM Waves

component and an infinite set of side frequencies located
 FM wave is effectively limited to a finite number of
symmetrically on either side of the carrier at frequency
separations of fm,2fm, 3fm …. significant side-frequencies compatible with a specified
amount of distortion.
 The FM wave is effectively composed of a carrier and a
single pair of side-frequencies at fc±fm  Two limiting cases
 For large values of the modulation index β, the bandwidth
 The amplitude of the carrier component of an FM wave is
approaches, and is only slightly greater than the total
dependent on the modulation index β
frequency excursion 2Δf,
 The average power of such a signal developed across a  For small values of the modulation index β, the spectrum of
1-ohm resistor is also constant. Pav  1 Ac2 the FM wave is effectively limited to the carrier frequency
2 fc and one pair of side-frequencies at fc±fm, so that the
 The average power of an FM wave may also be
bandwidth approaches 2fm
determined from Eq. (4.30), as shown by
1 2  2
P Ac  J n (  )
2 n  
4.6 Transmission Bandwidth of FM Waves Universal Curve for FM Transmission Bandwidth

Carson’s Rule  A definition based on retaining the maximum number
 An approximate rule for the transmission bandwidth of significant side frequencies whose amplitudes are all
of an FM wave greater than some selected value.
 1  A convenient choice for this value is one percent of the
BT  2  f  2 f m  2  f  1  
  unmodulated carrier amplitude
 This simple empirical relation is known as Carson’s  The transmission bandwidth of an FM waves
 The separation between the two frequencies beyond which none of
rule. the side frequencies is greater than one percent of the carrier
amplitude obtained when the modulation is removed.
 As the modulation index β is increased, the bandwidth occupied by
the significant side-frequencies drops toward that value over
which the carrier frequency actually deviates.
 Table 4.2 shows the total number of significant side-frequencies

(including both the upper and lower side-frequencies) for
different values of β, calculated on the one percent basis.
Figure 4.9 Universal curve for evaluating the one percent bandwidth
of an FM wave.
National Taiwan Ocean University Arbitrary Modulating Wave National Taiwan Ocean University
 The bandwidth required to transmit an FM wave Example 4.3

generated by an arbitrary modulating wave is based on
a worst-case tone-modulation analysis
 We first determine the so-called deviation ratio D,
defined as the ratio of the frequency deviation ∆f,
which corresponds to the maximum possible amplitude
of the modulation wave m(t), to the highest modulation
frequency W. f
D
W
BT  2 (  f  W )
 We refer the last equation as the generalized Carson
rule for the transmission bandwidth of an arbitrary FM
signal.
4.7 Generation of FM Waves Indirect Method: Armstrong Modulator

Direct Method  In the indirect method, on the other hand, the message
 The direct method uses a sinusoidal oscillator, with one signal is first used to produce a narrow-band FM,
of the reactive elements (e.g., capacitive element) in the which is followed by frequency multiplication to
tank circuit of the oscillator being directly controllable increase the frequency deviation to the desired level.
by the message signal.  The carrier-frequency stability problem is alleviated by
 The tendency for the carrier frequency to drift, which is using a highly stable oscillator (e.g., crystal oscillator)
usually unacceptable for commercial radio applications. in the narrowband FM generation; this modulation
 To overcome this limitation, frequency stabilization of scheme is called the Armstrong wide-band frequency
the FM generator is required, which is realized through modulator.
the use of feed-back around the oscillator
 A simplified block diagram of this indirect FM system

is shown in Fig. 4.10.
 A frequency multiplier consists of a memoryless
nonlinear device followed by a bandpass filter, as
shown in Fig. 4.11.
 The input-output relation of such a device may be
Figure 4.10 Block diagram of the indirect method of generating a wide-band
expressed in the general form FM wave.
v(t) = a1s(t) + a2s2(t) + … + ansn(t)
Figure 4.11 Block diagram of frequency multiplier.

4.8 Demodulation of FM Signals
 The input s(t) is an FM wave defined by  Frequency demodulation is the process by means of
which the original message signal is recovered from an
s (t )  Ac cos  2f c t  2k f  m ( ) d  
t
 0  incoming FM wave.
where the instantaneous frequency is Frequency Discriminator
f i (t )  f c  k f m (t )  The FM signal is
s (t )  Ac cos  2f c t  2k f  m ( ) d  
t
 A new FM wave is
 0 
s ' (t )  Ac cos  2f c't  2k 'f  m ( ) d 
t
 We can motivate the formulation of a receiver for
 0 
doing this recovery by nothing that if we take the
f i (t )  nf c  nk f m (t )
'
derivative of Eq. (4.44) with respect to time
ds (t )
 2Ac [ f c  k f m (t )] sin  2f c t  2k f  m ( ) d 
t
dt  0 
d
 j 2f
dt
 A typical transfer characteristic that satisfies this  Let ŝ1(t) denote the complex envelope of the response
requirement is described by of the slope circuit due to s(t).
 j 2 [ f  ( fc  BT / 2)], fc  (BT / 2) | f | fc  ( BT / 2) ~ 1~ ~
H1( f )   S1( f )  H1( f )S ( f )
 0, otherwise 2
~
The transfer characteristic of this so-called slope circuit  j[ f  BT / 2)]S ( f ),  (BT / 2)  f  (BT / 2)


is illustrated in Fig. 4.12 for positive frequencies.  0, otherwise
 The circuit is also not required to have zero response
 Multiplication of the Fourier transform by j2πf is
outside the transmission bandwidth
equivalent to differentiating the inverse Fourier
 The complex envelope of the FM signal s(t) is transform
s (t )  Ac exp  j 2k f  m ( ) d 
~ t
d ~ ~
 0  s (t )  j 2fS ( f )
dt
~  j2[ f  BT / 2)],  (BT / 2)  f  (BT / 2)
H1( f )  
 0, otherwise
 Two pertinent properties of the Fourier transform,

1. Multiplication of the Fourier transform S(f) by j2πf is
equivalent to differentiating the inverse Fourier
transform s(t) in accordance with Property 9 described
in Eq. (2.33).
2. Application of the linearity property (i.e., Eq. (2.14)) to
the nonzero part of S1(f) yields
~ 1 d ~ 1
s1 (t )  s (t )  jBT ~
s (t )
2 dt 2
Figure 4.12 Frequency response of an ideal slope circuit.
the actual response of the slope circuit due to the FM
wave s(t)is given by
1   2k f  
~  m (t )  exp  j 2k f  m ( )d 
t
s1 (t )  jAc BT 1  
2 
  BT  0

s1 (t )  Re[ ~
s1 (t ) exp( j 2f c t )]  Under ideal conditions, the output of the envelope
  2k 
detector is 1   2k f  
1   t  v1 (t )  Ac BT 1    m (t ) 

2
Ac BT 1   f  m (t )  cos  2f c t  2k f  m ( ) d  2  2   BT  
  BT  0
 
The envelope detector 1   2k f  

v 2 (t )  Ac BT 1    m (t ) 
2   BT  
 2k f 
  | m (t ) | 1, for all t  The overall output that is bias-free
 BT 
 The next functional block to be considered is the envelope v(t) = v1(t) – v2(t) = cm(t)
detector, we see that s1(t) is a hybrid modulated wave, where c is a constant.
exhibiting both amplitude modulation and frequency
modulation of the message signal m(t).
National Taiwan Ocean University Phase-Locked Loop, PLL National Taiwan Ocean University
 The phase-locked loop is a feedback system whose

operation is closely linked to frequency modulation.
 The phase-locked loop consists of 3 major components:
 Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO),
 Multiplier,
 Loop filter of a low-pass kind.
 VCO has been adjusted so that when the control signal Figure 4.13 Block diagram of ideal frequency discriminator.
is zero, two conditions are satisfied
 The frequency of the VCO is set precisely at the
unmodulated carrier frequency fc of the incoming FM
wave s(t)
 The VCO output has a 90◦-degree phase-shift with
respect to the unmodulated carrier wave.
Figure 4.14 Block diagram of the phase-locked loop.
 Suppose the incoming FM wave is defined by  A high-frequency component, which is defined by the
s (t )  Ac sin 2f c t  1 (t )  double-frequency term.
t
1 (t )  2k f  m ( ) d  kmAcAvsin[4fct + 1(t) + 2(t)]
0
 A low-frequency component, which is defined by the
 The FM wave produced by the VCO as difference-frequency term.
r (t )  Av cos 2f c t   2 (t )  kmAcAvsin[1(t) – 2(t)]
t
 2 (t )  2k v  v ( ) d   With the loop-filter designed to suppress the high-
0
frequency components in the multiplier’s output, we
 The multiplication of the incoming FM wave s(t) by the may henceforth discard the double-frequency term.
locally generated FM wave r(t) produces two e(t) = kmAcAvsin[e(t)]
components
 A high-frequency component
 A low-frequency component
 e(t) is the phase error defined by t

 When the open-loop transfer function of a linear
 e (t )  1 (t )   2 (t )  1 (t )  2k v  v ( ) d feedback system has a large magnitude compared with
0
unity for all frequencies, the closed-loop transfer
 We may assume sin[e(t)]  e(t), therefore function of the system is effectively determined by the
e(t)  kmAcAve(t) = K0/kv ．e(t) inverse of the transfer function of the feedback path.
where the new parameter  Described in the time domain by the scaled differentiator
K0 = kmkvAcAv 1  d  2 (t ) 
v (t )   
is called the loop-gain parameter of the phase-lock loop. 2k v  dt 
 A linearized feedback model of the phase-locked loop  A linearized feedback model of the phase-locked loop is
can be constituted. The error signal e(t) acts as the loop depicted in Fig. 4.15 (a) with the angle 1(t) of the
filter to produce the overall output v(t). incoming FM wave s(t) acting as input and the loop

v (t )   e ( ) h (t   ) d filter’s output v(t) acting as the overall output of the

phase-locked loop.
 The magnitude of the open-loop transfer function of the

PLL is controlled by the loop-gain parameterK0
 The specification of standards for FM stereo transmission
is influenced by two factors
 The transmission has to operate within the allocated FM
broadcast channels
 It has to be compatible with monophonic radio receivers
 Important theorem: When the open-loop transfer

function of a linear feedback system has a large magnitude
compared with unity for all frequencies, the closed-loop
transfer function of the system is effectively determined by Figure 4.15 (a) Linearized model of the phase-locked loop. (b) Approximate
form of the model, assuming that the loop gain K0 is large compared with unity.
the inverse of the transfer function of the feedback path.
 In light of the feedback theorem, we may related the  An important feature of the phase-locked loop, acting as a
overall output v(t) to the input angle 1(t) by the frequency demodulator, is that the bandwidth of the
approximate formula incoming FM wave s(t) can be much wider than that of
1  d 1 (t )  the loop filter characterized by the transfer function H(f)-
v (t )   
2k v  dt  that is, the Fourier transform of the loop filter’s impulse
 Simplify the linearized feedback model of Fig. 4.15(a) response h(t).
to the form shown in part (b) of the figure.  The transfer function H(f) of the loop filter can and
therefore should be restricted to the baseband.
1 d
  2k f
t
  k f m (t )
v (t ) 
2k v dt  0 m ( ) d 
 kv  The complexity of the phase-locked loop is determined
by the transfer function H(f) of the loop filter.
 The hold-in frequency range refers to the range of
frequencies for which the loop remains in a phase-locked
condition with respect to the incoming FM wave.
4.9 Theme Example: FM Stereo Multiplexing 4.9 Theme Example: FM Stereo Multiplexing
 The specification of standards for FM stereo  Stereo multiplexing is a form of frequency-division
transmission is influenced by two factors multiplexing (FDM) designed to transmit two separate
 The transmission has to operate within the allocated FM signals via the same carrier.
broadcast channels  Figure 4.16(a) shows the block diagram of the
 It has to be compatible with monophonic radio receivers multiplexing system used in an FM stereo transmitter.
m(t) = [ml(t)+mr(t)] + [ml(t)–mr(t)]cos(4πfct) + Kcos(4πfct)
where fc=19 kHz, and K is the amplitude of the pilot tone.
 At a stereo receiver, first of all the multiplexed signal
m(t) is recovered by frequency demodulating the
incoming FM wave. Then m(t) is applied to the
demultiplexing system shown in Fig. 4.16(b).
Summary and Discussion

 Two kinds of angle modulation
 Phase modulation (PM), where the instantaneous phase
of the sinusoidal carrier wave is varied linearly with the
message signal
 Frequency modulation (FM), where the instantaneous
frequency of the sinusoidal carrier wave is varied
linearly with the message signal
 　Frequency modulation is typified by the equation
s (t )  Ac cos  2f c t  2k f  m ( ) d 
t
Figure 4.16 (a) Multiplexer  0

in transmitter of FM stereo.
(b) Demultriplexer in receiver
of FM stereo.
Summary and Discussion

 FM is a nonlinear modulation process
 In FM, the carrier amplitude and therefore the
transmitted average power is constant
 Frequency modulation provides a practical method for
the tradeoff of channel bandwidth for improved noise
performance.

National Taiwan Ocean University Angle Modulation Fundamentals

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National Taiwan Ocean University Angle Modulation Fundamentals

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國立台灣海洋大學

國立台灣海洋大學 National Taiwan Ocean University

National Taiwan Ocean University

Lecture 7. Angle Modulation

 The phase-modulated wave s(t) is correspondingly

s (t )  Ac cos  2f c t  2k f  m ( ) d 

 Property 2 Nonlinearity of the modulation process

 Property 3 Irregularity of zero-crossings  Property 4 Visualization difficulty of message

4.3 Relationship Between PM and FM Waves

4.4 Narrow-Band Frequency Modulation  Modulation index of the FM wave

 If the modulation index is small compared to one

4.5 Wide-Band Frequency Modulation  The complex Fourier coefficient

s (t )  Re[ Ac exp( j 2f c t  j sin( 2f m t ))] 1 /( 2 f m )

 The complex envelope is  Let x  2f m t

 In the simplified form

2. For small values of the modulation index , we have

 The spectrum of an FM wave contains a carrier 4.6 Transmission Bandwidth of FM Waves

4.6 Transmission Bandwidth of FM Waves Universal Curve for FM Transmission Bandwidth

 Table 4.2 shows the total number of significant side-frequencies

 The bandwidth required to transmit an FM wave Example 4.3

4.7 Generation of FM Waves Indirect Method: Armstrong Modulator

 A simplified block diagram of this indirect FM system

Figure 4.11 Block diagram of frequency multiplier.

 Two pertinent properties of the Fourier transform,

 The phase-locked loop is a feedback system whose

 e(t) is the phase error defined by t

 The magnitude of the open-loop transfer function of the

 Important theorem: When the open-loop transfer

Summary and Discussion

Figure 4.16 (a) Multiplexer  0

Summary and Discussion

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