Submitted To : Ma’am Sehrish

Submitted by : Group # 2
Huda Amir 2017-PE-20
Hafza Asghar 2017-PE-48
Amina Amjad 2017-PE-08
Minahil Mukhtar 2017-PE-20
Zeenat Rana 2017-PE-49
Aneela Khan 2017-PE-05
Areej Ilyas 2017-PE-26
Noor Mughal 2017-PE-17
Asra 2017-PE-12
Hafiz Zeeshan 2017-PE-22
Ali Hassan 2017-PE-24
M. Shahroz 2017-PE-28
Anas Yaqoob 2017-PE-31
Saad Baber 2017-PE-34

Thermal Radiation Unit

(Open Ended Lab)
THE VIEW FACTOR

HEAT TRANSFER LAB

OBJECTIVE:
To show that the intensity of radiation measured by the radiometer is directly related to the
radiation emitted from a source by the view factor between the radiometer and the source.

INTRODUCTION:
Thermal radiation is one of the fundamental mechanisms of heat transfer. Thermal
radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of particles in matter.
All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. Particle
motion results in charge-acceleration or dipole oscillation which produces electromagnetic
radiation.
Thermal radiation is a non-material-bound energy transport by means of electromagnetic
oscillations in a certain wavelength range. Anybody with a temperature above zero Kelvin emits
radiation known as thermal radiation. Thermal radiation includes UV radiation, light radiation
and infrared radiation. Light radiation covers the wavelength range visible to the human eye.
The WL 362 experimental unit contains two radiation sources: a heat radiator and a light emitter.
Thermal radiation is detected by means of a thermopile. Light radiation is recorded by means of
a luxmeter with photodiode. Various optical elements such as apertures, absorption plates or
color filters can be set up between the emitter and the detector. All components are mounted on
an optical bench. The distance between the optical elements can be read from a scale along the
optical bench.
Luxmeter, thermopile and light emitter can be rotated to study how the angle of incidence affects
the radiation intensity. The angles are read off the angular scale.
The optical elements are used to investigate the reflection, absorption and transmission of
different materials at different wavelengths and temperatures. The radiant power of both emitters
can be adjusted. The aim of the experiments is to check optical laws: e.g. Kirchhoff’s law of
radiation, the Stefan-Boltzmann law, Lambert’s distance and direction law.
The measured values are displayed digitally on the measuring amplifier. The measured values are
transmitted directly to a PC via USB where they can be analyzed using the software included.

In this experiment we used the thermal radiation unit to show that R is directly related to the
calculated Rc by the view factor F. where R is the radiometer reading that is calculated by using
the formulas and RC is the radiometer reading note by experimentation.
The equipment thermal radiation unit consist of the sensor mounted on the scale and its position
can be vary. There is a radiation emitter on a fixed position which radiate radiation and are sense
by the sensor. Heater increases the temperature of the radiation emitter. A step-down transformer
is also there which provides low voltage supply for a heater source. In the console we also have
the temperature measuring device which gives the temperature of radiator.
In this experiment we change power position of the radiometer and observe the increase in
temperature of both platesand also intensity. It is commonly observed that by increasing
temperature intensity increases. We used black body about which it is always said that it is
perfect absorber these all absorbed radiations transmitted to other plate which then sense by
sensor. After the black body we have another plate.
The distance of black body from the radiation emitter is 50mm
The distance of another plate from radiometer is 900mm
The radiometer moves 100mm forward for each reading, wait 5 min after changing volts and
position of radiometer. In this apparatus we also have the light sources with a comprehensive
range of targets and measuring instruments. We use light meter as a sensor in this case.

There are three modes of heat transfer. These are conduction, convection and radiation.

Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as
a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. Unlike
conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does not require the presence of
an intervening medium .In fact, energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and
it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth. In
heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form of radiation
emitted by bodies because of their temperature. It differs from other forms of electromagnetic
radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays ,microwaves, radio waves, and television waves that are
not related to temperature .All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal
radiation .Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit, absorb,
or transmit radiation to varying degrees. However, radiation Is usually considered to be a
surface phenomenon for solids that are opaque to thermal radiation such as metals, wood, and
rocks since the radiation emitted by the interior regions of such material can never reach the
surface, and the radiation incident on such bodies is usually absorbed within a few microns from
the surface. All bodies with a temperature above absolute zero (0 K) radiate energy in the form
of photons moving in a random direction, with random phase and frequency. When radiated
photons reach another surface, they may be absorbed, reflected or transmitted. The behavior of
a surface with radiation incident upon it can be described by the following quantities:
 : Absorptance - fraction of the incident radiation absorbed
 : Reflectance - fraction of the incident radiation reflected
 : Transmittance - fraction of the incident radiation transmitted

THEORY:
Stefan-Boltzmann law Stefan-Boltzmann law states that for a black body
𝑞� = (� � 4 − � � 4 )
 Where :
Energy radiated by a blackbody per unit area, (W/m2)
 : The Stefan-Boltzmann constant, ( = 5.67·10−8 W/(m2 · K 4 ))
�s : Surface temperature of the heated plate, (K)
�a : Surrounding temperature including the radiometer, (K)
The reading on the radiometer will be related to the radiation emitted by the plate through a
constant factor F
� = 𝑞�/ 𝑞b
R : Radiation received by the radiometer, (W/m2 )
F : View factor, (-)

Radiation intensity
The radiation received by the radiometer is connected to the radiation emitted by the source
through the view factor F defined as fraction of energy emitted per time unit by a surface
intercepted by the other surface. In this case we have

𝑞� = (� � 4 − � � 4 )
factor F depends on only geometrical parameters.

Emissivity of radiating surfaces

The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that
𝑞� = (� � 4 − � � 4 )
Where � is the emissivity of the radiating surface and � = 1 for a black body. If a black plate is set
on a proper support between the radiating surface and the radiometer and considering that the
plate is not circular but square, the view factor will change. In this case, the emissivity of the
plate set between the heat source and the radiometer is equal to

� = 𝑅/ (� � 4 − � � 4 )
Refer to the Stefan Boltzmann law states for a black body given in equation (12.1). This
is the energy emitted from the surface. At a distance x from the surface, the energy
received (and indicated) by detector R is related to the Stefan Boltzmann constant by a
factor F (Refer to The view factor, F, is related to the view angle θ such that :

F = sin2 θ
Therefore,
R= sin2 θ*𝜎* (� � 4 − � � 4 )= sin2 θ *qb

UNIT DESCRIPTION
•The unit comprises a rigid track onto which are fitted three carriages and together with
a heat source, light source, instruments and accessories that allow the various properties
of heat and light radiation to be investigated. The track has a graduated scale so that
the distances between components may be measured.
•Carriage is designed to support a combination of metal plates with different surface
finishes (polished, matt black, dull grey) and each having a duplex surface temperature
measuring thermocouple attached. T7 to T10 are duplicated for easy connection to the
Hilton Data Logger and are terminated with 2-way edge connectors. These are not utilized
without the optional HC111A Data Acquisition Upgrade.
•A transverse carriage will support cork coated variable aperture plates and plastic light filter
plates.
•Carriage is designed to support either a radiometer for heat transfer experiments or a light
meter for light related experiments. The radiometer signal is displayed on a dedicated console
and the light meter is a handheld LCD meter. Both signals maybe retransmitted to the
data logger.
•The radiometer is supplied with a reflective shield that fits in the front aperture to
minimize heating of the detector body by the heat source when the device is not in use.
•Radiation from external sources (sunshine or room heaters, particularly radiant devices)
should be minimized where possible.
•At the left end of the carriage may be located a heat source (10) and at the right end
a light source.
•The heat source consists of a 200W ceramic heater and 100mm diameter black
aluminum plate whichis heated by a variable voltage (240v max) electrical supply through
connector . The exposed face of the plate is coated with a heat resistant matt black paint with
an emissivity close to 1.0.
•The surface temperature of the plate is measured by duplex thermocouple T10, the
thermocoupleis fitted with a plug for direct connection to the Heat Transfer Service unit H111,
the heater is rated to produce approximately 200 Watts at 230 V AC. The plate can reach
in excess of 300oC when operated at maximum voltage.

PROCEDURE
1. Ensure that the H111 main switch is in the off position (the three digital displays should
not be
1. illuminated). Ensure that the residual current circuit breaker on the rear panel is in the ON
position.
2. Turn the voltage controller anti-clock wise to set the AC voltage to minimum.
3. Connect the 8-way plug for heat source.
4. Install the heated plate C1 (10) at the left hand side of the track and install the radiometer
C1 (12) on the right hand carriage C1 (2). No items are installed in the left hand carriage
for the experiment but one of the black plates should be placed on the bench and
connected to the thermocouple socket T9.

i. Fig.1: Schematic diagram of experiment

5. Fit the light radiometer to the sensor carriage C1 (13).
6. Ensure that the radiation shield is in position in the radiometer aperture and station the
radiometer
7. in the 900mm position as shown above.
8. The radiometer should be left for several minutes after handling with the radiation shield
in position to ensure that residual heating has dissipated.
9. For radiometer experiments, position the displays console on top of the H111 console.
Connect the power cable between both consoles and plug the radiometer signal cable into
the front panel.
10. Turn on the H111 main switch and three digital displays should illuminate. The
radiometer should also illuminate. The required temperature is displayed on the LED
digital display by turning the rotary sector switch.
11. .Auto-Zero. the radiometer by pressing the right hand * button twice.
12. Rotate the voltage controller clockwise to increase the voltage.
13. Monitor the digital displays and after several minutes, the display should reach a
minimum.
14. Finally, .Auto-Zero. the radiometer by pressing the right hand * button twice.
15. Leave the radiation shield in position and rotate the voltage controller clockwise to
increase the voltage to maximum volts. Select the T10 position on the temperature
selector switch and monitor the T10 temperature.
16. When the T10 temperature has reached a maximum condition, remove the radiation
shield (without touching the radiometer). Immediately the indicated value should start to
 rise. Monitor the digital display until the displayed value reaches a maximum and then
record the following.
T9, T10, X (900mm in this case),R.
17. Again without touching the radiometer, move the carriage holding the radiometer to a
position 800mm from the heated plate. Again, the radiometer reading will start to rise.
Allow this to reach a maximum and repeat the observations T9, T10, X (800mm in this
case),R.
18. Repeat the above procedure in reducing steps of 100mm until the radiometer is 200mm
from the heated plate.
19. Note that at a distance of less than 200mm, the heated plate completely fills the field of
view of the radiometer and accuracy of measurement reduces.
20. When the experimental procedure is completed, it is good practice to turn off the power
to the heater by reducing the AC voltage to zero and then turn off H111 main switch.
21. Allow the components to cool before storing them away safely.

CALCULATIONS:
Sr.no Ts Ta X Rc qb θ sin2 θ R= qb× Efficienc
(K) (K) (mm) (W/m2) (W/m2) sin2 θ y=
(W/m2) (R/Rc)100
1. 283 281 900 1 10.1 4.0041 0.00487 0.049 4.9
7
2. 284 282 800 2 10.2 4.50 0.00615 0.063 3.15
3. 285 282 700 3 15.5 5.14 0.00802 0.124 4.1
4. 286 283 600 4 15.6 5.994 0.0109 0.170 4.25
5. 287 284 500 5 15.8 7.1814 0.0156 0.246 4.92
6. 288 285 400 6 16.0 8.9505 0.0242 0.387 6.45

7
0.39
6 6
0.25
5 5

4 0.17
4
R= qb× sin2 θ (W/m2)
3 0.12
3 Rc (W/m2)

2 0.06
2

1 0.05
1

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
CONCLUSION:
Comparing the calculated radiation incident on the detector and the corrected radiation
measured by the detector it may be seen that the value are similar.
Note that small errors in temperature measurement affect the data to the fourth power of
temperature.
This experiments shows the effect of the view factor on the efficiency of radiation unit. We found
the two readings one direct from radiometer other from view factor and then compared them to
have the check what is the effect of view factor. The data on graph shows that the deviation is
small from that of radiometer reading but efficiency is not that much good.

REFERENCES
Instruction manual from the Heat Transfer & Applied Thermodynamics Lab

2012, Radiation Heat Transfer,

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/radiation-heat-transfer-d_431.html

2012, Wikipedia, Heat Transfer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer

2012, The overview behind heat radiation

http://www.efunda.com/formulae/heat_transfer/radiation/overview_rad.cfm

Incropera, DeWitt, Bergmann, Lavine, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 7 th Edition,
Wiley Asia Student Edition

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles, Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach, 7 th Edition, Mc

Graw Hill