S I C

PHY INARYS
@ PRELIM

Stephen Bosi
Kirsten Hogg
Joe Khachan
John O’Byrne
Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide
and associated companies around the world Sandra Woodward
Contents
Acknowledgements v Module 2 The World Communicates
Series features vi
How to use this book viii Module introduction 78
Stage 6 Physics syllabus grid x Chapter 5 Moving energy around: waves 80
5.1 Waves—carriers of energy 80
Module 1 Moving About 5.2 Wave motion in one, two and
Module introduction 2 three dimensions 82
5.3 Medium for wave travel 83
Chapter 1 Getting from A to B: kinematics 4 5.4 Energy transformation in devices 85
1.1 Time, distance and speed 4 5.5 The wave model 87
1.2 Displacement, velocity and acceleration 6 5.6 The wave equation 89
1.3 SUVAT equations 9 Practical experiences 91
1.4 Graphs and motion 13 Chapter summary 92
Practical experiences 16 Review questions 92
Chapter summary 17
Review questions 17 Chapter 6 How waves behave 96
6.1 Energy and waves 96
Chapter 2 Heads and tails: vectors 22 6.2 Superposition 100
2.1 Manipulating vectors 22 6.3 Phase 101
2.2 Vector components 26 6.4 The superposition of waves 102
2.3 Circular motion 28 6.5 Diagrams used to describe waves 105
Practical experiences 30 6.6 Wave reflection and refraction 106
Chapter summary 31 Practical experiences 110
Review questions 31 Chapter summary 112
Chapter 3 Pushing and shoving: force 34 Review questions 112
3.1 What is force? 34 Chapter 7 Hear the differences: sound 116
3.2 Mass and weight 36 7.1 Sound waves as longitudinal waves 116
3.3 Newton’s first law of motion 39 7.2 Pitch and volume 120
3.4 Newton’s second law of motion 41 7.3 Reflection of sound waves 123
3.5 Newton’s third law of motion 42 7.4 Superposition of sound waves 126
3.6 More about force 44 Practical experiences 131
3.7 Jump in my car 48 Chapter summary 132
Practical experiences 50 Review questions 132
Chapter summary 51
Review questions 51 Chapter 8 Communication applications of EM waves 136
8.1 Properties of EM waves 136
Chapter 4 Crash bang: energy and momentum 54 8.2 EM wave reflection 141
4.1 What is energy? 54 8.3 EM wave refraction 145
4.2 Energy transformation and motion 57 8.4 Communications technologies using
4.3 Work 59 EM waves 149
4.4 Momentum 63 Practical experiences 158
4.5 Impulse 67 Chapter summary 160
Practical experiences 71 Review questions 161
Chapter summary 72
Review questions 72 Module 2 Review 166

Module 1 Review 76

iii
Cont
Co
Contents
nten
ntents
ents

Module 3 Electrical Energy in the Home 13.5 Gravity goes to work 253
13.6 General relativity has a say 255
Module introduction 168 13.7 Expanding universes—in theory 257
Chapter 9 Electricity: past and present 170 13.8 The expanding universe—in practice 258
9.1 Sources of domestic energy over time 170 Practical experiences 261
9.2 Providing electricity in remote locations 174 Chapter summary 262
9.3 Galvani versus Volta 175 Review questions 262
Practical experiences 178
Chapter 14 Where it all started: the Big Bang 264
Chapter summary 179
14.1 Understanding an expanding universe 264
Review questions 179
14.2 A hot Big Bang 267
Chapter 10 Charges, sparks and currents 182 14.3 Lighting up the universe 271
10.1 Discovering static electricity 182 14.4 Refining the Big Bang 273
10.2 Origins of electrical charges 183 Practical experiences 274
10.3 Behaviour of electrostatic charges 184 Chapter summary 275
10.4 Conductors and insulators 185 Review questions 275
10.5 Charging methods 187
Chapter 15 Bright and colourful: properties of stars 278
10.6 Electric fields 188
15.1 Star brightness 278
10.7 Electric current 191
15.2 Star colour 281
10.8 Electric potential energy and potential difference 193
15.3 The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram 282
10.9 DC circuits 195
15.4 Energy for the stars 285
Practical experiences 200
15.5 The life of a star 288
Chapter summary 202
Practical experiences 291
Review questions 202
Chapter summary 292
Chapter 11 Power to the people 206 Review questions 292
11.1 Circuit combinations 206
Chapter 16 The Sun–Earth connection 296
11.2 Series circuits 207
16.1 The Sun as a star 296
11.3 Parallel circuits 209
16.2 The structure of the Sun 299
11.4 Using ammeters and voltmeters 212
16.3 The active Sun 302
11.5 Household circuits 213
16.4 The solar wind 305
11.6 Electric power 215
16.5 The Earth’s magnetosphere 307
11.7 Household electrical energy consumption 217
Practical experiences 311
11.8 Electric shock 220
Chapter summary 312
11.9 Safety devices 221
Review questions 312
Practical experiences 225
Chapter summary 227 Module 4 Review 314
Review questions 227 Module 5 Skills
Chapter 12 The attraction of magnetism 230
Module introduction 316
12.1 Magnetic poles 230
12.2 Magnetic field 232 Chapter 17 Physics skills 318
12.3 Magnetic fields produced by electric currents 234 17.1 Expressing the value clearly 318
12.4 Magnetic field from a solenoid 235 17.2 Units 319
Practical experiences 237 17.3 Uncertainty 322
Chapter summary 238 17.4 Recording data 324
Review questions 238 17.5 Rearranging formulae 327
17.6 Secondary sources 328
Module 3 Review 240 17.7 Planning an open investigation 331
Module 4 The Cosmic Engine Chapter 18 Understanding and using the BOS key terms 334
Module introduction 242 18.1 Grouping the verbs 336
Review questions 345
Chapter 13 Our view of the universe: cosmology 244
13.1 Spirits in the sky 244 Numerical answers 348
13.2 The Earth at the centre 246 Glossary 350
13.3 The Sun at the centre 247 Index 359
13.4 New observations 249 Formulae and data sheets 367
Periodic table 368
iv

Acknowledgements
The authors and publishers wish to thank the following
organisations who kindly gave permission to reproduce
copyright material in this book:
Photographs
AAP: p. 81; AAP/Paul Sakuma/AP: p. 4; Anglo–Australian
Observatory/David Malin Images: pp. viii top right, 243,
259 right, 278; Australasian Science/J. Digweed: p. 164;
Stephen Bosi: pp. 58 left, 62 right; image reproduced with
the kind permission of the Bureau International des Poids
et Mesures (BIPM): p. 319; © www.CartoonStock.com:
p. 316; Mathew Colless/AAO: p. 266 right; Corbis: pp. 78,
135; © Til Credner/All the Sky.com: p. 277 bottom;
European Space Agency © ESA: p. 70; Getty Images:
pp. 11 bottom, 80; © Dr David Hathaway/NASA/MSFC//
NSSTC/Hathaway 2008/06: p. 303; Robert Hollow/
CSIRO: p. 259 left; Shay “The Rubberband Boy” Horay:
p. 35 right; Imsal.com: p. 300 bottom; Industry &
Technology/PEA CD: p. 186; iStock: pp. 3, 35 left, 90;
Jupiter Images: pp. 16 centre, bottom, 56, 116, 119,
142 top left; Mary Evans Picture Library: p. 315; image
© Shevill Mathers/Southern Cross Observatory, Tasmania:
p. 308 top; NASA: pp. vi second from bottom left, bottom
left, viii top left, 11 top, 37, 38 all, 43 both, 46 left, 242,
266 left, 271 top, 272 all, 302 top and bottom left, 304
bottom, 306 both, 308 bottom left and right; National
Center for Supercomputer Applications. Simulations were
performed at the National Center for Supercomputer
Applications by Andrey Kravtsov (The University of
Chicago) and Anatoly Klypin (New Mexico State
University). Visualizations by Andrey Kravtsov: p. 271
bottom; National Optical Astronomy Observatory/
Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy/
National Science Foundation: p. 301 bottom; Emu In The
Sky © Barnaby Norris: p. 245 right; John O’Byrne/NASA:
p. 265; Thiago D. Olson: p. 295; © Orienteering Australia:
p. 33; photolibrary.com: front cover, pp. vi top, centre and
bottom right, vii both, 28, 39, 40, 46 centre, 53, 54, 55,
57 both, 58 right, 61, 62 top and bottom left, 68 both, 71,
79, 82, 84, 85, 99, 100 both, 105, 106, 108, 123, 125,
129, 136, 139, 142 bottom right, 143 top right, 144, 148
right, 150, 168, 171 all, 172 bottom right, 173, 174
bottom, 175, 176 both, 177, 178, 182, 183, 189, 197,
205, 206, 214, 218, 219 both, 220, 224, 229, 232, 233,
239, 245 left, 247, 249, 255 all, 297, 300 top, 302 right,
304 top, 310, 334; Picture Media: pp. 2, 117; Professional
Cont
Co
Contents
nten
nt ents
en ts
Science/PEA CD: p. 148 left; Science Image/CSIRO:
p. 143 bottom left; Shutterstock: pp. 16 top, 69, 172 top
left, 174 top, 198, 199, 291, 301 top; image courtesy of the
State Library of South Australia. PRG 1365/1/133 – The
Overland Telegraph Line, 1921: p. 149; University of
Oklahoma, History of Science Collections: p. 246;
© Weldon Owen Pty Ltd. Reproduced by permission:
pp. 270, 283, 288; Wikimedia, public domain: pp. 252,
253, 277 top.
Text
AAP News Wire, 8 November, 2005, for article ‘New
Plastic Technology Set To Revolutionise Fibre Optics’,
www.industrysearch.com.au/news/viewrecord.
aspx?ID=18637: pp. 164-5; Australian Academy of Science
for ‘Interviews with Australian Scientists’, extract from
interview with Professor Louis Davis by Professor David
Craig, 1999: p. 167; Horst Meyerdierks/The Astronomical
Society of Edinburgh Journal No. 51 for article ‘Pluto and
the Planets’, December 2006: p. 347; Pars International
Corp. on behalf of Discover Magazine for article
‘Radioactive Boy Scout: Teenager Achieves Nuclear Fusion
At Home’ by Stephen Ornes, 6 March 2007: p. 295;
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW for and
on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South
Wales, 2002: pp. x–xvii, Formulae sheet and Data sheet:
p. 367, Periodic Table of the Elements: p. 368. The Board
of Studies does not endorse model answers prepared by or
for the Publisher and accompanying the Material. The
Office of the Board of Studies takes no responsibility for
errors in the reproduction of the Material supplied by the
Office of the Board of Studies to the Publisher; Reuters for
article ‘Pluto no longer a planet’, published in the Herald
Sun, 25 August 2006: pp. 339–340.
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge
copyright material. The publishers would welcome any
information from people who believe they own copyright
to material in this book.
v
 Y S I C S
PH LIMINARY
@ PRE
M PL ET E PH YS IC S PA CK AGE FOR NSW STUDENTS
THE CO

in2 Physics is the most up-to-date physics package written for the NSW Stage 6 Physics syllabus. The
materials comprehensively address the syllabus outcomes and thoroughly prepare students for the HSC exam.
Physics is presented as an exciting, relevant and fascinating discipline. The student materials provide
clear and easy access to the content and theory, regular review questions, a full range of exam-style
questions and features to develop an interest in the subject.

in2 PHYSICS @ PRELIMINARY

in2 Physics @ Preliminary Student Book PHYS ICS
LIMINARY @ PRE
• The Student Book closely follows the NSW Stage 6 Physics B i

syllabus and its modular structure.

H

• It clearly addresses both the contexts and the prescribed focus

areas (PFAs).
Stephen Bosi
• Modules consist of chapters that are broken up into Kirsten Hogg
Joe Khachan
manageable sections. John O’Byrne
MOVING
Sandra Woodward ABOUT

• Checkpoint questions review key content at 3 n a

ng
Pushing nd
and
shoving: force

regular intervals throughout each chapter. PHYSICS FEATURE

MICROGRAVITY
5. Current issues, research and
developments in physics TRY THIS!
MICROGRAVITY LAB @ HOME
things. For
Microgravity also affects inanimate a foam cup. Fill the cup with water

• Physics Philes present short, interesting

or microgravity,
ow does effective weightlessness, teardrop-shaped Make a small hole at the bottom of
H work? On Earth, gravity pulls you
floor (or seat) pushes back on you.
down, but the
You’re compressed
example, a normal candle flame is
because hot, burnt gas rises; this
is called convection.
so flames
and then drop it. The moment it starts
the hole. Take a picture or video of
to fall, water stops pouring out of
the moment you let go. While the
stresses that But in microgravity, there’s no convection, behave as though they are weightless.
by two opposing forces, causing internal (Figure 3.2.4) water and cup are in free-fall, they
around your burn very slowly and are spherical
affect body organs and sensory nerves

snippets of relevant information about body so that you feel the effects of
things happen when you’re stretched
orbit, however, both astronaut and
weight. Similar
by gravity. In
spacecraft are in
CHECKPOINT 3.2
catches up with
free-fall, so the astronaut never quite

physics or physics applications. the floor (or seat): it doesn’t push

no internal stresses and no apparent
back, so there are

NASA astronauts train for effective

effects of gravity.
weightlessness
3.2.3). It climbs
1
2
3
Define mass and weight. What is true weightlessness?
Explain why mass is constant everywhere
but weight is not.
Calculate the weight on Earth of an object
Define free-fall.
of 50 kg.

(‘zero g’) in a padded aircraft (Figure 4

in a parabolic path

• Physics Features highlight important real-life rapidly and then curves downwards
with a downward acceleration of exactly
inside are in free-fall for up to 25
effect this has on some inexperienced
g, so people
s. Because of the
trainees, the
PRACTICAL
plane is nicknamed the ‘Vomit Comet’.
3.3 Newton’s first law of motion EXPERIENCES

examples of physics. Figure 3.2.4 Candle flame in

normal gravity (left)
and microgravity
(right)
So far we’ve given you a qualitative definition
the things it does. To be more quantitative,
of force and mentioned some of
we need to understand the properties
laws of motion.
Activity 3.1
Activity Manual, Page 16

of force, summarised by Newton’s three

correctly, the observer must be

• Physics For Fun—Try This! provide hands-on The European Space

Agency has recently
installed a special module
To apply Newton’s three laws of motion
non-accelerating (therefore non-rotating).
that ‘the observer is in an inertial frame
of reference means the observer’s point
The physicists’ way of saying this is
of reference’. Remember that frame
of view when judging velocity (see
(called Colombus) on the frame of reference, you’ll seem to
Section 1.2). If you’re in an accelerating

activities that are easy to do. International Space Station

to research the effects of
microgravity on combustion,
fluid physics, human health
experience fictitious forces.

Inertia
Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322
bc) taught 2300 years ago that the natural
so you need to keep applying an
and crystal, plant and cell state of Earthly objects is to be stationary,

• Physics Focus brings together physics concepts growth. external influence (force) to keep them
ball, it eventually stops, so you need to
this is wrong. It took almost 2000 years
moving. This seems right—if you kick
kick it again to keep it moving; however,
before Aristotle’s idea was conclusively
Newton (1643–1727).
a

argued against, by English physicist Isaac

his first law of motion (or

in the context of one or more PFAs and provides idea was summarised in
Newton’s revolutionary Figure 3.3.1 Isaac Newton
law of inertia):
Explain the need for a net
object, its velocity will
If no net external force is applied to an external force to act in order to
remain constant. change the velocity of an object.

students with a graded set of questions to Figure 3.2.3 Christa McAuliffe, the first school

Challenger shuttle disaster.

teacher in space,
died in the 1986
undertaking zero-g training. She later
39

develop their skills in this vital area. 38

PHYSIC S
Each Student Book includes an interactive Student CD containing: @ PRELIMINARY
STUDENT CD
Mac®/Windows ®

• an electronic version of the Student Book. Components of this CD

require Microsoft® Office.

How to use
Place CD into your CD
Important
For Conditions of Use,
click the Help button.

Customer Care 1800 656 685

drive. If it does not launch schools@pearsoned.com.au

• all of the student materials on the companion website with live

automatically, look on the
CD to find the file ‘launch’
and double-click on it.
Co

5
44

links to the website.

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vi
 in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual
• A write-in workbook 51
ACTIVITY 5.1
ACT MM
WORLD
THE WORL
WORLD
MMU
COM
COMM NICA
MMUNIC TES
TES
ATES
A

5 Moving en gy
ergy
energy rst-hand
First-hand

in2 PHYSICS @ PRELIMINA

vestigati
nvestigation
investigation
around: w
arou aves
waves

that provides a Hypothesis

Method
Part A: Slinky
side to side

1 Lay the slinky spring on a bench or desk.

structured approach
around
Tie a piece of coloured string or wool
a single coil in the middle of the slinky.
This will help you to see the pulses you

PHYS ICS
produce in the slinky.
Theory
to the mandatory
slinky
2 Have two students hold either end of the
so wave moves along the spring
spring. They should stand far enough apart

RY
Questions the student book, label the main features Figure 5.1.2

LIMINARY
and longitudinal. Using Chapter 5 of that the slinky is pulled tight.
There are two types of waves: transverse
1
of the wave with the terms amplitude,
crest, trough, wavelength, compression and
refraction.
3 One student should give the slinky a
quick @ PRE

Activity Manual
from one end to the other

practical experiences, a
side-to-side flick so that a pulse moves
(Figure 5.1.2). Describe the pulse as it
moves to the end.

Activity
Manual
both first-hand and 4 Repeat step 3; this time, however, move
position. Compare the pulses in steps
your hand a larger distance so that the
slinky moves
3 and 4. Does the shape of the pulse change?
Does the
furth from its rest
es further
spee of the pulse change?
he speed

Woodward
b

secondary-source Figure 5.1.1 Features of waves: (a) transverse

wave and (b) longitudinal wave
5 Repeat step 3, but now move your hand
faster to produce
moving your hand faster affect
a pulse in the slinky. How does movin

Hogg
terms oscillation, transmission the shape, size and speed of the pulse?
and longitudinal waves, including the
2 Briefly describe the properties of transverse

investigations.
in your response.
(or propagation), displacement and energy

Bo i
it back quickly in the direction of the
push the slinky forwards and then pull
Instead of moving the slinky side to side,

Kh h
6
the pulse as it moves through the slinky.
length of the slinky in Figure 5.1.3. Describe

• Dot point and skills in and out

Sandra Woodward

Kirsten Hogg
focused. Equipment
s
s
SLINKYSPRING
3 m of lightweight rope
s
s
s
COLOUREDSTRINGORWOOL
retort stand
clamp wave moves along the spring
Stephen Bosi

s ring signal generator

s Figure 5.1.3 Joe Khachan
s ripple tank screen
s
s light source
John O’Byrne

Risk assessment

37

36

in2 Physics @ Preliminary Teacher Resource

• Editable teaching materials, including teaching
programs, so that teachers can tailor lessons to PH YSIIN CAS
RY
suit their classroom. @ PRELIM
Teacher Resource
• Answers to Student Book and Activity Manual
questions, with fully worked solutions and
extended answers and support notes.
• Risk assessments for all first-hand
Sandra Woodward

investigations. Stephen Bosi

Kirsten Hogg

Joe Khachan

John O’Byrne

in2 Physics @ Preliminary companion website

• Review questions—auto-
correcting multiple-choice
questions for each chapter.
• Web destinations—a list of
reviewed websites that support
further investigation.
• Interactive animations that
present concepts in a clear
and engaging manner.
• QuickTime videos that explore
physics concepts in a real-life
context.

For more information on the in2 Physics series,

visit www.pearsoned.com.au/schools
vii
How to use this book
in2 Physics @ Preliminary is structured to enhance student • Key ideas are clearly highlighted with a and
learning and their enjoyment of learning. It contains many Syllabus flags indicate where domain dot points
outstanding and unique features that will assist students appear in the Student Book. The flags are placed as
succeed in Stage 6 Physics. These include: closely as possible to where the relevant content is
• Module opening pages introduce a range of contexts for covered. Flags may be repeated if the dot point has
study, as well as an inquiry activity that provides multiple parts, is complex or where students are
immediate activities for exploration and discussion. required to solve problems.

5 Moving
Movin
ing energy
around:
ener
und: waves
aves
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES

CHECKPOINT 5.1 CHECKPOINT 5.2

THE COSMIC
4
1 Define the terms energy and wave. 1 Complete the table to summarise one-dimensional (1-D), two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional
2 Explain how energy is transferred in a water wave without moving the individual water molecules. (3-D) waves.

ENGINE
WAVE TYPE EXAMPLE MEDIUM DESCRIPTION
1-D Travels in one direction along a
line

5.2 Wave motion in one, two and 2-D Ripples on a pond

three dimensions 3-D Air

CONTEXT
Figure 13.0.1 Looking past a nearby
galaxy like NGC 3370 in the
constellation Leo reveals
ever more distant galaxies.
242
‘Space is big. Really big. You just won’t believe how vastly, hugely, mind-bogglingly
big it is. I mean, you may think it’s a long way down the road to the chemist, but
that’s just peanuts to space.’
Douglas Adams, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy
In this lighthearted quote, writer Douglas Adams is probably doing as good a job as
any astronomer can in conveying the vastness of the universe. The distances and
times in astronomy are often so vast that it is impossible to relate them to our
everyday life. Like Adams, you can probably imagine driving to the local chemist,
but what about driving to the nearest star? Even if it was possible, it would take
about ten million years.
Instead, we aim to understand what is meant by an enormous distance, such as
a light-year, and then use it, even though we can’t imagine just how big it is.
In this module we will explore how we came to understand just how big the
universe is and where we are placed in this ‘big picture’. Then we will learn
something about the stars—the bright signposts that we now believe are merely
markers floating in the vast mysterious mass of dark matter and dark energy that
dominate the universe.
The most important star to us, the Sun, is the one we know best because it is
on our cosmic doorstep. As we shall see, the Sun not only provides us with light and
heat, but it also also washes over us with higher energy radiation and particles that
would kill us without the Earth’s protective environment.
Describe waves as a transfer of
energy disturbance that may
You may have heard the term three-dimensional (or 3-D). What does this mean?
Solid objects like cubes fill up space. Such objects have three characteristic sizes
or dimensions: length, width and height. Flat surfaces, such as squares, are called
occur in one, two or three
dimensions, depending on the two-dimensional (2-D) because they have only two dimensions. A square has
nature of the wave and the width and length as its dimensions. A straight line has only length, so it is
Figure 13.0.2 The stars of the constellation
Scorpius, with the red giant
medium. one-dimensional (1-D). So what does this have to do with waves? 5.3 Medium for wave travel
Stretch a slinky spring and give it a pinch so that you can see a wave pulse
Antares at its heart, lie in Almost all waves you will encounter need a medium (plural media) through
travel along the spring. This is called 1-D wave motion. In 1-D wave Identify that mechanical waves
front of the more distant star which to travel. A wave medium is any material that has a kind of ‘springiness’ or
motion, the wave travels (or propagates) along one direction in a line. The same require a medium for
clouds of the Milky Way.
is true if you wiggle a rope tied to a wall. The rope oscillates side-to-side, but the elasticity—a tendency to bounce back after you disturb it. Some examples of propagation while
wave propagates in a line along the rope. The movement of a guitar or violin waves (and their media) are ripples (water surface), sound waves (air), electromagnetic waves do not.
string is also an example of 1-D wave motion. earthquakes (rock) and a wicked bass riff (guitar string). All waves that
If you drop pebbles into a pond, you’ll find that waves travel outwards from require a material substance as the medium are called mechanical waves.
INQUIRY ACTIVITY the disturbance along the surface of the water in the form of circular waves.
Circular waves demonstrate 2-D wave motion, which is possible for any wave
EXPLORE A CONSTELLATION motion that is restricted to travelling along a surface (Figure 5.2.1). If you put
your hands on the wood of an acoustic guitar next to the hole, you will feel the
We think of a constellation as a group of stars, perhaps with a mythical figure whole surface vibrating. This is another example of 2-D wave motion. TRY THIS!
associated with it, such as Scorpius, the scorpion. Officially, a constellation is Three-dimensional waves are those that can travel in all directions.
a patch of sky that has had a boundary drawn around it and a name assigned. An example is the motion of sound waves through air, travelling spherically HEARING CHURCH BELLS FROM A SPOON
outwards from the source. You know that if someone speaks, you will hear them
Perhaps, within that boundary, a pattern of bright stars forms an easily
Cut a 1 m length of string and tie a spoon at its centre.
recognisable shape like the scorpion. More often, the pattern is well known only no matter where you are in the room since sound
Now put the ends of the string to each ear and have
to keen amateur astronomers! The pattern is just a chance alignment of stars can travel in all directions in
air (Figure 5.2.2). someone strike the spoon with another spoon. You should
seen from our perspective on Earth.
A dramatic example of a 3-D wave hear the sound of church bells! The wave starts out as
Try the following research activity to ‘get to know’ the constellation Scorpius.
1 Find a map of Scorpius, perhaps in a star atlas, a computer program that is the sound from an explosive, which vibrations in the spoon and then the energy is transferred
shows the stars or on the Internet using Google Sky or WikiSky. You’ll need travels in all directions and through to the string, which becomes the wave medium. Finally,
to orient the map to match the picture of Scorpius (Figure 13.0.2). anything in its path. This wave also the energy is transferred to your fingers and into your
Figure 5.2.1 Water waves propagate in two
2 Identify a few of the brightest stars in the constellation. The brightest will be dimensions on the surface throws hot particles in three ears very efficiently, making a surprisingly loud and
labelled alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), delta (δ) and so on using letters from of water. dimensions as well. rich sound.
the Greek alphabet, but they may also have names.
3 Look at some of the brightest stars of the constellation. Are they all the same Figure 5.3.1 Hearing church bells
colour? Why not?
4 Find the distances to several of the brightest stars of the constellation.
The easiest way to do this is to search the Internet. Look at a variety of
web pages to see if there is a range of values given. Why is this?
5 Do some research to find a ‘deep sky’ object within the constellation—a star
cluster, nebula (a gas cloud) or a galaxy. A star cluster or nebula will usually
Figure 5.2.2 Sound propagates in three
dimensions in air.
be more distant than the bright stars in the picture. If it’s a galaxy, it is well
beyond all the stars in the picture. Can you find a picture of your object and 82 83
a distance for it?
243

• Chapter openings list the key words of each chapter and • Each chapter concludes with:
introduce the chapter topic in a concise and engaging way. – a chapter summary
– review questions, including literacy-based questions
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
(Physically Speaking), chapter review questions
Hear the
7 (Reviewing) and physics problems (Solving
A sound wave in air will cause the air molecules to oscillate and the air
Relate compressions and
particles to move back and forth. At one point in the oscillation cycle, the air rarefactions of sound waves to
molecules are at high pressure, packed closely together or compressed. At another

difference: sound
the crests and troughs of
point in the cycle, the air molecules are at low pressure, spread apart or rarefied. transverse waves used to
If we represent a simple longitudinal sound wave mathematically by using a represent them.
sine wave, we assign the maximum positive value of the sine wave to the point of
maximum pressure—the compression point in the cycle—and the maximum
negative value of the sine wave to the point of minimum pressure—the
rarefaction. The wavelength is the distance between two compressions (or two
Problems). Syllabus verbs are clearly highlighted as
More than just noise rarefactions).

and where appropriate

compression, rarefaction, source,
pitch, resonance, volume, timbre,
Sound in the human experience goes far beyond a sensory survival
tool: it is a part of human culture, song, dance, prayer, ritual and
entertainment. Not only do humans make an extraordinary array of
sounds with their own bodies—for example, talking, singing, whistling
and clapping—but they have also designed and developed highly
Another way to represent the sound wave as a sine wave is to consider the
displacement of the air particles from their equilibrium positions. The
wavelength, frequency and period are still the same, but at positions of
maximum compression or maximum rarefaction, the air particle displacement
from equilibrium is zero. Conversely, positions of maximum or minimum

– Physics Focus—a unique feature that places key

displacement correspond to zero compression/rarefaction. In other words, the
echo, superimpose, reverberation,
specialised tools for making sounds, such as musical instruments. graph of displacement is 90° of phase behind the graph of pressure (Figure 7.1.3).
echolocation, path length difference,
Sound is also used in medicine, engineering, fisheries, communications
standing wave, node, anti-node
and architecture to solve problems and improve quality of life.

displacement
chapter concepts in the context of one or more
pressure

Figure 7.1.3 Red closed circles show particles displaced in a longitudinal wave. Red open circles
show their equilibrium positions. Positions of zero displacement (marked by vertical
lines) correspond to maximum or minimum pressure and vice versa.
prescribed focus areas.
7.1 Sound waves as longitudinal Therefore, we have two ways of representing a sound wave as a transverse
wave—plotting either pressure or particle displacement—and the two approaches
waves give different peak positions. However, whichever approach we use, we still
accurately represent the amplitude, wavelength and period of the longitudinal
Sound is a mechanical wave caused by a vibrating source. The particles surrounding sound wave in the transverse sine wave. Hence, each approach is valid.
the source oscillate and the kinetic energy of the oscillation is transmitted
through the medium as a longitudinal (or compression) wave. In
longitudinal waves the direction of particle oscillation is parallel to the energy
transfer, which is the propagation direction of the wave (Figure 7.1.2).
4 Crash
sh bang:
bang energy
and momen
momentum
m
momentu m
Chapter summary
MOVING
ABOUT

SCREAM s %NERGYISTHEABILITYTOCAUSEMOTION s 4HEWORKnENERGYTHEOREMSTATESTHATCHANGEINKINETIC

air molecule movement REVIEWING
Figure 7.1.1 Sound is part of human culture. S ound will not propagate in the
vacuum of space as there are
almost no particles present to
s 4HELAWOFCONSERVATIONOFENERGYSTATESTHATENERGYIS
NEITHERCREATEDNORDESTROYEDBUTCANBETRANSFORMED
FROMONEFORMINTOANOTHER4OTALENERGYINTHE
oscillate and transfer the energy—
UNIVERSEISTHEREFOREFIXED
ENERGYEQUALSTHESUMOFTHEWORKDONEBYEACH
EXTERNALFORCEACTINGΔK=W1+W2+W3+ …
s 0OWERISWORKDONEORENERGYTRANSFERREDOR
TRANSFORMED PERUNITTIME
1 Define energy. State its most important properties.
Force
2 Explain why a bouncing tennis ball would never reach the same height it
was released from.
Identify that sound waves are as made famous by the catchline of s %NERGYOFMOTIONKNOWNASKINETICENERGY+%  s -OMENTUMp=mv
vibrations or oscillations of wave direction
the 20th Century Fox film Alien, 3 Describe two examples where the generation of thermal energy due to
compression rarefaction 1 s 4HELAWOFTHECONSERVATIONOFMOMENTUMSTATESTHATIF
particles in a medium. which was made in 1979: ‘In space, K= mv 2. friction is desirable.
2 THEREISNONETEXTERNALFORCETHETOTALMOMENTUMOFA
Figure 7.1.2 Sound waves are longitudinal waves. no-one can hear you scream.’ Figure 7.1.4 Something to scream about— SYSTEMISCONSERVED&ORCESBETWEENPARTSOFASYSTEM
4 Explain how it is possible to tell the sign of work being done on an object Time
s 3TOREDENERGYISCALLEDPOTENTIALENERGY0% 
a model of the 6 m alien ‘Queen by an external force. Figure 4.6.2 Force versus time graph
Mother’ from the movie Alien. s %NERGYSTOREDBYLIFTINGOBJECTSAGAINSTGRAVITYIS DURINGACOLLISIONOREXPLOSIONAREINTERNAL
GRAVITATIONALPOTENTIALENERGY'0% U=mgh s )FEXTERNALFORCESARESMALLANDTHECOLLISIONOR 5 Describe the connection between power and energy.

4HEPOSITIONOFORIGINhISARBITRARY EXPLOSIONISRAPIDMOMENTUMISSTILLNEARLYEQUAL 6 Using momentum, explain why trucks need better braking ability than cars. Solve problems that apply the
116 117 principle of conservation of
s #HANGEIN'0%DEPENDSONLYONHEIGHTCHANGE IMMEDIATELYBEFOREANDAFTER 7 If momentum (a vector) is conserved, explain why, after a ball bounces off
momentum to qualitatively and
NOTPATHWAY s )NACOLLISIONTHELIGHTEROBJECTEXPERIENCESTHELARGER a wall or the ground, the direction of the momentum vector has changed.
quantitatively describe the
s 2ESISTIVEFORCESLIKEFRICTIONANDAIRRESISTANCECONVERT CHANGEINVELOCITY 8 Explain why cricket players pull their hands backwards when they catch a ball. collision of a moving vehicle with:
+%INTOTHERMALENERGY s #HANGEINMOMENTUMISCALLEDIMPULSEJ=Δmv=FΔt s ASTATIONARYVEHICLE
9 Using momentum, explain why a rifle recoils when it is fired.
s 4HESUMOF+%AND0%ISCALLEDMECHANICALENERGY s &ORAFIXEDIMPULSETHEAVERAGEFORCEEXERTEDON s ANIMMOVABLEOBJECT
ACOLLIDINGOBJECTDECREASESASTHECOLLISIONTIME 10 Suppose you graph horizontal force versus time exerted by two identical bullets
-% )NTHEABSENCEOFRESISTIVEFORCES-%ISCONSERVED s ANOTHERVEHICLEMOVINGIN
fired horizontally with identical speed at two different targets—soft clay and
s $OINGWORKWMEANSUSINGAFORCETOTRANSFERENERGY Δt INCREASES the opposite direction
hard wood (see Figure 4.6.2). Which graph represents which bullet? Explain
BETWEENOBJECTSORTOTRANSFORMENERGYFROMONEFORM
INTOANOTHERW=FsORW=FsCOSθ
s 7ORKISPOSITIVEIFFORCEANDDISPLACEMENTAREINTHE
• Chapters are divided into short, accessible sections—the s
SAMEDIRECTIONANDNEGATIVEIFTHEYAREOPPOSITE
s #RUMPLEZONESCARAIRBAGSANDFOAMSAFETYHELMETSALL s ANOTHERVEHICLEMOVINGIN
how you know. How would the areas under the graphs compare? Explain.
the same direction.
DECREASEAVERAGEFORCEBYINCREASINGΔt
s 4HESLOPEOFAMOMENTUMVERSUSTIMEGRAPHEQUALSTHE
SOLVING PROBLEMS
7ORKDONEBYGRAVITYWEIGHT ISALWAYSWg=nmgh
REGARDLESSOFPATHWAY
s
FORCEONTHEOBJECT
4HEAREAUNDERAFORCEVERSUSTIMEGRAPHISIMPULSE 11 Repeat James Prescott Joule’s calculation of the temperature rise in water
as its GPE is converted first into KE and then into thermal energy in a
100 m waterfall. Ignore the small sound energy and use the fact that
1 kg of water requires 4180 J to increase its temperature by 1°C.
Solve problems and analyse
secondary data using: p = mv
and impulse = Ft.

text itself is presented in short, easy-to-understand

12 An example of an energy transformation chain for a waterfall is:

Review questions
GPE → KE → thermal energy + sound energy
Draw energy transformation chains for:
a a car crashing into a pole Analyse information to trace
b a ball bouncing the energy transfers and
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
chunks of information. Each section concludes with a
c a battery-operated torch. transformation in collisions
13 Look at the roller-coaster in Figure 4.6.3. The spacing of the horizontal leading to irreversible
Unscramble the rows and label as vectors or scalars.
members in the framework supporting the roller-coaster is 1.0 m. Assume distortions.
that friction is negligible and that the carriage starts from rest at the top.
CONCEPT DEFINITION SYMBOL UNITS VECTOR OR SCALAR? Take the h = 0 origin to be at point B. The mass of the carriage and
Energy Measure of average force required to stop p J passengers is 800 kg.

Checkpoint—a set of review questions to check

A
a moving object in 1 s
a Calculate the GPE at the top.
Momentum Ability to do work P W b Calculate the velocity when the carriage reaches point B.
C
Impulse Rate of energy transformation Em J c How much work was done on the carriage by gravity when going from
Work Change in momentum J kg m s–1 or N s
point B to point C? E
B D
d How much work was done on the carriage by the normal force over the

understanding of key content and concepts.

Power Kinetic plus potential energy
Mechanical energy Amount of energy transferred or
transformed using a force
E J whole journey?
Figure 4.6.3 A roller-coaster
W kg m s–1 or N s e What percentage of the original GPE was transformed into KE by the
time the carriage reaches point E ?
f At what two points does the carriage have the same GPE? The same KE?
g Explain why the hills are all lower than the start.
h Suggest how it might be possible to make a roller-coaster with hill C
higher than the hill at A.

72 73

viii
 How
How to use
use tthis
his
hi s bo
book
ok

• Module reviews provide a full range of exam-style Other features

questions, including multiple-choice, short-response • Physics Philes present short, interesting items to
and extended-response questions. support or extend the text.

THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
• Physics for Fun—Try This! activities are short, hands-
on activities to be done quickly, designed to provoke
2
Extended response
9 During the course of your studies, you conducted a T he research lab continued to be responsible for
the semiconductor physics work which I had
brought with me and for the optical fibre work which
first-hand investigation to determine the refractive

The review contains questions in a similar style and proportion to index of glass or Perspex.
a Briefly outline the procedure you used in this
the HSC Physics examination. Marks are allocated to each question investigation. (2 marks)
up to a total of 25 marks. It should take you approximately b Below is a set of data collected by a student
45 minutes to complete this review. during class to determine the refractive index of
water. Use it to produce a graph to determine the
refractive index. (3 marks)
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (θi ) ANGLE OF REFLECTION (θr )
discussion.
by then had started in the company, but it also did
quite a lot of work in electronics, telecommunications
and defence communications. Optical fibre became
a substantial part of the work. We started with
hollow optical fibres filled up with dry-cleaning
fluid—saturated hydrocarbons—which Graeme
Ogilvie, a scientist in the CSIRO Tribophysics

• Physics Features are a key feature as they highlight

Division, had worked out would not absorb much
0.00 0.00 light. So, if one made hollow tubes—kilometres
5.00 3.76 long, taking a long while to fill from one end with
4 Which of the following pairs use a digital format? 10.00 7.50 liquid—those fibres would be of considerably lower
Multiple choice A videotapes and CDs 15.00 11.20 transmission loss than the current versions of
B MP3 files and DVDs

contextual material, case studies or prescribed focus

(1 mark each) 20.00 14.90 optical fibres with their solid cores. We made an
C computer hard drives and 3½ inch floppy discs
1 Which of the following groups of waves are classified 25.00 18.50 experimental telecommunications system in
D USB drives and audiotapes
as mechanical waves? 30.00 22.10 Australia, setting it up at the Australian National
5 A light ray travels through the air and strikes a glass
A surface water waves, sound University in Canberra because of the laws relating
prism at 30°. The angle of refraction is 19°. What is 35.00 25.50
B sound, slinky, infra-red the speed of light in the glass block? to access to communication in the public domain
C light, slinky, rope flicked 40.00 28.90

areas of the syllabus.

A 1.52 m s–1 across roadways and so forth. We rapidly learnt one
D radio, surface water waves, sound B 0.65 m s–1
45.00 32.10
important aspect of liquid-filled optical fibres:
2 Two pulses of the same amplitude were sent down C 4.6 × 108 m s–1 50.00 35.20
unless both ends are at the same height, the liquid
a piece of rope towards each other (see Figure 8.6.1). D 2.0 × 108 m s–1 55.00 38.00 fairly rapidly drains out—in spite of the difficulty of
60.00 40.60 getting it in there! Anyway, that was in a sense a
v = 0.5 m s–1 v = 0.6 m s–1
65.00 43.00 minor exercise.
Short response 70.00 45.00 We then got into the business of developing and
6

• A complete glossary of all the key words is included at

A red laser produced light with a frequency of
2.0 m 4.28 × 1014 Hz. Calculate the wavelength of this
Figure 8.6.1 Two pulses on a rope red light. (2 marks)
7 A fish-finding sonograph set to 150 Hz detects the
What will the resultant wave look like 1 s from now? seabed 5.4 m below the boat hull. The sound pulse
A B is emitted by the sonograph and then received
75.00 46.60 making optical fibres with solid cores. Being the
80.00 47.80 only facility in Australia which could do it, we did
quite a lot of defence and general commercial work.
85.00 48.50
Perhaps one mistake was that, as a company, we
c How would this graph change if the data were didn’t move into cabling the optical fibres. No-one
collected for Perspex, given that the refractive

the end of the Student Book.

7.2 ms later. Calculate the speed of sound in the
salt water below the boat. (3 marks)
10
8 As part of a study, a national parks officer has
attached identical radio collar transmitters to two
C D Tasmanian devils. The radio signals are detected
using an aerial. The radio signal received from one
collar is three times stronger than the other. Estimate
the relative distances of the two Tasmanian devils
index of Perspex is 1.4? (1 mark)
a Compare and contrast the effectiveness of optic
fibres in communications to copper wiring.
(2 marks)
b The following is an extract of a transcript with
Australian physicist Professor Louis Davies
(1923–2001), an early researcher in optic fibres.
Briefly discuss the contributions this research
who was in telecommunications really wanted to
buy fibres, they wanted to buy cables containing
fibres. Ultimately AWA, Metal Manufactures and an
American company, Corning, formed a company
called Optical Wave Guides (Australia). Later, when
I was a director of AWA, we sold our interests in
that—primarily the equipment and know-how that
we had developed in the lab—for about $13

3 Which sections of the EM spectrum are least

absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere?
A infra-red, gamma, radio
from the aerial. (3 marks) has made to society. (4 marks)
million. That made me feel quite comfortable with
the previous work of the laboratory.
Craig, D. (1999) Interviews with Australian Scientists:
<www.science.org.au/scientists/ld.htm#fibres>, Australian Academy
• The final two chapters provide essential reference
B gamma, radio, visible of Science.

166
C X-ray, radio, infra-red
D radio, visible, infra-red

167
material: ‘Physics skills’ and ‘Understanding and using
BOS key terms’.
• In all questions and activities, except module review
Practical experiences questions, the BOS key terms are highlighted.
The accompanying Activity Manual covers all of the
mandatory practical experiences outlined in the syllabus.
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual is a write-in in2 Physics @ Preliminary Student CD
workbook that outlines a clear, foolproof approach to This is included with the Student Book and contains:
success in all the required practical experiences.
• an electronic version of the Student Book
Within the Student Book, there are clear cross-
references to the Activity Manual: Practical Experiences • the companion website on CD
icons refer to the activity number and page in the Activity
• a link to the live companion website (Internet access
Manual. And in each chapter, a summary of possible
required) to provide access to the latest information and
investigations is provided as a
web links related to the Student Book.
starting point to get students PRACTICAL
thinking. These include the aim, EXPERIENCES
a list of equipment and Activity 10.2
Activity Manual, Page
99 The complete in2 Physics @ Preliminary
discussion questions.
package
Remember the other components of the complete package:
4 Crash
C rash ban
bang:
energy and
an momentum
mome
MOVING
ABOUT

ACTIVITY 4.2
First-hand investigation
Conservation of momentum
2 Using the expression you derived for Ft in Question 1, derive the above expression.

• in2 Physics @ Preliminary companion website

ALTERNATIVE
A LTER
ERNATI
T VE
Alternative activity using a digital camera—see In2Physics@Preliminary ACTIVITY
A CTIV
IVIT
TY
Teacher’s Resource Pack.
Equipment
Perform first-hand investigations to gather data and analyse the change in momentum during collisions.

Physics skills
s
s
STEELBALLS
METRERULERS
s
s
MARBLE
STOPWATCHES • in2 Physics @ Preliminary Teacher Resource.
The skills outcomes to be practised in this activity include: Risk assessment
12.2 gather first-hand information
14.1 analyse information.
The complete statement of these skills outcomes can be found in the syllabus grid on page XX.

Aim
Method
1 Set up the equipment, as shown in Figure 4.2.1

ball 2
ball 1 u=0

Hypothesis
s=0 s = 50 cm
metre
rulers
Figure 4.2.1 Collision experiment set-up

2 Place ball 2 at the 50 cm mark.

Theory
In your studies you have learnt that the momentum of an object is its mass multiplied by its speed. Mathematically, this is 3 Organise students to be timers in three groups. Group 1: time ball 1 before collision; group 2: time ball 1 after collision;
represented as: and group 3: time ball 2 after collision.
p = mv 4 Roll the ball along the ruler. Start timing ball 1 when it reaches the 10 cm mark of the ruler. Stop when it hits ball 2.
If there is no net external force acting, the momentum of a system is the same before and after a collision or explosion.
5 Groups 2 and 3 start at the collision. Stop after 20 cm.
Why is this? It is due to Newton’s third law: that is, the forces two objects exert on each other are equal and opposite.
These forces act for a certain time. It is the same of time for both objects. 6 Record this in Table 4.2.1.
Following on from this, we can now say that the impulse of the objects is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
Add to this that impulse is equal to change in momentum, we can derive an expression for the momentum before and after Results
an event: Table 4.2.1 Results from collision experiment
momentum before = momentum after
s1 t1 u1 u2 s2 t2 v1 s3 t3 v2
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Timers (m) (s) (m s–1) (m s–1) (m) (s) (m s–1) (m) (s) (m s–1)
Questions 1 0
1 Rearrange Newton’s second law to derive an expression for impulse Ft. 2 0
3 0
Average 0

30 31

ix
Stage 6 Physics syllabus grid

Prescribed focus areas

1. The history of physics P1. Outlines the historical development of major principles, concepts Feature: p. 183
and ideas in physics
Focus : p. 55
2. The nature and practice of physics P2. Applies the processes that are used to test and validate models, Focus: pp. 55, 174
theories and laws of science with particular emphasis on first-hand
investigations in physics
3. Applications and uses of physics P3. Assesses the impact of particular technological advances on Feature: pp. 29, 159
understanding in physics
Focus: pp. 21, 35, 55,
291, 309
4. Implications for society and the P4. Describes applications of physics which affect society or the Feature: p. 64
environment environment
Focus: pp. 21, 73, 77,
143, 191, 215, 239
5. Current issues, research and P5. Describes the scientific principles employed in particular areas of Feature: pp. 40, 64
developments in physics research in physics
Focus: pp. 174, 291, 309

Module 1 Moving About

1. Vehicles do not typically travel at a constant speed
STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE
identify that a typical journey involves 5 plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand investigation Act. 1.1
speed changes to measure the average speed of an object or a vehicle
distinguish between the instantaneous 5 solve problems and analyse information using the formula : 8, 18
and average speed of vehicles and other Δr
bodies vav =
Δt
where r = displacement
distinguish between scalar and vector 6 present information graphically of: 13, 20
quantities in equations • displacement versus time
• velocity versus time
for objects with uniform and non uniform linear velocity
compare instantaneous and average 7
speed with instantaneous and average
velocity
Define average velocity as: 7
Δr
vav =
Δt

2. An analysis of the external forces on vehicles helps to understand the effects of acceleration and deceleration
STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE
describe the motion of one body 8 analyse the effects of external forces operating on a vehicle 54
relative to another
identify the usefulness of using vector 22 gather first-hand information about different situations where acceleration is 52
diagrams to assist solving problems positive or negative
explain the need for a net external force 41 plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform a first-hand investigation to Act. 2.1
to act in order to change the velocity of demonstrate vector addition and subtraction
an object
describe the actions that must be taken 56 solve problems using vector diagrams to determine resultant velocity, acceleration 34
for a vehicle to change direction, speed and force
up and slow down

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describe the typical effects of external 46 plan, choose equipment or resources and perform first-hand investigations to Act. 3. 2
forces on bodies including: gather data and use available evidence to show the relationship between force,
• friction between surfaces mass and acceleration using suitable apparatus
• air resistance
define average acceleration as: 8, 10 solve problems and analyse information using: 54
Δv F = ma
aav = ,
Δt for a range of situations involving modes of transport
v−u
therefore aav =
t
define the terms mass and weight with 38, 50 solve problems and analyse information involving: 54
reference to the effects of gravity 2
F = mv
r
for vehicles travelling around curves
outline the forces involved in causing a 57
change in the velocity of a vehicle when:
• coasting with no pressure on the
accelerator
• pressing on the accelerator
• pressing on the brakes
• passing over an icy patch on the
road
• climbing and descending hills
• following a curve in the road
interpret Newton’s second law of 43
motion and relate it to the equation:
F = ma
identify the net force in a wide variety 43, 50
of situations involving modes of
transport and explain the consequences
of the application of that net force in
terms of Newton’s second law of motion

3. Moving vehicles have kinetic energy and energy transformations are an important aspect in understanding motion

STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE

identify that a moving object possesses 57, solve problems and analyse information to determine the kinetic energy of a 76
kinetic energy and that work done on 61 vehicle and the work done using the formulae:
that object can increase that energy 1
K = mv 2 and W = Fs
2
describe the energy transformations 67 analyse information to trace the energy transfers and transformation in collisions Act. 4.1
that occur in collisions leading to irreversible distortions
define the law of conservation of energy 57

4. Change of momentum relates to the forces acting on the vehicle or the driver

STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE

define momentum as: 65 solve problems and analyse secondary data using: 75, 76
p = mv p = m v and Impulse = Ft
define impulse as the product of force 69 perform first-hand investigations to gather data and analyse the change in Act. 4.2
and time momentum during collisions
explain why momentum is conserved P71 solve problems that apply the principle of conservation of momentum to 75, 76
in collisions in terms of Newton’s third qualitatively and quantitatively describe the collision of a moving vehicle with:
law of motion • a stationary vehicle
• an immoveable object
• another vehicle moving in the opposite direction
• another vehicle moving in the same direction

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5. Safety devices are utilised to reduce the effects of changing momentum

STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE
define the inertia of a vehicle as its 42 gather and process first-hand data and/or secondary information to analyse the Act. 4.3
tendency to remain in uniform motion potential danger presented by loose objects in a vehicle
or at rest
discuss reasons why Newton’s first law 42 identify data sources, gather, process, analyse, present secondary information Act. 4.3
of motion is not apparent in many real- and use the available evidence to assess benefits of technologies for avoiding or
world situations reducing the effect of a collision
assess the reasons for the introduction of 70
low speed zones in built-up areas and the
addition of air bags and crumple zones to
vehicles with respect to the concepts of
impulse and momentum
evaluate the effectiveness of some 77
safety features of motor vehicles

Module 2 The World Communicates

1. The wave model can be used to explain how current technologies transfer information
STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE
describe the energy transformations 81 perform a first-hand investigation to observe and gather information about the Act. 5. 1
required in one of the following: transmission of waves in:
• mobile telephone • slinky springs
• fax/modem • water surfaces
• radio and television • ropes
or use appropriate computer simulations
describe waves as a transfer of energy 84 present diagrammatic information about transverse and longitudinal waves, 90, 96
disturbance that may occur in one, two direction of particle movement and the direction of propagation
or three dimensions, depending on the
nature of the wave and the medium
identify that mechanical waves require 85 perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about the frequency and Act. 5.2
a medium for propagation while amplitude of waves using an oscilloscope or electronic data-logging equipment
electromagnetic waves do not
define and apply the following terms to 89 present and analyse information from displacement–time graphs for transverse 96
the wave model: medium, wave motion
displacement, amplitude, period,
compression, rarefaction, crest, trough,
transverse waves, longitudinal waves,
frequency, wavelength, velocity
describe the relationship between 89 plan, choose equipment for and perform a first-hand investigation to gather Act. 7.2
particle motion and the direction of information to identify the relationship between the frequency and wavelength of
energy propagation in transverse and a sound wave travelling at a constant velocity
longitudinal waves
quantify the relationship between 91 solve problems and analyse information by applying the mathematical model of: 96
velocity, frequency and wavelength for a v = fλ
wave: v = f λ to a range of situations

2. Features of a wave model can be used to account for the properties of sound
STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE
identify that sound waves are vibrations 121 perform a first-hand investigation and gather information to analyse sound waves Act. 7.1
or oscillations of particles in a medium from a variety of sources using the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) or an
alternate computer technology
relate compressions and rarefactions of 121 perform a first-hand investigation, gather, process and present information using Act. 6. 2
sound waves to the crests and troughs a CRO or computer to demonstrate the principle of superposition for two waves
of transverse waves used to represent travelling in the same medium
them
explain qualitatively that pitch is 125 present graphical information, solve problems and analyse information involving 119,
related to frequency and volume to superposition of sound waves 142
amplitude of sound waves

xii
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explain an echo as a reflection of a 129

sound wave
describe the principle of superposition 102
and compare the resulting waves to the
original waves in sound

3. Recent technological developments have allowed greater use of the electromagnetic spectrum
STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE
describe electromagnetic waves in terms 144 plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform a first-hand investigation Act. 6.1
of their speed in space and their lack of and gather information to model the inverse square law for light intensity and
requirement of a medium for propagation distance from the source
identify the electromagnetic wavebands 148 analyse information to identify the waves involved in the transfer of energy that 87, 163,
filtered out by the atmosphere, occurs during the use of one of the following: 172
especially UV, X-rays and gamma rays • mobile phone
• television
• radar
identify methods for the detection of 149 analyse information to identify the electromagnetic spectrum range utilised in 172
various wavebands in the modern communication technologies
electromagnetic spectrum
explain that the relationship between 99
the intensity of electromagnetic
radiation and distance from a source is
an example of the inverse square law:
1
I
d2
outline how the modulation of 161
amplitude or frequency of visible light,
microwaves and/or radio waves can be
used to transmit information
discuss problems produced by the 166
limited range of the electromagnetic
spectrum available for communication
purposes

4. Many communication technologies use applications of reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves
STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE
describe and apply the law of reflection 110, perform first-hand investigations and gather information to observe the path of Act.
and explain the effect of reflection from 164 light rays and construct diagrams indicating both the direction of travel of the 6. 3
a plane surface on waves light rays and a wave front
describe ways in which applications of 165 present information using ray diagrams to show the path of waves reflected from: Act. 6.3
reflection of light, radio waves and • plane surfaces
microwaves have assisted in • concave surfaces
information transfer • convex surface
• the ionosphere
describe one application of reflection 151, perform an investigation and gather information to graph the angle of incidence Act. 8.1
for each of the following: 153, and refraction for light encountering a medium change showing the relationship
• plane surfaces 164 between these angles
• concave surfaces
• convex surfaces
• radio waves being reflected by the
ionosphere
explain that refraction is related to the 111, perform a first-hand investigation and gather information to calculate the Act. 8.1
velocities of a wave in different media 146 refractive index of glass or Perspex
and outline how this may result in the
bending of a wavefront
define refractive index in terms of 156 solve problems and analyse information using Snell’s law 173
changes in the velocity of a wave in
passing from one medium to another
define Snell’s law: 155
v1 sin θi
=
v 2 sin θr

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identify the conditions necessary for 157

total internal reflection with reference
to the critical angle
outline how total internal reflection is 157
used in optical fibres
identify types of communication data that 168
are stored or transmitted in digital form

5. Electromagnetic waves have potential for future communication technologies and data storage technologies
STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE
identify types of communication data 168 identify data sources, gather, process and present information from secondary Act. 8.2
that are stored or transmitted in digital sources to identify areas of current research and use the available evidence to
form discuss some of the underlying physical principles used in one application of
physics related to waves, such as:
• global positioning system
• CD technology
• the Internet (digital process)
• DVD technology

Module 3 Electricity in the home

1. Society has become increasingly dependent on electricity over the last 200 years
STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE
discuss how the main sources of 180 identify data sources, gather, process and analyse secondary information about 185,
domestic energy have changed over the differing views of Volta and Galvani about animal and chemical electricity 188
time and discuss whether their different views contributed to increased understanding
of electricity
assess some of the impacts of changes 180
in, and increased access to, sources of
energy for a community
discuss some of the ways in which 184
electricity can be provided in remote
locations

2. One of the main advantages of electricity is that is can be moved with comparative ease from one place to
another through electric circuits
STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE
describe the behaviour of electrostatic 193, present diagrammatic information to describe the electric field strength and 199
charges and the properties of the fields 197 direction: Act. 9.1
associated with them • between charged parallel plates
• about and between a positive and
• negative point charge
define the unit of electric charge as the 194 solve problems and analyse information using: 199
coulomb F
E=
q
define the electric field as a field of 199 plan, choose equipment for and perform a first-hand investigation to gather data Act.
force with a field strength equal to the and use the available evidence to show the relationship between voltage across 10.2
force per unit charge at that point: and current in a DC circuit
F
E=
q
define electric current as the rate at 201 solve problems and analyse information applying: 206
which charge flows (coulombs/second V
or amperes) under the influence of an R=
I
electric field

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identify that current can be either direct 203 plan, choose equipment for and perform a first-hand investigation to gather data Act.
with the net flow of charge carriers and use the available evidence to show the variations in potential difference 10.2
moving in one direction or alternating between different points around a DC circuit
with the charge carriers moving
backwards and forwards periodically
describe electric potential difference 203
(voltage) between two points as the
change in potential energy per unit
charge moving from one point to the
other (joules/coulomb or volts)
discuss how potential difference 204
changes between different points
around a DC circuit
identify the difference between 195
conductors and insulators
define resistance as the ratio of voltage 206
to current for a particular conductor:
V
R=
I
describe qualitatively how each of the 207
following affects the movement of
electricity through a conductor:
• length
• cross-sectional area
• temperature
• material

3. Series and parallel circuits serve different purposes in households

STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE
identify the difference between series 216 plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform first-hand investigations to 235
and parallel circuits gather data and use available evidence to compare measurements of current and
voltage in series and parallel circuits in computer simulations or hands-on
equipment
compare parallel and series circuits in 217 plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to Act.
terms of voltage across components construct simple model household circuits using electrical components 11.2
and current through them
identify uses of ammeters and 222
voltmeters
explain why ammeters and voltmeters 222
are connected differently in a circuit
explain why there are different circuits 224
for lighting, heating and other
appliances in a house

4. The amount of power is related to the rate at which energy is transformed

STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE
explain that power is the rate at which 225 perform a first-hand investigation, gather information and use available evidence Act.
energy is transformed from one form to to demonstrate the relationship between current, voltage and power for a model 11.2
another 6 V to 12 V electric heating coil
identify the relationship between power, 226 solve problems and analyse information using: Act.
potential difference and current P = VI and Energy = VIt 11.1
identify that the total amount of energy 227
used depends on the length of time the
current is flowing and can be
calculated using: Energy = VIt
explain why the kilowatt-hour is used to 227
measure electrical energy consumption
rather than the joule

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5. Electric currents also produce magnetic fields and these fields are used in different devices in the home

STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE

describe the behaviour of the magnetic 240 plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand investigation Act.
poles of bar magnets when they are to build an electromagnet 12.1
brought close together
define the direction of the magnetic 242 perform a first-hand investigation to observe magnetic fields by mapping lines Act.
field at a point as the direction of of force: 12.1
force on a very small north magnetic • around a bar magnet
pole when placed at that point • surrounding a straight DC
• current-carrying conductor
• a solenoid
describe the magnetic field around 242 present information using and ⊗ to show the direction of a current and 244
pairs of magnetic poles direction of a magnetic field
describe the production of a magnetic 244 identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information to explain one Act.
field by an electric current in a straight application of magnetic fields in household appliances 12.1
current-carrying conductor and
describe how the right hand grip rule
can determine the direction of current
and field lines
compare the nature and generation of 245
magnetic fields by solenoids and a bar
magnet

6. Safety devices are important in household circuits

STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE

discuss the dangers of an electric 230
shock from both a 240 V AC mains
supply and various DC voltages, from
appliances, on the muscles of the body
describe the functions of circuit- 232
breakers, fuses, earthing, double
insulation and other safety devices in
the home

Module 4 The Cosmic Engine

1. Our Sun is just one star in the galaxy and ours is just one galaxy in the universe

STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE

outline the historical development of 256 identify data sources, and gather, process and analyse information to assess one 27
models of the universe from the time of the models of the universe developed from the time of Aristotle to the time of Act.
of Aristotle to the time of Newton Newton to identify limitations placed on the development of the model by the 13.1
technology available at the time

2. The first minutes of the Universe released energy which changed to matter, forming stars and galaxies

STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE

outline the discovery of the expansion 267 identify data sources and gather secondary information to describe the probable Act
of the oniverse by Hubble, following its origins of the universe 14.2
earlier prediction by Friedmann
describe the transformation of 280,
radiation into matter which followed Act.
the Big Bang 14.1
identify that Einstein described the 280
equivalence of energy and mass

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outline how the accretion of galaxies 281,

and stars occurred through: 283
• expansion and cooling of the
universe
• subsequent loss of particle kinetic
energy
• gravitational attraction between
particles
• lumpiness of the gas cloud that
then allows gravitational collapse

3. Stars have a limited life span and may explode to form supernovas

STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE

define the relationship between the 279, gather secondary information to relate brightness of an object to its luminosity
temperature of a body and the 295 and distance
dominant wavelength of the radiation
emitted from that body
identify that the surface temperature 295 solve problems to apply the inverse square law of intensity of light to relate the
of a star is related to its colour brightness of a star to its luminosity and distance from the observer
describe a Hertzsprung–Russell 296 process and analyse information using the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram to Act
diagram as the graph of a star’s examine the variety of star groups, including main sequence, red giants and 15..1
luminosity against its colour or surface white dwarfs
temperature
identify energy sources characteristic of 300
each star group, including Main
Sequence, red giants, and white dwarfs

4. The Sun is a typical star, emitting electromagnetic radiation and particles that influence the Earth

STUDENTS LEARN TO: PAGE STUDENTS: PAGE

identify that energy may be released 298 perform a first-hand investigation to gather information to compare the Act.
from the nuclei of atoms penetrating power of alpha, beta and gamma radiation in a range of materials 15.2
describe the nature of emissions from 303 identify data sources, gather and process information and use available evidence Act.
the nuclei of atoms as radiation of to assess the effects of sunspot activity on the Earth’s power grid and satellite 16.1
alpha and beta particles and gamma communications
rays in terms of:
• ionising power
• penetrating power
• effect of magnetic field
• effect of electric field
identify the nature of emissions 312,
reaching the Earth from the Sun 319
describe the particulate nature of the 319
solar wind
outline the cyclic nature of sunspot 317
activity and its impact on Earth
through solar winds
describe sunspots as representing 316
regions of strong magnetic activity and
lower temperature

xvii
 MOVING
1 ABOUT

Why can computers generate graphical images of things that look, move and
CONTEXT behave realistically? How can they accurately predict and control the motions
of interplanetary spacecraft across many millions of kilometres? In physics, the
motions of almost everything in the universe can be described by the equations
of motion. Once you know the right equations, in theory, you can use a computer
(or even a pen and paper) to mimic or predict the motions of almost anything.
Part of the job of a physicist is to translate words and ideas into those equations,
so important words need to be carefully defined. Many words from physics describing
motion are used in everyday conversation, such as distance, speed, time,
acceleration, velocity, displacement, power, momentum, energy and force.
In this module, we will learn more precisely what these words mean and how
the equations of motion can be used to describe, predict and explain how and why
people, planets, vehicles and everything else move and how they behave when they
pull, push or crash into each other.

Figure 1.0.1 Computer programmers

use physics equations to
produce realistic motion
in computer graphics.

2
 Figure 1.0.2 Newton’s cradle relies on highly
elastic collisions to create
hypnotic patterns of motion.

INQUIRY ACTIVITY
HIGHLY ELASTIC COLLISIONS
Materials, like glass and hardened steel, that rebound quickly after collision
without permanent deformation are called highly elastic. If two identical balls
undergo a highly elastic head-on collision, they swap motions. For example, a
moving ball colliding head-on into a second stationary ball should stop dead,
while the second ball should acquire the speed and direction of the first.
Perfectly elastic collisions only occur between subatomic particles, but
you come close with a bunch of marbles. Try the following activity:
1 Get 7 or 8 glass marbles of identical size and 1 or 2 larger ones.
Find a smooth, horizontal track along which marbles can roll freely.
2 Line up some small stationary marbles on the track and flick one
small marble quickly towards them. What happens?
3 Flick a group of 2 small marbles towards them. Now try 3. Is a
pattern emerging?
4 Predict what happens if you flick 3 towards a stationary group of
2 (or 4 towards a stationary group of 3). Now test it.
5 Redo steps 2–4 but leave small gaps between the marbles.
6 Does including a larger marble anywhere give the same results?
7 Retry the experiments on smooth carpet.
8 Retry the experiments with tennis balls or rubber balls. Are these collisions
highly elastic?

3

1 A to B: kinematics
kinematics, SI units, distance,
speed, rate, uniform, average speed,
instantaneous speed, displacement,
magnitude, direction, vectors,
scalars, velocity, relative velocity,
frame of reference, acceleration,
sign convention, air resistance, g,
braking distance
GREEK GEEK
B elow is an image of a
millennium-old copy of a
book by Greek mathematician and
physicist Archimedes (287–212
BC). The pages had been erased
and overwritten with a medieval
prayer book. Intense synchrotron
X-rays were used to enhance the
traces of the original text.
Figure 1.1.1 Part of a page from the
Archimedes manuscript
4
Getting from
What is kinematics?
Kinematics means ‘describing motion using equations and graphs’.
But before writing down equations, we must carefully define the terms.
Many words in physics are derived from Latin, Greek or Arabic,
which were the international languages of science for nearly
2000 years. The term kinematics comes from kineo, the Greek
word for ‘movement’, as does the word for moving pictures—cinema.
Luckily for most of you, the international language of physics
is now English!
1.1 Time, distance and speed
Units are labels added to numbers to indicate what they measure, such as
metres, kilograms or seconds. In 1960, an international scientific agreement was
undertaken to adopt a set of units based on metres, kilograms and seconds called
(in French) Système International d’Unités or SI units. Normally, answers
to problems and working should be in SI units. (You will learn about this in
more detail in Chapter 17.)
Time
Perhaps the most important word used in describing motion is time—nothing
can move unless time passes. Time is surprisingly difficult to define scientifically,
however, so we’ll just rely on your watch to measure it. In equations, we’ll use
the letter t for time and delta (Δ), the Greek D, to represent difference or change.
Usually, Δt represents a time interval between an initial time ti and final time tf ,
so Δt = tf – ti. The SI unit for time is seconds (s).
 MOVING
ABOUT

Distance
If you travel along a straight pathway from A to B, the distance you travelled can
be measured with a ruler or tape measure. If the path is curved, imagine running
a string along your path between A and B and then measuring the length of the
straightened string. That length is the distance. We’ll use d to represent distance.
The SI unit is metres (m).

Speed
Distance travelled per unit of time is called speed. We’ll use S for speed. The
SI unit is metres per second (m s–1).
How much a quantity changes per unit time is called rate. So speed is the
rate of distance travelled.
Suppose for a time period Δt, you travel at a constant (uniform) speed S. Identify that a typical journey
During that time, you travel a distance d. The formula for your speed is: involves speed changes.

distance travelled d
S= =
time taken Δt

However, during the time Δt, your speed might change. In fact, for most
Distinguish between the
journeys you take, speed is not constant, such as when a bus slows down and instantaneous and average
stops to pick up passengers and speeds up again. Therefore if speed is changing, speed of vehicles and other
you can still use the above formula, except now it calculates average speed Sav bodies.
over the time period Δt :
d
Sav =
Δt
Speed measured at a particular instant of time is called instantaneous
speed. If speed is constant over the time Δt, average speed equals
instantaneous speed.
Note that you can rearrange the speed equation to make either d or Δt
the subject.

Worked example
QUESTION
If you drive at an average speed of 92 km h–1 for 56 min, what distance have you travelled?
SOLUTION
56
First convert into consistent units: 56 min = h.
60
d = S × Δt
56
= 92 ×
60
= 85.867 ≈ 86 km

CHECKPOINT 1.1
1 Define Δ.
2 Define speed.
3 Explain the difference between average and instantaneous speed.

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1.2 Displacement, velocity and

acceleration
Displacement
Displacement is similar to distance, but there’s more to it. Moving from A to B,
displacement is defined as an overall change in position. In other words,
displacement is the straight-line distance between A and B, even if you didn’t
walk in a straight line (Figure 1.2.1). The SI unit for displacement is metres (m).

path
A B

4 5 6
3 7
2 8
1 9
0 distance 10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

displacement

B
Figure 1.2.1 Displacement and distance compared

For example, if two people walk from A to B, one on a winding path and the
other on a straight path, both undergo the same displacement even though the
winding path is a longer distance. If you walk in a circle back to where you
t
as started, you have travelled a distance equal to the circumference but your
-e
rth
20 m north

no displacement is zero.
m
√2 However, this isn’t the whole story. Displacement has two parts: first, size
20
or magnitude (the straight-line distance); and second, the direction of the line
joining A to B. You must therefore write both parts of displacement: magnitude
and direction.
For instance, if I start at point A, walk 20 m east and then 20 m north to
A point B, I have travelled a distance of 20 + 20 = 40 m, but my overall
20 m east
displacement is less: 20 2 m ≈ 28.3 m north-east (see Figure 1.2.2). Then if I
N walk for 20 2 m in a straight line north-east from A, my displacement is the
same as before even though the second distance is shorter.
In the above example, we used compass directions; however, directions can
be expressed in other ways as long you are precise and unambiguous, such as
W E
‘45° anticlockwise from the positive x-axis’.
Sometimes displacements are one-dimensional; that is, only along a straight
line. A train on a straight track can only travel in two directions. In this case you
Figure 1.2.2 Displacement on a 45° triangle can express the direction as positive or negative.

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 MOVING
ABOUT

In physics, quantities like displacement that have magnitude and direction

Distinguish between scalar and
are called vectors. (We’ll discuss vectors in more detail in Chapter 2.) In print, vector quantities in equations.
the symbols for vectors are written in bold font. For example, a common symbol
for displacement is s. Sometimes, vectors are written with a bar, arrow or tilde
(~) above or below the symbol, especially in handwriting. Quantities like time,
distance and speed (with magnitude only) are called scalars. In print, the
symbols for scalars are written in italics.
Displacement is the change in position r, so displacement s can also be
written as Δr. Both symbols are commonly used.
s = Δr = final position – initial position = rf – ri
When we’re only interested in the magnitudes of these vectors, we can simply
use r and s or Δr. We can also represent the magnitude of a vector with absolute
value signs: | s |.

Velocity
Velocity v is a bit like speed: velocity is displacement per unit of time (or rate of
displacement). It’s a vector. The direction of velocity is the direction in which the
object moves. The formula for velocity v is:

displacement s Δr
v= = or
time taken Δt Δt
Define average velocity as:
Δr
This formula calculates instantaneous velocity if velocity is uniform. Vav = .
Δt
However, just like the speed formula, if velocity is changing, it gives average
velocity vav for the time Δt:
Δr PRACTICAL
vav = EXPERIENCES
Δt
Activity 1.1
Clearly, if displacement doesn’t change, velocity is zero. The SI unit for Activity Manual, Page
1
velocity is metres per second (m s–1).
In vector equations, magnitudes and directions are equal on both sides,
Compare instantaneous
so in the equation above, the directions of velocity and displacement are the same. and average speed with
Just like displacement, if motion is one-dimensional, you can represent the instantaneous and
direction of velocity by a positive or negative sign. average velocity.
If you’re moving in a constant direction, the magnitude of
instantaneous velocity equals instantaneous speed. This is also true for their
averages. If you’re changing direction, however, only your instantaneous speed
equals the magnitude of your instantaneous velocity. This isn’t true for averages.

Worked example
QUESTION
Look at Figure 1.2.2 again. Consider the two-part journey (shown by red arrows). Suppose the
eastern leg takes 25 s and the northern leg takes 20 s.
a Calculate the average speed for the whole journey.
b Calculate the average velocity for the whole journey.

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SOLUTION
d
a Sav = , where d = 20 + 20 = 40 m, Δt = 25 + 20 = 45 s
Δt
40
Sav = = 0.8889 ≈ 0.89 m s–1
45
Δr
b vav = , Δr = 20 2 m (NE), Δt = 25 + 20 = 45 s
Δt
20 2
vav = NE = 0.6285 m s–1 NE ≈ 0.63 m s–1 NE (Don’t forget direction!)
45

Relative velocity
Imagine that you are driving at 100 km h–1 north. Another driver travelling at
Describe the motion of one
body relative to another. 105 km h–1 north passes you, making an unfriendly hand gesture. You easily see
the gesture because it seems to pass you slowly. This is because the other car has a
small velocity relative to you: it is travelling only 5 km h–1 faster than you and so
appears to move past you at 105 – 100 = 5 km h–1. From your point of view, the
driver has a relative velocity of 5 km h–1.
The point of view from which you judge velocity is called your frame of
ractiv reference. A frame of reference is the set of x, y and z coordinate axes
nte
within which you define motion. Using the footpath as the frame of reference,
e
I

the other driver has a velocity of 105 km h–1 north; in your frame of reference,
M o d u le
however, the driver has a velocity of 5 km h–1 north.
To find the velocity of object B relative to object A, subtract the velocity of
object A:

vB (relative to A) = vB – vA

Suppose instead that the other driver was travelling in the opposite direction to
you at 105 km h–1 south. Then the other driver would appear to whoosh past you.

Worked example
QUESTION
Using the information from the last example above, what is the driver’s velocity relative to
you?
SOLUTION
Make north positive. In this case, the velocity of the other car (B) relative to you (A) is now:
vB (relative to A) = vB – vA = (–105) – 100 = –205 km h–1 = 205 km h–1 south
(which is very fast)

People usually think of the road as ‘truly’ stationary. However, there are no
absolute, stationary frames of reference. All velocities are relative.

Acceleration
In everyday conversation, acceleration means how quickly speed is increasing.
But physicists usually use acceleration slightly differently.

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 MOVING
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If velocity is changing, acceleration a is the rate of change of velocity:

Define average acceleration
Δv
change in velocity Δv as aav =
Δt
; therefore
a= =
time taken Δt v−u
aav = .
t
Acceleration is another vector. The SI unit is metres per second per second,
or metres per second squared (m s–2).
Similar to previous equations, this formula calculates instantaneous
acceleration if acceleration is uniform, and average acceleration over the
time Δt if acceleration is changing.
In everyday conversation, acceleration means speeding up and deceleration
means slowing down. In physics, however, we usually use the word acceleration for
both, and represent whether you’re slowing down or speeding up by the sign of
acceleration. (There’s a slight complication here, so we’ll discuss this in detail in
Section 1.3.)
Note that acceleration and velocity are not always in the same direction.
The direction of acceleration is the same as the direction of the change in
velocity Δv, but it is not necessarily in the same direction as the velocity itself.

CHECKPOINT 1.2
1 Define frame of reference.
2 Explain the difference between:
a distance and displacement
b speed and velocity.

1.3 SUVAT equations

Want to predict the future? Forget reading the zodiac! If you know the starting
conditions for a moving object, you can predict its future motion using the
equations of motion (or kinematics). The following equations are only
strictly true for motion with uniform acceleration a (including a = 0).
For this section, we’ll use the symbols listed in Table 1.3.1. The symbols spell
‘suvat’, so the equations are sometimes called the SUVAT equations. To make the
equations tidier and easier to remember, it’s traditional to use t (instead of Δt)
and s (instead of Δr) for displacement.

Table 1.3.1 Symbols for SUVAT equations

QUANTITY SYMBOL
Displacement s
Initial velocity u
Final velocity v
Acceleration a
Time taken t

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Let’s keep it simple. In this section we’ll only consider straight-line (or
one-dimensional) motion, so direction is indicated by a positive or negative sign.
To use these equations, you first choose a sign convention (which direction
to call positive) and then remain consistent throughout the calculation.
Because we’re free to choose our sign convention, the signs of velocities and
accelerations could be either positive or negative. So how do you know from the
sign of acceleration if you are speeding up or slowing down?
• If acceleration and velocity have the same sign, the magnitude of
velocity is increasing (speeding up).
• If acceleration and velocity have opposite signs, the magnitude of
velocity is decreasing (slowing down).
To derive the first kinematics equation, rearrange the velocity equation (from
Section 1.2) using SUVAT symbols:

s = vt (SUVAT 1)

If velocity is not constant, use average velocity:

s = vavt
u+v
a is uniform, so vav = . Substitute this into SUVAT 1:
Define average acceleration 2
Δv
as aav = ; therefore
Δt u+v
v−u
s= t (SUVAT 2)
aav = . 2
t

Rewrite the acceleration equation (from Section 1.2) using SUVAT symbols:
v −u
a=
t
Then rearrange the equation:

v = u + at (SUVAT 3)

Substitute SUVAT 3 in for v in SUVAT 2:

1 2
s = ut + at (SUVAT 4)
2

Square both sides of SUVAT 3:

v 2 = u2 + 2aut + a 2t 2
Collect terms:
1
v 2 = u2 + 2 a ( u t + a t 2 )
2
The term in parentheses is SUVAT 4, so replace it with s.

v2 = u2 + 2as (SUVAT 5)

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Notice that v2 and u2 are scalar—squaring a number eliminates the sign

(and direction). Unlike the other equations, SUVAT 5 only tells us the magnitude
of final velocity.
An example of acceleration is when an object falls downwards under gravity.
Dropping an object from rest, the downward velocity continues to increase as
long as it falls (unless an external influence, like air resistance, slows it down).
If an object is compact enough (compressed into dense enough form) and its
speed isn’t very high, then air resistance will be negligible.
When air resistance is negligible, objects near the Earth’s surface free-fall with
the same constant acceleration of a = 9.8 m s–2 downwards. If you drop both a
coin and a hammer simultaneously from the same height, they should hit the
ground together.
A feather falls more slowly than a hammer because it’s fluffy, not compact, so
air resistance is not negligible. Galileo predicted that in a vacuum, all things would
fall with the same acceleration. On the airless Moon, this is true (see Figure 1.3.1). Figure 1.3.1 In 1971, Apollo 15 astronaut
David Scott simultaneously
dropped a hammer and a
feather on the Moon. They hit
the ground at the same time.

g -WHIZ
T he magnitude of acceleration
due to gravity (9.8 m s–2)
is given the special name g;
for example, 2.5g means an
acceleration of 2.5 × 9.8 m s–2.
In tests during the 1940s and 50s,
US Air Force Colonel Dr John Stapp
used a rapidly decelerating rocket
sled to subject himself to up to
45g, surviving with temporary
blindness, two black eyes and a
broken wrist. Figure 1.3.2 Colonel John Stapp

We can use SUVAT 5 to understand one of the dangers of speeding.

The faster you drive, the longer the braking distance in an emergency.
The maximum braking deceleration is close enough to constant to use
SUVAT equations.
Final speed is v = 0. Rearranging v2 = u2 + 2as and converting into magnitudes:
u2
s=
2a
Braking distance s increases proportionally to the square of initial speed. Double
the speed and you quadruple braking distance. Increase speed by 10% and
braking distance increases by approximately 20%. Typical maximum braking
decelerations for cars are 8–10 m s–2.
But it’s worse. You should also add the distance you travel before you hit the
brake—that is, the thinking distance. Typical human reaction time is 0.6–1 s,
so your thinking distance is at least 0.6 × u before your brain and foot respond.
It is longer if you’re affected by alcohol.

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Worked example
QUESTION
Drop a coin from rest. Assume air resistance is negligible.
a Calculate displacement after 0.500 s.
b Calculate how long it takes to fall 1.50 m.
c Calculate its velocity after 0.500 s.
d Calculate its speed after falling 2.00 m.
SOLUTION
+.
Choose a sign convention. Down is positive. Use the symbol ↓
a a = +9.80 m s–2, t = 0.500 s, u = 0 m s–1, s = ?
1
The formula containing these is: s = ut + at 2
2
1
Substitute: s = 0 × 0.500 + × 9.80 × 0.5002 = +1.225 m ≈ 1.23 m down
2
b a = +9.80 m s–2, s = 1.50 m, u = 0 m s–1, t = ?
1
The formula containing these is: s = ut + at 2
2
1
Substitute: 1.50 = 0 × t + × 9.80 × t 2
2
2 × 1.50
Then rearrange: t = = 0.553 s
9.80
c a = +9.80 m s–2, t = 0.500 s, u = 0 m s–1, v = ?
The formula containing these is: v = u + at
Substitute: v = 0 + 9.80 × 0.500 = +4.90 m s–1, i.e. v = 4.90 m s–1 down
d a = +9.80 m s–2, s = +2.00 m, u = 0 m s–1, v = ?
The formula containing these is: v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Substitute: v 2 = 02 + 2 × 9.80 × 2.00 = 39.2
Find the square root: v = 39.2 = 6.26 m s–1
(SUVAT 5 doesn’t tell us the direction, but the question only asked for speed.)

CHECKPOINT 1.3
1 List the five SUVAT equations.
2 Explain what these equations assume about acceleration.
3 State which SUVAT equation cannot provide information about the direction of velocity.
4 Explain your answer to Question 3.

12
 MOVING
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1.4 Graphs and motion

Besides SUVAT equations, we can also use graphs to represent and calculate
motion. (You’ll learn more about drawing graphs in Chapter 17.) Graphs are
more flexible than SUVAT equations because they work even for non-uniform
acceleration.

Displacement versus time graphs

Suppose we make a graph of a moving object, where the y-axis is displacement
and the x-axis is time. Recall the velocity formula (see Section 1.2):
Δr
v=
Δt
Substituting y for r and x for t, this formula looks like the slope of a graph.
In a displacement versus time graph, slope equals velocity. Note that:
• A horizontal graph (slope = 0) means zero velocity.
• A straight line (constant slope) means uniform velocity.
• A curved graph (changing slope) means acceleration. If acceleration is
uniform, the curve will be a parabola.
Let’s take an example of motion and graph it. Suppose you live on a straight
road (one-dimensional motion), running north–south. Your house is the origin
(s = 0) and north is positive.
You start from rest at your door. You stand still for one minute (a), checking
your wallet. You start walking at a uniform velocity north towards the shop (b).
After walking for 5.0 min, you’re 300 m north of home and you stop to pick up
a $20 note on the ground. You take 2.0 min to glance around to see if there are any
more lying around (c). You start walking north again, faster, but still at a uniform
velocity for 5.5 min (d). You arrive at the shop. You’re now 960 m north of home.
It takes you 1.5 min to realise that the shop is closed (e), so you jog at uniform
speed to the park, which is 240 m south of your house on the same road. This
takes 5.0 min (f ) at a uniform velocity. This journey is plotted in Figure 1.4.1.

1200

1000 (810, 960) (900, 960)

e

800

d
600
Displacement (m)

400
(360, 300) c
(480, 300) f
200
b
a
0
(60, 0)

–200
(1200, –240)

–400
0 240 480 720 960 1200
Time (s)

Figure 1.4.1 Displacement versus time graph for your journey to the shop and the park

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Worked example
QUESTION
Using Figure 1.4.1, answer the following.
a At which parts of your journey were you stationary?
b Calculate velocity for parts (b) and (f) of the journey.
SOLUTION
Δr
Velocity equals the slope of the graph: v = .
Δt
a Parts (a), (c) and (e) are horizontal: slope = v = 0.
b The velocity for part (b) is:
Δr (300 − 0)
v= = = +1.0 m s–1 = 1.0 m s–1 north
Δt (360 − 60)
The velocity for part (f) is:
Δr ( −240 − 960)
v= = = – 4.0 m s–1 = 4.0 m s–1 south
Δt (1200 − 900)

Velocity versus time graphs

Now we’ll plot velocity versus time for the same journey (see Figure 1.4.2).
Remember that the acceleration equation (in Section 1.2) is:
Δv
a=
Δt
This equation looks like the slope of a line in a velocity versus time graph.
In a velocity versus time graph, the slope equals acceleration. Note that:
• A horizontal graph (slope = 0) means constant velocity (a = 0).
• A straight line (constant slope) means uniform acceleration.
There’s another less obvious but
4
important property. In a velocity
versus time graph, the area under the graph
(480, 2) (810, 2)
2 between two times equals the displacement
d
(60, 1) (360, 1) during that time interval.
b You can check this property using
0 a c e Figure 1.4.2. The areas under the graph
Velocity (m s–1)

(the displacement) for parts (a), (c) and

–2
(e) are all zero because you were stationary
at those points. For part (b), the area under
the graph (shaded in pink) is positive:
f
–4 +1.0 × 300 = +300 m. For part (d), this
(900, –4) (1200, –4)
is also the case: +2.0 × 330 = +660 m.
For part (f ), the area under the graph
–6
0 240 480 720 960 1200 is negative (shaded in green) below
Time (s) the x-axis, so displacement is negative:
Figure 1.4.2 Velocity versus time graph for your journey to the shop and the park –4.0 × 300 = –1200 m. This means your
final jog was 1200 m south.

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 MOVING
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Let’s try an example with acceleration. 1.2

Pick a coin off the table. Lift it vertically at (0.250, 1.00) (0.500, 1.00)
a uniform velocity through 1.00 m in 0.25 s. 1.0

Hold the coin still for 0.25 s and then drop

Displacement (m)
0.8
it back onto the table. All motion is vertical.
↓ tangent to curve
Let’s use the sign convention ( ) and make
+ @ t = 0.8 s
0.6
the tabletop the origin (s = 0). In this case,
acceleration due to gravity is –9.80 m s–2. 0.4

The displacement versus time graph for this 0.2

is shown in Figure 1.4.3. (0.952, 0.000)
While lifting the coin, the graph is a 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
straight line with a slope of +4.00 (uniform Time (s)
velocity 4.00 m s–1 upwards). When the
Figure 1.4.3 Displacement versus time graph for the coin drop
coin is stationary, the graph is horizontal
(zero velocity). When the coin is dropping,
the graph is a curve (parabola).
6
To calculate instantaneous velocity from
this curve at any particular time, draw a tangent (0.250, 4.00)
4
to the curve at that time (see Figure 1.4.3) and
calculate the slope. Clearly, during this part
of the motion, the slope (hence velocity) is 2

changing—that is, acceleration. Notice that for

Velocity (m s–1)

(0.500, 0.00)
all of the third part, although the slope is 0
changing, it is always negative, which means
velocity is downwards. The velocity versus time –2
graph is shown in Figure 1.4.4.
In the first stage, the graph is horizontal
–4
(uniform velocity of 4.00 m s–1 upwards). (0.952, –4.43)
The area under the first stage of the graph is
–6
4.00 × 0.25 = +1.00, which agrees with the 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
1.00 m upward displacement in the story. Time (s)
The second stage is horizontal and zero, Figure 1.4.4 Velocity versus time graph for the coin drop
which means v = 0 and s = 0. The third stage
is a straight line with a slope of –9.80, which
means a uniform acceleration of 9.80 m s–2
downwards. The triangular area under the graph is:
1
× 0.452 × (–4.43) = –1.00
2
In other words, the coin has dropped 1.00 m downwards back to the tabletop,
which also agrees with the story.

CHECKPOINT 1.4
1 Explain how to calculate velocity from a displacement versus time graph.
2 Explain how to calculate acceleration from a velocity versus time graph.
3 Explain how to calculate displacement from a velocity versus time graph.

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CHAPTER 1
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

Plan, choose equipment ACTIVITY 1.1: THE SPEED OF A BALL

or resources for, and perform a Measure the speed of a ball rolling from the front of the room to the back.
first-hand investigation to Equipment: marbles, tape measure, digital camera capable of taking movies,
measure the average speed of smooth track to roll marbles along.
an object or a vehicle.

Figure 1.5.1 Some of the equipment you will need

Discussion questions
1 How close to constant motion is the speed of the ball? How can you tell?
2 What methods are used to make sure the experiment is repeatable?
3 Discuss why the motion is measured as average speed.

16
Chapter summary
MOVING
ABOUT

• d = distance, Δt = time period • Relative velocity means the velocity of object B

• Scalars are quantities with magnitude only. Vectors adjusted to the frame of reference of observer A
possess magnitude and direction. using the formula vB (relative to A) = vB – vA.
• Displacement s or Δr is the straight-line distance • The SUVAT equations apply strictly to situations of
between initial and final positions. It also has direction. uniform acceleration only.
d Δr Δv • The SUVAT equations are:
• Speed S = , velocity v = , acceleration a =
Δt Δt Δt s = vt
• Instantaneous means ‘the value at a particular instant u+v
s= t
in time’. 2
• If speed, velocity or acceleration is uniform, the above v = u + at
formulae calculate the instantaneous quantities. 1
s = ut + at 2
• If speed, velocity or acceleration is not uniform, the 2
above formulae calculate the quantities averaged 2 2
v = u + 2as
over Δt. • When air resistance is negligible, objects near the
• Most journeys are not undertaken at uniform speed, Earth’s surface accelerate at 9.8 m s–2.
velocity or acceleration. • In a displacement versus time graph, slope
• Displacement, velocity and acceleration are vectors. equals velocity.
• Time, distance and speed are scalars. • In a velocity versus time graph, slope equals
• Frame of reference means ‘the point of view of the acceleration.
observer’—the coordinate axes are used by the observer • In a velocity versus time graph, the area under the
to judge velocity. graph equals displacement.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The items in the columns are not in their correct order. Copy out the table and
match each of the key physics concepts with their definition, symbol and units.

CONCEPT DEFINITION SYMBOL UNITS

Displacement Change in displacement per unit of time a metres per second (m s–1)
Velocity Distance travelled per unit of time s metres (m)
Distance Change in velocity per unit of time S seconds (s)
Speed Duration of an event v metres (m)
Time Velocity of an object as seen by another moving object vA (rel. B) metres per second (m s–1)
Acceleration Length of path taken between two points t metres per second (m s–1)
Relative velocity Shortest distance between two points d metres per second per second (m s–2)

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REVIEWING
1 Draw a table with the columns ‘Vector’ and ‘Scalar’. List all quantities
from this chapter in the correct columns.
2 Describe a simple way to measure the distance of a curvy journey on a map.
3 Use words to describe constant speed. Include distance and time in
your answer.
4 Why is it more correct to quote the average speed for a typical journey
rather than the speed?
5 What can you say about your motion if you have walked a long way but you
end up at your starting point?
6 Explain how a feather and a hammer can both hit the ground at the same
time when dropped from the same height.

SOLVING PROBLEMS
7 An ant walks in a straight line. It walks at 1.5 cm s–1 for 2.0 s, then
1.0 cm s–1 for 2.5 s and finally 1.7 cm s–1 for 3.5 s. Calculate the
magnitude of the ant’s average velocity in SI units.
8 The tortoise and the hare are having a rematch from A to B (see
Figure 1.5.2). The tortoise’s straight path is 1000 m long. During the race,
the tortoise maintains a slow and steady speed of 4.00 km h–1. The hare
encounters some distractions and takes the zigzag path but maintains a
uniform speed of 5.40 km h–1. Using a ruler and Figure 1.5.2:

A B

Figure 1.5.2 The hare and the tortoise ride again.

Solve problems and analyse a Measure the displacement of each racer.

information using the formula b Measure the distance each travels.
Δr c Calculate the time taken for each to complete the race. Who won?
vav = . d Calculate the average velocity for each.
Δt

18
 MOVING
ABOUT

9 Consult Figure 1.4.1. For your journey to the shop and park:
a Calculate your average speed.
b Calculate your average velocity.
c Are they approximately equal? Discuss.
10 A ball is dropped off a table of height 1.2 m.
a Calculate the final velocity of the ball.
b For how long is the ball in the air?
11 There’s a fly in your car while you’re travelling at 98 km h–1 north.
a The fly is resting on the windscreen. Determine its velocity relative
to you.
b What is its velocity relative to the road outside?
c The fly flies to the rear of the car and appears to move towards you at
1.0 m s–1. Calculate its velocity relative to the road.
12 Students playing lawn bowls are trying to work out how fast to roll a ball
to get it closest to the jack. A practice ball came to rest in 3.2 s over a
distance of 15 m.
a What was the initial speed of the ball?
b Calculate the deceleration of the ball. (Assume this is the same for
parts c and d.)
c The ball was rolled again and stopped in 2.0 s. How far has it travelled?
d With what initial speed should they roll to just reach the jack, which is
14.3 m away?
13 Look at the displacement versus time graph in Figure 1.5.3.

60

50

40
Displacement (m)

30

20

10

–10

–20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (s)

Figure 1.5.3 Displacement versus time graph

a When is the object stationary?

b What distance has the object travelled in the journey?
c What is the object’s displacement?
d Calculate the greatest velocity of the object.

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14 Look at the velocity versus time graph in Figure 1.5.4.

40

30

20

Velocity (m s–1 west)

10

–10

–20

–30

–40
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (s)

Figure 1.5.4 Velocity versus time graph

a At what times is the object moving at a constant speed?

Present information graphically
of: displacement versus
time, and velocity versus time
for objects with uniform and
non-uniform linear velocity.
b When is the object stationary?
c Calculate the greatest acceleration.
d What is the object’s displacement at the end of the journey?
e Extension: Draw an acceleration versus time graph to match
this journey.
15 A driver has a reaction time of 0.75 s. Her brakes are capable of a
deceleration of 8.2 m s–2. She is driving at 60 km h–1 when she
notices a child run onto the road.
a How far does her car travel before it comes to a stop?
(Hint: Check units.)
b Draw a displacement versus time graph from the time the child
appears to when the car finally stops.
c Draw the corresponding velocity versus time graph.

20

PHYSICS FOCUS
TOP FUEL
Top-fuel dragsters are a spectacular sight. The fastest
ones can reach speeds greater than 500 km h–1 in a
little over 5 s!
This form of racing sport has the greatest
accelerations in a straight line, so let’s have a look at
the physics involved.
1
1 Convert mile into kilometres. (1 mile ≈ 1.609 km)
4
2 Calculate the average acceleration required to
reach 500 km h–1 by the end of the course.
3 At this rate, determine the time taken to cover the
course.
4 Reaction time plays a big part in this sport: the
better the reaction time, the bigger the jump on the
opponent. A series of lights go off to warn the driver
of the start. Drag racing has a light tree. This has
three amber lights and a green light. The amber
lights are turned on sequentially with a half second
delay between them. The reaction timer starts when
the third amber comes on. Since there is a half-
second delay until the green light comes on, a
0.500 reaction time is perfect. The reaction timer
stops when the car leaves the starting line.
a Determine the ideal reaction time for a driver.
b If a driver gets a 0.030 s head start due to
reaction time, calculate the distance he has
travelled before the other driver starts.
5 Table 1.5.1 includes the statistics for two drivers
and their cars. Determine who will win based on
this data.
Table 1.5.1 Statistics for two drivers and their cars
DRIVER 1 DRIVER 2
Reaction time (s) 0.530 0.600
Acceleration (m s–2) 39.200 44.000
MOVING
ABOUT
3. Applications and uses of physics
4. Implications for society and the
environment
6 After the finish line, there is a length of track on
which the drivers slow down. This is known as the
run-off track. The run-off track measures 700 m in
length. To stop within the track, what is the
deceleration needed?
7 Most drag cars are capable of decelerations of –5g
due to technical ability and safety on the driver. How
then can the drag-racer be stopped safely in time?
8 Draw a displacement versus time graph for the trip
of a top-fuel dragster.
9 Explain the approximations that we have made in
order to analyse this example with the motion
equations given.
Want to compare your reaction time to the drag-racers?
Go to the link provided on the companion website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary.
Stopping safely applies to everyone, not just the
drivers of drag cars. Stopping distance in cars is also
an important safety issue for everyday driving. The
total stopping distance is the sum of the braking and
thinking distances (see Section 1.3):
u2
dstop = utreac +
2a
EXTENSION
10 Using typical values described in Section 1.3,
calculate the sensitivity of total stopping distance
to a 10% change in each of the variables u, treac
and a.
11 Propose some external factors that affect these
variables (for example, road quality affects a), and
assess which individuals or groups within society
may have the power or responsibility to improve
those factors.
21

2 vectors
net, resultant, head-to-tail,
force, static, vector components,
resolve, uniform circular motion,
centripetal, tangential, period
Identify the usefulness of using
vector diagrams to assist
solving problems.
22
Heads and tails:
Vectors in three dimensions
So far, we have used kinematics to describe displacement, velocity
and acceleration using equations and graphs. However, we have
only considered motion in one dimension. What about the other
two dimensions? How can we bust out of one dimension and derail
our mental train? There’s another way to understand vectors and it
involves drawing pictures.
2.1 Manipulating vectors
Drawing vectors
For motion in one dimension, we represented a vector’s direction by a positive or
negative sign. However, in two or three dimensions, the natural way to represent
them in diagrams is with an arrow: its length represents magnitude and its
direction represents the vector’s direction.
By using arrows to represent vectors, we can do vector arithmetic simply by
drawing diagrams on paper. We can therefore translate equations into geometry.
Only size and direction matters, so a vector arrow can be moved to
anywhere on the page as long as length and direction don’t change.
 MOVING
ABOUT

Adding vectors
Suppose that you walked somewhere in two stages. The displacement for stage 1
is represented by the vector s1; and for stage 2, by s2 (Figure 2.1.1). To find your
total (net or resultant) displacement, add the two displacements together. But
S1
we can’t just add their magnitudes. S2
Using arrows, adding two vectors together is easy.
1 Without changing lengths or directions, arrange the arrows so that they are
joined head-to-tail (Figure 2.1.2).
2 Draw an arrow that starts at the tail of the first vector and ends at the head of Figure 2.1.1 Examples of arrows
representing two vectors
the last (Figure 2.1.3).
This new vector is the sum (or resultant) of the two vectors. It doesn’t matter
what order the two vectors are in—either way, the resultant is the same.
PRACTICAL
head S2 EXPERIENCES
Activity 2.1
tail S2 Activity Manual, Page
8
head
nt
lta
su
re
S1
S1 S2
nt
u lta
res

tail
S1

Figure 2.1.2 Arranging two vectors Figure 2.1.3 The sum of the two vectors—
head-to-tail remember that order does
not matter

Because each diagram in Figure 2.1.3 is a triangle, you can use trigonometry
(or Pythagoras’ theorem, where relevant) to find the magnitude of the resultant.
Direction is deduced from the other angles in the triangle.
Vector diagrams also work for the one-dimensional motions discussed in
Chapter 1. In Figure 2.1.4, the upper diagram shows the resultant of two
positive displacements while the lower one is the sum of a positive and a negative
displacement. Notice how the head-to-tail rule is still applied. This method also
works for more than two vectors (Figure 2.1.5).

S2
S3

resultant

S1 S2 S1

resultant S2
nt
ulta
res
S1

Figure 2.1.4 The sum of two one- Figure 2.1.5 The sum of three vectors
dimensional vectors

23
2 Heads
Head
He ads
ad
vect
ve
s an
ctor
ctors
or
vectorss
and
d ta
tail
tails:
ils:
il s:

S2
Sometimes when you add vectors, you end up exactly where you started.
This results in the vectors forming a closed loop (Figure 2.1.6). In this case, the
S3 resultant equals zero. For example, if you walk in three consecutive displacements
that take you back to where you started, your resultant displacement is zero.
S1 The direction of a vector must be clear and unambiguous. For motion along
the Earth’s surface, compass directions are commonly used. To express directions
resultant = 0 other than the principal directions (such as north and north-east), look at the
Figure 2.1.6 The sum of a closed loop of two examples in Figure 2.1.7.
vectors is zero. First choose whether your vector is closer to north or south and write that
direction down. Work out which direction (east or west) and how many degrees
you need to rotate from north or south to get to your vector. Then write down
N the angle and which way you rotated. For the vector on the top right in
Figure 2.1.7, the direction is N30°E; for the one on the bottom left, it is S64°W.
30°
Worked example

E
QUESTION
W
Eamon Sullivan is standing on the southern bank of a river that is 100 m wide and flowing
at 1.50 m s–1 east. He wants to swim to the northern bank. Suppose that he’s taking it easy
64°
and that, relative to the water, he swims at 2.00 m s–1.
a Eamon swims in a northerly direction (relative to the water). Calculate his velocity
S as seen by an observer on the riverbank.
Figure 2.1.7 Compass directions
b Suppose that Eamon wants to end up at spot B, which is directly opposite his initial
position A on the southern bank. Assuming he swims at 2.00 m s–1 relative to the
B water, calculate in what direction he needs to swim relative to the water and his
N resultant velocity. Also calculate how long it takes to swim across the river this way.
water velocity 1.50 m s–1
100 m
SOLUTION
A
Eamon Sullivan
a Eamon’s velocity (judged from the riverbank) is the resultant of his velocity relative
to the water, plus the velocity of the water itself (Figure 2.1.9a).
Figure 2.1.8 Eamon Sullivan’s river swim
The two velocities are at right angles, so use Pythagoras’ theorem
to calculate magnitude:
N
l 2
vres = v rel. to water
+ v 2water = 2.002 + 1.502 = 2.50 m s–1
V rel. to water = 2.0 m s–1

Use trigonometry to calculate direction:

2.00
nt

tan θ = , so θ = 53.1°, i.e. 90° – 53.1° = 36.9° east of north,

ta
l
su

V 1.50
re

or N36.9°E
V

rel
.t
ow
ate
V resultant

r =
2.
0 b The resultant velocity must point exactly north, so the vector sum
m
s –1 should look like Figure 2.1.9b.
θ θ
1.50
V water = 1.5 m s–1 V water = 1.5 m s–1 cos θ = , so θ = 41.4°
2.00
a b
Eamon needs to swim at θ = 41.4° relative to the water,
Figure 2.1.9 Vector diagrams i.e. 90° – 41.4° = 48.6° west of north, or N48.6°W.
Using Pythagoras’ theorem to find the magnitude of the resultant:
2.002 = 1.502 + v 2res ⇒ vres = 2.002 − 1.502 = 1.32 m s–1 north
How long?
s 100 m
s = vt ⇒ t = = = 75.8 s
v 1.32 m s −1
24
 MOVING
ABOUT

Subtracting vectors
s2 – s1 is the same as s2 + (–s1), so just add (head-to-tail) the vectors s2 and
–s1 (where –s1 is the vector s1 reversed).
For example, you’re driving around a corner at constant speed. Are you
accelerating? Your magnitude of velocity isn’t changing. So is your velocity
constant? No. When turning a corner, your direction changes. Velocity is a
vector, so it changes even if only direction changes. Changing velocity
means acceleration.

Worked example
QUESTION
You’re driving east along a road at 30.0 km h–1. You take a 90° corner (towards south)
Δv
without changing speed. It takes 2.20 s to complete the turn. What is your average vf
acceleration while turning the corner?
SOLUTION – vi

1000 m
Convert velocity into SI units: 30 × = 8.333 m s–1. Figure 2.1.10 Change in velocity while
3600 s turning a corner
Δv = vf – vi = vf + (–vi)
From the question we know: vi = 8.33 m s–1 east, vf = 8.33 m s–1 south. From Figure 2.1.10,
using Pythagoras’ theorem, Δv = 11.78 m s–1 south-west. Therefore:
Δv 11.78 m s −1
aav = = = 5.35 m s–2 south-west
Δt 2.20 s

Force: a sneak preview

You’ve heard of force, but what is it? A detailed answer can be found in
Chapter 3, but here’s a little taste. Force F is the physicists’ name for ‘pushes
and pulls’ like the tension in a string, gravity or compression in a spring. Force
is a vector. The SI unit of force is newton (N).
The simplest way to measure force is with a spring balance that has a hook
connected to a spring that stretches when you pull on it. A pointer attached to PRACTICAL
the spring points to a force scale (see Figure 2.4.1). EXPERIENCES
If an object is static (that is, stationary for an extended time), the vector sum Activity 2.1
Activity Manual, Page
8
of all forces on it must form a closed loop. The resultant force is therefore zero.

Worked example
QUESTION
Thor, Renfrew and Prunella are fighting over a sled on a frozen lake. Each is pulling one of
three ropes tied to it. Although the sled is on slippery ice, it’s not moving. Renfrew is pulling
with 30 N north and Prunella is pulling with 40 N west. With what force is Thor pulling? 30 N
?N

SOLUTION
The force vector points in the same direction as the rope. The sled is static; therefore,
θ
the sum of force vectors forms a closed loop (Figure 2.1.11). The resultant force is 0. By
40 N
Pythagoras’ theorem, the magnitude of Thor’s force is 50 N. Also, tan θ = 0.75, θ = 36.9°, Figure 2.1.11 With what force is
i.e. 90° – 36.9° = 53.1° east of south, so Thor’s force is 50 N S53.1°E. Thor pulling?

25
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PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
TRY THIS! Activity 2.1
Activity Manual, Page
8
TRIPLE TUG-O-WAR
Set up a three-way tug-o-war, as shown in
Figure 2.1.12. Tie a short extra rope to the
middle of a long rope. It’s the green interloper
versus the rest. The blue and gold teams have to
keep the rope straight. The green interloper wins
by making the rope bend by more than 10° from
straight. The referee has a piece of cardboard
with a 170° angle drawn on it to check during the
match. How many people do you need in the blue
Figure 2.1.12 Is the green interloper superhuman?
and gold teams to win?

CHECKPOINT 2.1
1 Describe how an arrow represents a vector.
2 State the rule for adding vectors.
3 How can you determine which is the resultant vector in a vector sum if it is not labelled?
4 Draw the vector diagrams for the following.
a 4 m north + 2 m east
b 24 m s–1 north + 34 m s–1 south
c 45 m s–1 north-east + 25 m s–1 east
d 10 m N30°W – 20 m N30°E
5 If an object is stationary for an extended time, what can we say about all the forces acting on it?

W E
2.2 Vector components
north component
of displacement

S ent
cem
pla Every vector can be thought of as the sum of two separate perpendicular
dis
vectors called components. For example, if you drive along a road travelling
30° N60°E, you can divide (resolve) your displacement into your ‘north component’
east component of displacement
and your ‘east component’ (see in Figure 2.2.1). You can then use trigonometry
Figure 2.2.1 North and east components of to calculate the magnitude of these components.
displacement Similarly, if you throw a stone and, at a particular moment, its velocity is
towards the ground at an angle of 30° to the horizontal, you can resolve the
horizontal component of velocity
velocity vector into the vertical and horizontal components (Figure 2.2.2).
30°
vertical component

You can also think of the two perpendicular directions as a set of x–y axes,
of velocity

vel t so you are resolving the vector into its x- and y-components.
oci emen
ltayc
disp When writing vector components, the component direction is written as a
subscript. For example, the y-component of velocity v is vy and the horizontal
component of displacement s is sh. The north component of acceleration a might
Figure 2.2.2 Vertical and horizontal be written a north.
components of velocity

26
 MOVING
ABOUT

It’s not always necessary for the x- and y-axes to correspond with conventional
directions, such as north/east or horizontal/vertical. You can rotate your x–y axes
in any direction you want.

Finding vector components v

To find the vertical (or x) and horizontal (or y) components of any vector v:
1 Draw the vector v, noting any angles.
2 Draw in a vertical vector (y-component) and a horizontal vector θ
(x-component) head-to-tail, which add up to the original vector. horizontal direction
Note: When finding x–y components, the original vector is always
the hypotenuse.
3 Use trigonometry to find magnitudes of the components vx and vy.
Sometimes components can be negative (for example, the vertical vx = v cos θ
v
component of velocity in Figure 2.2.3 if we define up as positive). vy
Note: vy = v sin θ
• The vertical component of a horizontal vector (or the horizontal
component of a vertical vector) is always zero. θ
• The vertical component of a vertical vector (and the horizontal component vx
of a horizontal vector) is just the original vector itself. Figure 2.2.3 Finding the x and y
components of a vector
Worked example
QUESTION
Consider the stone in Figure 2.2.2. Suppose the magnitude of the stone’s velocity is
v = 5.0 m s–1. Find the vertical and horizontal components of velocity, vv and vh.
SOLUTION
Vertical: vv = v sin 30° = 5.0 m s–1 × 0.5 = 2.5 m s–1 (down)
Horizontal: vh = v cos 30° = 5.0 m s–1 × 0.866 = 4.3 m s–1 (right)
v2
Adding vector components
To add v1 + v2 = vnet, instead of adding them head-to-tail, you could also add
v1
their components separately (Figure 2.2.4).

9.2 m
10
.1
6.0 m

.4
m 11
Sign convention: ↑
+ &
↑
+

x-components: vnet x = v1x + v2x = +8.5 + 6.2 = +14.7 m (right)

8.5 m 6.2 m
y-components: vnet y = v1y + v2y = –6.0 + 9.2 = +3.2 m (up) Figure 2.2.4 Adding the x and y
components of two vectors
Magnitude: (Use Pythagoras’ theorem) vnet = 14.7 2 + 3.22 = 15 m
3.2
Direction: tan θ = , so θ = +12° (anticlockwise) from horizontal
14.7

CHECKPOINT 2.2
1 Define components of a vector.
2 Taking x to be horizontal and y to be vertical, resolve the x- and y-components of the following vectors.
a 45 m s–1 45° clockwise from the x-axis
b 65 m s–1 horizontal
3 Find the resultant of the two vectors in Question 2 by adding their separate components.

27
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PHYSICS FEATURE
VECTORS FIGHT CANCER 3. Applications and uses of physics

G etting your vectors right might save a life.

Radiotherapy involves delivering the right dose of
high-intensity radiation, such as X-rays, to the right
Correct alignment is assured by a box-like set
of x-, y- and z-axes called a ‘stereotactic frame’
place to kill cancerous tumours while minimising the (Figure 2.2.5, near centre) that is bolted rigidly
damage to healthy tissue. Likely, ionising radiation kills into the patient’s skull. This frame is then aligned
cancer cells more easily than normal cells. by lasers to the linear accelerator.
If the tumour is deep inside your brain you many
need stereotactic radiotherapy. This is where a
computer-controlled linear accelerator X-ray source
(Figure 2.2.5, top right) fires a radiation beam many
times from different directions, all pointing at the
tumour so that it obtains the full dose while the
surrounding tissue gets much less.
These beams must point with submillimetre
accuracy and trace out the shape of the tumour from
different angles. Calculating the angle and positions
of these beams involves a sophisticated use of three-
dimensional displacement vectors. Figure 2.2.5 Stereotactic radiotherapy

tangential
constant speed velocity
2.3 Circular motion
Suppose that you’re driving around a circular racetrack at a constant speed
centripetal
acceleration (Figure 2.3.1). This is uniform circular motion. Are you accelerating? Yes.
This situation is like permanently turning a corner (see ‘Subtracting vectors’
in Section 2.1). Your speed isn’t changing; however, your direction is, so
velocity is changing, which means acceleration.
Figure 2.3.1 In uniform circular motion, In uniform circular motion, the acceleration vector always points
acceleration always points towards the circle’s centre. This is given the special name centripetal (centre-
towards the centre and
seeking) acceleration. Whenever you move in a curve, there’s always a centripetal
perpendicular to velocity.
acceleration; anything in orbit, like the Moon or the International Space Station,
Vi undergoes a centripetal acceleration.
A B On the other hand, your velocity is always pointing in the direction of a tangent
Vf to the circle, so your velocity is called tangential velocity. Centripetal
acceleration is always perpendicular to the tangential velocity (see Figure 2.3.1).
R
θ R
Let’s show that acceleration is towards the circle centre. Consider Figure 2.3.2.
Vf
Suppose that you are initially at point A with an initial velocity vi. After some
ΔV
short time Δt, you’re at point B with a final velocity vf.
–Vi In Figure 2.3.2, Δv points towards the circle centre. In Section 1.2 we said
that acceleration a always points in the same direction as Δv. Therefore, for
Figure 2.3.2 Uniform circular motion—
uniform circular motion, both Δv and a always point towards the centre.
change in velocity Δv (and
acceleration) is always
towards the centre.

28
 MOVING
ABOUT

We know the direction of acceleration. What about the magnitude?

The magnitude of centripetal acceleration ac is given by the formula:

ac =
v2 TRY THIS!
R

where ac is the centripetal acceleration, v is tangential speed (magnitude of

DO YOU TRUST THE
tangential velocity) and R is the radius of the circular path. FORMULA?
This formula seems weird because it looks nothing like the acceleration
Test your faith in the centripetal
formula in Section 1.2, although the centripetal acceleration formula can be
acceleration formula. If you
derived from it. The formula says that the faster the tangential speed or the
smaller the radius, the larger the centripetal acceleration. swing half a bucket of water
How do you calculate tangential speed? The time taken by a rotating object over your head fast enough, the
to complete one cycle is called period T. The distance travelled in one cycle is (downward) centripetal
d acceleration of the bucket will
the circumference 2πR. Speed is S = , so tangential speed v is:
Δt be larger than g. This means the
water won’t fall out. If you’re too
2πR slow, it’s shower time. Maybe
v=
T you should do the calculation
first—just to be sure.

Worked example
QUESTION
You spin a small weight attached to a string in a horizontal circle of 1.0 m radius above your
R
head. Sixteen revolutions take 10 s. Calculate the centripetal acceleration of the weight.
SOLUTION
10 1.0 m
Period T = = 0.625 s; therefore v = 2π × = 10.1 m s–1
16 0.625 s
v 2 (10.1)2
So ac = = ≈ 100 m s–2
R 1.0

Figure 2.3.3 Are you fast enough

to avoid a shower?

CHECKPOINT 2.3
1 Explain why an object moving in a circle with constant speed is accelerating.
2 Calculate centripetal acceleration (due to Earth’s rotation) at the equator, where REarth = 6.366 × 106 m.

29
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PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
CHAPTER 2
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

Plan, choose equipment or ACTIVITY 2.1: THREE-WAY STRETCH

resources for and perform a Determine if a resultant force is acting on the washer held at the centre as a result
first-hand investigation to of three forces being applied to it.
demonstrate vector addition Equipment: metal washer, three spring balances.
and subtraction.

0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4
Kg. Kg. Kg. Kg. Kg. Kg.

Figure 2.4.1 Equipment required for this experiment

Discussion questions
1 Do adding vectors by components and adding vector arrows give the
same result?
2 Predict what would happen if one of the three forces were to be removed.
Try it and explain the result.
3 Extension: There is a fourth force acting on the washer: gravity.
Explain why we can ignore it.

30
Chapter summary
MOVING
ABOUT

• Vectors can be represented graphically by arrows. • Every vector is a sum of two perpendicular vectors
• Vector arrows can be added by lining them up head-to- called components.
tail. The resultant vector points from the first tail to the • Vectors can also be added by first separately adding
last head. their x- and y-components and then graphically adding
• When a vector sum forms a closed loop, the resultant the two resultant components.
is zero. • An object undergoing uniform circular motion
• v1 – v2 = v1 + (–v2), where –v2 is v2 reversed. experiences a continuous (centripetal) acceleration
• Forces are pushes and pulls. The vector sum of forces v2
on a static object is a closed loop. towards the circle centre. The magnitude is ac = .
R
• A vehicle turning a corner at constant speed undergoes • In uniform circular motion, the tangential speed is
acceleration. 2πR
given by: v = .
T

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Use the following words to complete the sentences below. Words can be used
more than once.

components, forces, perpendicular, scalars, x and y, circular motion, velocity,

direction, displacement, centripetal, static, closed loop, acceleration, vectors

1 Quantities like ______, ______ and ______ are all ______ because unlike
______, they all possess the property of ______.
2 A vector can always be broken into ______, which are ______ to each other
and can usually be described as ______ ______.
3 An object undergoing uniform ______ always experiences a ______ ______.
4 For an object that is ______, the sum of ______ forms a ______ of vectors.

REVIEWING
1 State the rules for adding vectors.
2 Describe how this differs from subtraction.
3 What is the use of drawing arrows to add vectors?
4 Show three different possible ways of drawing components of 3 m S45°E.
5 A car driving north makes a 90° turn towards the west at constant speed.
In what direction is the average acceleration?
6 In uniform circular motion, what is the effect on acceleration of doubling
tangential speed? Doubling radius? Doubling period?
7 List some examples and uses of vectors in everyday life.
8 Can two vectors of unequal magnitude give a resultant of zero? Explain.
9 Can the magnitude of a vector ever be smaller than one of its components? Explain.

31
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Solve problems using vector
diagrams to determine
resultant velocity, acceleration
and force.
SOLVING PROBLEMS
10 You walk 34 m along the main road (due north), then turn right into a
street 25° to the main road and walk another 56 m. Calculate your
total displacement.
11 Calculate the sum v1 + v2 in Figure 2.2.4 using a vector diagram. Then
compare this with the result obtained by adding components. Don’t assume
the figure was drawn to scale—calculate the angles from the given data.
12 Using Figure 2.2.4, calculate v1 – v2 using both components and a
vector diagram.
13 An Airbus has a cruising speed in still air of 250 m s–1. Suppose it needs
to travel due north, but there is a cross-wind of 60 m s–1 blowing from the
east. Calculate the required cruising speed relative to the ground, as well
as the direction in which the body of the aircraft appears to point (viewed
from the ground). Note that an aircraft points in the direction it flies
relative to the air.
14 Relative to the road, car A is driving due east at 50 km h–1 and car B is
driving south-west at 60 km h–1. Calculate the velocity of car B relative
to car A.
15 A car driving north makes a 45° turn towards the west at a constant
speed of 55 km h–1. This manoeuvre takes 2.5 s. Calculate the average
acceleration.
16 A cannon fires a cannonball at 40° up from the horizontal (pointing
towards the positive side of the x-axis), and it leaves the muzzle at
425 m s–1. Find the vertical and horizontal components of velocity.
17 Using the length of your own arm and a bucket, calculate the minimum
speed you would need to swing a partially filled bucket over your head
(as shown in Figure 2.3.3) to prevent watery disaster.
18 Consider the three-way tug-o-war in Figure 2.1.12. Assuming all
participants apply equal force and wear equally good non-slip shoes,
calculate how many people are required to prevent the green interloper
from flexing the rope by more than 10°. (Hint: The force vector points in
the same direction as the rope.)
19 Two swimmers of equal speed race across a flowing river with parallel
riverbanks. One person swims 90° relative to the water, so she is carried
part way down the river before reaching the other side. The other swims at
such an angle relative to the water that he ends up on the other side
directly opposite his starting point. Who reaches the other riverbank first?
Explain using vector diagrams.

32

PHYSICS FOCUS
ORIENTEERING
Orienteering is a sport that combines your love of
physics with the outdoors. Participants are given a
map and are required to navigate around a course,
reaching all checkpoints as quickly as possible.
When navigating, you’re using vectors. With
your compass, the bearing (direction) of the next
checkpoint is determined and the map allows you
to calculate the distance. Figure 2.4.2 is an example
of such a map.
Figure 2.4.2 Getting from A to B can be complicated.
MOVING
ABOUT
3. Applications and uses of physics
1 Using the map in Figure 2.4.2, calculate the
vectors you’d need to follow to get to each of the
numbered checkpoints.
2 Calculate the total distance to complete the course,
as well as the displacement.
3 Explain the significance of magnetic north.
4 If you were using a GPS (global-positioning system)
receiver instead of a compass, describe how your
vectors would have to be modified.
33
 Pushing and
3 shoving: force

Why motion happens

You have learnt to describe how objects move using kinematics;
however, we haven’t explained why objects move, why velocities
change or why things stop, why the accelerator makes you speed
force, equilibrium, free-body diagram, up or why the brake slows you down. This is called mechanics.
mass, weight, spring balance, effective
To do this, we need to learn about force and Isaac Newton’s three
weightlessness, Newton’s three laws of
laws of motion.
motion, inertial frame of reference,
external force, inertia, fictitious force,
static equilibrium, dynamic equilibrium,
action, reaction, internal forces, centre of
mass, contact force, tension, friction,
normal force, static, kinetic, rolling
resistance, drag, air resistance, terminal
speed, resistive forces, centripetal force,
driving force, braking force

3.1 What is force?

In Section 2.1, you had a brief introduction to force. In this chapter, we’ll talk
PRACTICAL about the properties of force and the laws that govern it.
EXPERIENCES Simply speaking, a force is any push or pull (Figure 3.1.1). Forces can:
Activity 3.1 • change the velocity of an object (that is, cause acceleration)
Activity Manual, Page
16
• cause a distortion in the size or shape of an object.
For example, when you hit a cricket ball with a bat, you change the velocity of
the ball because the bat exerts a force on it. When you stretch an elastic band,
you change the size and shape of it because you exert forces on it.

34
 MOVING
ABOUT

a b

Figure 3.1.1 A force can (a) change an object’s velocity and (b) distort an object’s size or shape.

Some common examples of forces include gravity, contact forces (objects

touching), tension in rope or string, friction and air resistance.
Gravity is a force of attraction between any two objects with mass. Through
gravity, the Earth attracts both you and the Moon towards it (and vice versa), USE THE FORCE
but even the person sitting next to you on a bus (no matter how repulsive you
might think they are) actually exerts a weak, attractive gravitational force on you. T here are only four fundamental
forces in the universe:
• gravity (between objects
The force exerted on you by the Earth, through gravity, is called weight.
Four fundamental forces rule the universe (see Physics Phile on the right); with mass)
however, apart from gravity, almost every force you use every day is in fact a • electromagnetism
result of an electromagnetic force. For example, when you push against an (between charged
object, the force you exert is due to electrons in the atoms of your fingers objects and light)
• weak nuclear force
repelling the electrons in the surface of the object via electromagnetism.
(causes radioactive decay)
Force is a vector as it has both magnitude and direction. The SI unit
• strong nuclear force
for force is newton (N or kg m s–2).
(glues protons and
As vectors, forces can be represented by arrows, resolved into components
neutrons together in
(Section 2.2) and added using vector addition (Section 2.1) to give the resultant
the nucleus).
or net force. For instance, while throwing a basketball, two forces act on it: the
contact force from your hand and weight (due to gravity). The resultant force on
the ball is just the vector sum of these (Figure 3.1.2).

rce
resultant fo
ce
for
nd
ha
weight
e
rc
e
rc

fo
weight
fo

nd
d

ha
n
ha

rce
resultant fo

Figure 3.1.2 Sum of forces on a basketball being thrown

weight

Similar to other vectors, such as those in Figure 2.1.6, if the vector sum forms a
closed loop, it means the resultant force is zero—the forces are in balance (equilibrium).
To summarise all the forces acting on an object, one can draw a free-body
diagram. You represent the object with a dot and draw arrows to represent each
individual force, with their tails starting at the dot. The free-body diagram for Figure 3.1.3 Free-body diagram for the
the basketball (from Figure 3.1.2) is given in Figure 3.1.3. basketball being thrown

35
3 Pushing
Push
Pu shin
shing
in
shoving:
shov
shovin
ov
g an
ing:
in
andd
g: force
for
orce
ce

We don’t normally include the resultant force in a free-body diagram because

it is not a separate force from the other two.
Because forces can be resolved into vertical and horizontal components,
sometimes it’s convenient in a calculation to consider the vertical and horizontal
components completely separately.

CHECKPOINT 3.1
1 List the four fundamental forces.
2 List four forces encountered in everyday life.
3 List two things that a force can do to an object.
4 Define equilibrium in terms of force.

3.2 Mass and weight

Define the terms mass and
weight with reference to the
effects of gravity.
Most people use the words mass and weight to mean the same thing. If asked
your weight, you’d probably answer in kilograms. This is wrong. In physics,
mass and weight mean very different things.
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter (‘stuff ’) inside an object. Crudely
speaking, the more protons, neutrons and electrons in all the atoms in an object,
the bigger its mass. The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg).
Weight is the force that gravity exerts on a body (Section 3.1). Because it’s a
force, its SI unit is newtons. Weight also has a direction (down if you’re on Earth).
Weight isn’t mass, but it depends on it. The magnitude of weight is:

w = mg

where w is weight in newtons, m is mass in kilograms and g is the strength of the

gravitational field (g = 9.8 m s–2) at the Earth’s surface (see Section 1.3). The
strength of the gravitational field is just another name for the acceleration an
SLIMY UNITS object experiences in free-fall under the influence of gravity alone.

I f someone gives their weight

in the old imperial unit of
pounds, they’re correct. A pound
is a unit of force. There are
several imperial units of mass,
the two squishiest being the
slug (14.5939 kg) and the
blob (175.1268 kg).
Ordinary bathroom scales measure weight, not mass; however, they are
usually calibrated to show mass in kilograms. On the Moon (where gravity is
approximately one-sixth the strength on Earth), your weight would be roughly
one-sixth what it is on Earth and the scales would read roughly one-sixth what
they would on Earth. If you were floating deep in interstellar space far away from
any significant gravitational field, you would be almost weightless and your
scales would read almost zero. However, in all these cases, the amount of matter
in your body hasn’t changed, so your mass is unchanged even though your
weight has changed.
Another kind of weighing scale is the spring balance, which was described at
the end of Section 2.1. Like bathroom scales, spring balances measure weight but
are often calibrated to show mass. A spring balance calibrated in newtons can be
used in a laboratory to measure tensile (stretching) force.

36
 MOVING
ABOUT

Worked example
QUESTION
Prunella is on the Earth, where her weight is 660 N. Renfrew is on the Moon, where his
weight is 114 N. Calculate their masses. (g Earth = 9.80 m s–2, g Moon = 1.62 m s–2)
SOLUTION
For Prunella:
w = mg
660 N = m × 9.80 m s–2
660
m= = 67.3 kg
9.80
For Renfrew:
w = mg
114 N = m × 1.62 m s–2
114
m= = 70.4 kg
1.62

Effective weightlessness
An astronaut floating effortlessly in a space shuttle or the International Space
Station (ISS) is not weightless. At the orbital altitudes of the shuttle or ISS,
the strength of gravity g is nearly 90% that on Earth’s surface. This means an
astronaut has nearly 90% of their normal weight. But because both astronauts
and spacecraft experience the same free-fall acceleration, they don’t exert
significant forces on each other; therefore, it feels just like weightlessness—
effective weightlessness (see the Physics Feature ‘Microgravity’ on page 38).
To be truly weightless, you must either have zero mass or be somewhere in the
universe where g equals zero.
Similarly, if you drive too fast over an upward bulge in the road so that the
(downward) centripetal acceleration ac experienced by you and the car exactly
equals g, the car briefly leaves the road, you both go into free-fall and you
experience momentary effective weightlessness, which can give you a strange
Figure 3.2.1 Astronauts in the International
sensation in the stomach (Figure 3.2.2). Space Station floating freely

Worked example
QUESTION
v
Suppose the hill in Figure 3.2.2 has a radius of curvature of 32.0 m. What is the fastest
ac
speed you can drive over it without leaving the ground?
SOLUTION
Figure 3.2.2 Driving over a hill too fast, if
You won’t leave the ground as long as the centripetal acceleration required to stay on the the centripetal acceleration
road is less than the maximum provided by gravity, i.e. 9.80 m s–2. equals g, you feel ‘weightless’.
v2 v2
9.80 m s–2 ≥ = , so vmax = 9.80 × 32.0 = 17.71 m s–1 = 63.8 km h–1
R 32.0 m

37
3 Pushing
Push
Pu shin
shing
in
shoving:
shov
shovin
ov
g an
ing:
in
andd
g: force
for
orce
ce

PHYSICS FEATURE 5. Current issues, research and

developments in physics
MICROGRAVITY

H ow does effective weightlessness, or microgravity,

work? On Earth, gravity pulls you down, but the
floor (or seat) pushes back on you. You’re compressed
Microgravity also affects inanimate things. For
example, a normal candle flame is teardrop-shaped
because hot, burnt gas rises; this is called convection.
by two opposing forces, causing internal stresses that But in microgravity, there’s no convection, so flames
affect body organs and sensory nerves around your burn very slowly and are spherical (Figure 3.2.4)
body so that you feel the effects of weight. Similar
things happen when you’re stretched by gravity. In
orbit, however, both astronaut and spacecraft are in
free-fall, so the astronaut never quite catches up with
the floor (or seat): it doesn’t push back, so there are
no internal stresses and no apparent effects of gravity.
NASA astronauts train for effective weightlessness
(‘zero g’) in a padded aircraft (Figure 3.2.3). It climbs
rapidly and then curves downwards in a parabolic path
with a downward acceleration of exactly g, so people
inside are in free-fall for up to 25 s. Because of the
effect this has on some inexperienced trainees, the
plane is nicknamed the ‘Vomit Comet’.

Figure 3.2.4 Candle flame in

normal gravity (left)
and microgravity
(right)

The European Space

Agency has recently
installed a special module
(called Colombus) on the
International Space Station
to research the effects of
microgravity on combustion,
fluid physics, human health
and crystal, plant and cell
growth.

Figure 3.2.3 Christa McAuliffe, the first school teacher in space,

undertaking zero-g training. She later died in the 1986
Challenger shuttle disaster.

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TRY THIS!
MICROGRAVITY LAB @ HOME
Make a small hole at the bottom of a foam cup. Fill the cup with water
and then drop it. The moment it starts to fall, water stops pouring out of
the hole. Take a picture or video of the moment you let go. While the
water and cup are in free-fall, they behave as though they are weightless.

CHECKPOINT 3.2
1 Define mass and weight. What is true weightlessness?
2 Explain why mass is constant everywhere but weight is not.
3 Calculate the weight on Earth of an object of 50 kg.
4 Define free-fall.

3.3 Newton’s first law of motion PRACTICAL

EXPERIENCES
So far we’ve given you a qualitative definition of force and mentioned some of Activity 3.1
Activity Manual, Page
the things it does. To be more quantitative, we need to understand the properties 16
of force, summarised by Newton’s three laws of motion.
To apply Newton’s three laws of motion correctly, the observer must be
non-accelerating (therefore non-rotating). The physicists’ way of saying this is
that ‘the observer is in an inertial frame of reference’. Remember that frame
of reference means the observer’s point of view when judging velocity (see
Section 1.2). If you’re in an accelerating frame of reference, you’ll seem to
experience fictitious forces.

Inertia
Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC) taught 2300 years ago that the natural
state of Earthly objects is to be stationary, so you need to keep applying an
external influence (force) to keep them moving. This seems right—if you kick a
ball, it eventually stops, so you need to kick it again to keep it moving; however,
this is wrong. It took almost 2000 years before Aristotle’s idea was conclusively
argued against, by English physicist Isaac Newton (1643–1727).
Newton’s revolutionary idea was summarised in his first law of motion (or
law of inertia): Figure 3.3.1 Isaac Newton

If no net external force is applied to an object, its velocity will Explain the need for a net
remain constant. external force to act in order to
change the velocity of an object.

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Several points to note include:

NEWTON’S LAWS
OF MO ZI
O ther people suggested
the law of inertia before
Newton. For example, it can also
be found in the writings of the
followers of Chinese philosopher
Mo Zi in the third century BCE.
Discuss reasons why Newton’s
first law of motion is not
apparent in many real-world
situations.
Define the inertia of a vehicle
as its tendency to remain in
uniform motion or at rest.
• An external force is one that is acting on an object from outside. Forces
between parts within the object don’t count.
• Objects at rest (v = 0) remain at rest.
• The magnitude and direction of velocity remain constant; that is, objects
move in a straight line.
• Net means ‘resultant’. The law applies when the resultant force equals zero.
• If an object’s velocity (magnitude or direction) changes, there must be a net
external force.
• Inertia means ‘resistance to change’ (of velocity).
Aristotle’s old idea appears true because almost everywhere you look, there
are external forces, such as friction or gravity, that slow things down and change
their velocity. But in situations where friction and other external forces are
almost eliminated, such as in the vacuum of space or with special laboratory
equipment, you can show that Newton was right.
Inertia—an object’s resistance to velocity changes when there’s no external
force—is dramatically illustrated in a car crash. Imagine that you don’t wear a
seatbelt and that your car collides head-on with a tree. Without a seatbelt, there
is negligible force holding you back. So when the collision stops the car, you
obey Newton’s law of inertia and continue to move forwards at your original
high velocity until the steering wheel or windscreen stops you with a bone-
crushing force. Sometimes people say wrongly that they were ‘thrown forwards
by the crash’ (Figure 3.3.2). This sensation is just a fictitious force.
When there’s no net force on an object, velocity is constant and the vector
sum of forces forms a closed loop. An object in this situation is in equilibrium
(Section 3.1). If velocity is zero and constant, it’s called static equilibrium. If
velocity is non-zero and constant, it’s called dynamic equilibrium.

Worked example
QUESTION
You attach a hockey puck to a string and spin it in a horizontal circle on (almost frictionless)
ice (Figure 3.3.3). Because the motion is confined to a horizontal plane, only consider
Figure 3.3.2 Crash-test dummy victims of horizontal forces and motion.
Newton’s first law of motion At the moment pictured in Figure 3.3.3, the string breaks and the puck continues to
slide along the ice.
a Which path (A, B, C or D) will the puck take immediately after the string breaks?
b Explain why.
SOLUTION
a The puck will take path C.
b At first the string exerted a force on the puck, which kept it moving in a circle. Once
D
the string broke, however, there was no net force. So by Newton’s first law of motion,
the puck should continue with a constant velocity (straight line). Since the velocity
C
was along path C at the moment the string broke, the puck will continue along
this path.
B
A

Figure 3.3.3 Which path does the puck

follow after the string breaks?

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CHECKPOINT 3.3
1 State Newton’s first law of motion.
2 Describe an inertial frame of reference.
3 What does inertia literally mean?
4 Define static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium.
5 If an object’s velocity changes, what can you say about forces acting on it?
6 Explain why Aristotle’s wrong idea seems right most of the time.

3.4 Newton’s second law of motion Interpret Newton’s second law

of motion and relate it to the
Newton’s first law of motion tells us that you need a force to change velocity, equation Σ F = m a.
but it doesn’t say how much force. The second law says a larger mass requires a
Identify the net force in a wide
larger force to accelerate it and the bigger the force, the bigger the acceleration.
variety of situations involving
Newton’s second law of motion summarises this in the following equation:
modes of transport, and explain
the consequences of the
application of that net force in
Fnet = ma
terms of Newton’s second law
of motion.
That is, an object with mass m will experience an acceleration a when it is
subject to a net external force Fnet, which equals ma2.
Several points to note include:
• Whenever there’s acceleration, there must be a net force and vice versa.
• Similar to the first law of motion, only external forces count. PRACTICAL
• If Fnet = 0, then a = 0 (velocity is constant). This agrees with the first law. EXPERIENCES
• The net external force is always in the same direction as the acceleration. Activity 3.2
Activity Manual, Page
However, the net force is not necessarily in the same direction as velocity. 20

As mentioned above, the second law of motion says that the bigger the mass, the
harder it is to change its velocity (the bigger the inertia). So mass is a measure of
an object’s inertia.
If several forces are acting on an object but Fnet equals zero (their vectors form a
closed loop), then a equals zero also. Nevertheless, this doesn’t mean those forces
have no effect on the object. Components of the forces will push or pull in opposite
directions, so the object will be stretched compressed, bent, sheared or twisted.

Free-fall
Newton’s second law helps us to understand why (without air resistance) all
objects fall with the same acceleration. The magnitude of weight is w = mg
(Section 3.2). But Newton’s second law says Fnet = ma. Without air resistance,
weight is the only external force, so Fnet = w:
m a = mg ⇒ a = g
No matter how big m is, it always cancels to give a = g ; in free-fall,
acceleration is always g. If you double the mass, you double the weight force;
however, the second law says you also double the force required to achieve the
same acceleration, so the two effects cancel out.

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Worked example
15° QUESTION
Renfrew and Prunella are fighting over a crate of physics books on almost frictionless
120 N 180 kg 85 N
wheels (Figure 3.4.1). They pull on the crate with ropes. Calculate the acceleration of
the crate. Assume that all motion is horizontal.
SOLUTION
Figure 3.4.1 What is the crate’s acceleration?
Fnet = ma
Consider horizontal components only.
Use sign convention: + →. Ignore friction.
Net horizontal force on the crate is:
Fh net = –120 cos 15° N + 85 N = –30.9 N = mah = 180 kg × ah
−30.9 N
ah = = –0.172 m s–2 ≈ 0.17 m s–2 to the left
180 kg

CHECKPOINT 3.4
1 State Newton’s second law of motion as an equation.
2 Explain how Newton’s second law of motion agrees with the first law.
3 Describe the relationship between the direction of net force on an object and its acceleration.
4 Doubling mass doubles an object’s weight. Explain why this doesn’t double the downward acceleration
during free-fall.

3.5 Newton’s third law of motion

a b
Figure 3.5.1 Skaters on ice testing Newton’s
third law of motion
Consider Figure 3.5.1a. Renfrew and Prunella are wearing ice skates on ice (with
negligible friction), standing face-to-face, and they push each other. Of course,
they both slide apart since they both exert forces on each other.
c Suppose that Prunella turned around and refused to push back (Figure 3.5.1b).
Would Renfrew stay still now that Prunella is not pushing him? What if Renfrew
pushed against something inanimate, like the statue on the sled (Figure 3.5.1c)
with no muscles (or intention) to push back?
In all cases, both people/objects would slide apart, even if the other didn’t try
to push back. Whenever you push any object, it always pushes back at you. The
magnitude of the force that the object exerts back on you is always exactly equal
to the magnitude of the force you exerted on the object.
Newton’s third law of motion summarises all this:
For every action, there’s and equal and opposite reaction.
Several points to note include:
• For Newton’s third law, action means ‘force’; reaction means ‘a resulting,
opposing force’.
• Equal and opposite means ‘equal in magnitude but opposite in direction’.
• The action and the reaction are not exerted on the same object.
• Together, the force and the resulting reaction force are called an action–
reaction pair.

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Why don’t the action and reaction always cancel, resulting in no net force
and hence no acceleration? Remember that the action and reaction act on
different objects. Renfrew’s force acts on Prunella, while Prunella’s force acts on
Renfrew. Neither experiences both forces, so neither experiences a zero net force.
Perhaps you know that a rifle ‘gives a kick’ (or recoil) when fired. This is
because of Newton’s third law. The rifle exerts a force on the bullet as it moves
through the rifle barrel. Therefore, the bullet exerts an equal and opposite
reaction on the rifle, which is felt as recoil.

reaction
Sometimes people get confused about how rockets work in the vacuum of
space. If there is no air to push against, how can a rocket exert thrust? It works via
Newton’s third law. High pressure inside the rocket’s combustion chamber exerts
a large force on the hot exhaust gas as it’s forced out through the rocket’s nozzle.
The exhaust gas therefore exerts an equal and opposite reaction force (thrust)

action
back onto the rocket, pushing it forward (see Figure 3.5.2). In fact, a rocket
works even better in a vacuum because there’s no air resistance to slow it down.

ACTION AND
RETRACTION
‘Professor Goddard does not Figure 3.5.2 Newton’s third law of motion is
know the relation between action responsible for thrust in NASA’s
and reaction and the need to space shuttle. If the action (red
have something better than a arrow) is the force exerted on
vacuum against which to react.’ the exhaust gas by the shuttle,
then the reaction (green arrow)
Extract from a 1920 New York Times is the force exerted back on the
editorial, criticising Robert Goddard’s shuttle by the exhaust gas.
prediction that rockets would fly to the
Moon. Cheekily, the New York Times
printed a retraction of their criticism on
the day Neil Armstrong stepped on the
Moon in 1969.
Figure 3.5.3 Rocket pioneer Robert Goddard
(1882–1945) standing next to
one of his rockets

CHECKPOINT 3.5
1 State Newton’s third law of motion.
2 Explain why the action and reaction don’t cancel.
3 Explain how a rocket in space can exert thrust even if there’s no air to push against.

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3.6 More about force

CM
Figure 3.6.1 Far from external forces, your
centre of mass velocity will
obey Newton’s first law and
remain constant.
Centre of mass and Newton’s laws of motion
How do you apply Newton’s laws of motion to objects composed of many parts,
like a bus full of people? When you analyse the motion of a group of objects
together, we call it a ‘system’. Any forces acting from outside the system are
external forces. Forces between parts inside the system (for example, ‘bums on
seats’ in a bus) are internal and don’t contribute to the net external force. This is
why you can’t push a yacht forward by sitting in it and blowing on your own sail.
When applying Newton’s laws to a system, you need to pick a single
representative point—the centre of mass (CM). If you divide an object or
system into many small pieces of equal mass, the CM is the average position of
these. Even if individual parts are moving in unrelated directions, the
system’s CM will obey Newton’s laws. Astronauts floating in space cannot change
their CM velocity by thrashing arms and legs around because the forces used are
internal forces (Figure 3.6.1). Far from sources of external force, such as gravity
or air resistance, the CM velocity remains constant (Newton’s first law).
More forces
Contact forces are those that act between objects in contact with one another.
The three most commonly discussed are tension in a rope or string, friction and
normal force.

Tension
T T Tension is the force that a taut rope or string exerts on any object it is attached to
(Figure 3.6.2). Tension always pulls on the object in the same direction as
the string points. If the string is ideal (negligible mass and not stiff ), the
magnitude of tension is always equal at both ends of the string.

Figure 3.6.2 The magnitude of tension T Friction

is the same at both ends of
the string.
Describe the typical effects of
external forces on bodies,
including:
• friction between surfaces
• air resistance.
Friction acts between objects rubbing or sliding together. Friction is always
parallel to the rubbing surfaces and always acts in the direction opposite to the
(actual or potential) sliding direction.
Friction exhibits two behaviours: static (still) and kinetic (sliding) friction.
It’s static friction if there’s no sliding (tyres or shoes gripping the road). It’s
kinetic friction if the two surfaces are sliding (a car skidding or a child on a
slippery dip). If you push a static object harder than the maximum static friction
for the two surfaces in contact, static friction switches to kinetic, so sliding starts.
Kinetic friction is very nearly constant with speed.
Kinetic friction is usually significantly smaller than static friction, which is
why braking distance is dangerously large when car tyres start to slide on the
road. It’s also much harder to steer when this happens.
If you slam on the brakes too hard, the wheels stop turning (wheel-lock),
which causes static friction between tyre and road to switch to kinetic friction.
Many cars have anti-lock brakes, where a small computer control prevents the
brake pressure from getting large enough to cause wheel-lock.

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TRY THIS!
MINI-JERK
You know the trick in which you quickly jerk a smooth tablecloth from
under a complete dinner setting without disturbing anything. That takes
practice. You can practise with a mini-jerk.
Put a mug with a smooth base, half-filled with water, onto a smooth,
unwrinkled A4 sheet of paper on a table. If you jerk the paper quickly,
the paper comes out and the mug barely moves.
By pulling quickly, static friction switches to kinetic, which only has
a small effect because of the fairly large inertia of the mug.

Another kind of friction is rolling resistance. This is partly caused by the

force required to compress a wheel slightly as it rolls, and partly by the surface’s
‘stickiness’. Both low tyre pressure and road roughness increase rolling resistance,
which is nearly constant with speed.
Drag is another kind of friction. This force opposes the motion of objects
through a gas or liquid. In air, it’s called air resistance. Drag increases rapidly with
speed and gets larger if you increase the cross-sectional area. When falling through
air, you accelerate until you reach the terminal speed, at which air resistance exactly
cancels your weight and so you stop accelerating. For instance, a parachute works by
increasing cross-sectional area so that drag is large and terminal speed is low.
Friction, rolling resistance and drag are called resistive forces because
they resist motion.

Normal force
Normal force is also called ‘normal contact force’ or ‘normal reaction force’
(where normal means ‘perpendicular’). When you push any surface, it pushes a b
back at you (Newton’s third law). The component of this reaction normal to the normal normal
force force
surface is called the normal force. There’s no simple formula for normal force. As
net
long as the surface doesn’t break, the normal force always adjusts itself to prevent net force is
weight force weight down
motion through the surface. is zero slope
When you stand stationary on horizontal ground, for example, you’re in
grou
equilibrium (Figure 3.6.3a). The two opposing forces, weight and normal force, ground nd

must cancel exactly—the normal force adjusts, so its magnitude equals your weight. Figure 3.6.3 Normal force is always
Note that in Figure 3.6.3a, even though weight and normal force are perpendicular to the surface.
equal and opposite, they’re not an action–reaction pair because they are both Its magnitude adjusts to
acting on the same body. The reaction to your weight is the gravitational prevent motion through
attraction that YOU exert back on the Earth. the surface.
Imagine now that you’re wearing ice skates on an icy, nearly frictionless slope
(Figure 3.6.3b). The normal force exerted by the tilted ground is no longer opposite
to your weight, so there’s a net force. The magnitude of the normal force adjusts so
that the net force points parallel to the sloping ground. You accelerate downwards
along the slope. If an object is on a fixed slope, the normal force is equal and
opposite to the normal component of the object’s weight. (See also Figure 3.7.1.)
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Centripetal force
Newton’s second law of motion says that wherever there’s acceleration, there’s a
net external force. Since an object moving in a circle experiences a centripetal
acceleration, there must therefore be a force acting to keep the object moving
in a circle. This is called a centripetal force. By combining F = ma and the
equation for centripetal acceleration (Section 2.3), you get the equation for the
magnitude of centripetal force Fc :

mv 2
Fc = mac =
R

Centripetal force is not a separate kind of force, like gravity, tension and friction.
Different forces can do the job of providing centripetal force (Figure 3.6.4). Gravity
provides the centripetal force to keep a communications satellite or the Moon in
orbit. In the Scottish hammer throw, tension in the cable provides centripetal force
while the metal ball is spun around the head before being thrown. When a car turns a
corner, centripetal force is provided by static friction between the tyres and the road.

Gravity Tension Friction

Figure 3.6.4 Different forces can do the job of providing centripetal force.

Some people say you experience an outward centrifugal force when moving
in a circle, but this sensation is another fictitious force. Driving quickly around
a bend, you feel as though you’re being thrown outwards because your body
seems to push against the car door or seatbelt. A non-accelerating observer on
the street sees correctly that your body’s inertia keeps you moving in a straight
line according to Newton’s first law; however, eventually the car door or seatbelt
gets in the way and exerts an inward centripetal force on you.

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Worked example
QUESTION
A person is dragging two crates using light ropes (Figure 3.6.5). The crates are mounted on 98 N
almost frictionless wheels.
a Calculate the resulting acceleration of the crates. 180 kg
b Calculate the magnitude of the unknown tension T in the rope. T T
80 kg
SOLUTION
Consider only horizontal components. Use sign convention: + →.
Figure 3.6.5 Dragging two crates with
a Because of the ropes, the accelerations of the crates are the same. Therefore, treat light ropes
them as one system. The known tension (98 N) is the only external horizontal force.
Fh net = mah = +98 N = (180 + 80) kg × ah
+98
ah = = +0.377 m s–2 (right)
(180 + 80)
b Now treat the 80 kg crate as the system. The only net external force is the
unknown tension.
Fh net = T = ma h = 80 kg × (0.377 m s–2) = 30 N

Worked example
QUESTION
A car of mass 1250 kg is parked on a slope of 20° (Figure 3.6.6). Calculate the magnitude
of static friction keeping it in place.
SOLUTION 20°
The only forces acting are: normal force from road, static friction uphill and the car’s weight. 20°
The car is in static equilibrium, so the net force = 0 (closed loop of vectors). Normal force N w
must be perpendicular to the slope (hence, also to friction).
Weight w = 1250 kg × 9.80 m s–2 = 12 250 N
Static friction Fs = w sin 20° = 12 250 N × 0.3420 = 4190 N
Fs

Figure 3.6.6 A stationary car on a slope

CHECKPOINT 3.6
1 Describe the terms system and centre of mass.
2 List the characteristics of tension.
3 Describe the two kinds of friction. Which is larger?
4 Explain what determines the magnitude of the normal force.
5 Explain how you know that a force is required to keep something moving in a circle.

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3.7 Jump in my car

Identify the net force in a wide
variety of situations involving
modes of transport, and
explain the consequences of
the application of that net
force in terms of Newton’s
second law of motion.
N
N gears, couplings and axles (the ‘drivetrain’)—exerts forces on the wheels, causing
w
wn
w wd
N = –w N = –wn = –w cos
Figure 3.7.1 Horizontal road: weight w and
normal force N cancel. On a hill:
normal force cancels the normal
component of weight wn,
leaving a resultant downhill
component of weight wd.
Describe the actions that must
be taken for a vehicle to change
direction, speed up and slow
down.
brake pads
piston
to brake
pedal
brake fluid
hub
disc
Let’s analyse the forces involved in driving a car.
You’re driving along the road surface, so the normal force adjusts to prevent
motion perpendicular to the road (Figure 3.7.1). On a horizontal road, there’s no
net vertical force, so weight and normal force are equal and opposite. We can
therefore ignore them both. If you’re driving on a hill, the normal force adjusts
so that it’s equal and opposite to the normal component of weight. However,
now there’s a downhill component of weight that we can’t ignore.
In the following examples, we can assume that the net force perpendicular to
the road surface is zero. Thus we only consider forces (or their components)
parallel to the road surface.
Most important is the force that drives the car forwards. The engine—via
them to rotate. Rotating wheels exert a backward force of static friction on the
road. The road then exerts a reaction force of static friction onto the wheels,
which exerts a forward driving force on the car. When you press the accelerator,
the magnitude of the driving force increases.
When you use the brakes, kinetic friction between brake pads and a disc
(or older-style drum) in each wheel exerts a force on the wheels, which is
transmitted to the road via static friction (see Figure 3.7.2). The road exerts a
backwards reaction force of static friction onto the car, slowing it down. Let’s call
this the braking force. When you press the brake harder, the magnitude of the
braking force increases.
There are also three unavoidable sources of resistive force in a car. The first is
kinetic friction in the drivetrain connected to the wheels—‘drivetrain friction’,
which acts like a weak braking force. The other two are air resistance and rolling
resistance (see Section 3.6). Air resistance increases strongly with speed, whereas
kinetic friction and rolling resistance are roughly constant. These three forces act
whenever the car is moving and always act in the direction opposite to the
motion. Let’s call these three the resistive forces.
Driving force, braking force and drivetrain friction all act via the reaction of
the road back on the wheels through static friction.
Now let’s go for a drive and see these forces at work. Figure 3.7.3 summarises
those forces (or components) parallel to the road surface in several common
situations. Note that you don’t always accelerate when you push the
accelerator.
The following three situations are not covered by Figure 3.7.3:
• Parked: The static friction between the brake pads and wheels prevents the
wheels from rolling. The static friction between the tyres and road prevents
the car from sliding away.

wheel

Figure 3.7.2 Schematic of disc brakes in

a car

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Horizontal road Uphill Downhill Outline the forces involved in

rate dec causing a change in the velocity
decelerate accelerate cele eler
e ac ate
lerat acce of a vehicle when:
dece lera
te
• coasting with no pressure on
Coasting; decelerating Coasting; decelerating Coasting; accelerating the accelerator
res rf • pressing on the accelerator
res wd res
rf • pressing on the brakes
rf wd • passing over an icy patch on
Constant v Braking Coasting; constant v
rf the road
rf res wd
res = 0 rf • climbing and descending hills
df bf res = 0 • following a curve in the road.
wd
Accelerating Constant v Braking; constant v
res = 0
rf res wd rf
df bf
df rf
wd res = 0
res
Braking Accelerating Pushing accelerator
wd df rf
res
rf rf res
bf wd
df
df = driving force bf = braking force r f = resistive forces wd = downhill comp. of weight res = resultant force

Figure 3.7.3 Summary of forces acting on a car parallel to the road surface in various situations

a
• Taking a corner: Static friction keeps the tyres gripping the road. When you
steer, the front wheels are tilted, resulting in a net component of static Fcent =
Fs

friction from all the wheels that is perpendicular to the car’s motion. This
provides a centripetal force (see Figure 3.7.4). If you corner too fast, the
b
centripetal force required is larger than the maximum static friction, so the
tyres switch to kinetic friction and you skid.
Fsh + Nh
• Driving on ice: On icy road, maximum static friction is typically one-third Fcent =

that of clean dry road, so you must take care not to accelerate or brake too
hard or corner too fast. Otherwise, static friction will easily switch to kinetic
friction and you’ll slide around with very little control. In that case the only Figure 3.7.4 (a) Horizontal corner: centripetal
force provided by static friction
horizontal forces acting are kinetic friction and air resistance.
Fs only. (b) Banked corner:
On freeways, curved roads are banked, tilted towards the inner edge of the centripetal force provided by the
curve (Figure 3.7.4). This means there is a horizontal component of normal force horizontal components of static
Nh providing an extra source of centripetal force, reducing both the reliance on friction Fsh and normal force Nh.
static friction Fs and the chance of slipping.

CHECKPOINT 3.7
1 Is it possible to coast (no accelerator) and still accelerate? Explain, giving at least two possible answers.
2 If you’re driving at constant speed on a straight, horizontal road, list the forces acting on the car and comment on
their relative magnitudes.
3 Explain why one should avoid taking a corner too fast.
4 Comment on the statement: ‘The accelerator makes you accelerate.’
5 Why do you usually use the accelerator more when driving uphill?

49
3 Pushing
Push
Pu shin
shing
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shov
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for
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ce PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
CHAPTER 3
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

Gather first-hand information ACTIVITY 3.1: POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ACCELERATIONS

about different situations where OF OBJECTS
acceleration is positive or Build an accelerometer and use it to measure the acceleration of a small vehicle in
negative. various situations.
Equipment: protractor, string, mass, tape, cardboard, chair on wheels or
skateboard.
Discussion questions
0 10 20
0 0

Consider the following situations and then answer the questions below.
20 1

a pushing at a steady pace

30

30

b increasing speed
40

40

50
50 60
60
0 90 80 70
70 8 c starting quickly and slowing down
d moving around a corner

1 How are you able to tell there is acceleration?

Figure 3.8.1 The accelerometer used for 2 What would happen in situation b if the rate at which the vehicle is
this experiment accelerated is much greater?
3 Using the sign convention that the initial velocity is in the positive
direction, what are the signs of acceleration in situations a–c?
4 In situation d, in which direction is the acceleration?
5 Relate each of the situations to motion in a car.

Plan, choose equipment or ACTIVITY 3.2: F = ma

resources and perform first-hand
investigations to gather data and
use available evidence to show
the relationship between force,
mass and acceleration using
suitable apparatus.
Using apparatus similar to that shown in Figure 3.8.2, determine the relationship
between F, m and a and verify Newton’s second law.
Equipment: trolley, mass carrier, 5 masses, fishing line, table pulley, 2 retort
stands, 2 clamps, 2 light gates, data logger, computer, spreadsheet software.
Discussion questions
1 Calculate the slope of the line of best fit of your F versus a graph.
What does this value represent?
2 How does this experiment verify Newton’s second law of motion?
3 How does this compare with your originally measured mass of the
total system?
4 Why did you need to ensure that masses added to the mass carrier were
originally taken from the trolley?

Figure 3.8.2 Typical equipment for this

experiment

50
Chapter summary
• Force is a push or pull that can change an object’s
velocity or distort its size or shape.
• Force vectors can be resolved into two perpendicular
components.
• Mass is the quantity of matter; weight is the force
exerted on an object by gravity.
• Objects in orbit or free-fall (negligible air resistance)
experience effective weightlessness even though they
have weight.
• To apply Newton’s laws of motion, the observer must
be in an inertial (non-accelerating) frame of reference.
• Newton’s first law of motion: if there is no net external
force, an object’s velocity is constant.
• Newton’s second law of motion: Fnet = ma.
• Newton’s third law of motion: for every action, there’s
an equal and opposite reaction.
• For a system of many parts, the centre of mass obeys
Newton’s laws.
• Tension in an ideal string has the same magnitude at
both ends.
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
In the following passage, the underlined words or phrases
have been swapped around. Unscramble it.
Your car is parked on a horizontal road, so weight keeps it
stationary. You start the car and operate the driving force,
which decreases the static friction and you drive off. For
a while you are travelling at constant accelerator, so the
downhill component are velocity to your velocity. You start
driving up a small hill without changing pressure on the
resistive forces, so your driving force increases. This is
because now your car is being acted on by a driving force of
equal and opposite, which opposes the accelerator of the car.
REVIEWING
1 Compare and contrast mass and weight.
2 Explain why bathroom scales show your mass as being
one-sixth your reading on Earth if you are on the Moon.
3 Is a car driving at constant speed in a straight line
an example of Newton’s first law of motion? Explain.
MOVING
ABOUT
• Static friction is the force between two unattached surfaces
(parallel to them) that prevents them from sliding.
• Kinetic friction is the force between two sliding surfaces
(parallel to them). It is smaller than static friction.
• Air resistance is the force that opposes motion
through air.
• Normal force is the normal component of the reaction
of a surface to being pushed.
• Wherever there’s circular motion, there must be a
centripetal force.
• In a car, the normal force cancels the normal
component of weight.
• Driving force is the force that pushes the car forwards.
Braking force is the force used deliberately to slow a
car down.
• Unavoidable resistive forces (drivetrain friction, rolling
resistance and air resistance) all act to slow a car down.
• The downhill component of weight can accelerate
a downhill-heading car or decelerate an uphill-
heading car.
4 Is it true that there are no forces acting on the car in
Question 3? Explain.
5 Is a car driving in a circle at a constant speed an
example of Newton’s first law of motion? Explain.
6 Explain the difference between true weightlessness
and effective weightlessness experienced in orbit.
7 In the two coasting examples from the ‘Downhill’
column of Figure 3.7.3, explain why the ‘resistive
forces’ vectors can be different sizes. (Hint: air
resistance)
8 In Figure 3.5.1a, Renfrew is 85 kg and Prunella
is 59 kg. They push against each other on ice skates.
Who will experience the larger magnitude of force?
Who will experience the larger magnitude of
acceleration? Explain.
9 You are standing on the ground. Your weight is
80 N down. The normal force that the ground exerts
on you is 80 N up. Are weight and normal force an
action–reaction pair? Justify your answer.
10 An astronaut is stranded in space when his tether
to the space station breaks. Carrying only his repair
tools, explain how the astronaut can return to the
space station.
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SOLVING PROBLEMS
11 a Calculate the magnitude of the gravitational force exerted on a
Solve problems and analyse
64 kg person by the Earth.
information using ΣF = ma for
b Calculate the magnitude of the gravitational force exerted on the Earth
a range of situations involving
by the same person.
modes of transport.
12 You twirl a small mass on a 1.0 m light string in a vertical circle (that is, at
the top of its swing the string points vertically upwards). You rotate it rapidly
so that the string is taut. At the very top of its swing, what two forces are
together providing the centripetal force? You let it slow down gradually.
Solve problems and analyse
At one point, when it’s right at the top of its swing, the string briefly goes
information involving vehicles
slightly limp. Calculate the tangential speed of the mass at that moment.
travelling around curves.
13 Consider the sum of forces in Figure 3.1.2. Suppose the ball is
0.45 kg, the force exerted by the hand has twice the magnitude of the
weight and the (acute) angle between the forces is 25°. Calculate the
resultant force on the ball and the acceleration it undergoes. (Don’t forget
direction!)
14 You are holding a 200 g ball hanging from a light string. Hanging from the
Analyse the effects of external
bottom of that ball is an identical ball on a string. Both balls are stationary.
forces operating on a vehicle.
Calculate the tension in both strings.
15 A 60 kg physics student is riding in an elevator while standing on a set
of bathroom scales. Draw a force diagram and calculate the reading onto
the scales (in newtons) at each time in the journey listed below.
a no motion
b accelerating up at a rate of 5 m s–2
c accelerating down at a rate of 2 m s–2
d constant velocity of 3 m s–1 upwards
(Hint: Strictly speaking, bathroom scales measure normal force, not weight.)
16 In Figure 3.6.3b, assuming that the slope makes an angle of 15° to the
horizontal and that friction is negligible, calculate the acceleration of the
skater down the slope. Explain why you don’t need to know the mass.
17 In the worked example accompanying Figure 3.6.6, suppose oil leaked on
the road and the previously static friction switched to kinetic friction with
a magnitude exactly half that calculated in the example. Calculate the
acceleration of the car as it slides down the hill.
18 Your 1100 kg car runs out of petrol and you are rolling on straight,
horizontal road, hoping to make it to the nearby petrol station. Initially your
speed is 7.3 km h–1. Assuming you are slow enough to ignore air
resistance and supposing the other (nearly constant) resistive forces add
up to 89 N, calculate your acceleration and total displacement.
19 A 1250 kg car is taking a corner on a horizontal road. The radius of the
curve is 18.0 m. The maximum static friction that the tyres can sustain is
13 000 N. Calculate the fastest speed that the car can take the corner
without skidding.
20 You’re standing on a bus using a pendulum to measure acceleration.
The pendulum string makes an angle θ with the vertical. By considering all
forces on the pendulum bob, show that acceleration (in units of g) is given
by a = tan θ. (Hint: The pendulum bob is not in equilibrium.)
21 Draw a free-body diagram showing all the forces acting on a car
accelerating up a slope. Include those forces not acting along the direction
of the road surface.

52

PHYSICS FOCUS
GALILEO
There’s a legend that Italian physicist Galileo Galilei
(1564–1642) dropped different weights off the
Leaning Tower of Pisa to show that their accelerations
were the same. It is thought this was probably done
by Flemish scientist Simon Stevinus (1548–1620).
However, Galileo came to this conclusion through
experiments with balls rolling down slopes. From these
experiments, he developed the equations of motion.
Galileo observed that a ball’s acceleration depended
on the angle of the slope, not the ball’s mass. As the
angle got steeper, they accelerated faster; however,
different masses still rolled at the same rate.
He concluded that in the limit, as the slope
approached vertical (dropping straight down), the law
should still hold and the ball’s acceleration would
approach the free-fall value. His reasoning was
basically correct, but he didn’t yet know that balls
rolling downhill accelerate more slowly than
frictionless objects sliding downhill. If instead he had
been using frictionless sliding objects (which were not
available at that time), his conclusions would have
been completely correct.
Figure 3.8.3 Galileo Galilei demonstrating his rolling ball experiments
MOVING
ABOUT
1. The history of physics
1 If two objects of different masses were actually
dropped off the Leaning Tower of Pisa, explain why
the expected result may not be seen, yet when
Commander David Scott of the Apollo 15 mission
dropped a feather and a geologic hammer on the
Moon, they hit the surface at the same time.
2 Draw a free-body diagram of the forces acting on
an object sliding down a frictionless slope at an
angle θ to the horizontal.
3 Determine the component of force that acts down
the slope. (Hint: See Figure 3.7.1.)
4 Derive a formula for the acceleration of an object
sliding down a frictionless slope.
5 Show that, in agreement with Galileo’s original
idea, as the slope approaches vertical, the
acceleration of the sliding object approaches g.
EXTENSION
6 Research the history of Galileo’s work on the
equations of motion and other areas of physics
(such as astronomy).
7 Do research to find out how much slower a ball
rolls downhill than an object sliding down a
frictionless slope.
53

4 energy and
energy, kinetic energy, potential
energy, gravitational potential
energy, thermal energy, law of
conservation of energy, mechanical
energy, work, work–energy
theorem, power, momentum, elastic
collision, plastic collision, inelastic
collision, deformation energy, elastic
potential energy, impulse
Figure 4.1.1 2 fast and 2 furious in 1904:
a road accident in Paris
54
Crash bang:
momentum
Fast and furious
The word energy is in the news a lot recently: either because burning
fossil fuels for energy has been blamed for global warming, or because
world politics has been blamed for increasing energy prices. Here,
we will look at what energy means and what it does. Mostly, we use
energy to do work (which has a special meaning in physics).
In the previous chapter, we used forces to push, pull, slide and roll
things around—it has been genteel. But when things get fast and
furious and they start colliding and exploding, we need to introduce
ideas like momentum and impulse.
4.1 What is energy?
Energy is needed to do useful work. It can move, heat, cool, join and cut things;
make noise and light; and power our electronics. Food contains energy your
body needs to operate. But what is energy? It’s not possible to give a one-line
definition. The best we can do is list its properties and get quantitative later.
Let’s take it one step at a time.
Loosely speaking, energy is the ability to cause motion. Sometimes energy
doesn’t immediately cause motion: it can be stored for later. While energy does
other things besides cause motion, we’ll stick to motion for now.
Common examples of energy are:
• energy of motion—kinetic energy
• stored energy—potential energy, such as gravitational, elastic and chemical
• energy in hot objects—thermal energy (loosely termed heat)
• light energy, sound energy, electrical energy and others.
Energy is a scalar: it has no direction (no vectors!), so the mathematics tends
to be easier. Its SI unit is the joule (J or kg m2 s–2).
 MOVING
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Law of conservation of energy

We go to a lot of trouble to obtain energy. So will energy ever disappear? The
good news is that energy is forever—you cannot destroy it. The bad news is that
you cannot create more energy. The total amount of energy in the universe is
fixed. This is one of the most important laws of physics.
The law of conservation of energy states that: energy can be neither
Define the law of conservation
created nor destroyed. It is ‘conserved’. of energy.
Although you can’t create or destroy energy, you can transform it from
one form into another. For example, when you turn a torch on, the chemical
energy in the battery transforms into electrical energy, then thermal energy and
finally light energy.
So why the fuss? If energy is conserved, can’t we keep re-using it? Unfortunately,
we usually need energy in a concentrated high-quality form, such as petrol or
electricity. Once we use these forms, it ends up in the lowest quality, least-
concentrated form—thermal energy. In theory, we can transform some thermal
energy back into petrol or electricity, but another law of physics says that it’s
impossible to convert 100% of thermal energy into a higher quality form. So over
time, our total energy budget transforms into an ever-increasing proportion of
low-quality thermal energy.

Kinetic energy
Energy of motion, known as kinetic energy (KE), is the simplest form of energy. Identify that a moving object
The faster an object moves and the larger the mass, the more energy it has. The possesses kinetic energy and
formula for kinetic energy K (or Ek) is: that work done on that object
can increase that energy.
1 2
K= mv
2

where m is mass in kilograms (kg) and v is magnitude of velocity (speed) in

metres per second (m s–1). Kinetic energy cannot be negative.

LITTLE NEUTRAL ONE

E arly last century, conservation of energy
seemed threatened because electrons
emitted by a radioactivity called beta decay
carried too little kinetic energy. In 1930
Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958)
suggested an almost undetectable neutral
particle was carrying the missing energy away.
In 1933 Italian physicist Enrico Fermi
(1901–1954) called it the neutrino (Italian for
‘little neutral one’) and developed the full
theory. In 1956 it was finally detected.

neutrino detector being constructed

Figure 4.1.2 The 13.7 m diameter ‘Borexino’

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Worked example
QUESTION
a Calculate the KE of a 1000 kg car moving at 60.0 km h–1.
b Calculate by what factor KE increases if you double mass.
c Calculate by what factor KE increases if you double speed.
SOLUTION
km 1000 m 60 m
a Convert into SI units: 60.0 = 60.0 × = = 16.7 m s–1
h 3600 s 3.6 s
1 1
K = mv 2 = × 1000 kg × (16.7)2 m2 s–2 = 139 000 J (or 139 kJ)
2 2
1 1 1
b K1 = mv 2 ∴ K2 = (2m )v 2 = 2( mv 2 ) = 2(K1); i.e. KE doubles.
2 2 2
1 1 1
c K1 = mv 2 ∴ K2 = m (2v )2 = 4( mv 2 ) = 4(K1); i.e. KE multiples by 4.
2 2 2
Note that increasing velocity has a larger effect on KE than increasing mass.

Gravitational potential energy

When you use a force to store energy for later, it is called potential energy (PE).
For example, if you lift an object against gravity, you are storing up gravitational
potential energy (GPE). If you drop the object, GPE converts into KE as it
accelerates downwards (Figure 4.1.3). The higher you lift the object and the
bigger its mass, the more potential energy it has. The formula for gravitational
potential energy U is:

U = mgh

where m is the mass in kilograms (kg), g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m s–2)
and h is the height in metres (m) to which the object is raised above the origin.
Note that U = mgh is actually an approximation, but it is accurate within a
few kilometres of the Earth’s surface. On the astronomical scale, there is a more
accurate formula you’ll learn about next year.
Then from what origin h = 0 do you measure the height? In fact, it’s arbitrary.
You can pick any origin when you do calculations of GPE; however, you
must be consistent—use the same origin throughout your calculations of GPE
when analysing a particular problem. Only changes in GPE are important in
calculations and this doesn’t depend on the choice of origin. Changes in
GPE depend only on changes in height, not the path taken to get there.
Note that GPE can be negative if an object is below the origin. GPE is
therefore a ‘signed scalar’.

Figure 4.1.3 A hydro-electric dam transforms
GPE in stored water into KE as
it falls and then into electrical
energy by turning a generator
turbine.
Worked example
QUESTION
A 1.20 kg mass is sitting on a shelf 2.10 m above the ground. Using the ground as the
origin, calculate the object’s GPE.
SOLUTION
U = mgh = 1.20 kg × 9.80 m s–2 × 2.10 m = 24.7 J

56
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CHECKPOINT 4.1
1 State the law of conservation of energy.
2 List three different forms of energy.
3 Define KE and GPE.
4 Calculate the KE of a 10 kg ball moving at 60 km h–1.
5 Calculate the GPE of a 10 kg ball raised to a height of 1.6 m.

4.2 Energy transformation

and motion
When you drive a car, you convert chemical energy in petrol into (mostly)
thermal energy, the car’s KE and (very little) sound energy. If you’re driving
uphill, you’re also converting some into GPE.
When you use the brakes, where does the car’s KE go? Brake pads grip a
disc (or drum) inside each wheel (Figures 3.7.2 and 4.2.1). The kinetic friction
between the pads and discs rapidly converts KE into thermal energy, so
immediately after using your brakes a lot, the metal parts of your wheels feel hot.
Other resistive forces, such as air resistance, also convert KE into thermal
energy. For example, a meteor normally burns up in the Earth’s atmosphere,
producing a spectacular ‘shooting star’ effect, because air resistance converts
its enormous KE into enough heat to vaporise it (Figure 4.2.2).
KE and all forms of potential energy taken together are called mechanical
energy (Em or ME). You can use energy transformations to calculate changes in Figure 4.2.1 Friction between the brake pads
speed in situations too complicated for the SUVAT equations (see Section 1.3). and the disc converts kinetic
In cases where friction and air resistance are negligible, you can assume that no energy into thermal energy.
KE is converted into thermal energy; therefore, ME is conserved.

Worked example
QUESTION
1 You drop a coin from rest from a height of 2.00 m.
a Calculate the speed of the coin when it hits the ground. Assume that air
resistance is negligible.
b Compare your answer to part a with the one calculated using the SUVAT equations
in part d of the worked example in Section 1.3.
2 Suppose a 30.0 kg child slid from rest down a frictionless 3.50 m long spiral slippery
dip that is 2.00 m high. Calculate her speed when she lands on the ground. Compare
this with your previous answers and comment.

Figure 4.2.2 The Leonid meteor shower occurs

annually around 17 November.

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SOLUTION
Since air resistance is negligible, ME is conserved. Use the ground as origin (this is the
simplest). Therefore, vi = 0, hf = 0.
1 a Conservation of energy: initial ME = final ME

nte
ractiv Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf
e
I

1
0 + mgh i = mv 2 + 0
M o d u le 2 f
Rearrange: 2ghi = vf

vf = 2 × 9.80 m s−2 × 2.00 m = 6.26 m s–1

b The answer is the same even though the method is different.
2 The slippery dip is frictionless, so ME is conserved. The change in GPE depends only
on height, so the length of the spiral path is irrelevant. The answer is the same
because the equation for ME conservation is the same as that for part a above,
where mass cancels out and the change in height is the same. So:
vf = 2 × 9.80 m s−2 × 2.00 m = 6.26 m s–1

NINETEENTH-
CENTURY
ROMANTICISM
I n 1843 British physicist James
Prescott Joule (1818–1889)
showed the connection between heat,
work and energy. He calculated that
falling water would warm up by nearly
0.25°C per 100 m as its GPE
transformed first into KE and finally
into thermal energy at the bottom.
While on his honeymoon, Joule took
his wife, a horse and carriage and a
very large, accurate thermometer to
the romantic Alps at Chamonix, in
France, where he tried unsuccessfully
ymoon could not
to test his theory by holding the Figure 4.2.3 Chamonix, where even a hone ics!
distract James Prescott Joule from phys
thermometer in the broken-up spray
of a waterfall.

CHECKPOINT 4.2
1 Using energy, explain how friction helps to stop a car.
2 Define mechanical energy.
3 In what situations is mechanical energy conserved?
4 A frictionless roller-coaster car starts at the top from rest and reaches 50 km h–1 at the bottom. Calculate the
height at the top.

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4.3 Work
When you’re ‘working hard’ studying a physics book, physics says you’re doing
almost no work at all, apart from turning the pages. To a physicist, doing work
means using a force to displace an object resulting in either of the following:
• a transfer of energy from one object to another
• a transformation of energy from one form to another.
Therefore, work equals the amount of energy transferred or transformed by the
force. Work (W ) is a scalar. Its SI unit is the joule (J).
Work has been done on an object by a force only if it experiences a
component of displacement in the direction of that force. If the object doesn’t
move when you push it, you are doing no work, like pushing against a wall.
For example, if you lift an object through a height h, the force of your hand
causes the object’s GPE to increase; therefore, you’ve done work on that object.
The work done by that force equals the object’s potential energy increase (mgh).
In this case, it’s simple—the work done equals the energy increase. However,
there’s also a formula to calculate the work done:

W = Fs

where F is the applied force and s is the object’s displacement.

The above formula is easiest to use when force and displacement are parallel. If
F and s aren’t parallel, it’s much easier to use the alternative (but equivalent) formula:
W = Fs cos θ
where F and s are magnitudes and θ is the angle between the force and
displacement vectors if you place them tail-to-tail.

Sign convention for work

Work can be negative! Like GPE, work is a signed scalar. Negative work
done on an object means energy is removed from that object.
If the applied force and the displacement are in the same direction, the work
is positive. If they are in opposite directions, it’s negative. For example:
• Work done by the force of your hands pushing a shopping trolley is positive
because force and displacement are both forwards.
• Work done by friction when pushing a shopping trolley is negative because Identify that a moving object
friction opposes the direction of displacement. possesses kinetic energy and
If the applied force is causing the object to decrease in energy, the work done is that work done on that object
can increase that energy.
negative. If force and displacement are perpendicular, no work is done. For
instance, centripetal force does no work on an object.

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Work–energy theorem
The work–energy theorem states that the change in KE of a rigid object (or
system) equals the sum of work done by all the individual external forces acting
on the object (or system):

ΔK = W1 + W2 + W3 + …

ractiv
nte where W1 is the work done by the force F1 and so on. This is not a vector sum.
e
I

Positive work increases KE and negative work decreases it.

M o d u le This formula works even for a non-rigid object as long as none of the forces
deforms it too much. Note that the work done by gravity (weight) is always
minus the change in GPE (that is, Wg = –mgh), no matter what pathway an
object moves along.

Worked example
QUESTION
N A 70.0 kg skateboarder coasts from rest down a 50.0 m long slope of vertical height 30.0 m
(Figure 4.3.1). Assuming the sum of resistive forces (air resistance, friction and rolling
resistance) is Fres = 325 N on average:
Fres
a Calculate the work done by each external force on the skateboarder.
mg b Calculate the change in KE.
50
30 m

m c Calculate the final velocity.

SOLUTION
a Normal force: WN = 0 (where N is always 90° to displacement)
Figure 4.3.1 Forces on a skateboarder Gravity: Wg = –mgh = –70 × 9.80 × (–30) = + 20 580 J
Resistive forces: Wres = Fres s = –325 N × 50 m = –16 250 J
(Note that Fres is opposite in direction to s.)
b ΔK = WN + Wg + Wres = 0 + 20 580 + (–16 250) = 4330 J
1 1
c Ki = 0, Kf = 4330 J = mvf2 = × 70 × v f2
2 2
2 × 4330 J
So v f = = 11.1 m s–1 or 40.1 km h–1
70 kg

Power
In the context of work, physicists use the word power to mean ‘work done’ (ΔW )
per unit time (Δt). More generally, however, power means ‘the rate of energy
transformation or transfer’.

ΔW
P=
Δt

The SI unit for power is watts (W or J s–1). Don’t confuse the symbols for
work (W ) and watts (W).

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Worked example
cable
QUESTION
An elevator cab (3.00 × 103 kg) is lifted 210 m up the elevator shaft by a cable at constant
speed in 23.0 s.
a Calculate the work done by tension in the cable, assuming friction is negligible.
tension
b Calculate the power delivered. elevator

SOLUTION
a Tension T and displacement s are both upwards. Use sign convention: ↑ +. weight
The two forces on the elevator are tension and weight. v is constant; Fnet = 0.
Therefore, tension and weight are equal and opposite: T = +mg.
Work done by tension during Δt is:
ΔW = Fs = Ts = (+mg)s = 3.00 × 103 kg × 9.80 m s–2 × 210 m = 6.17 × 106 J Figure 4.3.2 Tension does work on the lift.
ΔW 6.17 × 106 J
b P= = = 2.68 × 105 W
Δt 23.0 s

PEDAL POWER
S ometimes people fantasise about
putting electrical generators in
gym apparatus to generate green
electricity; however, human power is
very low power. A typical person
pedalling an exercise bicycle at full
power might generate enough power
to run a single 100 W light bulb or
5 compact fluorescents. To watch
TV, you’ll need 2–3 people. A
microwave oven needs 8–10 people.
A two-bar heater needs 20–30 people.
Figure 4.3.3 Could gym-junkies
power the world?

Your electrical power bill (or, more accurately, electrical ‘energy’ bill) doesn’t
use the unit joules for energy. Rather, it uses kilowatt hour (kWh), which means
the energy equivalent to a kilowatt for an hour: 1000 W × 3600 s = 3.6 million J.

CHECKPOINT 4.3
1 Define work.
2 Describe one example each (not in the text) where positive and negative work is done.
3 Describe an example where there’s force and displacement but no work done.
4 State the work–energy theorem.
5 Define power.
6 Explain what is meant by a signed scalar.

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PHYSICS FEATURE
SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY 4. Implications of physics for society and

Y ou’ve heard that burning fossil fuels for energy

produces carbon dioxide, which is blamed for
global warming. One possible solution is a solar
the environment

thermal power plant. Large, steerable mirrors 5. Current issues, research and
concentrate sunlight onto specially coated sunlight- developments in physics
absorbing pipes that transform energy in sunlight into
thermal energy to be collected by oil or water pumped
Recently, an Australian team led by David Mills
through them. The temperature is high enough to
and Peter Le Lièvre designed and built a prototype
generate high-pressure steam, which can turn an
solar thermal plant called the Compact Linear Fresnel
electrical generator turbine. This method has already
Reflector array (CLFR) in Liddell, near Newcastle,
been used in a complex of solar plants called SEGS,
NSW (Figure 4.3.5). It’s simpler and cheaper than the
totalling 354 MW, built about 20 years ago in Mojave,
Californian design. They have now taken the design to
California (Figure 4.3.4).
the rest of the world and, at the time of this book’s
publication, a project to build such a plant in
California had begun.

Figure 4.3.4 The 354 MW SEGS solar thermal power plant in Figure 4.3.5 Prototype CLFR solar power plant at Liddell, near
Mojave, California Newcastle, NSW

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4.4 Momentum
If you catch a moving ball, you can feel that it has a property called momentum.
Define momentum as:
Simply speaking, the momentum of a moving object is a measure of the average p = mv.
force required to stop the object in 1 s.
The formula for momentum p is:

p = mv

where m is mass in kilograms (kg) and v is velocity in metres per second (m s–1).
The SI unit is kg m s–1 (or N s). Remember to not confuse momentum p with
power P.
For example, a 1.0 kg mass moves at 4.0 m s–1 east. Its momentum is:
p = mv = 1.0 kg × 4.0 m s–1 east = 4.0 kg m s–1 east
While the formula for momentum looks a bit like that for KE, it is different
in important ways. For instance, momentum is a vector, whereas KE is a scalar.
Momentum helps us to understand forces, collisions and explosions.
Suppose we apply a net force F to an object for a time interval Δt. Because
the object’s velocity changes (Δv), so does its momentum (Δp):
Δp = Δ(mv)
= mvf – mvi
= m(vf – vi)
Δp = mΔv
Then divide both sides by the time interval Δt :

Δp Δv
=m = ma
Δt Δt
But ma = Fnet, so:

Δp
Fnet =
Δt

Thus the rate of change of momentum equals the net force on the object.
This is another version of Newton’s second law of motion; in fact, it is very
similar to how Newton originally worded his second law.

Law of conservation of momentum

The above equation says that if there’s no net external force acting on an object
(or system), the rate of change of its momentum is zero—that is, the momentum
cannot change.
The law of conservation of momentum states that if no net external
force acts on a system, its momentum is conserved.
For simple objects, this seems obvious: Newton’s first law of motion says that
without an external force, velocities won’t change, so neither will momentum.
But for a system of several objects, it explains a lot.

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For example, if we treat two colliding billiard balls as a single system (see
PRACTICAL Figure 4.4.1a), collisional forces between them are only internal; weight and
EXPERIENCES normal force cancel. Billiard balls roll with little friction, so there is virtually no
Activity 4.2 net external force acting of the system. This means the total momentum before
Activity Manual, Page
30
and after the collision is the same.

a b c

8
3

3
Figure 4.4.1 If there is no net external force, the total momentum is equal before and after
collision, explosion or any other encounter.

If we treat Renfrew and Prunella as a system (Figure 4.4.1b), the forces

between them are internal. There’s no net external force because their weights
and normal forces cancel and the ice skates provide negligible friction. Hence
their total momentum before and after they push off doesn’t change.
The case of two people pushing each other is like an explosion
(Figure 4.4.1c). The explosive forces between parts of a system are internal.
So if the net external force is negligible, momentum is the same immediately
before and after the explosion.
Even if there’s a net external force, such as gravity or friction, as long as that
force is not too large and the collision or explosion is very quick, you can ignore
the effect of the external force on momentum over such a short time and get away
with assuming that momentum is nearly the same immediately before and after.

Worked example
initial
u1 = 5.0 m s–1 QUESTION
u2 = 2.5 m s–1
Two blocks (m1 = 0.50 kg and m2 = 0.35 kg) slid towards each other on a frictionless
0.50 kg 0.35 kg surface and collided (Figure 4.4.2). The collision was head-on. This means that all velocities
before and after were in one dimension. The initial velocities of blocks 1 and 2 were
final u1 = 5.0 m s–1 (right) and u2 = 2.5 m s–1 (left), respectively.
v1 = ? v2 = 4.0 m s–1
a After the collision, block 2’s final velocity is v2 = 4.0 m s–1 (right). Calculate
block 1’s final velocity v1.
b Suppose instead that after the collision, the two blocks are stuck together.
Calculate the final velocity v of the combined object (block 1 + block 2).
Figure 4.4.2 Two blocks colliding on a
frictionless surface SOLUTION
a Choose system ‘block 1 + block 2’. Collisional forces are internal. There is no net
external force. Assume conservation of momentum.
There is no vertical motion, so consider horizontal motion only. Use sign convention:
+ →.

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Conservation of momentum:
pi = pf
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
m1u1 + m2u2 − m2 v 2
Rearrange: v1 =
m1
(0.50 kg × 5.0 m s –1 + 0.35 kg × [ − 2.5 m s –1 ]) − (0.35 kg × 4.0 m s –1 )
=
0.50 kg
= + 0.45 m s–1, i.e. 0.45 m s–1 (right)
b Using the same system, assumptions and sign convention as in part a:
Conservation of momentum:
pi = pf
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v
(m1u1 + m2u2 )
Rearrange: v=
(m1 + m2 )
(0.50 kg × 5.0 m s −1 + 0.35 kg × [−2.5 m s −1 ])
=
(0.50 kg + 0.35 kg)
vB vC
= +1.9 m s–1, i.e. 1.9 m s–1 (right)

Worked example Figure 4.4.3 Recoil in firing cannon

QUESTION
Calculate the recoil speed vC of a cannon of mass mC = 3500 kg. The cannonball
(mass mB = 15 kg) is fired horizontally and emerges from the cannon with a speed
vB = 490 m s–1. Assume that the momentum of the exhaust gas and the friction in
the wheels are both negligible.
SOLUTION
Choose the system ‘cannon + ball’. Explosive forces between the cannon and ball are internal.
Assume conservation of momentum: pi = 0 = pf (cannon and ball both initially at rest).
Initially, there is no vertical motion, so consider the horizontal components only. All external
horizontal forces are negligible. Use sign convention: + →.
pf = 0 = mBvB + mCvC = 15 kg × (–490 m s–1) + 3500 kg × vC
!
15 kg × 490 m s −1
Rearrange: vC = !!!!!
3500 kg
= +2.1 m s–1 (to right); i.e. recoil speed is 2.1 m s–1

Figure 4.4.4 In collisions, the lighter

Unfair collisions vehicle experiences the
Because total momentum is conserved, when two objects collide, if one loses larger velocity change.
some momentum, the other one must gain exactly the same amount. This means
their changes in momentum m(vf – vi ) are equal in magnitude and opposite in
sign, which is another version of Newton’s third law of motion. However, the
object with the smaller mass must therefore experience the larger change in
velocity, which partly explains why, in a collision between a truck and a small
car, the driver of the car usually experiences greater injuries.

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Describe the energy

Elastic and inelastic collisions
transformations that Highly elastic means objects return rapidly to their original shapes after being
occur in collisions. distorted by collision, with negligible generation of thermal energy. Examples
include glass marbles, hardened steel and springs. Plastic means the opposite: the
objects remain distorted and virtually all work done distorting them is converted
into thermal energy, so they warm up. Examples include wet clay and plasticine.
Most materials (and collisions between them) are in-between these extremes–
moderately inelastic. If external forces are negligible, momentum is always
conserved in collisions. KE isn’t normally conserved in collisions, however:
some is transformed into deformation energy, which is a combination of
thermal energy and (if permanently deformed) elastic potential energy in the
form of trapped internal stresses. A very small amount of KE is also converted
into sound energy.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES Two special cases
Activity 4.1 A ‘perfectly elastic collision’ means both momentum and KE are conserved,
Activity Manual, Page whereas a ‘perfectly inelastic collision’ means the objects stick together afterwards.
26

Collisions with very massive objects

TRY THIS!
HOT WIRE
The metal coathanger is the
most useful piece of
impromptu scientific apparatus
ever. For example, to
demonstrate how inelastic
deformation transforms KE into
thermal energy, make a sharp
bend in a metal coathanger
and then unbend it rapidly ten
times in a row. Carefully touch
the bent region. It might be
hot enough to give you a burn.
h (2.008 kg)v
Figure 4.4.5 Ballistic pendulum
In the extreme case of collisions, the heavier object is so large that its change in
velocity is undetectable (sometimes called an ‘immovable object’). Some examples
are a large building or the Earth. In these cases, only the lighter object appears to
change its momentum.
Since we have no information about the final velocity of the heavier object,
the final velocity of the lighter object can only be calculated if we know how
inelastic the collision is—that is, how much KE is transformed into thermal
energy. In a perfectly elastic collision with an immovable object, since KE is
conserved, the initial and final speeds of the lighter object will be the same.
However, when a tennis ball collides at 90° to a wall or the ground, roughly
50% of the kinetic energy is lost. This means the final speed will be roughly
70% of the initial speed (0.5 ≈ 0.72).
Worked example
QUESTION
A ballistic pendulum is a heavy suspended block into which you fire bullets to measure their
velocity (Figure 4.4.5). Suppose the mass of the block is 2.00 kg and the bullet is 8.00 g.
After firing the bullet into the initially stationary pendulum, it swings, rising to a maximum
of h = 10.0 cm. Calculate the original bullet speed vb. Ignore friction and air resistance.
SOLUTION
This involves two parts: momentum and energy conservation.
1 Collision: The bullet is lodged in the block, i.e. perfectly inelastic collision.
Conservation of momentum: pi = pf
mbvb + 0 = (mb + mp)v
vb =
0.008 kg

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2 Pendulum swing: Use initial pendulum height as the origin. Assume no friction or
air resistance.
Conservation of ME: Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf
1 2
mv + 0 = 0 + mgh
2
v = 2 × 9.80 m s −1 × 0.100 m = 1.40 m s–1
2.008 kg × 1.40 m s −1
From part 1: vb = = 351 m s–1
0.008 kg
The original bullet speed v b is therefore 351 m s–1.

CHECKPOINT 4.4
Δp
1 Use F = to explain the law of conservation of momentum.
Δt
2 Compare and contrast KE and momentum.
3 Explain why often momentum is (nearly) conserved in collisions or explosions even though external forces may
be acting.
4 When a loose cannon fires, which would you expect to undergo a larger change in velocity: the cannonball or
the cannon? Explain.
5 Define the following types of collisions: perfectly elastic, inelastic, perfectly inelastic.

4.5 Impulse
Whenever you apply a net external force on an object, you change its velocity
Define impulse as the product
and hence its momentum. That change in momentum (Δp) is called impulse (J) of force and time.
and has the same SI unit as momentum (kg m s–1 or N s). When you hit a tennis
ball with a racquet, you give the ball an impulse. To derive the equation for
impulse, recall the following equation and rearrange it:
Δp
F=
Δt

Δp = J = FΔt

If you know the force was constant during time Δt, F is the instantaneous
force. However, if the force was not constant, F becomes the average force:
Δp
Fav = and J = Fav Δt
Δt
Suppose you drop two identical eggs from the same height. One falls on a
pillow and the other on concrete. You know which one will break, but why?
Both eggs have the same velocity just before they hit the ground. They also
have the same final velocity (v = 0). Therefore, the same Δv and m means the
same momentum change Δp (or impulse J). So what’s different?

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Concrete doesn’t compress much during collisions, so the egg stops suddenly
—the collision time Δt is very short. However, the egg that hits the pillow slows
down gradually—the pillow compresses over a longer period of time as the egg
comes to a stop, so Δt is much longer.
From the impulse equation, you can see that if impulse Δp (or J) is the same,
then the larger the collision time Δt is, the smaller the average force F is. Thus
the egg with the larger Δt (the one on the pillow) will experience the smaller
stopping force and is less likely to crack.

Impulse and vehicular safety

Assess the reasons for the
introduction of low speed zones
in built-up areas and the
addition of airbags and crumple
zones to vehicles with respect to
the concepts of impulse and
momentum.
Engineers use the impulse equation when designing cars to be safer in collisions.
For example, modern cars have ‘crumple zones’—the cabin of the car is a rigid
cage to prevent crushing passengers, but the front of a car is designed to crumple
in a collision. As the crumple zone compresses, the rest of the car stops more
gradually, increasing collision time Δt, so passengers experience a smaller stopping
force and less injury. Bicycle helmets made of foam and spongy floor mats in the
gym do a similar job.

a b

Figure 4.5.1 (a) The crumple zone deforms to increase the car’s collision time and decrease
stopping force. The cabin is mostly intact. (b) The airbag works partly by increasing
your head’s collision time.

It’s also partly the idea behind the airbag in a car. By inflating an airbag
during a collision, your head hits a compressible bag that increases your head’s
collision time, thereby reducing the stopping force to your head. Another reason
why the airbag reduces injury is that it spreads the stopping force over your
whole head and arms, rather than concentrating it on the small area of skull that
hits the steering wheel first.
In Section 3.3 we discussed how seatbelts reduce injury by preventing you
from continuing to move forwards towards the windscreen or steering wheel
in accordance with Newton’s first law of motion. However, some seatbelts are
also designed to stretch moderately, like a crumple zone, which also results in
increasing your stopping time.
Furthermore, we saw in Chapter 1 that reduced speed is important for road
PRACTICAL safety because it decreases stopping distance so that you can avoid collisions
EXPERIENCES more easily. However, there’s also another reason. Reduced speed means your
Activity 4.3 initial momentum is smaller, so the impulse you experience due to a crash is
Activity Manual, Page
33 smaller and so the average stopping force to your body is smaller.

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Conservation of momentum and Newton’s third law of motion Explain why momentum is
Earlier we showed that momentum conservation follows from Newton’s second conserved in collisions in terms
law of motion. We can also show that it follows from the third law. of Newton’s third law of motion.
In a two-body collision, the collisional forces experienced by body 1 and
body 2 are an action–reaction pair. If F1 and F2 are the time averages of these
two forces respectively, the Newton’s third law of motion says:
F1 = –F2
Both bodies must experience the same collision time Δt :
Multiply both sides by Δt : F1Δt = –F2Δt
Use the impulse equation: Δp1 = –Δp2
Substitute: m1(v1 – u1) = –m2(v2 – u2)
Rearrange: m 1v 1 + m 2v 2 = m 1u 1 + m 2u 2
In other words, final total momentum equals initial total momentum—
it’s conserved.

FOLLOW-THROUGH
I n ball sports, coaches tell you to
follow-through: keep your foot,
club, racquet or bat moving along
with the ball, not just briefly
‘punching’ at it. The main reason for
this is to extend contact time Δt
between implement and ball. For a
given force, increasing Δt increases
to the impulse imparted to the ball,
hence resulting in a larger velocity.
Catching a cricket ball is similar
but in reverse. It’s best to pull your
hands back in the direction of the
ball’s motion to increase Δt and
reduce the stopping force on your
impulse.
hand to prevent pain. Figure 4.5.2 Follow-through for maximum

Force on an object with changing mass

The impulse equation can even be used to calculate force on an object with
changing mass. For example, a rocket produces thrust by losing a large moving
mass of exhaust gas out of the nozzles at the back.

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Worked example
QUESTION
The main (middle) engine of the European Space Agency’s Ariane 5 rocket releases hot
exhaust gas through its nozzle at a rate of 263 kg s–1 and with a (constant) velocity of
4300 m s–1. Calculate the magnitude of the thrust provided.
SOLUTION
Use the impulse equation to calculate the magnitude of the force exerted by the rocket on
the exhaust gas. Thrust is the reaction to this (same magnitude).
Δ(mv )
F=
Δt
vΔm
v is constant, so take outside the brackets: =
Δt
Δm
=v
Δt
= 4300 m s–1 × 263 kg s–1
= 1.13 × 106 N

Figure 4.5.3 European Space Agency’s Ariane 5 rocket taking off

Force, impulse and graphs

Δp
F= means that force is the slope of a momentum versus time graph. It’s less
Δt
obvious but also true that Δp = J = FΔt means that impulse during the time Δt is
the area under a force versus time graph for that time interval.

CHECKPOINT 4.5
Δp
1 Use F = to derive the impulse equation.
Δt
2 Explain how a crumple zone and airbag protect crash victims.
3 In a graph of momentum versus time, explain how to calculate the net force on an object.
4 In a graph of force versus time, explain how to calculate the impulse experienced by an object.

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CHAPTER 4
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

ACTIVITY 4.1: BOUNCING BALLS Analyse information to trace

Using a bouncing ball, determine the percentage of KE lost during a bounce and the energy transfers and
transformation in collisions
test if the height from where the ball is dropped affects the percentage of energy lost.
leading to irreversible
Equipment: tennis ball, 2 metre rulers, a stopwatch. distortions.
Discussion questions
1 What percentage of the KE was lost per bounce?
2 Draw an energy chain to show the energy transformations that occur
during the collision.
3 Propose where the energy finally ended up.

ACTIVITY 4.2: CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

To determine if momentum is conserved during a collision between a moving ball
and another that is initially stationary.
Equipment: 2 steel balls, 1 marble, 2 metre rulers, 9 stopwatches, a track or
Figure 4.6.1 A time lapse photo of a
groove in which the balls can roll smoothly with little friction (if available). bouncing ball
Discussion questions
1 Determine if momentum is conserved.
2 Give reasons for any apparent violation of the conservation law.
Perform first-hand
3 What problems were encountered? investigations to gather data
4 List possible ways to improve this method. and analyse the change in
5 Redo the experiment with your improvements and compare the accuracy momentum during collisions.
of your results.

ACTIVITY 4.3: SAFETY IN CARS Gather and process first-hand

Design an information poster about safety in cars—not just the manufacturer’s data and/or secondary
information to analyse the
inclusions, but also what you need to do with objects inside the car.
potential danger presented by
Discussion questions loose objects in a vehicle.
1 What types of vehicular motion would cause loose objects inside a vehicle
to move around relative to the vehicle?
Identify data sources, gather,
process, analyse and present
secondary information and use
the available evidence to assess
benefits of technologies for
avoiding or reducing the effect
of a collision.

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Chapter summary
• Energy is the ability to cause motion. • The work–energy theorem states that change in kinetic
• The law of conservation of energy states that energy is energy equals the sum of the work done by each
neither created nor destroyed, but can be transformed external force acting: ΔK = W1 + W2 + W3 + …
from one form into another. Total energy in the • Power is work done (or energy transferred or
universe is therefore fixed. transformed) per unit time.
• Energy of motion, known as kinetic energy (KE): • Momentum: p = mv.
1 • The law of the conservation of momentum states that if
K = mv 2.
2 there is no net external force, the total momentum of a
• Stored energy is called potential energy (PE). system is conserved. (Forces between parts of a system
• Energy stored by lifting objects against gravity is during a collision or explosion are internal.)
gravitational potential energy (GPE): U = mgh. • If external forces are small and the collision or
(The position of origin h = 0 is arbitrary.) explosion is rapid, momentum is still nearly equal
• Change in GPE depends only on height change, immediately before and after.
not pathway. • In a collision, the lighter object experiences the larger
• Resistive forces, like friction and air resistance, convert change in velocity.
KE into thermal energy. • Change in momentum is called impulse: J = Δmv = FΔt.
• The sum of KE and PE is called mechanical energy • For a fixed impulse, the average force exerted on
(ME). In the absence of resistive forces, ME is conserved. a colliding object decreases as the collision time
• Doing work W means using a force to transfer energy Δt increases.
between objects or to transform energy from one form • Crumple zones, car airbags and foam safety helmets all
into another: W = Fs or W = Fs cos θ. decrease average force by increasing Δt.
• Work is positive if force and displacement are in the • The slope of a momentum versus time graph equals the
same direction and negative if they are opposite. force on the object.
• Work done by gravity (weight) is always Wg = –mgh, • The area under a force versus time graph is impulse.
regardless of pathway.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Unscramble the rows and label as vectors or scalars.

CONCEPT DEFINITION SYMBOL UNITS VECTOR OR SCALAR?

Energy Measure of average force required to stop p J
a moving object in 1 s
Momentum Ability to do work P W
Impulse Rate of energy transformation Em J
Work Change in momentum J kg m s–1 or N s
Power Kinetic plus potential energy E J
Mechanical energy Amount of energy transferred or W kg m s–1 or N s
transformed using a force

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REVIEWING
1 Define energy. State its most important properties.

Force
2 Explain why a bouncing tennis ball would never reach the same height it
was dropped from.
3 Describe two in which the generation of thermal energy due to friction is
desirable.
4 Explain how it is possible to tell the sign of work being done on an object Time
by an external force. Figure 4.6.2 Force versus time graph
5 Describe the connection between power and energy.
6 Using momentum, explain why trucks need better braking ability than cars. Solve problems that apply the
principle of conservation of
7 If momentum (a vector) is conserved, explain why, after a ball bounces off
momentum to qualitatively and
a wall or the ground, the direction of the momentum vector has changed.
quantitatively describe the
8 Explain why cricket players pull their hands backwards when they catch a ball. collision of a moving vehicle with:
9 Using momentum, explain why a rifle recoils when it is fired. • a stationary vehicle
• an immovable object
10 Suppose you graph horizontal force versus time exerted by two identical bullets
• another vehicle moving in
fired horizontally with identical speed at two different targets—soft clay and
the opposite direction
hard wood (see Figure 4.6.2). Which graph represents which bullet? Explain
• another vehicle moving in
how you know. How would the areas under the graphs compare? Explain.
the same direction.

SOLVING PROBLEMS
11 Repeat James Prescott Joule’s calculation of the temperature rise in water
as its GPE is converted first into KE and then into thermal energy in a
100 m waterfall. Ignore the small sound energy and use the fact that Solve problems and analyse
1 kg of water requires 4180 J to increase its temperature by 1°C. secondary data using: p = mv
12 An example of an energy transformation chain for a waterfall is: and impulse = Ft.

GPE → KE → thermal energy + sound energy

Draw energy transformation chains for:
a a car crashing into a pole Analyse information to trace
b a ball bouncing the energy transfers and
c a battery-operated torch. transformation in collisions
13 Look at the roller-coaster in Figure 4.6.3. The spacing of the horizontal leading to irreversible
members in the framework supporting the roller-coaster is 1.0 m. Assume distortions.
that friction is negligible and that the carriage starts from rest at the top.
Take the h = 0 origin to be at point B. The mass of the carriage and
passengers is 800 kg. A

a Calculate the GPE at the top.

b Calculate the velocity when the carriage reaches point B. C
c How much work was done on the carriage by gravity when going from
E
point B to point C? B D
d How much work was done on the carriage by the normal force over the
whole journey? Figure 4.6.3 A roller-coaster
e What percentage of the original GPE was transformed into KE by the
time the carriage reaches point E?
f At what two points does the carriage have the same GPE? The same KE?
g Explain why the hills are all lower than the start.
h Suggest how it might be possible to make a roller-coaster with hill C
higher than the hill at A.

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Solve problems and analyse
information to determine the
kinetic energy of a vehicle and
the work done using the
formulae:
1 16
EK = mv 2 and W = Fs.
2 example accompanying Figure 4.4.2. Comment on the relationship
Solve problems that apply the
principle of conservation of
momentum to qualitatively and
quantitatively describe the
collision of a moving vehicle with:
• a stationary vehicle
• an immovable object
• another vehicle moving in
the opposite direction
• another vehicle moving in
the same direction.
Solve problems and analyse
secondary data using: p = mv
and impulse = Ft.
a u1 u2
b u1 u2
c u1 = 0 u2
Figure 4.6.4 Car crashes aplenty
14 How much work is done by a weight-lifter (1.6 m tall) lifting 250 kg from
the ground to 0.45 m above his head?
15 What is the kinetic energy of a 1500 kg car travelling at 60 km h–1? What
power is dissipated by the brakes to bring it to a stop in 3.0 s? Where does
all the energy go?
Calculate the change in velocity (not speed) for each block in the worked
between these changes and the respective masses of the blocks.
17 A 0.20 kg ball travelling horizontally at 5.0 m s–1 east makes a (nearly)
perfectly elastic collision perpendicular to the wall of a large building.
Assume the collision took 0.050 s.
a Calculate the ball’s velocity just after the collision.
b Calculate the ball’s change in momentum. Compare this with its initial
momentum.
c Repeat the calculations for a moderately inelastic collision for which
20% of the KE is converted into thermal energy. Again, assume the
collision took 0.050 s.
d Calculate the average force on the ball during each collision.
18 Consider Figure 4.4.1b. Suppose Renfrew is 75 kg and Prunella is 50 kg.
Initially, they are moving together at 2.0 m s–1 to the right. Then Prunella
gives a great shove and ends up moving at 4.0 m s–1 to the right. What is
Renfrew’s final velocity?
19 In Figure 4.6.4, vehicle 1 is 1100 kg and vehicle 2 is 750 kg.
a In the top panel, the initial velocities of vehicles 1 and 2 are,
respectively, u1 = 55 km h–1 right and u2 = 61 km h–1 left. After
the collision, the two vehicles become locked together. Assuming they
can still roll, what is their velocity immediately after the collision?
b In the middle panel, their initial velocities are, respectively,
u1 = 40 km h–1 left and u2 = 61 km h–1 left. After the collision,
vehicle 2’s velocity is v2 = 40 km h–1 left. Calculate vehicle 1’s
velocity, assuming it can still roll.
c In the bottom panel, vehicle 1 is stationary; however, its handbrake is
off, so it’s free to roll. Vehicle 2’s initial velocity is u2 = 40 km h–1 left.
After the collision, vehicle 2’s velocity is v2 = 5.0 km h–1 right.
Calculate vehicle 1’s final velocity, assuming it can still roll.
20 A baseball player wants to know how hard he can hit a ball. The baseball
has a mass of 145 g. The pitcher throws the ball at 141 km h–1 and the ball
is in contact with the bat for 7.1 ms. The radar gun shows the ball leaving
at 181 km h–1. The ball is hit directly towards the pitcher. Calculate the
magnitude of the average force exerted on the ball by the bat.
21 A 250 g ball of plasticine is thrown at a 2.00 kg wooden block (initially
at rest) that is suspended by 4 strings from the ceiling. The plasticine is
thrown so that it hits the end of the block with a horizontal velocity of
8.0 m s–1 and sticks to it. After the collision, the block swings like a
pendulum along the direction in which the plasticine was thrown, reaching
a maximum height of h above its original height. Calculate the value of h.

74

PHYSICS FOCUS
BELTS, BAGS, BUMPERS AND
BRAKES: CAR SAFETY HISTORY
Evaluate the effectiveness of some safety features
of motor vehicles.
Identify data sources, gather, process, analyse and
present secondary information and use the
available evidence to assess benefits of
technologies for avoiding or reducing the effect of
a collision.
The first safety features in cars were padded
dashboards and collapsible steering wheels in the
1950s. Although seatbelts were first invented in the
1800s, it wasn’t until the 1920s that physicians
recommended the use of seatbelts in cars.
Unfortunately, it was a further 30 years before the
idea caught on. American pilot Hugh De Haven
invented the seatbelt for airplanes after working out
why he survived an airplane crash. They were ‘tested’
by Colonel John P. Stapp when he used them to strap
himself to a rapidly decelerating rocket sled to
understand what caused injuries to people (see Physics
Phile ‘g-Whiz’ in Section 1.3). He concluded that the
injuries happened when the occupant hit the inside of
the vehicle rather than when the vehicle itself hit. It
wasn’t until 1972 that seatbelts were mandatory in
cars in all states of Australia.
As car designs have progressed in style and speed,
so has the sophistication of the safety devices used.
After the seatbelt came airbags, safety cages, anti-
lock braking systems (ABS), crumple zones and
bumper bars to name a few.
According to the 2001 statistical study ‘Sample
selection in the estimation of airbag and seatbelt
effectiveness’ by Steven D. Levitt and Jack Porter,
from the University of Chicago and Harvard University,
in head-on collisions, seatbelts alone decrease the
probability of death of a front-seat occupant by 60%
and airbags alone, by 16%. They claim that previous
studies overestimated the effectiveness of airbags and
underestimated the effectiveness of seatbelts because
of the way road accident data are collected. They
estimated the installation cost per life saved for
MOVING
ABOUT
4. Implications of physics for society
and the environment
seatbelts to be approximately $US30 000, compared
with $US1.8 million per life saved for airbags.
The 1997 statistical study ‘Travelling speed and
the risk of crash involvement’ by A. J. McLean, V. M.
Moore and G. Ponte, from the University of Adelaide,
revealed that at around 60 km h–1, the risk of death or
hospitalisation after an accident decreases by roughly
50% for every 5 km h–1 decrease in speed. Recently,
reductions of speed limits from 60 to 50 km h–1 have
been introduced in built-up areas of New South Wales.
1 Outline how collapsible steering wheels and padded
dashboards would enhance the safety of the
occupants of cars.
2 List arguments for and against the introduction of
compulsory seatbelts in cars.
3 A car that originally is moving at 60km h–1 hits a
brick wall and comes to rest. Explain what would
happen to the occupant with and without safety
devices installed to the car.
4 Not all car safety devices are installed in cars
themselves. List and describe the safety devices on
freeways.
5 Estimate roughly the reduction in risk of death
resulting from the reduction from 60 to 50 km h–1.
(Careful—the maths is slightly trickier than you think.)
6 Rank the three strategies—seatbelts, airbags and
10 km h–1 speed limit reduction—according to the
most lives expected to be saved. State the
assumptions you are making in this ranking.
EXTENSION
7 Visit the Pearson Education Australia website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary and
download the articles featured there. Most of the
papers will be too advanced, but try reading their
abstracts (summaries) and conclusions. Find other
sources and see how closely they agree or disagree
with the effectiveness of these strategies.
8 Research how data from crash tests is analysed
and used to determine the safety of cars.
75
 The review contains questions in a similar style and proportion to
the HSC Physics examination. Marks are allocated to each question
up to a total of 25 marks. It should take you approximately
45 minutes to complete this review.

4 To score a goal in the net 5.0 m away, a 75 kg soccer

Multiple choice
(1 mark each)
1 Calculate the magnitude of the average velocity of a
bus that travels in a straight line 10.0 km in
15.0 min, then 5.00 km in 7.00 min and finally
200.0 m in 50.0 s.
A 39.9 m s–1
B 9.01 m s–1
C 11.1 m s–1
D 665.0 m s–1
2 Your car travels at a constant speed of 60 km h–1
on a straight, horizontal road, yet your foot is on
the accelerator. According to Newton’s first law of
motion, constant velocity means no net force. What
can explain this?
A Newton’s first law of motion isn’t relevant to this
situation.
B All the forces acting on the car add up to zero.
C The accelerator is not really pressed down. Your
foot is resting on it.
D Although the speed is constant, the velocity isn’t.
3 Calculate the work done by the force of gravity when
a person carries 10.0 kg of books up a staircase that
is 3.00 m high, 4.24 m long and 45° from vertical.
A 294 J
B –294 J
C 416 J
D –416 J
player kicks a stationary 0.45 kg soccer ball so that
it moves in a straight line along the ground to the
net in 0.25 s. His foot is in contact with the ball
for 0.012 s. Assuming negligible rolling resistance,
calculate the magnitude of the average force with
which the ball was struck.
A 9.00 N
B 750 N
C 188 N
D 4.50 N
5 One important reason for lowering speed zones to
50 km h–1 in residential areas is because a lower
initial velocity means:
A a longer stopping time, which means a smaller
stopping force
B a greater stopping distance, which means smaller
forces on the occupants of the car
C a shorter stopping distance, which means
it’s easier to avoid collisions
D less energy is needed to stop, which is good for
the environment.

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8 Figure 4.7.3 shows an open-top sports car (left) and

Short response a sedan (right) about to collide. Witnesses saw the
two collide head-on, stick together and move off
6 Look at the displacement versus time graph of one-
together to the right. No-one knew at what speed
dimensional straight-line motion shown in Figure 4.7.1.
the two vehicles moved off together. The police need
Then answer the questions that follow. (6 marks)
to know if either driver was speeding in a 60 km h–1
10 zone. The driver of the sedan was photographed by a
speed camera at 55 km h–1 just prior to the collision.
8
Prepare evidence to present to the police about the
Displacement (m)

6 speed of the sports car prior to the collision. (5 marks)

4
u1 = ? u2 = 55 km h–1
2

–2
–4
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (s) m1 = 1000 kg m2 = 1200 kg
Figure 4.7.1 Displacement versus time graph
Figure 4.7.3 A sports car and a sedan about to collide
a When is the object at rest?
b What is the greatest speed? When does
this occur?
c Calculate the total distance travelled.
d Calculate the total displacement of the object. Extended response
e Draw a velocity versus time graph of the motion 9 Evaluate the effectiveness of modern safety features
of this object. on standard-sized family cars that are involved in
7 Figure 4.7.2 shows the result of a failed attempt accidents. Consider also collisions with heavier
by Renfrew to throw a box of tangled strings and vehicles. (5 marks)
laboratory apparatus to Prunella. The box is hanging
stationary. Assuming that the mass of the strings and
the spring balances is negligible, calculate the mass
of the box and its remaining contents. Justify your
reasoning. (4 marks)

100° 4

50 N
4

65 N

Figure 4.7.2 What is the mass of the box?

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2 COMMUNICATES
What do surfing, SMS texting, heating up a meat pie in a microwave oven and using
CONTEXT a laser beam to read the music off a CD have in common? They all involve the
physics of waves. Waves connect almost every area of physics and engineering in
both practical and deeply theoretical ways.
On the practical side, waves are used in almost every method of
communication, both modern and ancient. Sound, light, earthquakes and electrical
signals travelling along wires are all examples of waves. All musical instruments
involve the physics of waves. Even inside your brain, waves of electrical activity
bounce around continuously. Waves can transport both energy and information.
From a theoretical perspective, the behaviour of waves ties together almost all
areas of physics, such as optics, astronomy and acoustics. The strange physics of
quantum mechanics, which defies commonsense (it seemingly allows objects to be
in two places at once) but is responsible for almost all of modern electronics, says
that everything, including the person reading this book, has wave-like properties.
The radio waves that carry signals to mobile phones and radios, the infra-red
rays that warm you while sitting next to a fire, X-rays used in hospitals, visible light,
the microwaves in your oven and ultraviolet rays that can give you both a suntan and
sunburn are all examples of a special class of waves called electromagnetic waves.
In this module, we will learn what waves are and how they behave. We will also
learn how they can be used to communicate over long distances.

Figure 5.0.1 Waves connect the world

through physics.

78
Figure 5.0.2

INQUIRY ACTIVITY
EXPLORING INFRA-RED WAVES
Many modern devices use infra-red technology for communication. Infra-red is
a type of electromagnetic wave. The television remote control is one device that
transmits infra-red waves. These waves carry information that tells your television
to turn on or off or to change channel or volume. They are produced by a light-
emitting diode (LED), which looks like a small, clear plastic bubble visible on
the front end of some remote controls.
Try the following activities with your remote control.
1 Most modern cameras, including video, digital and mobile phone cameras,
can pick up infra-red waves. Point the remote control at the camera lens,
push a button on the remote control and look at the camera viewing screen.
Can you see the infra-red waves? What do you see when you press
different buttons?
2 Find the range of your remote control. What is the maximum distance you
can be from the television before the remote control stops working? Do fresh
batteries make a difference?
3 Can you make infra-red waves bounce or travel around corners? Try pointing
the remote control at a wall or mirror opposite the television or going into
an adjoining room out of sight of the television. Will the remote control
still work?
4 Do infra-red waves pass through matter? Cover the LED on the remote control
with various materials, such as your hand, a piece of paper, aluminium foil,
plastic sandwich wrap and glass. What materials can the infra-red waves
penetrate?

79
 Moving energy
5 around: waves
What is a wave?
A wave is any ‘wiggle’, any vibration (or oscillation), that can travel
from one place to another. When a wave travels, we say it is
propagating. You can see many everyday examples of waves, such
oscillation, propagation, radiation, as waves on a surf beach, ripples on the surface of a pond or the
medium, mechanical waves,
flapping of a flag. Some waves, such as soundwaves and light waves,
electromagnetic waves, energy
are not so obvious to the eye.
transformation, sinusoidal, crest,
The word radiation means any disturbance that propagates
trough, displacement, transverse
outwards from its source, so virtually all waves can be thought
wave, longitudinal wave,
compression, rarefaction,
of as forms of radiation.
amplitude, wavelength, equilibrium
position, frequency, period

5.1 Waves—carriers of energy

As we found in Section 4.1, energy is the ability to move an object. All
waves have this ability, so we say that they carry energy. For example, the light
waves that leave the hot surface of the Sun carry energy to the Earth, thereby
warming up the Earth’s atmosphere. They also drive the movement of air and
water vapour in the form of wind and storms. When a sound wave enters your
ear, the energy it carries causes your eardrum to vibrate, which you hear as sound.
When you go surfing, you are propelled along as a wave gives you its energy.
Figure 5.1.1 The swimmers are moved up However, if you are just standing still some distance from the shore as the wave
and down as the water wave goes past, you simply bob up and down with the surrounding water. If the water
travels past them.
is moving up and down, how does the wave move forwards? If you disturb the
surface of a body of water, the water molecules in the surface oscillate up and
down, pushing or pulling on others in front of them and passing some of their
energy on, causing them to oscillate as well. These molecules then push or pull
on others in front of them and so on. This disturbance therefore travels
horizontally. In a surface water wave, a disturbance (and the energy it
carries) travels along horizontally, even though the individual molecules are just
oscillating up and down in more or less the same position.

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You can see another example of this with a rope tied at one end to a wall
(Figure 5.1.2). Tie a ribbon somewhere along the rope. Shake the free end of the
rope to make a wave move along it. Although the wave moves along the rope, the
ROUND AND ROUND
ribbon just moves up and down in the same position on the rope.

hand motion
I n reality, surface water waves have
a special property: the molecules
move in a circular motion rather than
wave direction
just up and down. So part of the
motion is forwards and backwards as
well as up and down. Try to notice
this the next time you are bobbing
up and down in the waves—you’ll
find that you also move forwards and
Figure 5.1.2 A wave travels along a rope. backwards a little.

PHYSICS FEATURE
DESTRUCTIVE WAVES record temperature and pressure variations; and an
anchored surface buoy that is equipped to broadcast data

T he destructive power of earthquakes is nothing

more than wave motion travelling through the
ground. Sometimes the earthquake occurs in the
to satellites. The tsunameter converts the temperature
and pressure measurements into a sea level height
measurement. The sea level height is transmitted to the
ground beneath the ocean, which can transfer some of
surface buoy using an acoustic signal. The surface buoy
the wave energy to the water. This can produce a giant
transmits the sea level heights to a satellite, which in turn
water wave called a tsunami, which can destroy
transmits the information to the tsunami warning centre.
villages, towns and cities that are close to the coast.
Two DART stations are operated by Australia: one
In 1946 a tsunami struck Hawaii and more than
is between Tasmania and the South Island of New
150 people died. Also, in 1964 a magnitude 9.2
Zealand, and the other is in the Coral Sea south of the
earthquake in Alaska caused a tsunami that destroyed
Solomon Islands. You can see up-to-date data
the northern Californian town of Crescent City and
collected by DART stations in the Pacific region at the
killed 122 people in the Pacific region. In response,
NOAA website, accessed via the companion website at
a tsunami warning system was developed to cover the
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary.
North American west coast and most countries in the
A similar tsunami warning system is currently
Pacific basin.
being developed for the Indian Ocean as a
Initially, the tsunami warning system consisted of a
consequence of the tragic Boxing Day Tsunami in
series of tidal gauges fixed to buoys at various locations
2004, which killed more than 200 000 people.
around the Pacific Ocean. When unusual seismic activity
was detected, field officers were notified and the
individual tide gauges were checked. If local tide heights
varied from normal values, a tsunami warning was issued.
Remote sensing and satellite technology have
transformed the process and now allow for much earlier
detection of tsunamis and real-time forecasts. A system
comprising 39 Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of
Tsunami (DART) stations are located at sites in Pacific
regions with a history of generating destructive tsunamis.
DART stations consist of two parts: a tsunameter,
which is a platform that is anchored to the seafloor to Figure 5.1.3 A tsunami—very big and very fast!

81
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CHECKPOINT 5.1
1 Define the terms energy and wave.
2 Explain how energy is transferred in a water wave without moving the individual water molecules.

5.2 Wave motion in one, two and

Describe waves as a transfer of
energy disturbance that may
occur in one, two or three
dimensions, depending on the
nature of the wave and the
medium.
Figure 5.2.1 Water waves propagate in two
dimensions on the surface
of water.
three dimensions
You may have heard the term three-dimensional (or 3-D). What does this mean?
Solid objects like cubes fill up space. Such objects have three characteristic sizes
or dimensions: length, width and height. Flat surfaces, such as squares, are called
two-dimensional (2-D) because they have only two dimensions. A square has
width and length as its dimensions. A straight line has only length, so it is
one-dimensional (1-D). So what does this have to do with waves?
Stretch a slinky spring and give it a pinch so that you can see a wave pulse
travel along the spring. This is called 1-D wave motion. In 1-D wave
motion, the wave travels (or propagates) along one direction in a line. The same
is true if you wiggle a rope tied to a wall. The rope oscillates side-to-side, but the
wave propagates in a line along the rope. The movement of a guitar or violin
string is also an example of 1-D wave motion.
If you drop pebbles into a pond, you’ll find that waves travel outwards from
the disturbance along the surface of the water in the form of circular waves.
Circular waves demonstrate 2-D wave motion, which is possible for any wave
motion that is restricted to travelling along a surface (Figure 5.2.1). If you put
your hands on the wood of an acoustic guitar next to the hole, you will feel the
whole surface vibrating. This is another example of 2-D wave motion.
Three-dimensional waves are those that can travel in all directions.
An example is the motion of sound waves through air, travelling spherically
outwards from the source. You know that if someone speaks, you will hear them
no matter where you are in the room since sound
can travel in all directions in
air (Figure 5.2.2).
A dramatic example of a 3-D wave
is the sound from an explosive, which
travels in all directions and through
anything in its path. This wave also
throws hot particles in three
dimensions as well.

Figure 5.2.2 Sound propagates in three

dimensions in air.

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CHECKPOINT 5.2
1 Complete the table to summarise one-dimensional (1-D), two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional
(3-D) waves.

WAVE TYPE EXAMPLE MEDIUM DESCRIPTION

1-D Travels in one direction along a
line
2-D Ripples on a pond

3-D Air

5.3 Medium for wave travel

Almost all waves you will encounter need a medium (plural media) through
Identify that mechanical waves
which to travel. A wave medium is any material that has a kind of ‘springiness’ or require a medium for
elasticity—a tendency to bounce back after you disturb it. Some examples of propagation while
waves (and their media) are ripples (water surface), sound waves (air), electromagnetic waves do not.
earthquakes (rock) and a wicked bass riff (guitar string). All waves that
require a material substance as the medium are called mechanical waves.

TRY THIS!
HEARING CHURCH BELLS FROM A SPOON
Cut a 1 m length of string and tie a spoon at its centre.
Now put the ends of the string to each ear and have
someone strike the spoon with another spoon. You should
hear the sound of church bells! The wave starts out as
vibrations in the spoon and then the energy is transferred
to the string, which becomes the wave medium. Finally,
the energy is transferred to your fingers and into your
ears very efficiently, making a surprisingly loud and
rich sound.

Figure 5.3.1 Hearing church bells

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An important property of a wave medium is that the material of the medium

GRAVITATIONAL
WAVES
G ravitational waves are
another kind of wave that
does not need a medium. Albert
Einstein’s theory of general
relativity predicted their existence
in 1916. Although there is some
recent indirect astronomical
evidence for them, they have not
yet been directly detected.
does not normally travel with the wave. The particles within the medium
oscillate back and forth, staying more or less in the same location, while the wave
propagates over long distances. For example, if someone shouts and you hear
them a kilometre away, the sound wave has travelled through the medium (air)
for a kilometre. However, the air molecules that were near the mouth of the
person shouting stay there—they do not reach your ears.
Surprisingly, there is an important type of wave that requires no medium:
electromagnetic (EM) waves, such as radio waves, microwaves, infra-red rays,
visible light, ultraviolet rays, X-rays and gamma rays. Unlike other waves, EM
waves can propagate through empty space (or vacuum). All EM waves propagate
through a vacuum at the speed of light, which is about 300 million m s–1.
EM waves are used for most of our electronic communication. They are used
in mobile phones, television, radio and communication via satellites. As you will
see in Section 8.1, an EM wave consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields
that can move through vacuum.
EM waves do not only travel through a vacuum, however. They can
propagate along the surface of a conducting wire, such as copper, under the
influence of the wave motions of the electrons inside the wire. This is how the
signals get in and out of your home landline telephone. EM waves, including
visible light, can also propagate (more slowly) through transparent materials,
which is why you can see through air or glass.
direction of
electric field
motion

magnetic field

Figure 5.3.3 Albert Einstein Figure 5.3.2 EM radiation has electric and magnetic fields at right angles to each other and to the
direction of propagation of the wave.

CHECKPOINT 5.3
1 Identify the property that is common to all mechanical waves.
2 Identify three examples of EM waves.
3 Compare EM and mechanical waves.

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Describe the energy

5.4 Energy transformation transformations required in one
of the following:
in devices • mobile telephone
• fax/modem
A loudspeaker (or speaker for short) lets you hear sound from electronic devices, • radio and television.
such as a CD player, television, radio and mobile phone. Wires connect the device
and the speaker. The wave motion of the electrons along the wires is converted
into sound waves by the speaker. We can say that electrical energy in the
wires is being transformed into mechanical energy in the speaker, which then
transfers its energy to waves in the air so that you can hear sound waves.
An interesting situation arises when we do not connect wires to the speaker
but just leave them hanging in air. Surprisingly, the wave energy still leaves the
wires, but this time it produces a wave that is composed of electric and magnetic
fields that can travel through a vacuum at the speed of light. In other words,
the wave energy produces EM waves. In EM waves, the electric and magnetic
fields oscillate at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation
(see Figure 5.3.2).
A wire suspended in the air so that it can transmit EM radiation is otherwise
known as a transmitting antenna or aerial. This is the principle behind how
television and radio stations transmit their programs to you (Figure 5.4.1).
An antenna can also be used in reverse to detect an EM wave. For example,
the antenna of a mobile phone (in most models it is hidden inside the casing of
the phone) is used to both transmit and receive phone calls. The receiving
antenna for your television is more visible. The EM waves that we use in
communication are generally known as radio waves. However, this only covers
a very small range of all possible EM waves.

Energy transformations in mobile phones

The energy transformations in a mobile phone are given in the flow chart in
Figure 5.4.2. Suppose Alice is talking through her mobile phone to Bob who is
listening through his. The microphone in Alice’s phone transforms the Figure 5.4.1 Telstra Tower on Black Mountain,
mechanical sound wave energy into electrical wave energy. Because the electrical in the Australian Capital
energy is too weak to continue the chain of energy transformations, the amplifier Territory. It is used to transmit
electronics become actively involved to amplify (increase the intensity of ) the television, radio and mobile
phone signals. The red and
weak electrical signal. The extra energy for amplification comes from the battery white structure on top is the
of the phone. transmitting antenna.
The electrical energy in the mobile phone’s wiring is transformed into an EM
wave by the phone’s antenna. The EM wave is then transmitted through the air and
Analyse information to identify
captured by a receiving antenna called a base station or mobile phone tower. Inside
the waves involved in the
the receiving antenna, the energy of the EM wave is transformed back into electrical transfer of energy that occurs
wave energy, which runs through the base station’s wiring. during the use of one of the
following:
• mobile phone
• television
• radar.

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Alice’s mobile phone In the base station, the signal

sound energy electrical energy
(in air)
microphone is amplified again and transmitted
(in wire)
electrical energy
amplify through an underground cable to a
electromagnetic energy
(in air)
antenna
(in wire) central telephone exchange. At the
air exchange, the signal is amplified again
First base station
electrical energy
and the switching circuits ensure that
electromagnetic energy antenna
(in air) (in wire) the phone call is connected to the
amplify
underground cable
intended receiver—in this case, Bob.
Through another underground
exchange
(amplify) Second base station cable, the telephone exchange redirects
underground cable the call to a second base station in the
amplify area where Bob is; however, this time
electromagnetic energy electrical energy
(in air)
antenna
(in wire)
the base station acts as a transmitter,
air amplifying and then transforming the
Bob’s mobile phone
electromagnetic energy electrical energy
electrical energy in the signal into EM
antenna
(in air) (in wire) energy by an antenna to be transmitted
amplify
sound energy electrical energy through the air again.
speaker
(in air) (in wire) Bob’s phone antenna then captures
the EM wave and converts it into
Figure 5.4.2 Waves carry energy between transmitter and receiver. The energy transformations electrical energy, which is amplified yet
are represented by the thicker arrows. again. Finally, this energy is converted
into mechanical energy (sound) by the
speaker in the phone. (See Figure 5.4.3.)
Note that amplification had to be
introduced at several steps between
Alice and Bob. These steps are not
strictly just energy transformations.
base station
Extra energy had to be introduced
that was not in the original wave;
otherwise the EM wave your phone
central
telephone receives would be too weak to detect.
exchange Look carefully at the flow chart in
Figure 5.4.2 and you will see that
between consecutive energy
transformations, there is always
an amplification step.

base station

Figure 5.4.3 Waves carry energy between transmitter and receiver.

CHECKPOINT 5.4
1 Outline how an antenna works.
2 Explain why an amplifier is used in mobile phone base stations.

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5.5 The wave model

Sine waves Define and apply the following
The simplest possible wave is called a sine wave. (You should remember the terms to the wave model:
shape of a graph of the function y = sin x from mathematics.) Sometimes the medium, displacement,
word sinusoidal is used to describe such waves. It simply means ‘sine wave- amplitude, period,
shaped’. The highest points on a sine wave are called peaks (or crests). The compression, rarefaction, crest,
lowest points are called troughs. trough, transverse waves,
longitudinal waves, frequency,
The shapes of waves can be complicated, such as water waves on a very windy
wavelength, velocity.
day, but even the most complicated waves can be thought of as combinations of
sine waves of various sizes. Therefore, if we can understand sine waves, we can
explain the behaviour of all waves (Figure 5.5.1).
To represent simple wave motions as a sine wave, we need to correctly choose
the way we label the x- and y-axes. For example, when you wiggle a rope up and
down and set up a sine wave that moves away from you, the x-axis represents the
direction in which the wave propagates. The y-axis represents the displacement
of a particle in the rope, which is how far a particle in the rope has oscillated
from its original undisturbed position.
A wave in which the direction of wave propagation is at right angles y
(90°) to the direction of the displacement of the oscillating particles is known as
a transverse wave. In the case of the rope, the crests of the wave propagate at
right angles to the direction of motion of your hand wiggling the rope. Say you
marked a particular part of a rope with a pen. You will notice that the mark just
moves up and down while the crests of the wave move horizontally,
perpendicular to the motion of the mark.
On the other hand, in sound waves, for example, the arrangement of air x

molecules is compressed (pressure increased) and then expanded (pressure

decreased) repeatedly. When the direction of motion (displacement) of the
Figure 5.5.1 All waves can be represented
particles that make up the wave is parallel to the propagation direction of the
as combinations of sine waves.
wave, it is called a longitudinal wave (or compression) (Figure 5.5.2). The
expansions are also called rarefactions. (This is discussed further in Section 7.1.)
Another example of this type of wave occurs when you compress part of a slinky
spring and let it go. You can see the longitudinal wave moves along the length of
the slinky spring (Figure 5.5.3). PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
air molecule movement Activity 5.1
Activity Manual, Page
35

wave direction

compression rarefaction

Figure 5.5.2 Sound waves in air are longitudinal waves.

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compression rarefaction

Figure 5.5.3 A longitudinal wave in a slinky spring

Present diagrammatic Features of sine waves

information about transverse Sine waves can come in different sizes. The two measures of size are amplitude
and longitudinal waves, and wavelength. The meanings of these are illustrated in Figure 5.5.4, which
direction of particle movement shows various features of a sine wave travelling horizontally.
and the direction of
particle
propagation. movement wave
wavelength A velocity
B
crest
amplitude displacement

trough
C D
wavelength

Figure 5.5.4 The features of a wave

Imagine that the sine wave in Figure 5.5.4 represents the cross-section of
ripples on a pond. The ripples travel horizontally, but the particles at the surface
of the water oscillate up and down.
The x-axis represents the surface of the water if it were undisturbed by ripples
and is called the equilibrium position. The highest points in a wave are the
crests. The lowest points are the troughs. The maximum distance a particle
oscillates from its equilibrium position to either a peak or trough is called the
amplitude. The symbol for amplitude is A.
The distance along the x-direction between a peak (or trough) and its
nearest neighbour is called wavelength. The symbol for wavelength is λ (lambda),
which is the Greek equivalent of the letter l.
If you watch any particular position on the water surface, the number of
peaks (or troughs) that pass that point per second is called the frequency ( f ).
Frequency is therefore the number of wavelengths that pass per second.
The unit of frequency is cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). The number of seconds
between two adjacent peaks (or troughs) is called the period (T ). Another way
of thinking about it is that period is the time taken to complete one wavelength.
If you think about it carefully, you should see that:
1
f =
T

CHECKPOINT 5.5
1 Compare the direction of oscillation and the direction of energy transfer in a longitudinal wave and a transverse
wave. Use diagrams in your answer.
2 Draw and label a diagram of a sinusoidal wave to clearly illustrate the crest, trough, amplitude and wavelength.

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5.6 The wave equation

How fast does a wave travel? Imagine again, as you did in Section 5.1, that you Quantify the relationship
are watching ripples on a pond travel past a particular point. Remember from between velocity, frequency and
Chapter 1 that the magnitude of velocity v is given by: wavelength for a wave: v = f λ.

displacement s
v= =
time t
Now period T is the time taken between peaks. Since the distance between
peaks is the wavelength λ, the position of any peak moves through a displacement
of λ in a time T. Therefore:
λ 1
v= but f =
T T

∴ v = λf

where v is the speed (the magnitude of velocity) in metres per second (m s–1), f is
the frequency in hertz (Hz), and λ is the wavelength in metres (m). This is true
for all travelling waves, even if they are not pure sine waves.
The speed of sound in air at a temperature of 20°C is about 344 m s–1. So if PRACTICAL
we know the frequency of the sound, we can work out its wavelength. The speed
EXPERIENCES
Activity 5.2
of sound changes with the temperature of the air; it increases with increasing Activity Manual, Page
43
temperature.

Worked example
QUESTION
Imagine that you are on a boat in the middle of the ocean and you are bobbing up, down and Solve problems and analyse
up again once every 2 s due to the water waves. You notice that the crests of the waves are information by applying the
about 10 m apart. mathematical model v = f λ
a Calculate the frequency of the waves. to a range of situations.

b Calculate the speed of the waves.

SOLUTION
a Use the period T of the wave to determine the frequency. We are told the period is
2 s because we move down the crest and then back up again during this time. The
frequency is given by: nte
ractiv
1 1
e
I

f = = = 0.5 Hz
T 2
M o d u le
b The wavelength λ of the waves is given as 10 m. This and the frequency can now be
used to calculate the wave speed v:
v = f λ = 0.5 × 10 = 5.0 m s–1

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TRY THIS!
FUN IN A THUNDERSTORM This calculation may be difficult to do mentally,
so a very rough way to do it is to divide the number
The next time there is thunder and lightning, notice of seconds by three, which gives you the distance in
that the flash of the lightning occurs before you hear 2.5
kilometres. In our example, this is , which we can
the thunder. That’s because light travels much faster 3
than sound, so it gets to you sooner. Light has a speed see is just less than a kilometre. This is usually accurate
of approximately 3 × 108 m s–1, while sound travels at enough for the fraternity of thunderstorm watchers.
344 m s–1 at an air temperature of 20°C. However,
this activity needs some mental arithmetic, so we will
approximate the sound speed to 350 m s–1.
You can impress your friends by telling them how
far the lightning is away from you. When you see the
lightning flash, start counting seconds. You can use
the words Oodnadatta 1, Oodnadatta 2 and so on. You
then multiply the number of seconds by 350 to get the
distance in metres.
For example, say you saw the flash of lightning and
you started counting ‘Oodnadatta 1, Oodnadatta 2,
Oodnadatta …’ (this last count is about half a second),
and then you heard the thunder. That is about 2.5 s.
This gives a distance of 2.5 × 350 = 875 m. That
lightning is less than a kilometre away and too close
for comfort! (We didn’t take into account the speed of
light because it acts almost instantaneously.) Figure 5.6.1 Lightning strikes, but how far away is it?

CHECKPOINT 5.6
1 Increasing or reducing the tension in a rope can change the speed of a wave travelling along it. Predict how the
wavelength changes for a wave on the rope if:
a the frequency and speed are both halved
b the speed is doubled and the period remains the same
c the speed remains the same but the period is doubled.

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CHAPTER 5
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

ACTIVITY 5.1: EXPLORING WAVES

Use the slinky springs, ropes and a ripple tank to illustrate the transmission of
Perform a first-hand
longitudinal and transverse waves. investigation to observe and
Equipment: slinky spring, 3 m of lightweight rope, retort stand, ring, clamp, gather information about the
ripple tank, signal generator, light source, screen. transmission of waves in slinky
springs, water surfaces and
rope fixed at end ropes.

rope

light beam
moving tank
wave

movement
of hand screen
water in tank
overhead
hand projector

longitudinal pulse
Compression pulse
A pulse produced by
moving the hand to and fro
in the same direction as the
pulse moves along a spring.
Pulse in a string
A pulse produced by moving
the hand from side-to-side
gradually moves along a
string.
Ripple tank
You can view water
waves in a ripple tank.

Figure 5.7.1 Using a slinky, string and ripple tank to explore waves
Discussion questions
1 Describe how to move the slinky spring to produce a transverse and a
longitudinal (or compression) wave.
2 Explain what the ‘lines’ or ‘ripples’ you see on the surface of the ripple Perform a first-hand
tank are. What is the name of the distance between two ripples? investigation to gather
information about the frequency
and amplitude of waves using
ACTIVITY 5.2: ANALYSING WAVES an oscilloscope or electronic
Use a frequency generator to produce sine waveforms on an oscilloscope. data-logging equipment.
Equipment: signal generator, oscilloscope, BNC cable, loudspeaker, coloured
pencils, calculator. cathode ray oscilloscope (or computer)

Discussion questions signal

1 Describe what happens to the shape of the waveform when the frequency generator
on the signal generator is increased. 256 Hz

2 Describe what happens to the shape of the waveform when the amplitude
on the signal generator is increased.
3 Explain how you can determine the frequency of the wave from the
Figure 5.7.2 An oscilloscope and signal
horizontal scale of the oscilloscope.
generator

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Chapter summary
• A wave is any vibration (or oscillation) that can travel • Electromagnetic waves include radio waves, microwaves,
(propagate) from one place to another. infra-red rays, visible light, ultraviolet rays, X-rays and
• Waves can be used to carry energy and information. gamma rays.
• A medium is an object or material through which the • Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, where the
wave propagates, such as air for sound waves. electric and magnetic fields are at right angles to each
• All waves that require a material object as the medium other and to the direction of wave propagation.
are called mechanical waves. • Mobile phone communication involves the transfer
• Transverse waves occur when the particles of the of energy between mechanical, electrical and
medium move (displace) at right angles to the direction electromagnetic energies.
of wave propagation, such as waves on a rope. • All waves can be described by combinations of
• Longitudinal (or compression) waves occur when the sine waves.
particles of the medium move (displace) along the • The maximum distance a particle oscillates from its
same direction as the wave propagation; for example, equilibrium position (at either a peak or trough) is
compressing part of a slinky spring makes a the amplitude.
longitudinal wave. • The distance between a peak (or trough) and its nearest
• The transfer of energy by a wave can take place in one, neighbour is called wavelength (λ).
two or three dimensions, such as a rope (1-D), water • The number of peaks (or troughs) that pass a point per
surface waves (2-D) or soundwaves (3-D). second is called the frequency (f ). The unit of frequency
• Electromagnetic waves can propagate in three is cycles per second or hertz (Hz).
dimensions and do not require a medium. In a vacuum, • The time in seconds between two adjacent peaks (or
these waves travel at the speed of light and are used in troughs) is called period (T ).
1
communication equipment, such as mobile phones. • Frequency is the reciprocal of period: f = .
T
• Wave speed (v) is given by v = f λ.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The items in the columns are not in their correct order. Copy the table and
match each of the key physics concepts with their correct definition, symbol
and units.

CONCEPT DEFINITION SYMBOL UNIT

Amplitude Distance between a peak and its nearest neighbour f hertz (Hz or s–1)
Displacement Time between a peak and its nearest neighbour d joule (J)
Distance The number of peaks that pass a fixed point every second s metre (m)
Energy The ability to move an object v metre (m)
Frequency The rate of change of distance v metre (m)
Period The rate of change of displacement λ metre (m)
Speed The straight-line length and direction between two points A metres per second (m s–1)
Velocity The length of the path between two points T metres per second (m s–1)
Wavelength The distance between a wave peak and the wave equilibrium point E second (s)

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REVIEWING
1 The idea of frequency can be applied to any situation that repeats at
regular intervals.
a Given that the hands of a clock return to their starting positions at
regular intervals, calculate the periods of these hands.
b Calculate the frequencies of the second, minute and hour hands.
2 You can make water waves by touching and removing your finger from the
surface of water at regular intervals. Describe what must happen to the
frequency at which you touch the water so that you can increase the
wavelength of the water waves.
3 A rope has one end tied to a wall while you hold the other end. You now
wiggle the rope up and down to produce a wave that travels along the rope.
Describe what happens to the wavelength on the rope if you wiggled the
rope with a higher frequency.
4 What is the distance a wave travels during one period?
5 Identify the main energy types used in the communication methods
listed below.
a satellite
b mobile phone
c television
d radio
e fax
6 Complete the following table to summarise the transmitter, transport
medium/method and receiver for each device.

DEVICE TRANSMITTER TRANSPORT RECEIVER

MEDIUM/METHOD
Radio
Mobile phone
Landline phone

7 Classify each of the following as mechanical or electromagnetic (EM)

waves and whether they are one-, two- or three-dimensional.

TYPE OF WAVE MECHANICAL OR EM WAVE DIMENSION

Sound
Light
Surface water wave
Slinky spring y

8 a Label the wave in Figure 5.7.3 with the features listed below in part b. D H
b Identify which two letters best represent each of the following.
i amplitude
A C E G
ii wavelength x

iii rest position

iv crest B F

v trough. Figure 5.7.3

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9 a In Figure 5.7.4, each dot represents a particle of air. For this sound
Present diagrammatic
wave, construct a rough graph of pressure (y-axis) versus position
information about transverse
(x-axis).
and longitudinal waves,
b Now construct a rough graph of pressure versus position for the same
direction of particle movement
wave, half of one period later.
and the direction of
propagation.

wave direction

Figure 5.7.4

Solve problems and analyse
information by applying the
mathematical model v = f λ to
a range of situations.
Present and analyse
information from
displacement–time
graphs for transverse
wave motion.
SOLVING PROBLEMS
10 The hydrogen gas that fills the universe emits a radio wave frequency of
1420 MHz. Calculate its wavelength. The speed of light is 3.00 × 108 m s–1.
11 Mobile phones use a frequency of approximately 2 GHz of EM waves.
Calculate the wavelength of these waves.
12 The surf on the beach hits the shore once every 5 s. The distance between
the crests of these waves is 6 m. Calculate the speed of these waves.
13 A water wave moves so that an observer sees 5 waves pass her every
second. The distance between crests is noted to be 1.5 m. Calculate the
speed of the wave.
14 A student throws a rock into a pond of water and counts the number of
ripples coming towards the shore, the f = 10 Hz. The distance between
the first and eleventh crest is 5 m. Calculate the speed of the ripple.
15 A leaf falls from a tree and swings from side to side as it falls to the
ground. You notice that it swings back and forth 4 times before it lands
on the ground in 2 s. Calculate the frequency of oscillation.
16 Jack and Jill are standing in the water on the beach and are 10 m apart.
They bob up and down as the waves move past them. At one instant, Jill
is at the crest of a wave while Jack is at the trough. See Figure 5.7.5.
a Calculate the wavelength of the waves.
b Half a second later, Jill is at the trough while Jack is at the crest.
Calculate the frequency of bobbing up and down.
c Calculate the speed of the wave.

10 m 10 m

Figure 5.7.5

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17 The waves generated in the Earth during an earthquake are known as

seismic waves. A seismograph is an instrument that records the wave
motion of the ground by tracing the changing amplitude of the wave with
time, as shown on the seismogram, which is simply a graph of displacement
(y-axis) versus time (x-axis). From the graph shown in Figure 5.7.6:
a Estimate the maximum frequency.
b Estimate the maximum amplitude.

12

4
Displacement (cm)

–4

–8

–12
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)

Figure 5.7.6

18 The vertical height aboveground of a girl on a swing can be represented

approximately by a sine wave on a graph, where height (y-axis) versus time
(x-axis) is plotted (see Figure 5.7.7). The lowest point of the swing is
0.5 m aboveground.
a Calculate the amplitude of the wave.
b Calculate the frequency of the swing.

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0
Height (m)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (s)

Figure 5.7.7

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6 behave
energy transformation, boundary,
intensity, inverse square law,
superposition, interference, phase,
constructive interference,
destructive interference, fixed
boundary, free boundary, wave front,
ray, reflection, refraction, absorption,
law of reflection, incidence, normal
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How waves
Energy is conserved
Now that we have a general idea of what a wave is and its basic
characteristics, we need to look at wave behaviour in more detail and
define different ways of representing wave behaviour using various
graphical methods.
We start with the fundamental principle of energy conservation.
This supports the entire discipline of physics (and was discussed
earlier in Section 4.4). The amount of energy in the universe is fixed,
so energy can be neither created nor destroyed. However, energy
may change from one form into another (energy transformation).
Waves are carriers of energy, and so they must be taken
into account when applying the principle of energy
conservation to systems in which waves are present.
6.1 Energy and waves
Let us consider a sound wave produced by a speaker in a science laboratory.
The speaker cone vibrates, pushing the air particles around it. The sound waves
propagate outwards in three dimensions from the speaker. They travel through
the air and eventually strike the walls, floor, windows and ceiling of the laboratory.
Let us look at this process from the point of view of energy. The energy used
to power the speaker is electrical energy, which is transformed into kinetic energy
as the speaker diaphragm wobbles back and forth. The kinetic energy is
transferred into the air particles in the room as the sound wave travels away from
the speaker. The energy spreads out into an increasing volume of space as the
wave propagates outwards from the speaker. Some energy is converted into heat
in the speaker and the air. When the sound wave reaches a boundary, such as
the surface of a wall, some of the wave energy bounces back (is reflected), part of
it passes through (is transmitted) into the new medium and some of the energy is
lost as heat in the new medium (absorbed).
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loud
music

Figure 6.1.1 Your parents can also enjoy the music you play in your bedroom. Some sound energy
is reflected and some is absorbed; however, unfortunately for your parents, some
sound energy is transmitted through the walls and door.

If you stand next to the speaker, the sound is loud; as you move away, the
volume decreases. Outside the room, you can still hear the sound but it is much
softer and probably muffled (Figure 6.1.1). This is because the energy that
reaches your ears decreases as you move away from the source of the sound wave.
There are three main reasons for this decrease in energy with distance.
The first reason is that some of the original kinetic energy from the speaker
diaphragm is converted into other forms of energy by the media it travels
through. Some is dissipated (absorbed) as heat by the air molecules and the
materials that make up the floor, walls and ceiling. The second reason is that not
all of the sound wave makes it out of the room as some of it is reflected back
inside. The third reason is the inverse square law, which is discussed below.
So as a wave travels from its oscillating source, the energy carried by the wave
decreases; however, as the energy of the system must be conserved, we can account
for the apparently missing energy by considering the absorption and reflection of
energy at boundaries. Mathematically this can be represented as follows:
Ewave = Etransmitted + Ereflected + Eabsorbed
The energy of a wave is proportional to the wave’s amplitude squared.
In sound waves, the amplitude is related to the volume (loudness) of the sound;
in light waves, it is related to the brightness of the light.
Ewave amplitude2
But even if the wave were to travel through a perfect medium, which doesn’t
Explain that the relationship
absorb and dissipate the wave energy as heat, the sound volume (or even light between the intensity of EM
brightness) decreases as you move away from the source. The rate of energy radiation and distance from a
transfer by a source of waves through a given area is called the wave’s intensity. source is an example of the
Intensity is measured in watts per square metre (W m–2). The rate of energy inverse square law:
transfer is called power, so wave intensity can be described using the following 1
I .
equation: d2

energy power P
Intensity = or Intensity = or I=
time × area area A

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The energy density, and so the intensity, of a wave will decrease as you
move away from the source. Exactly how the intensity varies can be complicated
by many factors. The source, like a speaker, may mainly transmit the wave in one
direction and obstacles in the wave’s path may cause reflections and absorptions
of the wave energy. However, in the simplest case in which we assume that the
wave is transmitted uniformly in all directions with the mechanical energy
conserved as it spreads and we can ignore reflections and absorption, we can use
the inverse square law to describe the variation of intensity with distance.
In this ideal case, all of the energy emitted by the source must pass through
the surface of a sphere with radius d metres (Figure 6.1.2). The area of this
sphere will be 4πd 2, and the intensity of the wave at a point d metres from the
source is given by the equation:
P
I=
4π d 2

d1 d2

Figure 6.1.2 Energy produced by the speaker passes first through the surface of a sphere of radius d1,
and then that same energy passes through the surface of the larger sphere of radius d2.

The equation below tells us that the intensity of a uniformly transmitted

wave with no mechanical energy loss decreases with the square of the distance d
from the source.

1
I
d2

In most cases, mechanical waves such as sound waves and water waves cannot
PRACTICAL be accurately modelled using the inverse square law because energy is dissipated
EXPERIENCES as heat by the particles in the medium that the wave travels through. However,
Activity 6.1 electromagnetic (EM) waves do not require a medium to propagate and in air
Activity Manual, Page
48 there are practically no energy losses, so the inverse square law will predict
intensity levels for EM waves with high accuracy. For this reason, astrophysicists
use the inverse square law to compare and identify stars as there is little or no
energy loss in the vacuum of space.

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Worked example
QUESTION
The Sun produces EM waves that propagate through space to the Earth. The Sun has a
power output of 3.86 × 1026 W.
a Calculate the intensity of the Sun as seen from Earth. (d = 149 597 900 km)
b How does this compare with the intensity of the Sun seen from Jupiter,
approximately 5 times the distance away?
SOLUTION
a Calculate the intensity, given that P = 3.86 × 1026 W and d = 149 597 900 km.
Convert all units into SI units: d = 149 597 900 × 1000 m.
P 3.86 × 1026 W
I= = = 1372.5 W m–2
4πd 2 4 × π × (149 597 900 × 1000)2 m2
The intensity at the Earth is 1370 W m–2 (to 3 significant figures).
b Assume the distance from the Sun to the Earth is d metres. Then the distance from
1 1 1
the Sun to Jupiter is 5d metres. Therefore IEarth 2 and IJupiter 2 2
,
1 d (5d) 25d
so the intensity at Jupiter will be or 4% the intensity at Earth.
25

3
Figure 6.1.3 Sunset on Mars. Mars is times further from the Sun than the Earth, so the setting
2
2 4
Sun appears of the size on Earth and its intensity is that received on Earth.
3 9

CHECKPOINT 6.1
1 Outline five different energy transformations that can occur as light waves propagate from a source in a
science laboratory.
2 If the distance from a light source is tripled, what happens to the intensity of light as viewed from each point?

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Describe the principle
of superposition.
THOMAS YOUNG
6.2 Superposition
The concept of a wave was introduced in Chapter 5 as a vibration that transfers
energy from one place to another. The simplest mathematical representation of
waves are sine waves ( y = sin x), and more complicated waves can be thought of
as combinations of different sine waves.
This mathematical representation is very convenient and useful for physicists
in modelling and predicting wave behaviour. The ability to add different sine
waves together to model any complex wave situation arises because of a

T homas Young is considered to

be the father of physical optics
for his championing of the wave
theory of light and his explanation
of superposition. He was also a
talented linguist, learning Persian,
Arabic and Turkish. He used these
skills to translate some Egyptian
hieroglyphics using the Rosetta
Stone (Figure 6.2.2).
Figure 6.2.1 Thomas Young
Figure 6.2.2 The Rosetta Stone
Figure 6.2.5 Imaginary superposition of
two tennis balls
fundamental property of waves—superposition. Superposition is one important
property that distinguishes wave behaviour from particle behaviour.
Superposition is the amazing ability of two or more waves to combine
at the same point in space at the same time. Or to put it another way, the net
disturbance at any point in a medium is simply the sum of the separate waves
present. The superposition principle, which is a fundamental characteristic of
waves, was proposed by English physicist Thomas Young (1773–1829) in the
early nineteenth century (Figure 6.2.1).
This is simple to say and may not
seem earth shattering, but consider what
would happen if we were to attempt
superposition with particles instead of
waves. Consider two tennis balls—it is
not physically possible for both tennis
balls to exist in exactly the same place at Figure 6.2.3 Two tennis balls unsuccessfully
exactly the same time (Figure 6.2.3). Try try to occupy the same point in
it for yourself. space at the same time.
Now take two waves—say, crossed
beams of light from two torches (Figure
6.2.4). These waves can exist in exactly
the same place at exactly the same time
and when they do, they combine (or
superimpose) to make a more complex
wave. When the waves move past this
meeting point, they emerge as the
original uncombined light beams.
Figure 6.2.4 Light from two torches combine
The powerful significance of this when they occupy the same
property of waves may escape you as it is point in space at the same time.
difficult to conceptualise waves when we
are so accustomed to a particle world. Just imagine for a moment that the tennis balls
in our previous example could superimpose like waves, what would this look like?
The incoming tennis balls would meet and combine into a larger, probably
oddly shaped tennis ball. Then after the meeting place they would emerge as
single tennis balls again, indistinguishable from the original incoming balls
(Figure 6.2.5). There is also a more mathematical interpretation of the principle
of superposition, which is discussed in Section 6.4.
The term interference is used to describe the change in waves that occurs as
a result of superposition. The size and shape of the superimposed waves depend
on the amplitude, wavelength and frequency of the original waves. It also
depends on an additional wave property—phase.

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CHECKPOINT 6.2
1 Define the concept of superposition.
2 Identify two properties common to both particles and waves.

6.3 Phase

Amplitude of the particle

P
Phase is the key to understanding how waves superimpose and interact with 0 P
3
2P Radians
2 2
media and boundaries. Waves displace the particles of the media they travel 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 Degrees
through. Let us consider one particle in the medium. Sometimes the particle is
displaced a maximum positive amount (crest) from its original position, sometimes
Phase (in degrees and radians)
it is displaced a maximum negative amount (trough) and sometimes it is in its
original position (equilibrium). This means a particle is displaced by the wave in Figure 6.3.1 The particle at point P has a
π
a regular cycle: crest → equilibrium → trough → equilibrium → crest and so phase of 45° or radians.
4
on. The phase of a wave can be thought of as a label for the part of the
cycle that the particle is undergoing at a given time.
Since we are using a sine function such as y = sin (x) to represent our wave,
the simplest way to label which part of the cycle the oscillating particle is in is to
state the value in brackets (x) (mathematically speaking, the ‘argument’). Since PHASE AND THE
the sine function comes traditionally from trigonometry, this value (the phase) is WAVE EQUATION
normally given in angle units, such as radians or degrees; however, the phase is
not really an angle, just a mathematical label (Figure 6.3.1).
The idea of phase is easier to grasp when we think of the phase of two waves
W e have been using a very
simple equation, y = sin (x),
to describe wave behaviour. A more
relative to each other. If two waves cause a particle to be displaced the same powerful and useful description
direction at the same time, they have a phase difference of 0° and are said to be requires a function that relates
in phase. If the phase difference is 180° or π radians, the waves are said to be horizontal displacement (x),
exactly out of phase (Figure 6.3.2). vertical displacement (y) and time
(t), and contains all the important
properties of that wave:
2π
y = A sin( x − 2πft )
λ
where A is the wave amplitude,
λ is the wavelength and f is
the frequency.
Waves in phase Waves exactly 180° Waves out of phase by When using this equation to
out of phase approximately 90°
describe a wave, the phase (ϕ)
Figure 6.3.2 Waves in and out of phase of an individual wave is the
argument of the sine function:
2π
ϕ= x − 2πft
λ

CHECKPOINT 6.3
3π
1 Draw a diagram of two waves that have equal amplitude and frequency but are out of phase by 270° or radians.
2

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6.4 The superposition of waves

Here is a more mathematical interpretation of the superposition principle. It says
that when two waves cross the same part of space at the same time, the resulting
wave is simply the mathematical sum of the two original waves.
We can use a graphical method for superimposing two waves in sine form.
We plot the waves on the same axes, accurately recording the amplitude, frequency
and phase. Then moving from right to left, at every value of x we simply add the
corresponding ‘heights’—the y values—of the two sine waves. When adding the
heights, remember that the y values above the axis are positive and those below
the axis are negative (Figure 6.4.1).

1.5

1.0

0.5
Amplitude (m)

w1
w2
0
0 90 180 270 360 ws
w1
w2
–0.5
ws

–1.0

–1.5
Phase (°)

Figure 6.4.1 Two sinusoidal waves (w1 and w2) with different amplitudes and frequencies travel
from left to right. The waves superimpose to give the resultant wave ws.
Constructive interference

w1
w2 This procedure can be carried out for any two waves. However, two special
ws cases emerge when superimposing waves of the same frequency and amplitude
(Figure 6.4.2). If we superimpose two such waves that are in phase, we see
a resulting maximum disturbance in the medium; to be exact, the resulting wave
will have double the amplitude of either of the original waves. This is called
constructive interference. If we superimpose two waves that are exactly
180° out of phase, we see a resulting zero disturbance in the medium. The waves
cancel each other out completely, the resulting amplitude is zero and so no
oscillation of the medium is observed. This is called destructive interference.
Destructive interference

Figure 6.4.2 Two identical sinusoidal waves

(w1 and w2) travel from left to
right. They superimpose to give
the resultant wave ws.
Constructive interference
occurs when the phase
difference is 0° (0 radians),
and destructive interference
occurs at 180° (π radians).

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Adding two waves together using a graphical method is relatively

straightforward, but adding three or more waves together in this way becomes
extremely time-consuming. A mathematical technique called Fourier analysis and
synthesis allows multiple waves to be added quickly and easily. For example, DESTRUCTIVE
electronic music and voice recognition software use Fourier analysis and synthesis CAN BE USEFUL
to add and subtract sound waves to create and recognise a wide variety of sounds
(See Physics Feature ‘Beautiful mathematics and electronic music’ on page 104).
When waves reflect from a boundary between two media, the phase of the
I n some factories where loud,
repetitive noise is a problem,
workers can wear special
reflected wave depends on the nature of that boundary. There are two types: headphones that sample the
fixed boundaries or free boundaries (Figure 6.4.3). surrounding noise and then
A fixed boundary has particles that are unable to oscillate, an example of replay into the workers’ ears a
which would be a rope tied securely to a wall. If you wiggle the free end of the copy of this noise with exactly
rope, a transverse wave will travel down the rope towards the fixed boundary at the same amplitude but exactly
the wall. The wave will then be reflected from that boundary. The reflected wave 180° out of phase with it. The
will be exactly out of phase with the original wave. This is because the rope is result is destructive interference,
tied at the wall and must always have a displacement y = 0 at that point. While which means no noise reaches
they overlap, the original wave and its reflection can be thought of as two the workers’ ears. This is called
interfering waves. Any overlapping waves must superimpose to give zero ‘anti-phase noise reduction’.
displacement at the wall. This can only occur when the original and reflected However, since this effect
doesn’t work very well with non-
waves are exactly out of phase (phase difference of 180°).
repetitive noise such as human
In a free boundary the particles in the adjacent media are free to move, so
speech, the workers are still able
waves transmitted through or reflected from free boundaries have the same phase
to hear co-workers talking.
as the original wave.

a b

PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Reflection from a fixed boundary Reflection from a free boundary
Activity 6.2
Activity Manual, Page
53
Figure 6.4.3 (a) Waves are reflected from a fixed boundary exactly out of phase; (b) a free
boundary reflects the wave in phase.

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PHYSICS FEATURE
BEAUTIFUL MATHEMATICS AND
a
ELECTRONIC MUSIC

T he French mathematician Jean Baptiste Joseph,

Baron de Fourier (1768–1830) devised a
beautiful mathematical technique for synthesising a
waveform of any shape imaginable. His theory states
that any wave with a spatial frequency of f can be
b
synthesised by a sum of harmonic waves with
frequencies f, 2f, 3f, 4f and so forth. Any wave can Harmonics

be thought of as a result of the addition of f1

overlapping sine and cosine waves.

Consider the example shown in Figure 6.4.4. The
f2
waveform in Figure 6.4.4a is the result of combining
the six sine waves in Figure 6.4.4b. These six sine
f3
waves with different frequencies are called the
harmonics. The frequency of the resultant wave has f4

the same frequency as the first harmonic (f1). The f5

f6
harmonics can be illustrated using a spectrum graph
like Figure 6.4.3c. This plots the amplitude of the
harmonic versus the frequency.
Electronically synthesised music utilises the c
mathematics of Fourier. An audio engineer
Amplitude

programming an electronic synthesiser keyboard, for

example, would use a signal generator to produce the
harmonic sine waves. By manipulating the amplitudes, f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6
frequencies and phases of these sine waves, the Frequency
desired sound can be selected. Similarly, a natural
sound can be copied and electronically reproduced.
The waveform of the natural sound is analysed to Figure 6.4.4 (a) The synthesised waveform; (b) the six component
determine its harmonics, which can then be easily harmonics of (a); (c) a spectrum graph of the harmonics
reproduced using a signal generator and synthesised
when required.

CHECKPOINT 6.4
1 What phase difference is required for two waves to destructively interfere?

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6.5 Diagrams used to describe waves

In addition to the equations and graphs we have been using to describe wave
behaviour, it is common to use two additional diagrams—wave fronts and
rays—to illustrate wave behaviour in media and at boundaries between media.
Waves originate from an oscillating source. We imagine for simplicity that the
source is tiny, called a point source. In Figure 6.5.1, transverse waves move out in
two dimensions from the oscillation caused by a tiny vibrating source. If we draw
a line joining the peak of each of these transverse waves, we have constructed a
wave front. A wave front is therefore an imaginary line that joins points of
equal phase. The concentric circular lines (ripples) that you see on the disturbed
Waves are emitted in all directions
surface of a pond are wave fronts. from the light source.
For waves that propagate in three dimensions, the wave front would be a
spherical surface joining points of equal phase. The distance between two
adjacent wave fronts is one wavelength. Wave fronts that are closer to a source
appear more curved. As the wave travels a large distance from the source, the
wave fronts appear as parallel lines (called plane waves). A wave of a fixed
frequency travelling through a uniform medium will have wave fronts of equal
spacing. The greater the frequency, the closer the spacing of the wave fronts.
Superposition is illustrated by overlapping wave fronts (Figure 6.5.2). Where
the wave fronts overlap, we have two waves combining with the same phase. At
this point there would be constructive interference.
An imaginary line drawn that joins points
of equal phase is called a wave front.

Figure 6.5.1 Constructing wave fronts for

transverse waves

ray

wave fronts

Figure 6.5.3 A ray is drawn perpendicular to

Figure 6.5.2 Overlapping ripples from two disturbances on a water surface. The ripples are wave the wave front and shows the
fronts, and superposition of the two waves occurs where two wave fronts overlap. direction of wave propagation.

An imaginary line drawn perpendicular to a wave front in the direction

of propagation is called a ray (Figure 6.5.3). The ray is simply a line that points PRACTICAL
in the direction that the wave front is moving. Rays are commonly used to show EXPERIENCES
the path of light through an optical system. Unlike wave fronts, rays do not give Activity 6.3
Activity Manual, Page
59
any information about the wavelength or frequency of the wave.

CHECKPOINT 6.5
1 Define the terms wave front and ray.
2 How does a wave front diagram give information about the wave frequency or wavelength?

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6.6 Wave reflection and refraction

At the beginning of the chapter, we discussed the energy of a wave and what
happens at the interface between two media (a boundary). When a wave
encounters a boundary three things happen (Figure 6.6.1):
1 Part of the wave energy bounces off the interface and travels back into the
original media—known as reflection.
2 Part of the wave energy continues into the new media—known as
transmission or refraction.
3 Part of the wave energy is transferred to particles in the media as heat—
known as absorption.

incident
reflected

refracted

Figure 6.6.1 Parallel light wave fronts incident on a surface (such as a piece of glass). Some of
the light is reflected from the surface and some is refracted.

REFLECTING
HISTORY
T he law of reflection was first
described by the Greek
mathematician Euclid in the
book Catoptrics, dated
approximately 200 BC. Catoptrics
is an ancient Greek term that
means ‘reflection’. The first
written description of a reflective
surface, a woman’s looking glass,
Figure 6.6.2 An early depiction of a reflective
surface in art. This stone relief
appears in Exodus 38 : 8, dated is from the sarcophagus of
approximately 1200 BC. Queen Kawit and shows her
holding a mirror, dated
approximately 2061 BC.

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Reflection
The behaviour of reflected waves is described by the law of reflection.
Describe and apply the law of
This law states that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. reflection and explain the
The angle of incidence (θi ) is the angle made by the incoming (incident) wave effect of reflection from a plane
front and the boundary. The angle of reflection (θr ) is the angle made by the surface.
outgoing (reflected) wave front and the boundary (Figure 6.6.3). Therefore:

θi = θr

If a wave is normally incident on a boundary, then θi = θr = 0° and the wave

reflects back on itself.

a c
Incident wave front
just reaching mirror

θi mirror surface θr θi mirror surface

A B A B

b d
Reflected wave front
just leaving mirror

θr θi mirror surface θr mirror surface

A B A B

Figure 6.6.3 The incoming (incident) wave front makes an angle of θi with the reflective surface.
The reflected wave front makes an angle of θr with the mirror. The law of reflection
says θi = θr.

Wave front diagrams can quickly become cluttered, so it is usual to represent

the same concept concisely using rays (Figure 6.6.4). A large number of wave
fronts are replaced by an incident and reflected ray. The angles of incidence and
reflection are measured relative to the normal, which is a line drawn
perpendicular to the boundary.

normal

incident ray reflected ray

N

θi
θr

Figure 6.6.4 Reflection of a wave using a ray diagram. The incident and reflected rays make an
angle of θi and θr respectively, relative to the normal (N ).

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Explain that refraction is
related to the velocities of a
wave in different media and
outline how this may result in
the bending of a wave front.
Refraction
Imagine that a surf lifesaver is running up the hard sand near the water and is
then continuing on into the soft sand. As the medium changes from hard sand
to soft sand, the surf lifesaver slows down as it is harder to run in soft sand.
In the same way the speed of a wave changes as it moves from one
medium into another. If the wave encounters the boundary at an angle
(θi ≠ 0), the wave fronts bend as they cross the boundary. This bending of
waves across boundaries is called refraction. (See Figures 6.6.5 and 6.6.6.)

a b

λr
λi λr
vr
vi vr λi
θi

vi
θi = 0

medium 1 medium 2 medium 1 medium 2

Figure 6.6.5 The bending caused by
refraction is clearly evident if
you look at a pencil (or straw)
partially submerged in a glass
of water. The speed of the light
wave slows as it passes from
air to water.
Figure 6.6.6 The wave slows down as it enters the second medium and so the wave fronts become
more closely spaced. (a) The wave front is normally incident on the boundary (θi = 0).
(b) The wave front encounters the boundary at an angle (θi ≠ 0).
The bending is also evident when the wave’s path is represented by rays, as
shown in Figure 6.6.7. The incident ray travelling through medium 1 makes
an angle θi (angle of incidence) with the normal, and the refracted ray through
medium 2 makes an angle of θr (angle of refraction) with the normal. If the
wave slows down on entering the new medium, the ray bends towards the normal
(θi > θr). If the wave speeds up the opposite occurs: the ray bends away from the
normal (θi < θr ).

incident wave normal

fronts and ray

angle of incidence θi medium 1

medium 2

angle of refraction θr

refracted wave
fronts and ray

Figure 6.6.7 The refracted ray bends towards the normal as the wave slows down on entering
medium 2.

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The degree to which a wave is refracted depends on the properties of the

media. The physical state, density, crystal structure and temperature of a
substance will affect the speed of the wave through that substance. The speed
of light waves is changed by the refractive index (n) of a substance, while the
acoustic impedance (Z ) of a substance changes the speed of sound waves.

TRY THIS! a b

MARCHING TO ILLUSTRATE
REFLECTION AND
REFRACTION
Link arms with some friends to
form a wave front. March in time
at the same speed. Reflect
yourselves from a flat surface,
such as a wall. As each person
reaches the wall, march backwards concrete

at the same speed. Try this first

with the wave front parallel to the wall grass
wall and then at an angle. Then
reflect yourself from a curved
surface, like a curved gutter or Figure 6.6.8 (a) Students are reflected from the wall by marching backwards. (b) Students
are refracted across the boundary by changing marching speed.
garden bed edge. You will see the
wave front shape change. To refract,
the marching speed needs to change as you change medium.
Try marching from concrete onto grass. As the medium
changes, halve your speed. The wave front will bend if you
approach the boundary at an angle.

CHECKPOINT 6.6
1 Describe the law of reflection.
2 Define the concept of refraction.

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6 PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
Plan, choose equipment or
resources for and perform a
first-hand investigation, and
gather information to model the
inverse square law for light
intensity and distance from a
source.
Perform a first-hand
investigation, gather, process
and present information using
a CRO or computer to
demonstrate the principle of
superposition for two waves
travelling in the same medium.
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CHAPTER 6
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
ACTIVITY 6.1: MODELLING THE INVERSE SQUARE LAW
Use a light probe attached to a data logger or hand-held meter to measure light
intensity at different distances from a source.
Equipment list: a bright light source (lamp), light-sensitive probe or meter,
data logger, computer, tape measure.
light
to computer sensor
light
source
metre ruler
photocell
Figure 6.7.1 Experimental set-up for measuring light intensity at different distances
Discussion questions
1 Describe the relationship between light intensity and distance using the
data collected in this investigation. How does it compare with the inverse
square law?
2 Identify a possible source of experimental error in this investigation. What
strategies could you use to reduce the impact of the experimental error?
ACTIVITY 6.2: SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
Use a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) or computer program to observe the
superposition of pulses and waves.
Equipment list: cathode ray oscilloscope, 2 signal generators, graph paper,
computer.
cathode ray oscilloscope (or computer)
256 Hz
signal
generator
256 Hz
signal
generator
Figure 6.7.2 An oscilloscope connected to two signal generators
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Discussion questions
1 Explain the importance of phase difference to the superposition of two
waves with the same frequency and amplitude.
2 Describe the characteristics of the resultant wave when two waves of
different frequencies are superimposed.

ACTIVITY 6.3: WAVE FRONTS AND RAYS

Use a light box and a variety of reflective surfaces to observe the reflection of light.
Perform first-hand
Draw accurate ray and wave front diagrams to show light reflection from plane, investigations and gather
concave and convex surfaces. information to observe the path
Equipment list: transformer, light box, plane mirror, concave mirror, convex of light rays and construct
mirror, pencil, ruler, blank paper, protractor. diagrams indicating both the
direction of travel of the light
rays and a wave front.

light box

Present information using ray

diagrams to show the path of
waves reflected from:
• plane surfaces
• concave surfaces
• convex surfaces.

plane mirror

convave and convex mirrors

Figure 6.7.3 A light box and reflective surfaces

Discussion questions
1 Explain how the shape of the reflective surface changes the shape of the
reflected wave front. Refer specifically to the law of reflection.
2 Describe the parts and function of the light box and explain how it
approximates a source a large distance away.

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Chapter summary
• Energy is conserved in all systems. • Waves are out of phase if the phase difference is
• Ewave = Etransmitted + Ereflected + Eabsorbed 180° or π radians.
• The energy of a wave is proportional to the amplitude • The superposition of two waves in phase results in
squared. constructive interference.
• Intensity is defined as the rate of energy transfer • The superposition of two waves out of phase results in
through a given area. It is measured in watts per square destructive interference.
metre (W m–2). • A wave front is an imaginary line joining points of
• The intensity of a wave decreases with the square of the equal phase.
1 • Wave fronts close to a source appear curved; at large
distance from the source I .
d2 distances, they are parallel (called plane waves).
• Superposition is a property that distinguishes waves • The distance between two adjacent wave fronts is
from particles. one wavelength.
• The net disturbance at any point in the medium is the • A ray is an imaginary line drawn perpendicular
sum of separate waves present. (at 90°) to a wave front. The ray points in the direction
• The superimposed (or net) wave depends on the of propagation.
amplitude, wavelength, frequency and phase of the • The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence
original waves. equals the angle of reflection (θi = θr ).
• Phase is the point in the cycle that an oscillating • A wave changes speed as it moves from one medium to
particle is up to at a given time. another. This is called refraction.
• Phase is a dimensionless quantity given as an angle in • Refraction causes wave fronts and rays to bend as they
degrees or radians. cross the boundary from one medium to another.
• Waves are in phase if the phase difference is 0° or • The degree to which a wave is refracted depends on the
0 radians. properties of the media.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Create a visual summary for the concepts in this chapter using a mind map.
1 Copy the table containing words, diagrams and equations.
2 Cut along the dotted lines so that you have 21 separate boxes.
3 Group related boxes together.
4 Stick the groups of boxes onto a sheet of blank paper.
5 Connect boxes with labelled links to form a mind map.

Amplitude Phase Wavelength

1
Constructive interference Ray I
d2
Destructive interference Reflection θi = θr
Distance Refraction
Energy Superposition

Frequency Wave

Intensity Wave front

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REVIEWING
1 An aquarium has a light on top of the tank, as shown in Figure 6.7.4.
Draw and label the diagram to illustrate what happens to the energy of
the light waves as they propagate into the tank.

light

air pump

fish tank

Figure 6.7.4 An aquarium

2 The amplitude of a wave is doubled. Are the following statements true

or false?
a The wave frequency also doubles.
b The wave period also halves.
c The wave energy also quadruples.
d The wave speed also doubles.
3 Complete the table to show the relationship between intensity and distance.

DISTANCE 1 1 1
d 2d 3d 4d 5d d d d
4 2 2
INTENSITY I

4 Complete the table to show the relationship between degrees and radians.

DEGREES 30 90 180 270

π π
RADIANS 0
4 3
2π

5 Draw the rays corresponding to the wave front diagrams.

a b

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6 Draw the wave fronts corresponding to the ray diagrams.

a b

7 Draw the wave fronts and rays as the wave is reflected from the boundary.

mirror
35°

incident ray

8 Draw the wave fronts and rays as the wave slows down on entering the
new medium.

medium 1 medium 2
normal

9 Samuel draws a ray diagram of a light beam reflecting from a plane

surface. Use Samuel’s diagram to determine the angle of incidence and
the angle of reflection.

normal

65° mirror

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SOLVING PROBLEMS
10 A pulse is produced in a string of initial amplitude 35 cm. After the pulse
has travelled 1 m, its amplitude is 7 cm.
a Calculate the percentage of the original energy carried by the pulse
1 m from the source.
b Calculate the percentage of the original energy that has been lost.
Can you account for the missing energy?
11 Helen purchases two light bulbs with power ratings of 40 W and 80 W.
How far must she stand from the 80 W bulb so that it appears to have
the same intensity as the 40 W bulb?
12 Star A is twice as far away as Star B, but they generate the same light
intensity. Which star appears brighter and by what factor?
13 Stars C and D are both at a distance of 15 parsecs from Earth, but
star C is nine times brighter than D in the night sky. At what distance
would star C have to be in order to appear to be the same brightness as D?
14 A scuba diver’s underwater microphone detects a whale call 50 m away
with an intensity of 0.47 mW m–2. Another scuba diver is 1 km away at
another dive site. What will be the intensity at that distance? Ignore
absorption losses.
15 Use graph paper to accurately reproduce these waves. Use the graphical
Present graphical information,
method to superimpose the waves and find the net disturbance.
solve problems and analyse
a b information involving
1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
superposition of waves.
0.5 0.5
0 0
–0.5 –0.5
–1.0 –1.0

c d
1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0 0
–0.5 –0.5
–1.0 –1.0

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7 difference: sound
compression, rarefaction, source,
pitch, resonance, volume, timbre,
echo, superimpose, reverberation,
echolocation, path length difference,
standing wave, node, anti-node
Figure 7.1.1 Sound is part of human culture.
Identify that sound waves are
vibrations or oscillations of
particles in a medium.
116
Hear the
More than just noise
Sound in the human experience goes far beyond a sensory survival
tool: it is a part of human culture, song, dance, prayer, ritual and
entertainment. Not only do humans make an extraordinary array of
sounds with their own bodies—for example, talking, singing, whistling
and clapping—but they have also designed and developed highly
specialised tools for making sounds, such as musical instruments.
Sound is also used in medicine, engineering, fisheries, communications
and architecture to solve problems and improve quality of life.
7.1 Sound waves as longitudinal
waves
Sound is a mechanical wave caused by a vibrating source. The particles surrounding
the source oscillate and the kinetic energy of the oscillation is transmitted
through the medium as a longitudinal (or compression) wave. In
longitudinal waves the direction of particle oscillation is parallel to the energy
transfer, which is the propagation direction of the wave (Figure 7.1.2).
air molecule movement
wave direction
compression rarefaction
Figure 7.1.2 Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
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A sound wave in air will cause the air molecules to oscillate and the air
Relate compressions and
particles to move back and forth. At one point in the oscillation cycle, the air rarefactions of sound waves to
molecules are at high pressure, packed closely together or compressed. At another the crests and troughs of
point in the cycle, the air molecules are at low pressure, spread apart or rarefied. transverse waves used to
If we represent a simple longitudinal sound wave mathematically by using a represent them.
sine wave, we assign the maximum positive value of the sine wave to the point of
maximum pressure—the compression point in the cycle—and the maximum
negative value of the sine wave to the point of minimum pressure—the
rarefaction. The wavelength is the distance between two compressions (or two
rarefactions).
Another way to represent the sound wave as a sine wave is to consider the
displacement of the air particles from their equilibrium positions. The
wavelength, frequency and period are still the same, but at positions of
maximum compression or maximum rarefaction, the air particle displacement
from equilibrium is zero. Conversely, positions of maximum or minimum
displacement correspond to zero compression/rarefaction. In other words, the
graph of displacement is 90° of phase behind the graph of pressure (Figure 7.1.3).

displacement
pressure

Figure 7.1.3 Red closed circles show particles displaced in a longitudinal wave. Red open circles
show their equilibrium positions. Positions of zero displacement (marked by vertical
lines) correspond to maximum or minimum pressure and vice versa.

Therefore, we have two ways of representing a sound wave as a transverse

wave—plotting either pressure or particle displacement—and the two approaches
give different peak positions. However, whichever approach we use, we still
accurately represent the amplitude, wavelength and period of the longitudinal
sound wave in the transverse sine wave. Hence, each approach is valid.

SCREAM
S ound will not propagate in the
vacuum of space as there are
almost no particles present to
oscillate and transfer the energy—
as made famous by the catchline of
the 20th Century Fox film Alien,
which was made in 1979: ‘In space,
no-one can hear you scream.’ Figure 7.1.4 Something to scream about—
a model of the 6 m alien ‘Queen
Mother’ from the movie Aliens.

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A sound wave with a pure, single frequency, such as a wave produced by

a tuning fork, can be represented using a simple sine wave (Figure 7.1.5a).
However, most sound waves are made up of a mixture of sine waves of different
frequencies (called harmonics or overtones), and these waves superimpose to
produce a complex wave form. These complex waves are the norm as the sources
of most sounds are not ideal. An ideal source is usually symmetrical, has a simple
shape and mostly oscillates as a sine wave at a single frequency.
Most sound sources are not ideal as they produce a number of sound waves
of different frequencies at the same time. For example, when a person speaks or
sings, the folds of tissue that make up the larynx vibrate at many frequencies;
however, the surfaces and cavities of the throat, nose and mouth filter out some
frequencies, but not others, resulting in the rich mixture of frequencies. All of
these sound waves superimpose to give the human voice its distinctive sound
(Figure 7.1.5b).

a b

Figure 7.1.5 Wave forms produced by (a) a tuning fork and (b) a human voice humming. The
tuning fork can produce a pure, single frequency sound, whereas the human voice
produces a number of sound waves of different frequencies at the same time.

Sound waves travel through all media whose particles can be compressed.
PRACTICAL The speed of sound waves in different media depends on the density and
EXPERIENCES elasticity of the medium. Table 7.1.1 shows the speed of sound in some common
Activity 7.1 solids, liquids and gases.
Activity Manual, Page
68
Table 7.1.1 Speed of sound in some common substances

SUBSTANCE SPEED OF SOUND (m s –1)

Dry air at 0° 331
Dry air at 20° 344
Helium at 0° 965
Water vapour at 134° 494
Distilled water at 25° 1497
Sea water at 25° 1531
Stainless steel 5790 (longitudinal wave in bulk material)
Aluminium 6420 (longitudinal wave in bulk material)

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The difference in the speed of sound in different media is the basis of a

number of technologies. For example, the relationship between the temperature
of a medium and the speed of sound is used in oceanography to map the
temperature variations in bodies of water. Pulses of sound can be transmitted and
then detected at long distances. The detection time can be used to determine the
temperature of the intervening column of water. Temperature mapping of the
world’s oceans is an important tool in predicting the extent of global warming.

PHYSICS FEATURE
SOUND WAVE SPEED AND external ear structure. Humans have developed a
shell-like structure of cartilage and skin to collect
EVOLUTION OF EAR STRUCTURES faint sound waves travelling through the air. An

S ound can propagate quickly and over great

distances through water. In comparison, air is a
much poorer conductor of sound waves. This physical
eardrum is also required in humans to amplify the
sound waves. Dolphins have no eardrum and no
external ears. Sound waves are detected directly
property—sound wave speed in water and air—is through the fatty tissue of the lower jaw.
evident in the evolution of the ear structures of
dolphins and humans. Water-based mammals, like
dolphins, have highly developed auditory systems,
and the auditory nerve that conducts impulses from
the ear to the brain has twice as many nerve endings
as the auditory nerve of humans. Sound perception is
an important survival tool in a marine environment,
where sound conduction is high but light levels and
visibility are low.
Land mammals, including humans, have had to
evolve sound detection systems that maximise sound
detection in air. As sound travels more slowly and is
dissipated more readily in air, human ears have a
number of additional features. The most obvious
difference between a human and dolphin ear is the Figure 7.1.6 Dolphins have no external ear structure.

CHECKPOINT 7.1
1 A sine wave can be used to mathematically represent a sound wave. There are two possible ways to do this: by
considering either (a) pressure changes over time or (b) particle displacement over time. Choose one option and
describe how the compressions and rarefactions of the medium are represented in the sine wave. Include a
diagram in your answer.
2 What factors affect the speed of a sound wave through a medium?

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7.2 Pitch and volume

The solids, liquids and gases that surround us can easily conduct the mechanical
Explain qualitatively
that pitch is related to
vibrations of sound waves for our ears to detect, but how do we make sense of
frequency and volume to these sound waves? People, including tiny babies, can recognise the voice of a
amplitude of sound waves. familiar person in a crowd. We have seen that most sounds have a complex
waveform and that different sounds look different when displayed on an
oscilloscope. This means that each sound has a distinctive pitch, volume and
timbre—properties that allow us to distinguish differences in sounds. This
section explains pitch, volume and timbre in terms of the wave concepts
introduced in Chapters 5 and 6.
A source of sound—such as vocal chords, a guitar string, a speaker
diaphragm, a ringing bell or a car motor—produces vibrations that have a
frequency and an amplitude. You should recall that frequency is the number
of oscillation cycles completed by the source per second, and amplitude is
the maximum pressure change imparted to the particles in the medium by the
source (Figure 7.2.1).

cathode ray oscilloscope (or computer)

256 Hz
signal
generator

256 Hz
signal
generator

a b

Figure 7.2.1 Two audio signal generators are connected to an oscilloscope and both channels
are displayed on the screen. (a) The signal generators produce waves of the same
frequency but different amplitudes. (b) The signal generators produce waves of the
same amplitude but different frequency.

Pitch
A healthy human ear is capable of detecting sound waves within a frequency
range of roughly 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Sound waves of different frequencies
stimulate different nerve endings in the snail-like cochlea in the inner ear, and
these nerve impulses are conducted to the brain where they are interpreted as
sounds of varying pitch. The brain recognises low-frequency sound waves
as low-pitch sounds and high-frequency sound waves as high-pitch sounds. In
sounds that are a mixture of frequencies, the pitch is determined by the lowest
(audible) frequency in the mixture.

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The human ear is extremely sensitive to pitch and can distinguish between
sound waves varying in frequency by as little as 1 Hz. Pitch sensitivity, particularly
in the 10–20 kHz range, declines as people age or if the ear is damaged. For
example, mobile phone ring tones that claim to be inaudible to parents and
teachers are typically sound waves of 15 to 17 kHz; most adults (but not all)
are unable to detect these high-pitch sounds as nerve endings in their ears have
degraded. Some shopping malls in the United States attempted to prevent
‘loitering youth’ by playing these same high-frequency sounds annoyingly loudly
in areas where young people liked to congregate.
A physical phenomenon related to frequency is resonance. If you were to
take a stiff plastic ruler and hold one end firmly against a tabletop while you flick
the other end with your fingers, the ruler would start to vibrate (Figure 7.2.2).
The ruler will vibrate at its natural frequency. The physical parameters—such as
size, shape and materials—of any object determine its natural frequency. If you
reduce the length of ruler overhanging the table edge, you can hear the natural
frequency increase. This natural frequency of an object is called the Figure 7.2.2 A ruler vibrates at its natural or
resonant frequency. It is easy to get an object to vibrate at its resonant frequency resonant frequency when the
and hard to get it to vibrate at other frequencies. overhanging end is flicked.

PHYSICS FEATURE
PERFECT PITCH pitch without any assistance or prompt. These people
(approximately 1 in 2000) have the ability to identify

I f most people are played a note on the piano, they

would be able to tell if a subsequent note was
higher or lower in pitch (frequency). Discerning the
the pitch of a musical tone without the aid of an
external pitch reference. This absolute pitch perception
ability is known as perfect pitch. The majority of
pitch of a sound given a reference point is called
people with perfect pitch have had formal musical
relative pitch perception, and all people with
training from a young age, but it is unclear if perfect
reasonable hearing can do this. Some people,
pitch is a learnt skill, a genetic trait or a combination
however, can tell you the pitch from hearing only a
of both.
single note played, or they can sing a note of a stated

Volume
The volume or loudness of a sound is related to the energy of the sound wave.
A soft or low-volume sound wave carries less energy than a loud or high-volume
sound wave. If you recall, in Section 6.1 we related the energy of waves to
the amplitude:
Ewave amplitude2
The volume of a sound depends on the sound wave’s amplitude.
A sound wave with given amplitude will create a pressure difference in the
particles of the medium. When detected by the ear, this pressure causes the
eardrum to bow in and out, transmitting the pressure waves through three
small bones to fluid in the cochlea in the inner ear. Pressure waves cause nerves
to produce pulses; the greater the pressure, the more pulses produced. The
number of pulses reaching the brain is interpreted as loudness.

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Timbre
If two people were to hum, each making a sound of the same pitch and volume,
it would still be possible to distinguish between the two sounds. This is due to
the quality or timbre (a French word pronounced tamber) of the sounds
produced by each person. As described previously, the sound produced by a
person humming is not a simple sine wave but a complex waveform that results
from superimposing many simple waves. Timbre refers to the sensation
you get by detecting the different frequencies of the component waves in the
sound. Each person produces a slightly different combination of sound waves of
varying frequency, which gives each voice its distinguishing characteristics.
Timbre is the property that allows a baby to recognise its mother’s voice, you to
recognise a friend’s voice on the phone or a musician to choose between two
different violins.

a tuning fork b clarinet c cornet

Figure 7.2.3 The waveform of a sound can be displayed using an oscilloscope. These three
waveforms produced by (a) a tuning fork, (b) a clarinet and (c) a cornet all have the
same frequency and amplitude. All three sounds look and would sound different. This
is because of timbre.

CHECKPOINT 7.2
1 Define the terms pitch, volume and timbre as they apply to
sound waves.
2 Compare the pitch and volume of the two sound waves shown in
Figure 7.2.4.

Figure 7.2.4

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7.3 Reflection of sound waves

Echo Explain an echo as a reflection
If you stand at a mountain lookout on a still day and call out in a loud voice, of a sound wave.
you will hear your voice repeated back to you. This is an echo. The echo
phenomenon is caused by the sound waves you generate being reflected back
towards you by the rock surfaces of the mountains. There will be a delay before
you hear the echo as the sound waves have to travel to and from the reflective
surface. Any large reflective space, such as a hall or empty room, is capable of
producing an echo as long as the delay between the original and reflected sounds
is at least 50 ms because the human brain tends to treat sounds closer together
than 50 ms as a single sound.
An echo is heard most clearly when the majority of the sound wave energy is
reflected at the boundary, rather than being absorbed or transmitted by the new
medium. The reflected sound wave will superimpose with the original wave,
causing a blending of sounds. To perceive a clear echo, a series of short sharp
sounds are better than a long continuous one because short sound pulses are less
likely to interfere with the reflected sound wave.

Figure 7.3.1 On still mornings you can make an impressive echo at Echo Point at Katoomba, NSW.
Sound waves are reflected from the rock formation known as the Three Sisters.

Reverberation
In a room with smooth, hard walls, echoes can travel back and forth many times.
If a large number of echoes reach the human ear in a short period of time, we
are unable to distinguish between them and the sound seems to smear out,
lasting a long time. This effect is called reverberation. Some quiet reverberation
is important for both musicians and audiences. It gives a performance venue a
feeling of spaciousness, helps the quieter instruments like strings and woodwind
to be heard, and allows the sounds from a range of instruments and voices to
blend in a pleasing way.

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Concert halls and venues have characteristic reverberation times—the time

needed for a sound wave intensity to decrease to 0.001 of its original amplitude.
Venues designed for acoustic music and singing typically have reverberation
times between 1 and 2 s. For example, the Sydney Opera House Opera Theatre
has a reverberation time of 1.4 s. A hall designed for public speaking has a
shorter reverberation time (typically 0.7 to 1 s) so that the words heard by the
audience are clear and distinct. In a room with longer reverberation time, speech
can sound muffled or blurred and be therefore difficult to understand; in these
situations, amplification of the speaker’s voice is usually required. A room with
no reverberation feels dead and a room with loud reverberation feels noisy.
The reverberation characteristics of a room can be changed by using sound-
absorbing materials on the room surfaces, such as curtains, carpets and egg carton-
like wall lining. The size and shape of a room also contributes to reverberation.

Worked example
QUESTION
Suppose you were to stand at one end of an empty room and make a loud noise. If we take
the speed of sound in air to be 340 m s–1, what is the shortest possible length of the room
for you to be able to hear an echo?
SOLUTION
The time difference between the reflected sound and the original noise would have to be at
least 50 ms. The sound pulse will travel from one end of the room to the other and back
(twice the room length) in 50 ms.
distance
Speed =
time
Rearrange: Distance = speed × time
= 340 m s–1 × 50 × 10–3 s
= 17 m
distance
Find the room length: Room length = = 8.5 m (to 2 significant figures)
2

Echolocation
Echolocation is a technique that uses echoes (or reflected sound waves) to determine
the distance to an object. Bats are animals that have evolved a sense of hearing so
sophisticated that they can easily navigate and capture small flying insects in the
dark. A flying bat emits short high-frequency sound pulses up to 200 times per
second. These sound pulses bounce off insects, cave walls and other objects and are
detected by extremely sensitive acoustic receptors inside the bat’s ears.
Humans have used electronic transducers and computers to mimic the bat’s
technique with technologies such as SONAR (SOund Navigation And Ranging)
and medical ultrasound. SONAR is primarily used to navigate and locate
ocean-going vessels; it is also used to locate fish and survey features on the ocean
floor (Figure 7.3.2). Depending on the application, SONAR can use infrasonic
(lower than 20 Hz) or ultrasonic (higher than 20 kHz) frequencies of sound.
Medical ultrasound is a non-invasive diagnostic technique used to view the
internal structures of the body. High-frequency sound pulses are emitted into the
body where they reflect from boundaries between different media, such as
muscle, bone and water.

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Figure 7.3.2 SONAR image of three underwater volcanoes known as the Three Wise Men. The
colours correspond to depth: from blue (deepest) through green, yellow and red to
white (shallowest).

Worked example
QUESTION
A SONAR-based fish finder detects a school of fish 2.81 m below the fishing boat. If the fish
finder detects an echo time difference of 3.85 ms, what is the speed of sound in the water
below the boat?
SOLUTION
The sound pulse travels from the boat to the fish and back. The sound pulse travels
(2.81 × 2) m in 3.85 ms.
distance
Speed =
time
(2.81 × 2) m
= = 1459.7 m s–1
3.85 × 10−3 s
The speed of sound in the water beneath the boat is 1460 m s–1 (to 3 significant figures).

CHECKPOINT 7.3
1 What is the difference between an echo and a reverberation?
2 Describe a technology that utilises the physics of sound reflection.

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7.4 Superposition of sound waves

Describe the principle of
superposition and compare the
resulting waves to the original
waves in sound.
Sound waves superimpose (or interfere) in the same way as any other wave.
The resultant wave depends on the frequency, amplitude and phase of the
component waves. Under the right conditions, it is possible for sound
waves to constructively and destructively interfere, as described in Section 6.4.
Let us consider an example as illustrated by Figure 7.4.1.

L1 Constructive and destructive interference

S1 P Suppose we have two identical and ideal sound sources (S1 and S2) that are
L2
S2
Figure 7.4.1 Two identical sound waves are
emitted from sources S1 and
S2, as shown by the rays. The
waves travel distances L1 and
L2 to point P.
emitting sounds of the same frequency and the same phase. If we wish to
determine the superimposed waveform at point P some distance from the
sources, we could draw two rays: one from each source to point P. If the sound
waves travelled along these paths, they would travel a distance of L1 and L2 from
sources S1 and S2 respectively. If the distances L1 and L2 are the same, the two
waves arrive at point P with the same phase and constructively interfere.
At points of constructive interference, the amplitude of the sound wave would
double and the volume would increase. If the distances L1 and L2 are different,
however, the waves may not be in phase at point P. The difference between
L1 and L2 (ΔL) is called the path length difference. If the path length difference
is equal to 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, 4λ or any integer multiple of the wavelength, the two
waves will be in phase and constructively interfere. Destructive interference will
occur when the two waves are 180° out of phase or half a wavelength out of step.
λ 3λ 5λ
This corresponds to ΔL = , , and so on. At these points, the
2 2 2
amplitude and volume of the sound would be zero.

TRY THIS!
HEARING INTERFERENCE soft

Use a signal generator to produce loud

a sound of a single frequency soft

and connect to two speakers at loud
least 1 or 2 m apart. Walk slowly
soft
along a straight line in front of
the two speakers. You should be loud

able to clearly detect the regions soft

of constructive and destructive
interference by listening for the
change in volume.
Figure 7.4.2 As you walk, you should hear alternating loud and soft sound coming from the
speakers. The wave fronts from each speaker are shown in two different colours,
orange and blue. Constructive interference occurs where the wave fronts overlap;
you will hear a louder sound at this point.

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Standing waves
In special circumstances, sound waves will superimpose (or combine) to t=0s
produce a steady-state distribution of energy known as a standing wave or
stationary wave. Unlike other waves, standing waves don’t travel; instead, a
pattern forms with regions of zero oscillation (nodes) and maximum oscillation
t=1s
(anti-nodes) both fixed in space.
Standing waves occur in the throat and head when we speak or sing, and are
produced by every type of musical instrument from drums and guitars to pianos
and tubas. Standing waves are also produced when a sound wave interferes with t=3s
its own reflection. In this case, we have two waves with the same amplitude and
frequency travelling in opposite directions. Figure 7.4.3 shows the two waves and
the resultant superimposed wave at different points in time.
As they combine, a fixed pattern of nodes and anti-nodes is established. t=4s

At a node the resultant displacement is zero; at an anti-node, the displacement

oscillates between a maximum positive value and a maximum negative value.
The distance between two nodes is half a wavelength (Figure 7.4.4).
t=5s
Standing waves are established between boundaries; these boundaries can
be fixed or free, as described in Section 6.4.

t=6s
t=0s anti-node anti-node anti-node

node node
t = 1.5 s t=7s
node node
b
t=3s Figure 7.4.3 This diagram shows two
identical waves travelling in
anti-node anti-node anti-node opposite directions (coloured
t = 4.5 s green and red). The green wave
appears slightly smaller so
node node
that it is clearly visible on the
node node
diagram. These two waves
t=6s
superimpose to produce the
c stationary wave shown in blue.
a At t = 0 s, the stationary wave
is at maximum displacement;
Figure 7.4.4 This illustrates the standing wave only, not the component waves that superimpose at t = 4 s, the stationary wave
(which is shown in Figure 7.4.3). (a) A standing wave between two fixed ends is has zero displacement.
illustrated at five different points in time. (b) All of the five illustrations from (a) on
one diagram. The nodes and anti-nodes are labelled. You can see that the distance
between two nodes is half a wavelength. (c) A common and widely used physics
representation of the standing wave from (a).

Let us consider an example of a standing wave produced between two fixed

boundaries, such as a clamped string on a guitar. If the string was oscillated at
natural or resonant frequencies, a standing wave with nodes and large anti-nodes
would be produced. If the string was forced to oscillate at another non-resonant
frequency, no standing wave would be produced and only tiny vibrations of the
string would be observed. The resonant frequencies of a string depend on the
distance between the clamped ends. There are many possible patterns of nodes
and anti-nodes for a guitar string. A node must exist at each clamped end as

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these are fixed boundaries and cannot oscillate. Along the length of the string
there could be any number of nodes and anti-nodes. The first three possible
patterns are shown in Figure 7.4.5.

n=1

λ
L=
2

n=2

L=λ

n=3

3λ
L=
2

Figure 7.4.5 The first three simplest patterns of standing waves possible in a guitar string. The
ends of the string are fixed and will always be nodes.

For the first pattern where one anti-node is present, if the length of the string
λ
is L metres, then = L as the distance between two nodes is half a wavelength.
2
This gives us λ = 2L. For the second pattern, two anti-nodes are present and a
complete wavelength occurs between the two fixed ends, so λ = L. In the final
pattern, one and a half wavelengths occur between the two fixed ends, so
3 2
λ = L or λ = L. If we continue this pattern, we would set up standing
2 3
waves on a string of length L metres by waves with wavelengths given by:
2L
λ= , for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…
n
Using the wave speed equation v = f λ, we can determine the resonant
frequencies that correspond to these wavelengths:
v v
f = = n , for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 …
λ 2L
The lowest resonant frequency that corresponds to the first pattern with one
anti-node is called the fundamental frequency or first harmonic. The second
harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2, the third harmonic is n = 3 and so
on. The collection of all possible oscillation modes is called the harmonic series.
An oscillating system with two fixed ends can therefore be used to describe
guitars, violins, violas, cellos, double basses, pianos and drums (Figure 7.4.6).

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Figure 7.4.6 Standing wave pattern (third harmonic) produced on a string made to oscillate by a
vibrator at the right end. The left end is fixed using a weight.

Other oscillation systems with different boundary conditions are possible.

For example, pipes are oscillating systems with either two open ends or one open
end. (As discussed in Section 7.1, we can consider either displacement or
pressure when discussing sound waves in air. For sound waves, an anti-node of
displacement is a node of pressure and vice versa. For this discussion, it is
simplest if we only consider displacement.)
The open end of a pipe corresponds to a free boundary because particles are
mostly free to displace at an open end, so an anti-node of displacement must be
present at an open end. However, if one end of a pipe is closed, particles nearest
the closed end are not free to displace through the boundary, so a closed end is a
fixed boundary and must correspond with a node of displacement.
Musical instruments based on pipes or columns of air include trumpets,
tubas, clarinets, oboes, saxophones, didgeridoos and organs. The first three
harmonics for pipes are shown in Figure 7.4.7.

a Pipe with both ends open b Pipe with one end (the left) closed

L L

L λ = 4L
n=1 λ=
2

4L
n=2 λ=L λ=
3

2L 4L
n=3 λ= λ=
3 5

Figure 7.4.7 Standing wave patterns produced by pipes. (a) The first three harmonics of an
open-ended pipe: the open ends correspond to free boundaries, so they will be
displacement anti-nodes. (b) The first three harmonics of a closed pipe. The left
end is a fixed boundary and a node.

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The resonant frequencies for a pipe with two open ends can be calculated
using this equation:
v v
f = =n for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 …
λ 2L
The resonant frequencies for a pipe with one open end can be calculated
using this equation:
v v
f = =n for n = 1, 3, 5, 7 …
λ 4L

Present graphical information, Worked example

solve problems and analyse
information involving
QUESTION
superposition of sound waves. The water level in a large measuring cylinder 50 cm long can be adjusted to any level in the
cylinder. A tuning fork vibrating at 480 Hz is held just over the open end of the measuring
cylinder to set up a standing soundwave in the air-filled portion of the cylinder. Assuming
the speed of sound in air is 348 m s–1, at what positions of the water level is there resonance?
STANDING IN THE SOLUTION
MICROWAVE? The air-filled portion of the measuring cylinder acts as an open pipe. The water is the fixed
boundary and the other boundary is free.
W hen operating, a microwave
oven is full of standing
electromagnetic waves. Therefore
v
Resonant frequencies are given by the equation: f = n for n = 1, 3, 5, 7 …
4L
there are nodes (low intensity) v
Rearrange the equation for L the length of the air cylinder: L = n for n = 1, 3, 5, 7…
and anti-nodes (high intensity), 4f
which means there will be hot
Take n = 1.
and cold spots respectively. To
348
prevent uneven cooking, the L =1× = 0.18 m of air, which corresponds to a water level of (0.5 – 0.18) m = 32 cm.
4 × 480
turntable inside rotates the food
to smooth out any variation. Take n = 3.
348
L =3× = 0.54 m of air, which is larger than the space available in a 50 cm
4 × 480
PRACTICAL measuring cylinder.
EXPERIENCES Resonance will occur at a water level of 32 cm.
Activity 7.2
Activity Manual, Page
74

CHECKPOINT 7.4
1 Complete the following table to show the relationship between phase and path length difference.

PHASE DIFFERENCE (DEGREES) PHASE DIFFERENCE (RADIANS) PATH LENGTH DIFFERENCE (METRES)
0
λ
4
π
270
2π

2 Describe the displacement of particles in a medium relative to the equilibrium at a node and an anti-node.

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CHAPTER 7
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

ACTIVITY 7.1: OBSERVING AND ANALYSING SOUND WAVES Perform a first-hand

Use an audio microphone connected to an oscilloscope to observe and analyse the investigation and gather
information to analyse sound
waveforms produced by various sources of sound waves, including the human
waves from a variety of sources
voice, tuning forks and musical instruments.
using the cathode ray
Equipment list: oscilloscope, audio microphone, signal generator, tuning oscilloscope (CRO) or an
forks, musical instruments, human voice, graph paper. alternative computer
technology.
cathode ray oscilloscope (or computer)

Figure 7.5.1 An audio microphone is connected to an oscilloscope.

Discussion questions
1 Compare the waveforms produced by two people making the sound
‘eeeeeeeeeeee’.
2 Compare the waveforms produced by one person making the sounds
‘aaaaaaah’, ‘eeeeeee’ and all the other vowels.
3 Explain why the tuning forks produce sine waves while other sources
produce more complex waveforms.

ACTIVITY 7.2: MEASURING THE SPEED OF SOUND Plan, choose equipment for
Use the equipment listed and the theory of and perform a first-hand
investigation to gather
standing waves to design an experiment to
information to identify the
calculate the speed of sound in air.
relationship between the
Equipment list: large measuring cylinder or frequency and wavelength of a
glass tube with rubber stopper, tuning forks, sound wave travelling at a
ruler, water. constant velocity.

Discussion questions
1 Explain how temperature and humidity
affect the speed of sound in air.
2 How could you improve the accuracy
and validity of your results in Figure 7.5.2 Experimental equipment
this experiment? used to measure the
speed of sound

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Chapter summary
• Sound is a mechanical wave caused by a vibrating source. • A soft or low-volume sound corresponds to a small
• Sound waves require a medium to propagate. amplitude; a loud or high-volume sound corresponds
• Sound waves are longitudinal waves. to a large amplitude.
• A sine wave can be used to represent a sound wave • The timbre of a sound wave is determined by the
mathematically. The maximum and minimum points of combination of frequencies that make up a
the sine wave can correspond to either maximum and complex waveform.
minimum pressure of the air particles, or maximum • An echo is a repetition of a sound caused by the
and minimum displacement of the air particles from reflection of the original sound wave.
an equilibrium position. • Two sound waves (initially in phase) will constructively
• Sound waves of a single frequency are produced by interfere if the path length difference is any integer
ideal (symmetrical) sources and can be mathematically multiple of the wavelength (ΔL = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, 4λ).
represented by a sine wave. • Two sound waves (initially in phase) will destructively
• Most sound waves are made up of a number of sine interfere if the path length difference is:
waves of different frequencies. These waves λ 3λ 5λ
ΔL= , ,
superimpose to produce a complex waveform. 2 2 2
• The speed of sound through a medium depends on • In special circumstances, sound waves will superimpose
the medium’s density and elasticity. to produce standing waves.
• Different sound waves have different pitch, volume • Standing waves consist of nodes and anti-nodes. The
and timbre. net displacement at a node is zero; the displacement
• Low-pitch sounds have a low frequency; high-pitch at an anti-node oscillates between minimum and
sounds have a high frequency. maximum displacement.
• The volume of a sound wave is related to the energy • The distance between two nodes is half a wavelength.
of the sound wave. • Standing waves are only produced at certain frequencies
• Ewave amplitude2 called resonant frequencies.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
1 Rate your knowledge on the key concepts in this chapter by completing the table below. Tick the box that most accurately
describes your present knowledge—be honest.

CONCEPT GOOD UNDERSTANDING PARTIAL UNDERSTANDING NONE

(very confident, could give a definition (have heard of this concept, could (never heard of this before or am
and examples for this concept) give an example or partial definition) very confused by this concept)
Longitudinal waves
Speed of sound
Pitch
Volume
Echo
Superposition of soundwaves

2 Share your knowledge rating with another student, pool your knowledge and complete a brainstorm summary chart on
blank paper, like the one shown below. Where you have any gaps in your knowledge, reread the textbook or ask your teacher.
Fill in any gaps in the table using a different coloured pen. This will assist you when revising for tests or assessments.

CONCEPT DEFINITION EXAMPLES DIAGRAMS/EQUATIONS

Longitudinal waves • Vibrates same direction as wave • Sound wave
travels • Slinky wave
• Compression compression
• Rarefaction

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REVIEWING
1 An astronaut soldering electronics to the outside of the International Space
Station would be able to see an exploding gas cylinder but would not hear
the explosion. Explain why this is the case.
2 A tourist standing at Echo Point, Katoomba, can see the rocky outcrop
called the Three Sisters approximately 500 m away. If the tourist was to
call out ‘Hello’ in a loud voice, they would hear their greeting repeated
back to them 2.9 s later.
a Explain why the tourist would hear a repeated ‘Hello’.
b Calculate the speed of sound at Echo Point for this example.
3 The human brain can only detect an echo if the delay between the original
and reflected sound is greater than 50 ms. A scuba diver is helping to
assemble an offshore oil rig. What is the minimum distance between the
diver and the supply ship for the diver to hear an echo from the supply
ship hull? Assume the speed of sound in the sea water is 1500 m s–1.
4 An ultrasonic sound wave measures the distance to a bone from the skin
surface to be 1.6 cm. The speed of sound through muscle and fat is
approximately 1480 m s–1. Calculate the time delay detected by the
ultrasound receiver that corresponds to this bone distance.
5 In some workplaces, loud and repetitive machinery noise can permanently
damage the hearing of employees. Special headphones are worn by the
employees that replay a copy of the machinery noise. The employees say
the headphones help cancel out the noise. Explain how this technology
works in terms of the superposition of sound waves.
6 Humans can hear sound waves in the range 20 Hz to 20 kHz, while bats
operate in the higher frequency range 1 kHz to 150 kHz. Compare the
wavelength of sound waves detected by humans and bats, assuming the
speed of sound is 344 m s–1.
7 An audio signal generator produces a trace on an oscilloscope, as shown in
Figure 7.5.3. The horizontal scale is set to 5 ms per division. Determine
the period and the frequency of the sound wave.
8 Spectators watching the New Year’s Eve fireworks on Sydney Harbour
notice a delay between seeing the colourful explosion and hearing it.
a Explain why this occurs.
b Compare the sound delay for two spectators watching the fireworks
on the Sydney Harbour Bridge. One spectator is standing 200 m
away at Milsons Point; the other is standing 1.2 km away at Figure 7.5.3 The horizontal scale of the
Mrs Macquarie’s Chair. oscilloscope is 5 ms per
division.
9 Two students attempt to measure the speed of sound using an athletics
starting pistol and a stopwatch. One student stands at one end of the
school oval and fires the starting pistol. The second student stands 500 m
away at the other end of the oval. She starts the stopwatch when she sees
the smoke from the pistol and stops the stopwatch when she hears the
loud cracking sound. She records the following six times: 1.40 s, 1.52 s,
1.48 s, 1.37 s, 1.45 s and 1.54 s.
a Record the data in an appropriate table.
b Calculate the average time from the data.
c Calculate the speed of sound for this experiment.
d What is the benefit of recording six times in this experiment?
e Identify two possible sources of error in this experiment.

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10 The speed of sound in helium gas at 0°C is 965 m s–1 compared with
330 m s–1 for air under the same conditions. If you inhale a little helium
and speak while exhaling, your voice will sound squeaky. Can you account
for the difference in the sound of your voice?
Note: Inhaling helium displaces the oxygen in your respiratory system
and can be extremely dangerous. Possible side effects include lung tissue
damage, blackouts and stroke from helium bubbles in the bloodstream.

SOLVING PROBLEMS
11 The speed of sound at sea level when the air is dry and the temperature is
0°C is 330 m s–1. For the usual range of temperatures encountered at sea
level, the speed of sound increases by 0.60 m s–1 for each increase of 1.0°C.
a Describe what happens to the speed of sound at the beach as the Sun
rises and warms the atmosphere.
b At what temperature will the speed of sound equal 320 m s–1?
12 A thin wire is stretched between two pegs 40 cm apart. The wire is bowed
Present graphical information,
and set into oscillation.
solve problems and analyse
a Sketch the patterns produced by the fundamental and the second
information involving
harmonic. Label your diagrams showing lengths, nodes and anti-nodes.
superposition of sound waves.
b Calculate the wavelengths of the fundamental and second harmonic.
13 Sara fills a test tube with 4 cm of water, leaving two-thirds of the tube
empty. She gently blows over the end of the test tube, producing a low-
pitch sound. She repeats the process, this time adding water until the tube
is three-quarters full and producing a high-pitch sound.
a Sketch the patterns produced by the fundamental frequency for both
sounds. Label your diagrams showing lengths, nodes and anti-nodes.
b Calculate the wavelength of the fundamental in both cases.
14 A B string on a guitar is held fixed at both ends under tension with a vibrating
length of 33 cm. Once plucked, it oscillates at a fundamental frequency of
246 Hz. What are the wavelengths on the string and in the air at 20°C?
15 An organ pipe that ordinarily sounds with a fundamental frequency of
800 Hz at 0°C is connected to a source of helium at that temperature.
What is the fundamental frequency of the helium-filled organ pipe?

EXTENSION
16 Imagine a hypothetical piano with all strings made of the same material
and under the same tension and hence the same sound velocity within all
strings. The piano has a frequency range of 27.7 Hz to 4186 Hz
(7 octaves); the highest note is produced by a string 15 cm long.
a What string length is required to produce the lowest note?
b Why is this poor design for a piano?

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CONCERT SOUND
Figure 7.5.4 The sweet sound of Kylie in concert
What was the last concert that you went to? You will
remember hearing the singer’s voice and the music, but
did you give any thought to how the sound travelled?
Probably not as you were enjoying yourself too much!
Apply your knowledge of waves from this chapter to
answer the following questions about sound at a concert.
1 Outline an example of a one-, two- and three-
dimensional wave that you could experience at
a concert.
2 Define the term medium and give an example
relating to waves at a concert.
3 Describe the properties of sound waves and how
they travel. In your answer, use a diagram to
demonstrate the structure of a sound wave,
including the wavelength, period and amplitude.
4 You may remember hearing various sounds—high
pitch and low pitch, loud and soft—at a concert.
Explain how pitch and loudness are related to the
structure of a sound wave.
5 Many concerts are broadcast via satellite to other
parts of the world. Identify the types of waves used
to transfer the music or information via satellite.
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4. Describe applications of physics which
affect society or the environment
6 Compare the sound waves that carry the music
from the speakers to your ears with those used to
transfer the same music via satellite.
7 As sound waves travel from the speakers in a
concert hall, sometimes you may hear the sound a
second time after it has initially reached your ears.
Explain this phenomenon and how it may occur.
8 Describe the features of a concert hall that are
designed to maintain high-quality sound and to
stop the phenomenon you described in Question 7
from becoming a problem.
9 A typical band includes drums, which are used to
provide the rhythm or beat for the music. A drum
consists of a hollow cylinder with a tight skin
covering one end. A large kick (or base) drum
produces a lower frequency sound than the small
snare drum. Discuss the relevance of shape and
size of the drum to the sound it produces.
EXTENSION
10 The use of low-frequency SONAR in the world’s
oceans for oil exploration and defence purposes
has been blamed for the change of behaviour in
migrating whales hundreds of kilometers away.
A spokesman from the Whale and Dolphin
Conservation Society said: ‘Flight, avoidance or
other changes in behaviour have been observed
in cetaceans (whales or dolphins) from tens to
hundreds of kilometres from the noise sources.
It has even been suggested that the abilities of
the great whales to communicate with each other
across entire ocean basins has now been reduced
by orders of magnitude.’ Evaluate this statement.
11 In the 1950 Superman movie Atom Man vs.
Superman, Superman is told to stop trying to
save Lois; otherwise Lex Luthor would continue
causing earthquakes with his sonic beam. Is this
a plausible plot?
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8 applications
field, refractive index,
electromagnetic spectrum,
atmosphere, focus, focal point, focal
length, diverge, image, critical angle,
total internal reflection, optical fibre,
analogue, audio wave, amplify, digital,
carrier wave, modulation, amplitude
modulation, frequency modulation,
bandwidth, video wave, ionosphere,
geosynchronous satellite, digital
technology, binary code
Describe EM waves in terms of
their speed in space and their
lack of requirement of a
medium for propagation.
Figure 8.1.1 An invisible magnetic field
surrounds the bar magnet and
the iron fillings experience an
attractive force.
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Communication
of EM waves
Wave me hello
Want to listen to a live concert broadcast from London? How are the
stock prices on Wall Street? Who is winning the FIFA World Cup
qualifier game in Rio de Janeiro? What is the weather like in
Bangkok? For most Australians with a computer and Internet access,
all of this is possible in minutes from the comfort of home and it is
hard to imagine an Australia that was once isolated from information.
This isolation was ended by a communications technology
revolution that used electromagnetic (EM) waves. This chapter
describes the interesting properties of EM waves and how they have
been used as the basis of modern communication
technologies.
8.1 Properties of EM waves
Electric and magnetic forces are said to act at a distance because charged
and magnetised particles produce regions of influence (or fields) in the space
surrounding them. For example, iron filings placed near, but not touching, a
permanent bar magnet will experience an attractive force (Figure 8.1.1).
Similarly, charged Perspex and ebonite rods will repel and attract other charged
objects without touching them.
A stationary charged particle will produce a three-dimensional stationary
electric field in the space surrounding it, the field strength decreasing with
distance from the charged particle. If the charged particle vibrates or oscillates,
the corresponding electric field will also oscillate (Figure 8.1.2).
When a charged particle moves in space, it also exerts magnetic forces
and possesses a magnetic field. Therefore, an oscillating charged particle
produces an oscillating electric field and an oscillating magnetic field. These
oscillating fields propagate together through the space around the charged
particle at the speed of light. These two oscillating fields together are called
electromagnetic (EM) waves (Figure 8.1.3).
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a b

+ + direction of
motion
electric field

magnetic field

Electric field surrounding a Electric field produced by a positive

stationary positive charge charge oscillating up and down

Figure 8.1.2 Electric field lines produced by (a) a stationary positive charge and (b) an oscillating Figure 8.1.3 Perpendicular oscillating electric
positive charge. and magnetic fields produce
electromagnetic (EM) waves.

The oscillations of the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to

each other and both are at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.
Hence, EM waves are transverse waves.

Refractive index
Electric and magnetic fields can be established in most media and in a vacuum;
Explain that refraction is
once the fields are established the EM wave will propagate. EM wave speed is related to the velocities of a
greatest in a vacuum as there is no matter to absorb energy or distort the field wave in different media.
lines. The speed of EM waves in a vacuum (c) is 300 000 km s–1 (3 × 108 m s–1). The
wave speed changes when it travels through different types of matter as the
electric and magnetic behaviour varies according to the physical properties of the
matter (see Table 8.1.1). The ratio of the speed of an EM wave in a
vacuum (c) to that in matter (v) is known as the refractive index (n):
c
n=
v

Table 8.1.1 Speed of light in some gases, liquids and solids

SUBSTANCE REFRACTIVE INDEX (n ) EM WAVE SPEED (m s–1)

Vacuum 1 2.9979 × 108
Gases at 0°C and 1 atm
Air 1.000293 2.9970 × 108
Carbon dioxide 1.000450 2.9965 × 108
Liquids at 20°C
Water 1.333 2.2490 × 108
Benzene 1.501 1.9970 × 108
Solids at room temperature
Diamond 2.419 1.2390 × 108
Crown glass 1.52 1.9700 × 108

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Electromagnetic spectrum
All EM waves are essentially the same in structure: they propagate according to physical
laws that underpin electric and magnetic fields in a vacuum; they all travel at the same
speed (c = 3 × 108 m s–1); and they are transverse waves. However, an oscillating charge
that produces an EM wave can oscillate at different frequencies. This means EM waves
come in a broad range of frequencies and we identify these different frequency waves
by names like radio waves, microwaves, infra-red (IR), visible light, ultraviolet (UV),
X-rays and gamma rays. The many possible variations in frequency produce a
spectrum of EM waves called the electromagnetic spectrum.

Wavelength (m) Frequency (Hz) Energy (J)

Aircraft and 1 × 105 1 × 103 1 × 10–31

shipping
bands
1 × 103 1 × 105 1 × 10–29
AM radio

Short-wave 1 × 102 1 × 106 1 × 10–28

radio

TV and 1 × 101 1 × 107 1 × 10–27

FM radio

Microwaves 1 × 100 1 × 108 1 × 10–26

Radar 1 × 10–2 1 × 1010 1 × 10–24

Infra-red 1 × 10–4 1 × 1012 1 × 10–22

light

Visible 1 × 10–6 1 × 1014 1 × 10–20

Ultraviolet
light

X-rays 1 × 10–9 1 × 1017 1 × 10–17

1 × 10–10 1 × 1018 1 × 10–16

Gamma rays

1 × 10–13 1 × 1022 1 × 10–12

Figure 8.1.4 The spectrum of electromagnetic waves

From Figure 8.1.4, you will notice that high-frequency waves like X-rays have
very short wavelengths and that low-frequency waves like radio waves have very
long wavelengths. As previously described in Section 5.6, wave speed is dependent
on wavelength and frequency:

v=fλ

and all EM waves travel at the same speed. This means that wavelength and
frequency are inversely proportional for EM waves: as frequency increases,
wavelength decreases and vice versa. The energy of the EM waves increases
with frequency.

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Worked example Solve problems and analyse

QUESTION information by applying the
mathematical model of v = f λ
Calculate the wavelength of the Triple J FM radio wave (in Sydney) with frequency 105.7 MHz. to a range of situations.
SOLUTION
Frequency and wavelength are related according to the equation v = f λ.
v = c = 3 × 108 m s–1, f = 105.7 × 106 Hz
v
λ=
f
3 × 108 m s −1
=
105.7 × 106 Hz
= 2.8 m

The wavelength of the Triple J radio wave is about 3 m (to 1 significant figure).

EM waves occur naturally and permeate the space around us. Stars, huge
spheres of hot ionised gas, produce large amounts of EM waves that travel through
the vacuum of space. It takes approximately 8 minutes for the EM waves produced
by the Sun to reach the Earth’s surface; we are continually bombarded by EM
waves of an extremely wide range of frequencies from the Sun. Other natural EM
wave sources include radioactive atoms (such as uranium and caesium) in the
Earth’s crust producing gamma rays, charged particles (like electrons) generating
lower frequency EM waves, and hot bodies producing visible and IR waves.
In large amounts, the high-frequency high-energy EM waves from the Sun Identify EM wavebands filtered
can damage the genetic material of living things. Luckily for us, the Earth is out by the atmosphere,
surrounded by a roughly 100 km thick layer of gas molecules and ions called an especially UV, X-rays and
atmosphere. Radio waves and light easily penetrate the atmosphere and gamma rays.
make it to the surface; however, some IR and nearly all of the high-frequency
EM waves (UV, X-rays and gamma rays) are either absorbed or reflected by the
atmosphere and never reach the surface.
Information relating to the applications and detection methods of different
types of EM waves is provided in Table 8.1.2 on page 140.

HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE

A stronomers refer to the Earth’s atmosphere as
a ‘ceiling’ with an ‘optical window’ and ‘radio
window’. This means that light and radio waves from
space can be easily observed from the Earth’s surface
using telescopes but that UV, X-ray and gamma ray
sources are undetectable. Telescopes mounted on
satellites above the Earth’s atmosphere can collect
EM waves of both high and low frequency. The Hubble
Space Telescope is fitted with cameras sensitive to
IR, visible and UV radiation, and has produced images using a came ra on the
and information about the universe that would have Figure 8.1.5 Image of the Cone Nebula taken itive to IR, visible
Hubble Space Telescope, which is sens
been impossible to collect from Earth.
and UV radiation.

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Table 8.1.2 Applications and detection methods of different types of EM waves

EM WAVE APPLICATIONS DETECTION METHODS

Radio waves • Television • Antennas/aerials with radio
• FM Radio frequency detection circuit
• AM Radio
Microwaves • Mobile phones • Antennas/aerials with radio
• Wireless data transfer frequency detection circuit
• Microwave ovens • Materials that fluoresce
(glow) when exposed to
• Garage door openers
microwaves
• Aviation guidance systems
• Speed-checking radar
IR • Space heater • Thermoreceptor cells in
• Ovens animal skin
• TV remote control • Thermocouples
• Night vision goggles • Electronic photo-detectors

Light • Vision • Photoreceptor cells in eyes

• Photography • Electronic photo-detectors
• Plant photosynthesis • Light meters
• Lasers • Photographic film
• Lighting • Photomultipliers
UV • Security scanning of documents • Materials that fluoresce
• Solariums (glow) when exposed to UV
• UV curing of polymers • Electronic photo-detectors
• Sterilisation • Photomultipliers

X-rays • Medical diagnosis and treatment • X-ray film

• Security screening • Electronic detectors and
• Screening for metal corrosion and counters
structural weakness • Geiger counters
Gamma rays • Medical diagnosis and treatment • Geiger counters
• Security screening • Thermoluminescent
• Sterilisation detectors
• Screening for metal corrosion and • X-ray film
structural weakness

CHECKPOINT 8.1
1 Outline how EM waves propagate without a medium.
2 Describe the relationship between EM wave speed and the refractive index.
3 List four types of EM waves that reach the Earth’s surface in reduced amounts due to filtering by the atmosphere.

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8.2 EM wave reflection

The law of reflection (described in Section 6.6) applies equally to all EM waves.
The angle of an incidence ray equals the angle of a reflected ray:

θi = θr

We have also described how waves reflect from flat (or plane) surfaces; however,
many applications utilising EM waves have curved surfaces, such as satellite dishes
or the concave and convex mirror surfaces. Waves still obey the law of reflection on
encountering curved surfaces: each ray from the source strikes a point on the curved
surface and is reflected, such that θi = θr. The normal line from which the angles θi
and θr are measured is perpendicular to a tangent at this point (Figure 8.2.1).

incident ray incident ray

i i
normal normal
r r

reflected ray reflected ray

tangent tangent

a Concave mirror b Convex mirror

Figure 8.2.1 Reflection from curved surfaces: (a) concave mirror; (b) convex mirror

A reflective concave surface will tend to concentrate (or focus) the rays.
An ideal concave mirror has a parabolic surface because parabolas focus parallel
incident rays to a single point called the focal point. However, a spherical mirror
with shallow curvature is a good approximation to a parabola. The distance
between the focal point and the reflective surface is called the focal length. A
reflective convex surface will tend to spread (or diverge) the rays (Figure 8.2.2).

parallel incident rays parallel incident rays

focal length focal focal focal length

point point

a Convex mirror b Concave mirror

Figure 8.2.2 (a) A convex mirror diverges rays. (b) A concave mirror focuses rays.

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The most familiar example of EM wave reflection is a plane bathroom mirror.

Describe one application of
reflection for plane and
concave surfaces.
The reflection staring back at you is called an image (Figure 8.2.3). The image is
upright and the same size as the original object (you). It also appears to be the
same distance from the mirror surface as the object but on the other side of the
mirror (Figure 8.2.4).

Light rays reflected in all directions from The direction of the rays reflected from the
the hand. Some of the rays strike the mirror mirror surface appear to the people to have
and are reflected at an equal angle. come from behind the mirror.

Two people looking at themselves in a plane mirror. The image of the two people behind the mirror.

Figure 8.2.3 Reflection from a plane mirror

Figure 8.2.4 Ray diagram illustrating reflection from a plane mirror. The diagram shows only a few
representative light rays for simplicity.

A make-up or shaving (concave) mirror gives a magnified image. The nature of

the image produced by a concave mirror depends on the location of the mirror’s focal
point and the object. If you’re closer to the mirror than the focal length away, your
image is upright and magnified. Move further away from the mirror than the focal
length, your image is upside down (inverted). (See Figure 8.2.5.)

Figure 8.2.5 Reflection from a concave mirror. The boy’s reflection is inverted as he is outside the
mirror’s focal length.

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TRY THIS!
SPOON MIRROR
You can observe your changing image by looking at the concave surface of
a shiny metallic spoon. Hold the spoon at arm’s length and then slowly
bring it close to your face. First you will see a reduced upside-down image
of yourself, and then it will get bigger and bigger. When the spoon is nearly
touching your nose, you should see an upright enlarged image of your
nose—if you can still focus your eyes at this point! Flip the spoon over;
now you have a convex surface. Is the image different or the same?
Figure 8.2.6 Looking into the concave
surface of a spoon.

Concave mirrors have many applications. Car headlights and torches use
concave mirrors to reflect light from the bulb forwards in a more concentrated
beam. Radio telescopes have large parabolic dishes that collect faint radio signals
from distant stars, galaxies and black holes; the radio waves reflect from the dish
surface and focus onto a detector at the focal point (Figure 8.27). By scanning
the sky, radio telescopes can form a detailed radio image of the distant cosmic
object. Communications applications are described in detail in Section 8.4.

Figure 8.2.7 The Australia Telescope Compact Array comprises six parabolic dishes (five shown here),
each 22 m in diameter. This radio telescope is located near Narrabri in New South Wales.

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Describe one application of
reflection for convex surfaces.
A reflective convex surface will spread out or diverge incident rays. Convex
mirrors produce images that are upright and reduced in size. They provide a
wider field of view than a concave or plane mirror, so they are used extensively
for road safety to provide greater visibility at blind intersections (see Figure 8.2.8)
and as security mirrors in shops. Some side mirrors on cars are convex.

Figure 8.2.8 Roadside safety mirror on a coastal road. Mirrors like these enable car drivers to see
round sharp bends (blind bends) in a road.

CHECKPOINT 8.2
1 Reflective surfaces can be planar, concave and convex in shape. Describe an application for each shape.
2 Parallel rays strike plane, concave and convex mirrors. Compare the paths of the reflected rays, including a
diagram in your answer.

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8.3 EM wave refraction Incident medium

When an EM wave travels from one medium into another, some of the wave will
B
be reflected at the interface and the rest will propagate through the new medium.
The speed of the transmitted wave depends on the medium and changes v1Δt
from one medium to another. If the wave is obliquely incident (strikes at an i
A D
angle less than 90° to the normal) on a boundary interface, the wave bends.
r
This is known as refraction. v2 Δt
Figure 8.3.1 shows wave fronts refracting across the boundary between an
C
incident medium and a transmitting medium. You can see from the reduced
spacing of the wave fronts that the wave has slowed down as it enters the Transmitting medium
transmitting medium. We can use the equation distance = speed × time and
simple geometry to work out a mathematical law describing refraction. First, Figure 8.3.1 The refraction of waves across
a boundary
assume that the speed in the incident medium is v1 and that the speed in the
transmitting medium is v2. Next we know that the wave takes the same time (Δt)
to travel the distance BD in the incident medium and the distance AC in the
transmitting medium (note the equal number of wave fronts). Since ΔABD and
ΔACD are right-angle triangles, simple trigonometry gives:
BD AC
AD = and AD =
sinθi sinθr
This simplifies to:
BD AC
=
sinθi sin θr

BD = v1Δt and AC = v2Δt, using distance = speed × time, so substitute these

values to give: v1 v Define Snell’s law.
= 2
sin θi sin θr
Rearrange to give:
v1 sin θi REFRACTIVE
=
v 2 sin θr
LENSES
This equation is referred to as the law of refraction or Snell’s law, which was
named after Dutch astronomer and mathematician Willebrord van Roijen Snell
T he physical concept of
refraction has been employed
by humans to their advantage for
(1591–1626) who proposed it in 1621. Snell’s law is more commonly expressed thousands of years. Ancient Greeks
in terms of the refractive indices of the two media. In Section 8.1, the refractive and Romans made burning glasses
index (n) of a medium was defined as the ratio of the speed of an EM wave in a (convex lenses) to start fires, and
vacuum (c) to that in the medium (v): glass globes filled with water were
used to magnify objects. The lens
c
n= is a widely used optical device: it
v
reshapes a wave front using
We can rewrite Snell’s law in terms of the refractive index, where ni is the refraction for a specific purpose.
refractive index of the incident medium, θi is the angle of incidence, nr is the Point sources producing spherical
refractive index of the transmitting medium and θr is the angle of refraction: wave fronts can be converted into
beams of plane waves (such as
n sin θi = n sin θr overhead projectors), and parallel
rays can be made to converge and
form an image (such as cameras).

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Solve problems and analyse Worked example

information using Snell’s law.
QUESTION
A scuba diver shines a beam of light up towards the surface of the water. It strikes the
air–water surface at 35° to the normal. The refractive index of the sea water is 1.38.
At what angle will the beam of light emerge into the air?
SOLUTION
The angle of incidence θi is 35°, the refractive index of the sea water is 1.38 and the
refractive index of air is 1.00.
Snell’s law says:
ni sin θi = nr sin θr
Rearrange to make θr the subject of the equation:
−1 ni sin θi
θr = sin
nr

Substitute the values:

TRY THIS! θr = sin−1

1.38 × sin 35
= 52°
1
CREATING AN IMAGE The light beam emerges from the water at an angle of 52° to the normal.
Ask your teacher for a small
glass or Perspex biconvex lens. There are three possible outcomes for a refracted ray and they depend on the
Find a room in which you can relative refractive indices of the two mediums and the angle of incidence.
easily see a tree from the 1 ni < nr
window. Hold the lens up to
In this case the wave is entering a denser medium and slows down. The
refracted ray will bend towards the normal (Figure 8.3.2).
the window and place a piece
of white paper directly behind
normal
the lens to act as a screen. You
will need to slowly move the
ni
paper screen away from the
lens until you can see a sharp air

(not blurry) image of the tree water

on the piece of paper. The nr

image of the tree will be
smaller and upside down, it
will be the same colour as the
real tree and, if there is a
breeze, you will even see the
leaves of the tree’s image
moving. The distance from the
Figure 8.3.2 When ni < nr refracted ray bends towards the normal.
lens to the piece of paper when
the image is sharp is the focal
length of the lens. What do you
think will happen to the tree
image if you covered half of
the lens with opaque
cardboard? Try it and see.

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2 ni > nr
The wave enters a less dense medium and speeds up. The refracted ray will
bend away from the normal (Figure 8.3.3).

normal

ractiv
nr nte

e
I
air
water
ni M o d u le

Figure 8.3.3 When ni > nr refracted ray bends away from the normal.

3 ni > nr and θi = critical angle

Identify conditions necessary
If the size of θi is increased, θr will also increase according to Snell’s law for total internal reflection with
(ni sin θi = nr sin θr), as shown in Figure 8.3.4a and b. Eventually, the reference to the critical angle.
transmitted ray will be tangent to the boundary and θr will equal 90°.
The critical angle (θc ) is defined as the special value of θi for which θr
equals 90°. For incident ray angles greater than the critical angle, all of the
wave’s energy will be reflected at the boundary back into the incident
medium (Figure 8.3.4c and d). This is known as total internal reflection.

normal normal
normal normal

r
air nr air r nr air 90° nr air nr

water ni water ni water ni water ni

i i
i c i c r i

a b c d

Figure 8.3.4 (a) and (b) As θi is increased, θr also increases. (c) and (d) When θi is equal to or
greater than the critical angle θc, the incident ray is reflected at the boundary.

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Solve problems and analyse Worked example

information using Snell’s law. QUESTION
Calculate the critical angle for a diamond (refractive index 2.419) surrounded by air.
SOLUTION
The critical angle will be a value of θi such that the angle of refraction is 90°.
ni = 2.419, nr = 1 and θr = 90°.
Snell’s law states: ni sin θi = nr sin θr
nr sin θr
Rearrange to make θi the subject: θi = sin−1
ni

1 × sin 90
Substitute values: θi = sin−1 = 24°
2.419

Outline how total internal Total internal reflection in optical fibres

reflection is used in optical Total internal reflection is the basis of the optical fibre (Figure 8.3.5). This
fibres. technology is used to transfer large amounts of information in the form of light
pulses. The optical fibre is a fine cylindrical tube made of glass or plastic. Its
diameter can range from 1 µm to 1 mm, depending on the application. Light
pulses travel along the fibre at close to the speed of light with only small losses in
intensity. The light remains within the fibre as it strikes the sides of the fibre at
values greater than the critical angle and is reflected thousands of times per metre
(Figure 8.3.6).

Figure 8.3.6 A bunch of optical fibres. The

light is only visible at the ends
of the fibres, not through the
sides, because the light is
reflected from the sides of the
fibre and not transmitted.
Figure 8.3.5 A bent cylinder of jelly transmitting a red light beam. A red laser beam is being
PRACTICAL transmitted through and out (centre left) of the jelly by total internal reflection.
The beam is able to travel the length of the mould even though it is bent, with
EXPERIENCES
negligible loss of intensity.
Activity 8.1
Activity Manual, Page
81

CHECKPOINT 8.3
v 1 sin θi
1 Snell’s law states: = . What do v1, v2, θi and θr represent?
v 2 sin θr
2 Describe what happens when a light ray travelling through a glass block strikes a boundary between the glass
and air in the following cases.
a at an angle less than the critical angle
b at an angle greater than the critical angle
3 Outline how a light ray could be made to travel along a glass optical fibre without any light leaking from the sides.

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8.4 Communications technologies

using EM waves
Telegraph
The first technology to utilise electromagnetism in Australia was the telegraph
(Figure 8.4.1). Written messages were converted into Morse code—a series of short
and long current pulses (‘dots’ and ‘dashes’)—and were sent along strands of iron wire.

PHYSICS FEATURE
LINKING AUSTRALIA TO THE REST
OF THE WORLD

O ne-hundred and fifty years ago, before the

telegraph was constructed linking Singapore to
Darwin, it took approximately 60 days for news to
arrive in Sydney from London by ship. Imagine having
to wait two months before you found out the result of
a cricket game between England and Australia or to
hear of the death of Princess Diana. In 1870
electrical engineer Charles Todd (1826–1910) led
three teams to construct the overland telegraph from
Darwin to Adelaide. More than 3000 km of cable was
laid through some of the most inhospitable country
and under very difficult conditions. In 1872, when the
overland telegraph was completed and connected to
the submarine (underwater) cable to Java, news from
London was available within 48 hours.

Figure 8.4.1 Australia’s fragile link to the outside world. This

1. The history of physics photograph of Bob Carrew up a pole of the overland
telegraph line was taken in 1921. Two strands of
galvanised iron wire, like modern fencing wire, were
mounted on wooden poles. The iron was not insulated,
which meant the energy of the current pulses quickly
diminished; therefore, the signal was retransmitted at
repeater stations approximately 250 km apart.

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WIRELESS
TECHNOLOGY
I talian physicist Guglielmo
Marconi had developed his first
radio equipment by the age of 21;
it had a range of 1.5 km. He
made the first radio transmission
across the English Channel in
1899 and the first transatlantic
transmission in 1901. He shared
the Nobel Prize for Physics with
German physicist Karl Ferdinand
Braun in 1909. Marconi later
developed short-wave radio and
established a global
radiotelegraph network.
Figure 8.4.2 Guglielmo Marconi
Telephone
The next technological step was to transform a soundwave directly to
an oscillating electrical current so that a spoken message could be conducted
along a telegraph line. A sound wave from spoken communication, a singer
or a musical instrument is directed towards a microphone. In one kind of
microphone (a ‘dynamic microphone’), the sound wave causes the delicate
diaphragm to vibrate. A small wire coil attached to the diaphragm vibrates near
a magnet, producing an oscillating current copy (or analogue) of the same shape
as the original sound wave. This oscillating current is called an audio wave.
These audio waves are amplified (have their intensity increased) and sent along
metal wires to the receiver—a speaker that acts like a reverse microphone,
converting the oscillating current back into a soundwave. The telegraph had
become a telephone.
Many telephones still work like this today; however, metal (copper) telephone
cabling is being replaced with optical fibre in Australia to increase the capacity
of telephone lines and to take advantage of digital communication technologies.
Many landline telephone calls therefore use both copper wire and optical fibre
to connect callers. The transport of information along optical fibre does not use
analogue EM audio waves; rather, it uses a digital stream of light pulses, where
the signal is converted into a stream of numbers represented as a series of pulses.
This will be described in more detail later.
Radio
Now perhaps you are thinking that since the audio wave in a wire produces
an EM wave, why can’t we get rid of all the wires and cables and transmit the
EM wave through the air? This is what Italian physicist Guglielmo Marconi
(1874–1937) was thinking when he began work on the first radio in the
1890s (Figure 8.4.2). Nevertheless, there are a few problems with this.
First, to transmit an EM wave you need an antenna (a metal rod connected
to an electrical oscillator) whose size is of the order of the EM wavelength. An
audio wave will have a frequency range that corresponds to the range of human
hearing, which is 20–20 000 Hz, so the wavelength range of the audio wave will
be 15–15 000 km. Now this is clearly a ridiculous size for an antenna! Second, if
we were able to build such an enormous antenna and transmit an audio wave, we
could only receive and listen to one signal. This is because all audio waves from
different signals have the same frequency range. For example, if two audio waves
were transmitted at the same time, say the sound of a news bulletin being read
and the rock band Silverchair playing, you would hear both at the same time
over your radio receiver—hardly a satisfying experience for the news junkie or
rock enthusiast.

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For wireless EM wave communication to work, the audio wave needs to

be encoded onto a single high-frequency EM wave called a carrier wave. The carrier
wave has a convenient wavelength for transmission via an antenna (say, 1–600 m),
and each separate audio wave can be encoded onto its own separate frequency
carrier wave. The user can select the audio wave they receive on their radio by
tuning it to a selected carrier frequency (Figure 8.4.3). So supposing you’re in
Newcastle and you want to listen to Silverchair, you could tune your radio to receive
the carrier frequency 102.1 MHz (Triple J Newcastle); alternatively, if you want the
news, you could tune to 1233 kHz (Local ABC Newcastle).

AM and FM modulation
The process of encoding the audio wave onto a carrier wave is called Outline how the modulation of
modulation: it is a kind of superposition, where waves of different frequencies amplitude or frequency of
are combined to form a single wave in such a way that the information contained in visible light, microwaves and/or
the audio wave is preserved. Two types of modulation are used in communications radio waves can be used to
technology: amplitude modulation and frequency modulation. transmit information.
Amplitude modulation (AM) is usually used for EM carrier waves with
frequencies in the 535–1605 kHz range (referred to as the AM radio band).
The carrier wave and the audio wave are combined in an electric circuit called a
modulator; the carrier wave’s amplitude is varied so that the shape of the varying
amplitude is a copy of the audio wave, thus preserving the features of the audio
wave for later decoding (see Figure 8.4.4). The resultant AM wave is amplified
and then transmitted from an antenna. Radio receivers contain a demodulating
circuit that removes the carrier wave and sends the audio wave to the speaker.
Frequency modulation (FM) is commonly used for not only FM radio
broadcasting with carrier waves in the 88–108 MHz range, but also mobile Figure 8.4.3 To listen to your favourite radio
station, turn the dial and select
phone transmission where the carrier waves are microwaves with frequencies of
the appropriate carrier frequency.
800 MHz to 3 GHz. The carrier wave and the audio wave are combined in an
FM modulator circuit; in this case, the carrier’s frequency is varied in such a way
that the pattern of the varying frequency reflects the shape of the audio wave
(see Figure 8.4.4). The resultant FM wave will increase in frequency to indicate
a peak in the audio wave and decrease to indicate a trough in the audio wave.
Therefore, the features of the audio wave are preserved in the FM wave and can
be recovered by a radio receiver.

carrier
wave

audio
wave

amplitude
modulated
wave

frequency
modulated
wave

Figure 8.4.4 Amplitude and frequency modulation

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Electrical interference or ‘noise’, such as crackling and buzzing in a radio

TRY THIS!
MAKE YOURSELF INTO
AN ANTENNA!
Most modern cars now have
keyless entry systems. This
means you can remotely lock and
unlock the car doors by using a
small radio wave transmitter on
your key ring. What is the
maximum distance you can stand
from the car and still unlock the
doors? This distance is the range
of the radio wave transmitter.
Now press the metal key against
your bare wrist or neck. This
should increase the range of the
radio wave transmitter as your
body conducts the EM waves like
an antenna. Does the range
change if a taller or shorter
person repeats the process?
receiver, can be caused by electrical discharges or rapid variation in voltage from
electric motors, light switches, lightning nearby, electric trains and so on. This
kind of interference more closely resembles an AM than an FM signal because it
involves rapid changes in amplitude; therefore, AM is more badly affected by such
noise. For this reason, music broadcasts, where sound quality is important, use
FM radio. Buildings, bridges, tunnels and car parks cause AM radio waves to be
blocked or distorted, so FM radio is used more often in cities and built-up areas.
Although FM radio offers better reception and less interference, its broadcast
range is less for the same power and it tends to be reflected by mountain ranges.
In contrast, AM radio can be received over longer distances.
Light produced by lasers is used to carry information via optical fibre. This
type of light has a small, fixed frequency range and so can be amplitude modulated
by using an audio wave. However, it is more common to use light to carry digital
signals, which are fundamentally different from analogue AM and FM waves.
(This will be described later in this section.)
Bandwidth
Since the frequency of the wave shifts around in FM, both the radio transmitter and
radio receiver must be able to access a small range of frequencies around the
main frequency you’re tuned to. The size of this range of frequencies is called
bandwidth. However, even in an AM radio signal there is a bandwidth. By
definition, a sine wave of pure frequency must have constant amplitude, so an
AM signal with varying amplitude is in reality a superposition of a small range
of frequencies surrounding the frequency of the carrier you’re tuned to. The
radio transmitter and radio receiver must be able to access this small range of
frequencies, which is also called bandwidth.
In Australia, AM radio stations are separated by 9 kHz, so each AM broadcast
has a bandwidth of 9 kHz. FM radio needs a much larger bandwidth. In Australia,
FM radio stations are separated by 200 kHz, so fewer FM stations are available
compared with AM stations. In general, the more information transmitted per
second, the larger the bandwidth needed (which is why Internet connections
with high data speed are called broadband).

Analyse information to identify
the waves involved in the
transfer of energy that occurs
during the use of television.
Television
A television is a much more complicated piece of technology than a radio;
however, television programs are transmitted in much the same way (Figure 8.4.5).
A microphone is used to collect sound energy and convert it into EM energy
(the audio wave); a camera collects light energy (the picture) and this is
converted into EM energy (the video wave). The video and audio waves are
combined with a carrier wave (with frequency in the range of 40 to 880 MHz)
and then amplified for transmission to users. The audio component is frequency
modulated and the video component is amplitude modulated. The television
signal also contains information for colour, brightness and synchronising the
audio and video components. Television broadcasts have a bandwidth of 7 MHz.

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Radio waves (40–880 MHz)

transmitting receiving
antenna antenna

synchronisation
synchronising
signals

AM video
receiver wave

video AM television screen

wave transmitter

diplexer FM audio
TV camera receiver wave

audio FM
wave transmitter
loudspeaker
microphone

Figure 8.4.5 A television signal consists of two main parts: the video wave and the audio wave.
The pictures and sound are synchronised prior to transmission. The two waves are
separated by the television set: the audio wave is converted into sound, which comes
out of the speakers, and the video wave is used to produce light patterns on the
television screen.

Transmitting EM waves over long distances

The next stage in our technological journey is to describe how it is possible to
transmit EM waves over long distances so that radio, television and mobile phone
signals can be received by large numbers of people. EM waves can travel long
distances in straight lines through a vacuum with relatively small losses in energy.
This is apparent when we use optical and radio telescopes to study EM waves from
stars that are light-years away. However, problems arise when obstacles such as
buildings, mountains and the curvature of the Earth get in the way. The solution
is to use reflection to bounce the EM waves around obstacles. A number of clever
solutions have been devised to make these reflections possible.

Earth’s ionosphere and radio wave reflection

Early in the development of radio, it was discovered that high-frequency (HF) and Describe one application of
very-high-frequency (VHF) radio waves in the 3–50 MHz range were reflected reflection for radio waves being
from a region of the Earth’s atmosphere called the ionosphere (Figure 8.4.6). reflected by the ionosphere.
The ionosphere extends from 50 to 500 km above the surface of the Earth; the
gas molecules in this region are ionised by EM radiation from the Sun. The degree
to which the ionosphere reflects radio waves depends on the time of day (less
ionisation of gas molecules occurs at night), the season and solar activity (such as
sunspots and solar flares—see pages 307–309 in Chapter 16 for more information).

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ionised F layer

250 km

shuttle
reflected
short-wave
radio signals

200 km

northern lights

150 km
rocket

ionised E layer

100 km

ionised D layer

meteorites

50 km
spy plane weather balloon

Mt Everest
jet clouds

0 km

Figure 8.4.6 The ionosphere has three distinct layers called D, E and F layers. The D layer absorbs
radio waves; solar flare activity greatly increases the ionisation of the D layer, which
can severely affect radio communications. The E and F layers reflect HF and VHF radio
waves. The F layer is the most important as its high altitude allows the longest
communication paths; also, it reflects the highest frequency radio waves.

HF and VHF radio waves can travel thousands of kilometres around

Earth’s curvature by bouncing off the ionosphere (Figure 8.4.7). These frequencies
are used for long-distance radio communications by defence, maritime, aviation
and emergency services and remote broadcasters. The reflective properties of the
ionosphere are constantly monitored by the Australian Government’s Ionosphere
Prediction Service. They advise HF and VHF radio users of the highest
frequency that the ionosphere will reflect.

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ionosphere

receiver

transmitter Earth

Figure 8.4.7 Radio waves travel long distances in straight lines (shown in purple), but eventually
the curvature of the Earth gets in the way. HF and VHF radio waves (shown as blue
and red, respectively) are reflected from the ionosphere. Radio waves greater than
50 MHz (shown in green) pass straight through the ionosphere into space.

Geosynchronous satellites
The ionosphere is transparent to radio waves used for television broadcasting Describe ways in which
(40 to 800 MHz) and microwaves used in mobile phones (800 MHz to 3 GHz). applications of reflection of
This means that these higher frequency EM waves pass straight through light, microwaves and radio
the atmosphere and into space. In order for these EM waves to travel long waves have assisted
information transfer.
distances to reach people all over Australia, the waves are reflected back to the
Earth’s surface by geosynchronous satellites (Figure 8.4.8).
A geosynchronous satellite orbits at an altitude of 35 580 km directly above
geostationary satellite
the equator. Its orbital period is exactly one Earth day, so it stays above the same
spot on Earth at all times. The satellite collects the transmitted EM waves using a
parabolic dish. This dish acts like a concave mirror and focuses the incident
waves to a central receiver. The collected wave is then amplified and
retransmitted by the satellite back towards the Earth. More parabolic receiver
dishes on Earth within the satellite’s range or ‘footprint’ collect the EM waves so ground
station
that the information can be accessed by distant users, such as international ground
station
telephone calls or satellite TV.
Earth

Figure 8.4.8 Using geosynchronous

satellites to reflect EM waves
SCIENCE OR SCIENCE FICTION? over large distances

A rthur C. Clarke (1917–2008) made a living from imagining and

speculating on technology of the future like other science-fiction authors.
His most famous novel 2001: A Space Odyssey, which was published in
1968, includes futuristic technologies, such as robotics, artificial intelligence
and interplanetary space travel. Clarke served with the RAF during the
Second World War and worked with the emerging radar technology; he later
obtained honours degrees in physics and mathematics. In 1945 he wrote an
article for the radio and electronics magazine Wireless World, entitled
‘Extra-terrestrial relays—can rocket stations give worldwide radio coverage?’,
outlining a way of using rocket technology to facilitate long-distance
communications. This article was a successful prediction of the
geosynchronous satellite technology that was to emerge 20 years later.

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As the EM wave has travelled in excess of 70 000 km from the transmitter,

to the satellite and then to the receiver, there is a delay of about one-quarter
of a second; for telephone conversations, this can be quite annoying.

Limitations of the electromagnetic spectrum in

Discuss problems produced by
the limited range of
the electromagnetic spectrum
available for communication
purposes.
communications
The number of frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum that can be used for
communication purposes is limited. AM radio stations are spaced every 9 kHZ;
FM stations, every 200 kHz; and television stations, every 7 MHz. Existing
stations find they require additional bandwidth to provide features like stereo,
surround sound and high-picture definition. Thus there is a limit not only to the
number of radio and television stations that can operate, but also to the amount
and quality of information they can broadcast.
The proliferation of mobile phone technology has added more pressure. Initially,
mobile phones were assigned the spare microwave spectrum above radio and
television but below weather and military satellites; however, now there is greater
demand for bandwidth as the number of users increases and as mobile phones
become more sophisticated by incorporating pictures and wireless Internet access.
The most desired frequencies for communications purposes (100 MHz to
3 GHz) are in high demand. Bandwidth is auctioned to media and
telecommunications companies and allocated to some public organisations,
such as the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC).
Two main problems result from limited bandwidth. First, the high cost of
communications technology combined with the restricted access to bandwidth
means that communications services can be expensive for users, especially in
areas where the density of users is low. Second, emerging technologies struggle
to compete with existing technologies in accessing limited bandwidth.

Digital technology
Decimal Binary Digital signal
At the moment, the apparent solution to our limited bandwidth problems is the
(base 10) (base 2) digital revolution. You may have noticed in the past ten years that there has been
0 00000 increasing use of digital technologies as analogue services for landline phones,
mobile phones, television and radio are being phased out. Digital technologies
1 00001
allow large amounts of information to be transferred faster using less bandwidth,
2 00010 information in digital form is relatively unaffected by noise and interference, and
3 00011
it is processed more quickly by computers. For example, digital technology will
allow a current television station to transmit four times more information than
4 00100 current analogue levels that use the same bandwidth—that’s four digital channels
5 00101 in the space needed for one analogue channel. Sounds fantastic, doesn’t it? But
what is digital technology?
Figure 8.4.9 Binary code and the Digital technology handles information like sound, text and pictures
corresponding digital signal that has been converted into binary code—a number system that is base 2: it only
has two numbers, 0 and 1 (Figure 8.4.9). Information in binary or digital form is
very different from analogue information: digital information is a long series of 0s
and 1s and the signal is a series of discrete on/off pulses; however, analogue
information, such as audio and video waves, is in continuous wave form.
An electronic device called an analogue-to-digital converter is used to change
analogue waves into digital signals; for example, in your mobile phone. The
analogue-to-digital converter periodically samples the audio or video wave,
measures the voltage and stores it as a binary number. The audio or video wave
becomes a series of binary numbers listed in sampling order.
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The sampling process a Analogue to digital b Digital to analogue

does not make an exact copy
Audio wave (from microphone) Digital signal converted
of the analogue wave; the
voltage at every point in time 7
back into analogue MODULATING
is not measured. For
6
5 DIGITAL

example, the sampling rate
for the audio wave from a
mobile phone handset is
8000 times a second. This
produces a digital signal with
enough of the original
information for the speaker’s
Voltage
4
3
2
1
01356777654322234
T hree different types of
modulation are used with
digital signals:
0
Time 1 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK):
Amplitude read (sent
to the loudspeaker) The 0s and 1s are impressed
Amplitude read
7 7 into the carrier wave by shifting
6 6
5 5 abruptly between high and low

Voltage
Voltage

4 4 amplitudes. This process is

voice to be recognised by the 3 3
2 2 similar to amplitude modulation
listener. Higher sampling
1 1 with analogue waves.
rates are needed for video 0
Time
0
Time 2 Frequency-shift keying (FSK):
waves for a high-quality Voltage readings at
44 100 times a second The 0s and 1s are represented
picture. When a digital signal
by shifts between two
arrives at a receiver, a
Voltage converted into frequencies in the carrier wave.
digital-to-analogue converter digital signals
3 Phase-shift keying (PSK): The
is used to reconstruct the amplitude and frequency of the
original analogue audio or carrier wave remain constant,
Digital signal transmitted
video wave from the binary and the 0s and 1s are
code. This is what a digital represented by shifts in the
Figure 8.4.10 (a) Converting an analogue audio wave
set-top box does with the into a digital signal. (b) Converting a phase of the carrier wave.
digital television signal digital signal into an audio wave.
received by the household
television aerial (Figure 8.4.10).
Digital signals can be transmitted by combining them with carrier waves just
Identify types of communication
like analogue waves; these carrier waves are modulated by the digital signal. data that are stored or
Digital signals are commonly transmitted as light pulses along optical fibres. A transmitted in digital form.
high-energy laser with a small frequency range is used to produce on/off pulses
of light that correspond directly to the binary code.
Almost every aspect of the communications industry is undergoing a digital
revolution. Analogue mobile phones are now part of history and analogue PRACTICAL
television will be phased out in Australia by 2013. Radio, television, landline EXPERIENCES
telephones, mobile phones, broadband and wireless Internet all use data in Activity 8.2
Activity Manual, Page
digital form. In addition, many devices store data in digital form; for example, 85
compact discs (CDs), digital video discs (DVDs), computer hard drives, USB
drives, digital cameras and MP3 players.

CHECKPOINT 8.4
1 Compare amplitude modulation and frequency modulation. Include a diagram in your answer.
2 Why is reflection from the ionosphere useful for high-frequency radio wave transmission?
3 Describe how a satellite is used to increase the distance range of microwave and television radio wave
transmissions.
4 Outline two problems that arise from the limited range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
5 Identify four types of digital communication data.

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8 PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
Perform an investigation and
gather information to graph the
angle of incidence and refraction
for light encountering a medium
change, showing the relationship
between these angles.
Perform a first-hand
investigation and gather
information to calculate the
refractive index of glass or
Perspex.
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CHAPTER 8
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
ACTIVITY 8.1: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANGLES OF
INCIDENCE AND REFRACTION
Use a light box to produce a narrow beam of light. Direct the light beam into a
Perspex block, trace the rays and measure the angles of incidence and refraction.
Make measurements for a number of different angles of incidence and then graph
your data.
Equipment list: transformer, light box, rectangular block of Perspex, blank
paper, ruler, pencil, protractor, graph paper, calculator.
Discussion questions
1 What physical law are you using to interpret your results in this
investigation?
2 Explain why it is important to make measurements for a number of
different angles of incidence.
3 Are there any data points that you should exclude from your graph?
Justify your decision to exclude these points.
4 Predict how the slope of the graph would change if you repeated the
experiment, this time placing the Perspex block in a tank of water so that
the initial medium was water instead of air.
light box
Perspex blocks
Figure 8.5.1 A light box and Perspex blocks
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ACTIVITY 8.2: RESEARCH AND DISCUSS THE PHYSICAL

PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGY
Use the research template to gather appropriate information on one of the Identify data sources, gather,
suggested communication technologies. process and present
information from secondary
Research template sources to identify areas of
A partial template with sample entries and references is shown (the complete current research and use
template and a list of references for each application are provided in the available evidence to discuss
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual ). some of the underlying physical
principles used in one
APPLICATION (CIRCLE): application of physics related
to waves, such as:
GLOBAL POSITIONING CD TECHNOLOGY THE INTERNET DVD TECHNOLOGY
• global positioning system
SYSTEM • CD technology
UNDERLYING PHYSICAL NOTES AND DIAGRAMS REFERENCES AND SOURCES • the Internet
PRINCIPLES OF THE • DVD technology.
APPLICATION
Identify the • Output is either text or Howstuffworks, Marshall Brain
information output of
the application, i.e.
picture. and Tom Harris
what does the user • The GPS receiver gives the http://electronics.
receive (e.g. music, user a position coordinate. howstuffworks.com/gps.htm
pictures, text)?
• This is given relative to Date accessed: 18 March 2008.
reference locations in the
receiver software (e.g.
displayed on a street map or
given as a latitude and
longitude).
Identify the types of • Satellites transmit two The Global Positioning System,
waves that are used
in this application
microwave carrier signals. Peter H. Dana 1994
(e.g. sound, light, • The L1 frequency http://www.colorado.edu/
radio waves, (1575.42 MHz) carries the geography/gcraft/notes/gps/
microwaves).
navigation message. gps–f.html
• The L2 frequency Date accessed: 18 March 2008.
(1227.60 MHz) is used to
measure the ionospheric delay.

Process the information you have gathered and give a short oral presentation to
your class, discussing the physical principles underlying your chosen technology.

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Chapter summary
• An oscillating charged particle produces an oscillating • In AM the carrier wave’s amplitude is varied so that
electric field and an oscillating magnetic field. the shape of the varying amplitude is a copy of the
• Together, oscillating electric and magnetic fields are audio wave.
called electromagnetic (EM) waves. • In FM the carrier wave’s frequency is varied in such a
• EM waves are transverse waves. way that the pattern of the varying frequency reflects
• EM waves propagate in most media and in a vacuum. the shape of the audio wave.
• The speed of EM waves in a vacuum (c) is • Both AM and FM signals consist of a range of
300 000 km s–1 (3 × 108 m s–1). frequencies that transmitters and receivers need to
• The ratio of the speed of an EM wave in a vacuum (c) access. This range of frequencies is called bandwidth.
to that in matter (v) is known as the refractive index (n). • A television transmission consists of an audio wave and
• The many possible variations in frequency produce a video wave encoded onto a carrier wave.
a spectrum of EM waves called the electromagnetic • Reflection is used to bounce the EM waves around
spectrum. obstacles such as buildings, mountains and the
• Radio waves, microwaves, infra-red (IR), visible light, curvature of the Earth.
ultraviolet (UV), X-rays and gamma rays are all • High-frequency (HF) and very-high-frequency (VHF)
different types of EM waves. radio waves can travel thousands of kilometres around
• The Earth’s atmosphere absorbs some IR, and nearly all Earth’s curvature by bouncing off the ionosphere.
the UV, X-rays and gamma rays that are emitted by • A geosynchronous satellite is used to reflect microwaves
the Sun. used for international telephone calls and satellite
• A reflective concave surface will tend to focus waves. television over large distances.
• A reflective convex surface will tend to diverge waves. • The number of EM wave frequencies available for
• The speed of a wave changes as it moves from one communications purposes is limited.
medium to another. This is called refraction. • Bandwidth requirements mean there is a limit to not
• The refraction of EM waves can be described using only the number of radio and television stations that
Snell’s law: can operate, but also the amount and quality of
v1 sin θi information they can broadcast.
= • Digital technologies allow large amounts of information
v 2 sin θr
to be transferred faster using less bandwidth.
• When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical • Digital technology handles information, like sound, text
angle, the incident ray undergoes total internal reflection. and pictures, that has been converted into binary code.
• Total internal reflection is the basis of the optical fibre. • Radio, television, landline telephones, mobile phones,
• A sound wave can be converted into an EM wave called broadband and wireless Internet all use data in
an audio wave. digital form.
• An audio wave is a copy, or analogue, of the shape of • Compact discs (CDs), digital video discs (DVDs),
the original sound wave. computer hard drives, USB drives, digital cameras
• Audio waves are encoded onto a single high-frequency and MP3 players all store data in digital form.
EM wave called a carrier wave in a process called
modulation.
• There are two types of modulation: amplitude
modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM).

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Review questions
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PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The jigsaw activity below will help you identify and summarise the key ideas
in this chapter. Follow the steps below and you will end up with a point-form
summary of the entire chapter.
1 Your teacher will organise the class into home groups of four people. Each
person in the home group will be given a different section of this chapter to
work on.
2 Spend ten minutes on your own, reading over your allocated section.
3 Write what you think are the five most important concepts (in point form) in
your allocated section.
4 Join with other people in your class who have the same allocated section to
form an expert group.
5 Share your five important concepts with the other members of the expert group.
You will find others in the group may have different concepts from your own.
6 Discuss your ideas and then as a group, if necessary, pick the five most
important concepts from those suggested.
7 As a group, write a summary of the five most important concepts.
8 Return to your home group and outline your five important concepts to the others.
Offer other home group members a copy of your summary. You will now have four
summaries that will cover all of Chapter 8.

REVIEWING
1 Explain why electromagnetic waves are transverse rather than longitudinal
waves.
2 If there are no particles in an absolute vacuum, what is it that oscillates as
an electromagnetic wave passes through?
3 Gamma rays, IR, microwaves, radio waves, UV, visible light and X-rays are
types of electromagnetic waves.
a Arrange the electromagnetic wave types in order from lowest frequency
to highest frequency.
b Which wave type has the shortest wavelength?
4 Calculate the speed of an IR wave travelling through a beaker of liquid
benzene (benzene has a refractive index of 1.50).
5 Red light produced by a laser has a frequency of 4.08 × 1014 Hz.
Solve problems and analyse
Calculate the wavelength of this red light travelling through a vacuum.
information by applying the
6 A household microwave oven produces a frequency rating of 2450 MHz. mathematical model of v = f λ
Calculate the wavelength of the microwaves produced by the oven. to a range of situations.
7 If it takes 8 minutes for electromagnetic radiation from the Sun to reach
the Earth’s surface, how far away is the Sun from Earth?
8 What is the angle of reflection for a ray incident normally (at 90°) on a
smooth surface?

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9 Plane wave fronts are incident on three mirror shapes, as shown in

Figure 8.5.2. Copy the diagrams and draw in the reflected wave fronts for
each mirror.

plane concave
mirror mirror

convex
mirror

Figure 8.5.2

10 What is the angle of refraction for a beam striking an air–water boundary

perpendicularly?
11 When a beam of light travelling in air enters a glass block, what happens
to the speed of the light? Describe what happens to the light’s frequency
and wavelength as it enters the glass block (use a wave front diagram in
your answer).
12 What is an audio wave? Outline how one is produced.
13 Define the term bandwidth.
14 List three types of energy involved in receiving a television broadcast on
Analyse information
your home television.
to identify the electromagnetic
spectrum range utilised in 15 Identify two factors that can vary the reflective properties of the
modern communications ionosphere.
technologies. 16 Compare an analogue signal with a digital signal. Include a diagram in
your answer.
17 Complete the table below to summarise the electromagnetic spectrum
range used in modern communication technologies. The first row has been
completed for you.

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY EM WAVE TYPE USED TO CARRY DATA APPROXIMATE BANDWIDTH

AM radio Radio waves (535–1605 kHz) 9 kHz
FM radio
Television
Mobile telephone
Internet

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SOLVING PROBLEMS
18 Calculate the angle of refraction for a ray incident in air at 30° on a block
Solve problems and analyse
of crown glass (refractive index 1.52).
information using Snell’s law.
19 A laser beam strikes an air–liquid surface at an angle of 55° to the normal.
The refracted ray is observed to be transmitted into the liquid at 40°. What
is the refractive index of the liquid?
20 Calculate the critical angle for light travelling through water into air. The
refractive index of water is 1.33.
21 A glass block with a refractive index of 1.55 is covered with a layer of
water of refractive index 1.33. For light travelling from the glass to water,
what is the critical angle at the glass–water interface?
22 Using a block of transparent unknown material, it is found that a beam of
light travelling inside the material is totally internally reflected at the air–
block interface at an angle of 48°. What is the block’s refractive index?

EXTENSION
23 Light of wavelength 600 nm in a vacuum enters a block of glass with a
refractive index of 1.5.
a Calculate the wavelength inside the glass.
b What colour would it appear to be to someone embedded in the glass?
(You will need to consult a table of colour frequencies.)
24 Prove to someone looking straight down into a swimming pool that any
object in the water will appear to be at three-quarters of its true depth.

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PHYSICS FOCUS
NEW PLASTIC TECHNOLOGY SET
TO REVOLUTIONISE FIBRE OPTICS
8/11/05 – Australian researchers have developed
optical fibre made of plastic rather than glass—a
technique which is set to revolutionise the use and
manufacture of the technology around the globe.
Traditionally made of glass or silica, optical fibres
are expensive to produce, fragile and not very
flexible—which limits their application.
But three researchers, based at the University of
Sydney’s Optical Fibre Technology Centre (OFTC),
P5. Describe the scientific principles
employed in particular areas of research
found a way to make polymer optical fibres that can
perform competitively with silica while being far easier
and cheaper to make.
Dr Martijn van Eijkelenborg, Dr Maryanne Large
and PhD student Alexander Argyros on Monday
received this year’s Australasian Science Prize for
their work over the past five years.

Figure 8.5.3 Australian scientists Maryanne Large, Martijn van Eijkelenborg and Alexander Argyros

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‘What we have done is to change the material (of 1 Optical fibres utilise the wave property of
the optical fibres),’ Dr Large said on Monday. refraction. Define refraction.
‘I think what’s really significant about our work is 2 Describe the concept of total internal reflection.
we’ve actually found a kind of cheap way of making Under what circumstances does it occur?
this gourmet fibre and mass producing it.’ 3 Outline how an optical fibre is used to transmit
Optical fibres are thin rods of glass which reflect light. Include a diagram in your answer.
and carry light and are wrapped in a low-density 4 Compare the structure of the glass fibre with the
plastic and cabling. plastic fibre using the information in the article.
They are used widely in communications, both in 5 What medium does the light travel through in the
computer networks as a fast Internet connection plastic fibre?
source and in telecommunications. 6 Describe one use of optical fibres in
Also used as an instrument in microsurgery, they communications technology.
can project images from inside the body and help 7 Explain why a flexible plastic fibre is preferable to
surgeons see in hard-to-reach places. a fragile glass fibre.
Making plastic fibre optics was no easy task due to 8 Assess the impact the new plastic fibre may have
the material’s lack of transparency and reflection rate. on communications technologies when it is
It also had a higher light absorption index than glass. commercialised.
But the team used a microstructured pattern
around an air core to overcome the problem. EXTENSION
A pattern of concentric rings around the core 9 Contrast the waves used to communicate by mobile
reflects light of particular frequencies back so that it phones and landlines.
cannot escape the core. 10 Justify the following statement: ‘Wireless
As the light travels through air rather than the communications that use EM waves have
polymer, the problem of the transparency of the revolutionised the way we communicate.’
polymer is overcome.
The University of Sydney team did not originate
the idea of using microstructured fibres to guide light,
but they were the first to use it on plastic.
Dr Large said she hoped to see the polymer fibre
optics commercialised in the next few years.
‘We have had very serious interest from a number
of major companies, actually, so I would certainly
hope in the timescale of a few years we would have
something commercialised,’ she said.
The Australasian Science Prize, first established in
2000, is awarded by the Australasian Science
magazine, which is published monthly, to recognise
outstanding research by an individual or small group.
Source: AAP NewsWire, 8 November 2005,
www.industrysearch.com.au/news/viewrecord.aspx?ID=18637
accessed 1 March 2008.

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 2 The review contains questions in a similar style and proportion to
the HSC Physics examination. Marks are allocated to each question
up to a total of 25 marks. It should take you approximately
45 minutes to complete this review.

4 Which of the following pairs use a digital format?

Multiple choice A videotapes and CDs
B MP3 files and DVDs
(1 mark each) C computer hard drives and 3½ inch floppy discs
1 Which of the following groups of waves are classified D USB drives and audiotapes
as mechanical waves? 5 A light ray travels through the air and strikes a glass
A surface water waves, sound prism at 30°. The angle of refraction is 19°. What is
B sound, slinky, infra-red the speed of light in the glass block?
C light, slinky, rope flicked A 1.52 m s–1
D radio, surface water waves, sound B 0.65 m s–1
2 Two pulses of the same amplitude were sent down C 4.6 × 108 m s–1
a piece of rope towards each other (see Figure 8.6.1). D 2.0 × 108 m s–1

v = 0.5 m s–1 v = 0.6 m s–1

Short response
6 A red laser produced light with a frequency of
2.0 m 4.28 × 1014 Hz. Calculate the wavelength of this
Figure 8.6.1 Two pulses on a rope red light. (2 marks)
7 A fish-finding sonograph set to 150 Hz detects the
What will the resultant wave look like 1 s from now? seabed 5.4 m below the boat hull. The sound pulse
A B is emitted by the sonograph and then received
7.2 ms later. Calculate the speed of sound in the
salt water below the boat. (3 marks)
8 As part of a study, a national parks officer has
attached identical radio collar transmitters to two
C D Tasmanian devils. The radio signals are detected
using an aerial. The radio signal received from one
collar is three times stronger than the other. Estimate
the relative distances of the two Tasmanian devils
from the aerial. (3 marks)

3 Which sections of the EM spectrum are least

absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere?
A infra-red, gamma, radio
B gamma, radio, visible
C X-ray, radio, infra-red
D radio, visible, infra-red

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Extended response
9 During the course of your studies, you conducted a T he research lab continued to be responsible for
the semiconductor physics work which I had
brought with me and for the optical fibre work which
first-hand investigation to determine the refractive
index of glass or Perspex. by then had started in the company, but it also did
a Briefly outline the procedure you used in this quite a lot of work in electronics, telecommunications
investigation. (2 marks) and defence communications. Optical fibre became
b Below is a set of data collected by a student
a substantial part of the work. We started with
during class to determine the refractive index of
water. Use it to produce a graph to determine the hollow optical fibres filled up with dry-cleaning
refractive index. (3 marks) fluid—saturated hydrocarbons—which Graeme
Ogilvie, a scientist in the CSIRO Tribophysics
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (θi ) ANGLE OF REFLECTION (θr ) Division, had worked out would not absorb much
0.00 0.00 light. So, if one made hollow tubes—kilometres
5.00 3.76 long, taking a long while to fill from one end with
10.00 7.50 liquid—those fibres would be of considerably lower
15.00 11.20 transmission loss than the current versions of
20.00 14.90 optical fibres with their solid cores. We made an
25.00 18.50 experimental telecommunications system in
30.00 22.10 Australia, setting it up at the Australian National
University in Canberra because of the laws relating
35.00 25.50
to access to communication in the public domain
40.00 28.90
across roadways and so forth. We rapidly learnt one
45.00 32.10
important aspect of liquid-filled optical fibres:
50.00 35.20
unless both ends are at the same height, the liquid
55.00 38.00 fairly rapidly drains out—in spite of the difficulty of
60.00 40.60 getting it in there! Anyway, that was in a sense a
65.00 43.00 minor exercise.
70.00 45.00 We then got into the business of developing and
75.00 46.60 making optical fibres with solid cores. Being the
80.00 47.80 only facility in Australia which could do it, we did
85.00 48.50 quite a lot of defence and general commercial work.
Perhaps one mistake was that, as a company, we
c How would this graph change if the data were didn’t move into cabling the optical fibres. No-one
collected for Perspex, given that the refractive
who was in telecommunications really wanted to
index of Perspex is 1.4? (1 mark)
buy fibres, they wanted to buy cables containing
10 a Compare and contrast the effectiveness of optic
fibres. Ultimately AWA, Metal Manufactures and an
fibres in communications to copper wiring.
(2 marks) American company, Corning, formed a company
b The following is an extract of a transcript with called Optical Wave Guides (Australia). Later, when
Australian physicist Professor Louis Davies I was a director of AWA, we sold our interests in
(1923–2001), an early researcher in optic fibres. that—primarily the equipment and know-how that
Briefly discuss the contributions this research we had developed in the lab—for about $13
has made to society. (4 marks)
million. That made me feel quite comfortable with
the previous work of the laboratory.
Craig, D. (1999) Interviews with Australian Scientists:
www.science.org.au/scientists/ld.htm#fibres, Australian Academy
of Science.

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 ELECTRICAL
3 ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Electricity has had a major role to play in the modernisation of the developed world.
CONTEXT From mobile phones to computers and household electrical appliances, electricity
permeates through every part of our lives. However, this has come at a great
environmental cost since this usually requires the burning of fossil fuels.
It is incredible to contemplate that electricity’s profound effect started with
experiments about the causes of the twitching of the legs of deceased frogs. The
results paved the way for the first type of battery, which was the first source
of continuous electrical power and the start of the electrical technology revolution.
In this module we will give a brief review of the history of electricity and the
current social implications of its use. We will study its behaviour and its hazards in
different types of electrical circuits, including those around the home. Finally, we
will learn about the discovery that showed the connection between electricity and
magnetism, which was a milestone in the story of electricity.

Figure 9.0.1 The hair-raising experience of

electrostatic electricity

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32
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340
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Figure 9.0.2

INQUIRY ACTIVITY
CONNECTING ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
Electricity and magnetism are intimately connected. An electric current in a wire
always has a magnetic field surrounding it. This was one of the pivotal results of
the 19th century, and it can easily be reproduced at home.
You need about 2 m of insulated wire, a battery and a magnetic compass.
Wind as many turns of the wire as possible around the compass that still
enable you to see the compass needle. Connect the exposed ends of the wire
to both sides of the battery. The compass needle should deflect. Then try the
following activities:
1 Explore how changing the number of turns affects the size of the compass
needle deflection.
2 See whether changing the type of battery (that is, 1.5 V or 9 V) affects the
deflection of the compass needle.
3 Remove the winding from around the compass and have it sitting nearby.
Is the compass needle still deflected when the wire is connected
to the battery?

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9 and present
industrial revolution, fossil fuels,
global warming, renewable energy,
enhanced greenhouse effect,
nuclear fission, nuclear fusion,
fuel cell, electrostatic generator,
animal electricity, bimetallic arc,
cell, battery, voltaic pile,
action potential
Discuss how the main sources
of domestic energy have
changed over time.
Assess some of the impacts of
changes in, and increased
access to, sources of energy for
a community.
170
Electricity: past
Life without electricity
Many conveniences around the home—lights, refrigerators, televisions,
computers, telephones—require electricity. Times would be much
tougher for us without these. The use of electricity for domestic and
industrial purposes started around the beginning of the 20th century
—just over 100 years ago! Before the use of electricity, people had to
use other ways to make life easier for themselves.
9.1 Sources of domestic energy
over time
Before primitive humans had any form of energy, other than the chemical
energy in their bodies, they had to live in warm climates and follow the animals
they hunted for food. Fire changed all of this. Even to this day, we rely on fire or
heat to generate our electricity in coal-fired power stations or to drive cars using
the internal combustion engine.
The discovery of fire and its control provided lighting and heating,
which enabled humans to leave the tropical climates and thrive in varied
environments. Fire kept them safe by scaring off predatory animals, and allowed
them to cook their food (Figure 9.1.1). They also used it to change their
environment by burning bushes and trees. This produced better grasslands and
therefore attracted animals. Fire also held spiritual and religious significance for
primitive cultures, which still persists in many forms to this day, such as the
lighting of candles.
 ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME

There were many sources of fire or heat that humans have used at any one
time. For example, there are records that ancient civilisations used olive oil,
crude oil and even whale oil for lighting and cooking. It is also thought that coal
was used as well during that time.
Until about 150 years ago, the main source of energy used in making fire
and heat was wood. The increasing scarcity of wood and the spread of
industrialisation led to an increased use of coal. Although no single event can be
attributed to the increased use of coal, there were emerging technologies, such as
new methods of iron smelting and the James Watt steam engine, that created greater
demand for coal. This period is sometimes referred to as the industrial revolution.
Before the industrial revolution, society was primarily agricultural,
relying on domesticated animals as their source of energy for tilling the land and
planting crops (Figure 9.1.2). The invention of the internal combustion engine
powered by fossil fuels, such as petroleum and diesel, replaced the animals with Figure 9.1.1 Early humans and primitive
machines, such as tractors. The term fossil fuels means fuels derived from cultures used wood as a source
carbon-containing substances obtained from the ground, such as natural gas of energy to cook their food, for
(methane), coal and fuels extracted from crude oil (like petroleum and diesel). lighting and keeping warm.
Today, we rely primarily on fossil fuels to meet most of our energy
needs. Coal and other fossil fuels are used in electricity generation (Figure 9.1.3).
Many homes use natural gas for cooking and heating. We also use fossil fuels in
motor vehicles. The availability of motor vehicles for transport has led to
the growth of the population living in outer suburbs of large cities since
transport into the city centre for work or play is relatively quick.

Figure 9.1.3 Many electric power plants that provide our domestic electricity rely on coal as their Figure 9.1.2 Before the industrial revolution,
source of energy. domesticated animals were
used as a source of energy.

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Figure 9.1.4 Wind energy is a renewable
energy source and can be used
to generate domestic electrical
power.
The heavy reliance on fossil fuels comes at an environmental cost, including the
potential for global warming from the gases being emitted by the combustion of
these fuels (see the Physics Feature ‘Global warming and the greenhouse effect’).
There have been calls for the increased reliance on renewable energy sources,
such as solar, wind (Figure 9.1.4), wave and geothermal (see Table 9.2.1 for an
explanation of these sources), in place of the use of fossil fuels. Renewable
energy sources refer to those that are freely available from natural phenomena, and
that are almost inexhaustible with little or no polluting by-products while power is
being extracted from them.
Renewable energy sources have been used for millennia, but not on a scale
that can support cities. For example, wind power was used to turn windmills,
which grind wheat and other grains, or to pump water from underground wells.
Wind also powered sailing boats. Houses were built to control the Sun’s heat and
light; for instance, verandahs provided shade from the summer Sun. We now call
these passive solar houses because they require less artificial light and little or no
air conditioning and heating.
In the last 150 years we have become heavily dependent on a single source of
energy: fossil fuels. Even if you ignore global warming, there is a general consensus
among scientists about the finite amount of fossil fuels remaining in the ground.

CHECKPOINT 9.1
1 Identify the opportunities that arose due to the use of fire as a source of energy.
2 Identify the main reason why coal became a main source of energy instead of wood.
3 Define the term fossil fuels.
4 Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable energy sources.

PHYSICS FEATURE
GLOBAL WARMING AND THE
GREENHOUSE EFFECT

T he burning of wood and fossil fuels has had a great

impact on the environment. Carbon dioxide gas
emitted in combustion has contributed to an increase
in average air temperature, resulting in the enhanced
greenhouse effect (known as global warming).
A greenhouse is a glass enclosure used for growing
plants. The incident radiation from the Sun readily
passes through the glass and is absorbed by both objects
and the air inside; however, the air cannot escape and Figure 9.1.5 Figure 9.1.5 Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
reflect some of the Earth’s radiated heat, causing the
therefore rises in temperature. Many greenhouses allow
air to reach the temperatures we enjoy today.
some glass panels in the roof to open for the warm air to
escape and lower the temperature.

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PHYSICS FEATURE CONTINUED
The Earth is vaguely like a huge greenhouse, with
the atmosphere replacing the glass. Atmospheric water
vapour and carbon dioxide absorb infra-red radiation.
Sunlight heats both the Earth and atmosphere. The
Earth re-emits the radiation in the infra-red part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, which is absorbed by
atmospheric carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane.
This leads to the warming of the atmosphere and is
called the greenhouse effect (Figure 9.1.5). Normally, it
is a beneficial phenomenon that supports life on Earth;
otherwise the Earth would be as cold and barren as the
Moon. Too much of these greenhouse gases means that
more of the infra-red radiated by the Earth would be
absorbed, which would increase the average global
temperature and lead to major climatic changes.
This warming is predicted to increase the
frequency and intensity of droughts, heat waves and
wildfires. Sea levels will rise due to the expansion of
the ocean (water expands when it is heated) and, to a
lesser extent, the partial melting of mountain glaciers
and the Antarctic and Greenland icecaps. The rise of
sea levels is estimated to reach between 0.5 and 2 m
in 100 years, leading to the flooding of coastal areas.
Dry soil does not easily absorb water, resulting in the
flooding in non-coastal areas and the spread of water-
borne diseases carried by mosquitoes.
The energy of storms and hurricanes is related to
the amount of heat energy in the air and oceans.
Global warming is predicted to bring about more
powerful hurricanes and storms. Rising temperatures
and longer droughts would reduce crop yields, mostly
affecting Africa as the majority of its population relies
on locally grown crops.
Figure 9.1.6 Records show that the average air temperature has
been rising over the past 150 years.
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
In addition, many species of animals and plants
that cannot adapt to the climatic change would
become extinct.
Land and sea temperatures have been recorded for
the last 150 years. Even though the average temperature
rises and falls from year to year, there is a clear trend up
towards higher temperatures (Figure 9.1.6).
Ice is laid down in layers each year in the Antarctic,
Greenland and mountain glaciers, trapping air bubbles
with it. The depth of the ice is a measure of how far
back in time the ice was formed. The air bubbles are
therefore literally frozen in time. The history of the
concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide is known
from the composition of the air in the bubbles. In
addition, the relative concentration of the isotopes
oxygen-18 and oxygen-16 in the water that formed the
ice is temperature dependent. From these, it is known
that there has been an increase in the atmospheric
concentration of carbon dioxide, with increasing average
global temperature. Although the Earth’s temperature
has changed during the last 400 000 years, it has
changed much more quickly in the last 150 years.
Atmospheric carbon dioxide mostly comes from
power plants and motor vehicles that burn fossil fuels.
Energy sources, such as solar, wind, wave and
geothermal energy, do not need fossil fuels and are
called renewable energy sources. Other renewable
energy sources involve the burning of biomass, such
as ethanol, biodiesel or fast-growing plantation
cuttings. Although these produce carbon dioxide, they
are considered carbon neutral because the emitted
carbon dioxide is reabsorbed by the growth of
replacement plants. Nuclear fission power plants have
also had some increasing support since they do not
use any combustion processes; however, the disposal
of nuclear waste is an undesirable outcome of the
fission process. Although there are possible future
energy sources that are cleaner, such as nuclear
fusion, the first power plant using this is quite a few
decades away, whereas the issue of climate change
needs to be addressed now with current technology.
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9.2 Providing electricity in remote

Discuss some of the ways in
which electricity can
be provided in remote
locations.
locations
It is expensive to bring electrical power to many locations around the world.
People living in these locations still need to use many electronic and electrical
items, such as lighting, refrigeration, telephones, water pumping from wells and so
on. Remote communities may even have hospitals or medical centres for which
power is a must. Until recently, power has been supplied from electrical generators
powered by fossil fuels—the most common fuel being diesel. Unfortunately, fossil
fuel engines emit carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas.
Renewable energy sources include hydro-electric, solar, wind, geothermal,
wave and biomass energies. A description of these is given in Table 9.2.1.

Table 9.2.1 Renewable energy sources

ENERGY SOURCE HOW IT WORKS

Hydro-electric Falling or flowing water turns an electric generator.
Solar Radiation from the Sun is converted directly into electricity by solar
cells, or heat is captured and used to produce steam that turns an
electric generator.
Wind Wind is used to turn the large blades of modern-day windmills
connected to electric generators.
Geothermal Heat that is stored beneath Earth’s surface is used to generate steam
to turn an electric generator.
Wave The up-and-down motion of the ocean waves is used to pump water
that can turn an electric generator.
Biomass Burning of fuels derived from growing plants, such as ethanol, plant
waste (like sugar cane) and biodiesel oil, is used to power an electric
generator.

Figure 9.2.1 Solar panels can provide power

on both a large and a small
scale, such as the solar panels
on the roof of this house.
Figure 9.2.2 Solar thermal energy can be
used to generate electricity on
a large scale.
Some forms of renewable resources are suitable for remote locations, where there
is no power grid. However, hydro-electric, geothermal and wave energies are
location specific and may not be close to the community. Hydro-electricity is part of
large-scale energy production and is connected to the main power grid, such as the
Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme in New South Wales. Extending power
grids is a costly venture and is generally not economical for the power companies.
The most suitable renewable energy sources for remote locations for use on a
small or large scale are solar and wind because they are less location specific.
Solar panels convert the Sun’s radiation directly into electricity and are called
photovoltaic cells (PVs). They can provide power to an isolated household or a
whole remote community (Figure 9.2.1).
Solar energy that is concentrated by focusing mirrors can be used to
heat water into steam to run electric generators, which is known as solar thermal
electricity (Figure 9.2.2). This is more suited to larger communities. Heat
generated from sunlight can also be used to make household hot water.
Windmill farms directly generate electricity and are suitable for at least a
small community (Figure 9.1.4 on page 172).

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Solar and wind energy are not always available on demand. Solar energy
is only generated during the day and with varying degrees of intensity, depending
on the amount of cloud cover. Similarly, strong winds cannot be relied upon to be
present all the time. These issues present some problems for electricity on demand
at remote locations. One solution is to store any excess energy for later use. Excess
solar thermal heat can be stored in large vessels containing rocks or molten salts.
Rechargeable batteries are one solution to electricity storage, but a more efficient
method involves the separation of water into hydrogen and oxygen, which can be
recombined later to produce electricity. This is known as a fuel cell.

CHECKPOINT 9.2
1 Identify reasons why accessing electricity is difficult for remote locations.
2 For each of the energy sources listed in Table 9.2.1, propose an example of a type of remote location that would
best suit its use.

Identify data sources, gather,

9.3 Galvani versus Volta process and analyse secondary
information about the differing
Up to end of the 18th century, there was no electrical supply as we know it today. views of Volta and Galvani
It was more of a curiosity and was limited in use, such as the generation of sparks. about animal and chemical
A controversy between two Italian scientists, Luigi Galvani (1737–1798) and electricity and discuss whether
Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), during the late 18th century changed all of this. their different views
Sometimes an electric spark is produced by, say, walking across a nylon carpet contributed to increased
on a dry day and touching a doorknob. Because people noticed that understanding of electricity.

rubbing produced electric sparks, they made machines that did this more
efficiently, which are known as electrostatic generators (Figure 9.3.1).
The electrostatic generators were of no practical use to the general public.
Physiologists used them to show that muscles can be made to contract when the
nerves and muscle were connected to the electrodes of a generator. Luigi
Galvani (Figure 9.3.2) was studying the phenomenon that an electric shock
could cause the legs of freshly killed frogs to twitch. Up to that point there
was a strong belief that the contraction of muscle was due to electricity produced
in the nerves. This was called animal electricity—or, as it was known in the
18th century, the ‘neuro-electric fluid’. Some people thought that it was the force
that made life possible.
Galvani noticed that legs of dead frogs can be made to twitch without
connecting them directly to the generator. The leg twitched by touching a scalpel Figure 9.3.1 Nineteenth-century hand-
to a nerve in the spinal cord while a nearby electrostatic generator was operating. cranked electrostatic generators
could produce sparks that are
This led Galvani to conduct a series of experiments to investigate muscle
hundreds of thousands of volts
contraction without the need for a generator. We now know that an electric field between the two spherical
could be induced in and around the scalpel by an electromagnetic wave from the electrodes. These are known as
generator, but this was not known during Galvani’s time. Whimshurst generators.

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Figure 9.3.2 Luigi Galvani
Figure 9.3.3 Galvani caused a frog’s leg to
twitch by touching a bimetallic
arc to a spinal cord nerve and
muscle simultaneously.
Galvani also found that the frog muscle can be made to twitch by
touching the nerve and muscle simultaneously with a curved metal rod that was
made of two different metals connected end-to-end. The rod was in the shape
of an arc (a bimetallic arc) so that both nerve and muscle could be touched
simultaneously (Figure 9.3.3).
Galvani thought that electrical charge was being caused to discharge
from the nerve to the muscle by the metal arc, thereby making the muscle
contract. All of this occurred in the absence of an electrostatic generator. He
concluded that this was proof that electricity was originating within the nerve of
the frog, which confirmed the existence of animal electricity.
Alessandro Volta duplicated Galvani’s experiments. He concluded
that the electricity came from the contact between two different metals, not
from the animal. Connecting the bimetallic arc between nerve and muscle
caused electricity to flow from one side of the metal through the nerve, then
the muscle and then back again to the other side of the metal arc. Thus Volta
believed that the nerve and muscle did nothing more than provide a
conducting pathway.
For proof, Volta conducted experiments with alternating types of metal
discs in contact with each other and separated by a salt solution. These experiments
showed that electricity can be made to flow from one metal to the other through the
solution without the use of any kind of animal tissue. He published this in 1800,
where he also described the first battery. It consisted of a disc of silver on top of a
disc of paper soaked in salt water (or any other electrolyte—that is, conductive
solution), which was on top of a disc of zinc. This silver–salt water–zinc disc
arrangement was duplicated many times and stacked one on top of the another.
Continuous sparking could be produced by connecting the top silver disc and the
bottom zinc disc with conducting wire. Each silver–salt water–zinc combination is
known as a cell. Placing a large number of these cells end-to-end came to be known
as a battery of cells, or just a battery in today’s terminology. In Volta’s day it was
referred to as a voltaic pile (Figure 9.3.5).

TRY THIS!
A LEMON OF A BATTERY AC V KΩ
DCmA
DC V

You can make a battery out of an ordinary lemon. Just roll the lemon
around on the table while pressing on it so that it becomes juicier on the
inside. Now insert two different types of metals into the lemon at different /KΩ/DC mA
200 mA MAX
COM
!
DC 1000V
AC 750V MAX

+
points. These act as the electrodes. You should be able to measure a
voltage between them using a voltmeter. – +
The best metals to use are copper and zinc. A galvanized nail is coated
– + +

with zinc, and can be obtained cheaply from any hardware shop. Copper wire
from electrical cables can be used as the other electrode. Experiment with
other metals, such as a paper clip instead of the galvanized nail. You will
find the voltage may not be as high. Figure 9.3.4 Making a battery out
of a lemon

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Galvani responded by showing that frog legs can be made to twitch by

touching the nerve from the spinal cord to the muscle. Volta noted that there
must be a wet and conducting fluid, such as saliva or blood, between the nerve
and the muscle and theorised that this type of fluid conductor can also generate
electricity.
Although the scientific community remained divided, there was general
consensus that Volta had won the debate. PRACTICAL
From all of this debate came the invention of the battery that enabled many EXPERIENCES
electrical and magnetic experiments. Discoveries led to the production of a Activity 9.1
Activity Manual, Page
89
continuous source of electricity, which we use today.

The Galvani–Volta debate from a modern perspective

We now know that both Galvani and Volta were correct. Two dissimilar
metals in an electrolyte certainly do produce a voltage between them; it is this
voltage that triggered the twitch of the frog legs. Equally, we also know that there
are electrical charges that are produced inside and outside of a nerve cell
membrane. When a nerve is stimulated in some way, the nerve cell membrane
allows these charges to travel across it, causing a voltage pulse to travel along the
nerve to the muscle. This is known as the action potential.
While Volta’s hypothesis that the simple contact of two dissimilar
metals produces a potential difference is true (it is now called the Seebeck effect),
that was not a complete explanation of what he was measuring in his voltaic
piles. An electrochemical reaction resulted when the metals were in contact with
the electrolyte. In Volta’s case, the zinc dissolved in the electrolyte as zinc ions,
leaving an excess of electrons on the zinc electrode. Connecting the two
electrodes causes the excess electrons to travel to the other electrode. Volta was
not aware of this, however, and thought the electrolyte simply improved the
contact between the two dissimilar metals.
Unfortunately, Galvani died believing that he had lost the debate; in reality,
both men were seeing slightly different phenomena.
Figure 9.3.5 A voltaic pile consisting of
many layers of copper, wet
cardboard and zinc discs.

CHECKPOINT 9.3
1 Define what is meant by animal electricity.
2 Explain how Volta showed that the sparks were not originating in the animals.
3 Explain how a voltaic pile is made.
4 Distinguish between a battery and a cell.
5 Compare the structure of the frog’s nerve, muscle and bimetallic arc arrangement with the structure of a voltaic pile.
6 Explain how the discovery of the battery has led to the modern understanding of electromagnetism.
7 Using a table like the one below, outline the ideas of Galvani and Volta. Analyse the accuracy (or otherwise) of
these ideas and whether they led to another discovery.

IDEA ANALYSIS

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9 PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
CHAPTER 9
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

ACTIVITY 9.1: GALVANI VERSUS VOLTA

Using the Internet, research the contributions of both Volta and Galvani and assess
Identify data sources, gather,
process and analyse secondary
their contributions to our understanding of electricity.
information about the differing Discussion questions
views of Volta and Galvani 1 Outline the understanding of electricity prior to the work of Galvani
about animal and chemical
and Volta.
electricity and discuss whether
their different views
2 Identify the impact that Galvani and Volta had on the development
contributed to increased of electricity.
understanding of electricity.

Figure 9.3.6 Alessandro Volta demonstrates the first

battery—the voltaic pile.

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 ELECTRICAL

Chapter summary ENERGY IN THE

HOME

• Until 150 years ago, wood was the main source of
energy. Another form of energy was the use of
domesticated animals.
• Fire from wood and oil enabled primitive humans to
stay in one place, modify their environment, cook their
food and scare off predatory animals.
• The scarcity of wood and the spread of industrialisation
led to the increased use of coal and other fossil fuels,
such as petroleum and diesel, as energy sources.
• Electric power today is heavily reliant on fossil fuels.
• The increased burning of fossil fuels has led to the rise
in greenhouse gases, which have been linked to global
warming.
• The increased use of renewable energy sources, such as
solar, wind and wave energies, holds some promise in
reducing the impact of global warming because there is
little or no greenhouse gas emissions associated with them.
• The most suitable renewable energy sources for
communities in remote locations are solar and wind
since they are less location specific than other renewable
resources, such as hydro-electric, wave and biomass
energies.
• The disadvantage with renewable resources, such as solar
and wind energies, is that they cannot be guaranteed to
be available on demand.
• Luigi Galvani noticed that the legs of dead frogs could be
made to twitch by touching the nerve with a scalpel or by
touching the nerve and muscle with a bimetallic arc.
• Galvani believed the twitching was due to animal electricity.
• Alessandro Volta showed that the electricity came from
the two dissimilar metals of the bimetallic arc. This led
to the invention of the voltaic pile, which was the first
type of battery. It also enabled the steady flow of
electricity for experiments by other people interested in
electricity and magnetism.
• Although Volta was regarded at the time as having won
the debate, we now know that both men were seeing
slightly different phenomena.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Match the concept with the best definition.

CONCEPT DEFINITION
Renewable energy Energy source that is made from once-living material containing
carbon, dug up from rocks
Non-renewable energy Energy obtained from a source that can be replenished
Fossil fuel Source of fuel made from burning plant material
Global warming Energy that is derived from a source that cannot be replenished
Geothermal Increased temperature of the planet
Biomass Energy source that is derived from heat in the Earth

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REVIEWING
Assess some of the impacts
of changes in, and increased
access to, sources of energy
for a community.
Discuss some of the ways in
which electricity can be
provided in remote locations.
10
1 Assess the impact of the introduction of coal as the main source of energy.
2 Propose the changes to society as a result of the introduction of renewable
energy sources being adopted as the main source of energy.
3 Compare the methods that might be used to provide electricity to the
following remote towns: a town in outback New South Wales isolated by
a stretch of barren road, and a town in the Grampians, Victoria, surrounded
by mountains and bush.
4 Identify the energy source that has been linked with global warming.
5 Explain what a greenhouse is. Describe how the Earth’s atmosphere acts
like a greenhouse.
6 Explain why it is wrong to say that the greenhouse effect is bad for
the Earth.
7 Identify potential consequences of the increase in the average global
temperature.
8 Propose what can be done in terms of energy use to reduce the progress
of global warming.
9 Identify the observations made by Galvani in arriving at the theory of
animal electricity.
Identify the similarities between Galvani’s and Volta’s theories.

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PHYSICS FOCUS
NUCLEAR VERSUS SOLAR
The splitting of an atomic nucleus, known as nuclear
fission, can produce a great deal of energy from
naturally occurring atoms, such as uranium-235. The
amount of energy released from 1 kg of this material
is equivalent to the energy from burning 3 000 000 kg
of coal! The advantage in producing nuclear energy is
that it does not involve the production of carbon dioxide
(CO2), which is a greenhouse gas; however, the
burning of coal produces substantial amounts of CO2.
The disadvantage with using nuclear power is the
radioactive waste that is produced after most of the
available energy has been obtained. Although there
are methods of placing this waste in long-term storage
(a few thousand years), concerns persist about their
effectiveness. There is also concern about the
possibility of an accident in the nuclear reactor,
resulting in the release of radioactive gas into the air.
This fear is based on the harmful effects of radiation
exposure, such as radiation sickness or cancer in the
long term—both can be fatal.
Solar energy has been offered as an alternative
source of energy because there is no harmful waste,
it does not involve the production of greenhouse gases
and it is inexhaustible. The disadvantage is that it is
a diffuse energy source requiring a much larger land
area than nuclear power plants. Solar energy is also
variable and depends on the time of day, season and
location. There are difficulties with energy storage
when there is insufficient sunlight. As a result, there
is some skepticism about its reliability, even though
this may not be an issue in practice. Finally,
consideration has also been given to the financial
costs of implementing solar power in comparison
to the current lower cost of nuclear power.
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
4. Describe applications of
physics which affect society or
the environment
1 There has been some discussion about placing
nuclear waste in a rocket and sending it to the
Sun. Discuss the feasibility of this idea.
2 The probability of being killed in an aeroplane
crash is many times greater than that of being
killed as a result of a nuclear reactor accident.
Discuss the merits of grounding all planes until
their safety is greatly improved.
3 If you were commissioned to locate a site in
Australia for storing radioactive waste, where would
you choose? Discuss the impact this choice might
have on nearby communities.
4 Say you had to choose a site for a solar energy
power plant that produces as much energy as a
coal-fired power station. This will require roughly
4 000 000 m2 of land area. Identify sites in or near
your city that might be suitable for such a plant.
Consider not only land area but also accessibility
to sunlight.
5 Assuming that you cannot find an appropriate
space for a solar power plant, devise a solution of
implementing solar energy generation for a major
city like Sydney.
6 There are approximately 435 nuclear power plants
around the world. Discuss the feasibility of replacing
all of these with solar energy plants. (Note that most
countries have a much smaller landmass than
Australia and are more heavily populated.)
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Charges, sparks
and currents
Electricity from amber
The properties of electrostatic electricity were noticed as far back as
600 BC. The ancient Greeks noticed that fossilised sap from trees,
static electricity, electrostatics, electrical
known as amber, attracted small pieces of fibre and hair after it was
charge, proton, electron, neutron, rubbed with fur. The Greek word for amber is elektron, from which
conservation of charge, conductor, insulator, we get the word electricity. In this chapter, we will look at the
semiconductor, electrophorus, direct properties of static electricity and what happens to it when
contact, induction, electric field, test charge, it starts to move.
electric field strength, edge effect, electric
current, charge carrier, drift, drift speed,
direct current, alternating current, electric
potential, electric potential difference,
DC circuit, conventional current, short circuit,
resistance, Ohm’s law, ohmic resistance,
non-ohmic resistance, resistor, resistivity

10.1 Discovering static electricity

Occasionally, you may be zapped by an electric shock from walking across a nylon
carpet and touching a doorknob, or you may have heard crackling when you’ve
taken off a woollen jumper while wearing a nylon shirt. This type of
electricity is acquired by friction and is known as static electricity; its study is
known as electrostatics. Static electricity occurs more frequently when the air is dry.
You can also charge other objects by rubbing—such as a plastic comb, plastic
pen or even an inflated balloon in your dry hair—and then use them to attract
small bits of paper or a thin water stream (Figure 10.1.1). An object is said
to be electrically charged when it is able to attract or repel other objects.

Figure 10.1.1 A charged balloon attracts a

thin stream of water.

CHECKPOINT 10.1
1 Define electrostatics.
2 Identify the properties exhibited by an electrically charged object.

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10.2 Origins of electrical charges

American polymath Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) realised that there are two
Describe the behaviour of
types of charges and he labelled them as positive (+) and negative (−). He electrostatic charges and the
considered electricity to be a fluid, and that a deficiency of the fluid is one type properties of the fields
of charge (−) and that an excess of fluid is another (+). Today, we still retain the associated with them.
positive and negative sign convention.
Electric charge comes from the atomic structure of matter. All atoms
have a positive charge from the protons in their nucleus and an equal negative
charge from the electron cloud around the nucleus. The charge on a proton is
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the charge on an electron. The
nucleus also contains neutrons, which have no electrical charge (Figure 10.2.1).
A neutral atom has an equal number of electrons and protons. Removing
electrons from an atom leaves an excess of positive charge, so the atom is now
positively charged (+). Similarly, an object with an excess of electrons is
negatively charged (−).

Figure 10.2.1 A neutral atom has an equal number of electrons and protons, but not necessarily
neutrons.

More generally, a material deficient in electrons is positively charged.

A surplus of electrons means the material is negatively charged. A material with
an equal number of negative and positive charges is said to be neutral. The
effect of friction adds or removes electrons from objects. The sign of the charge
produced by friction depends on the types of materials being used. For example,
a glass or Perspex rod rubbed with silk becomes positively charged. This means
that electrons were removed from the glass or Perspex onto the silk; therefore,
the silk becomes negatively charged.

CHECKPOINT 10.2
1 Explain the origins of the positive and negative terminology for the signs of charges.
2 Draw and label a neutral atom and identify the protons, neutrons and electrons.
3 Identify the changes in the atom when it becomes positively or negatively charged (use your illustration from
Question 2).

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10.3 Behaviour of electrostatic charges

Electrostatic charges can be made to attract or repel objects. For example, two
inflated balloons charged in the same way will repel each other because the sign
– – of the charge on the two balloons is the same (Figure 10.3.1). Charges of
– –
– – – – the same sign repel each other, and those of opposite sign attract one another.
– –
– – – –
– – – – That is, positive attracts negative, but positive repels positive and negative repels
– – negative.
Figure 10.3.1 Balloons with the same Neutral objects can also be attracted by a charged object, such as
charge repel each other. attracting neutral bits of paper with a charged balloon or plastic comb. The
approaching charged object shifts the positions of the positive and negative charges
in the paper so that there is a slight separation of charge. For example, a
+ –+ positively charged balloon will cause the nearest side of paper to become slightly
+ –+
+ –+ negative, while the other side of the paper becomes slightly positive. Because the
charged paper
balloon + –+ negative side of the paper is closer to the balloon, the attractive force due to the
+ –+ negative side is slightly greater than the repulsive force from the positive side. So
+ –+
the paper is attracted to the balloon (Figure 10.3.2).
+ –+
Charge can never be created or destroyed; it is conserved. This is the
induced
charges principle of the conservation of charge: the charge can only be moved from one
object to another. For example, a glass rod can be given a positive charge by
Figure 10.3.2 The positively charged balloon rubbing it with silk. The electrons that were removed from the rod ended up on
shifts the charges on a neutral the silk. The total charge on the silk and rod has remained the same.
piece of paper to produce an
attractive force between the
The smallest amount of charge that can be added or removed from an
balloon and paper. object is the charge of one electron, which is symbolised by e. The proton has the
same magnitude of charge but is positive. We use +e and –e for positive or negative
charge, respectively. The SI unit of electrical charge is the coulomb (C), named
Define the unit of electric
charge as the coulomb. after French physicist Charles Coulomb (1736–1806), who experimentally
worked out the dependence of the electrostatic force on the distance between
charged objects. The charge on an electron is –1.6 × 10–19 C, and that on
the proton is +1.6 × 10−19 C. We will see later that the coulomb is defined in
terms of electrical current. In typical laboratory experiments, in which we
manually charge objects, the charges obtained are typically about 10–6 C. So it
is convenient to use the micro coulomb unit (µC).

TRY THIS!
POLYSTYRENE FOUNTAIN
A plastic or paper cup filled with small
polystyrene foam beads on top of a
working Van de Graaff generator becomes
a fountain of Styrofoam. The beads all
acquire the same charge and repel one Figure 10.3.3 A cup filled with Styrofoam
another. Try this. Then have hours of beads on top of a Van de
fun cleaning up all those little foam Graaff generator acts as a
beads off the floor! fountain to demonstrate
electrostatic repulsion.

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Worked example
QUESTION
Lightning occurs when there is movement of charge either from the cloud to the ground or
between clouds. The thunder that you hear is the air becoming so hot that it explodes! This
may involve a movement of 50 C of charge, yet it is enough to make a tree explode. Assume
that all of this charge is negative. How many electrons does it take to produce 50 C?
SOLUTION
The total charge is an integer number N of electron charge e. That is:
N × e = 50
So the total number of electrons is:
50 50
N= = = 3.1 × 1020 electrons
e 1.6 × 10−19

CHECKPOINT 10.3
1 Construct a table that lists the repulsion or attraction between different combinations of charged pairs.
2 Draw a series of diagrams that show the distribution of charges in a neutral object when a positively charged object
is brought close to it.
3 State the law of conservation of charges.
4 Identify the value of the smallest charge that can be moved.
5 Rubbing your feet on a carpet produces, say, a charge of –1.6 × 10–16 C on you. Calculate the number of
electrons produced.

10.4 Conductors and insulators

It is difficult to charge a metal rod by friction with fur or silk. Any resulting
Identify the difference between
charge quickly moves from the rod, to your hand and then finally to Earth. Yet conductors and insulators.
the same process enables a Perspex rod to be charged. Metals allow excess charge
to move through them; other materials, such as plastic, do not allow this movement.
Materials that allow the movement of charge are known as electrical
conductors and those that don’t are known as insulators.
All metals such as copper, aluminium and silver are electrical conductors,
while materials such as plastic, rubber, glass and wood are electrical insulators.
Some of the electrons in conductors are not bound to the atoms and are therefore
free to move. All of the electrons in an insulator are strongly bound to the atoms
and cannot move. In materials, the movement of charge simply means the
movement of electrons. This is not the case for liquids, where there could be
movement of ions as well as electrons.

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SEMICONDUCTORS
S emiconductors are materials
with electrical conduction
properties in between those of
conductors and insulators. Silicon
and germanium are semiconductors
commonly used in the
manufacturing of microelectronic
circuits (also known as silicon
chips), which are used in all
electronic devices such as
computers, televisions and
mobile phones.

silicon wafer
Figure 10.4.1 Microelectronic circuits on a

TRY THIS!
CHARGING METALS
The electrophorus is a metal
plate with an insulating
handle, such as plastic. The
easiest way to charge it is by
touching it to the charged
sphere of a Van de Graaff
generator. You can then zap
anything with the charge on
the electrophorus.

Figure 10.4.2 An electrophorus is being

charged by a Van de Graaff
generator.

CHECKPOINT 10.4
1 Distinguish between conductors and insulators.

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10.5 Charging methods

Conductors are more easily charged by direct contact with other charged
Describe the behaviour of
conductors, or by being near these conductors and having a charge induced on electrostatic charges and the
them, which is known as induction. Let us look at both of these methods. properties of the fields
associated with them.
Charging by direct contact
Charging by direct contact simply involves the touching of charged metal
with an uncharged metal (Figure 10.5.1). The metal can be any shape, but the
simplest to deal with is a sphere. Note that for the metal to remain charged, it
must be insulated from the ground or any other object.
The amount of charge transferred depends on the size of the uncharged object.
For example, two identical spheres will end up holding the same amount of charge. +
+
+ + +
+
Worked example +
+ +
+

+ +
QUESTION
Two metal spheres are identical in size. Calculate the final charge on each sphere when +
+
they touch if: +
+ +
+
a one sphere has a charge of +2 µC and the other sphere is uncharged +
+
+
+
b one sphere has a charge of +2 µC and the other has −2 µC. + +

SOLUTION Figure 10.5.1 Charging by direct contact

a The two spheres are identical, so the final charge on each sphere will be half of the
initial charge on the charged sphere. That is, each sphere will hold +1µC.
b As the two spheres are identical, there will be an equal movement of charge
between them. The total charge for both spheres will be +2µC − 2µC = O C.
That means the charge on each sphere will also be 0 C.

NEUTRAL EARTH
T he Earth is a large uncharged
sphere. Anything that is
charged can be quickly made –
–
–

–
–
–
– – –
–
neutral by touching it to the –
– – –
earth. It can supply electrons to – –

neutralise a positively charged

conductor, or it can accept
excess electrons from a
negatively charged conductor. –
The symbol for an earth
connection is given by the
triangular-shaped three horizontal
bars: .
Figure 10.5.2 Any charged conductor will
be neutralised by
connecting it to earth.

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Charging by induction
Charging a conductor without direct contact is known as charging by
induction (Figure 10.5.3). To charge an insulated and uncharged metal sphere,
bring a negatively charged rod such as Perspex close to the sphere. The electrons will
be repelled by the negatively charged rod and move to the opposite side of the
sphere, leaving the near side positively charged. A fraction of the electrons on the
negative side can now be removed by connecting that side to earth—you can do this
by touching the sphere. First remove the earth (that is, stop touching) and then take
away the charged rod. This will leave an excess of positive charge on the sphere.

a b c
+ + – +
– – –
+ + + + – – + + +
–
– + – – – – – + – – – – – +– –
– + – –+ + +
+ – + –
– + + +– + +
earth

d e
+ +
–
+ + – – +
+
– – – +– – + +
+ + + – –
–
+ + + +

Figure 10.5.3 Charging a metal sphere by induction: (a) start with a neutral metal sphere;
(b) bring a charged rod near the metal sphere; (c) connect the opposite side
to earth by touching the sphere; (d) remove the earth; (e) remove the rod. The
sphere is now charged.

CHECKPOINT 10.5
1 List the different methods for charging an object.
2 Two identical spheres, with +2 µC and –3 µC charges, are brought into contact and then separated. Calculate the
charges they now each carry.
3 Explain charging by induction by using diagrams.

+ +

+
+
+ +
+

+ + E
10.6 Electric fields
+ +
+
+ +
+ A field is a region in space in which an object experiences a force. For example,
any object with a mass in the Earth’s gravitational field will experience a force
Figure 10.6.1 The direction of the electric field that points towards the centre of the Earth. Similarly, any region of space
at a small positive test charge
near a positively charged sphere
in which there is a force on a stationary charged object is said to contain an
electric field.
The direction of the electric field at a point is the direction of the force on a
– very small positive charge at that point, known as a test charge. For example,
– –
– – Figure 10.6.1 shows the electric field vector E at a small positive test charge
– – – +
–
–
E placed near a large positively charged sphere. The electric field points in the
– – opposite direction to the positively charged sphere. Figure 10.6.2 shows the
electric field near a negatively charged sphere at a small positive test charge.
Figure 10.6.2 The direction of the electric field
at a small positive test charge The electric field points towards the centre of the negatively charged sphere.
near a negatively charged sphere

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The electric field vector E is defined as the ratio of the force F on a Define the electric field as a
small positive charge q, given by: field of force with a field
F strength equal to the force per
E=
q unit charge at that point:

The magnitude of the electric field is also known as the electric field strength. F
E=
q
It has units of force per unit charge, which in SI units is newtons per coulomb
(N C−1). An equivalent unit is volts per metre (V m–1). You’ll learn about volts
later in this chapter.

Worked example
QUESTION Solve problems and analyse
–19 information using:
An electron with a charge of 1.6 × 10 C is placed in an electric field strength of
2.0 × 105 N C–1 directed in a northerly direction. Calculate the electric force on the electron. F
E=
SOLUTION q

E = 2.0 × 105 N C–1, q = 1.6 × 10–19 C, F = ?

Rearrange the expression for electric field and we obtain:
F = qE = (1.6 × 10–19)(2.0 × 105) = 3.2 × 10–14 N, north

Electric field lines

A way of visualising the electric field is to draw lines that indicate the
direction of the force on a positive charge at each point in space. A negative
charge will move in the opposite direction to the field. Closely spaced lines mean
higher electric field strength and vice versa. Uniformly spaced lines mean it is a
uniform field.
Electric field lines are not real lines. They are only used to help us give
a qualitative description of the field. We can only draw a finite number of lines:
the field is actually continuous—existing everywhere in space.
The electric field lines around a point positive or negative charge are shown + –
in Figure 10.6.3. Although these are two-dimensional drawings, the lines actually
radiate outwards for a positive charge and inwards for a negative charge in three
dimensions. The greatest repulsive or attractive force is in the region of the lines a b
with the closest spacing—near the charge, in this case. Figure 10.6.3 Electric field lines radiate
(a) outwards for a point positive
charge and (b) inwards for a
point negative charge.

HAIR-RAISING
ELECTRIC
FIELDS
A person charged using a Van
de Graaff generator has an
electric field that radiates
outwards (or inwards) from their
head as demonstrated by the
direction of the hair in Figure 10.6.4 The direction of the hair is
Figure 10.6.4. the same as that of the
electric field.

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Present diagrammatic information Drawing electric field lines

to describe the electric field
strength and direction:
• between charged parallel
plates
• about and between a positive
and negative point charge.
+ –
There are some guidelines for drawing electric field lines for two or more charges:
• The lines must begin on a positive charge and end on a negative charge.
• Larger charges have more lines starting or ending on them.
• Lines cannot cross.
For example, the electric field lines for a pair of opposite and equal point
charges are shown in Figure 10.6.5. The number of field lines leaving the positive
charge is equal to the number of lines ending on the negative charge. The lines are
radial at very close distances to the charges. These lines are more closely spaced
near the charges to indicate a higher electric field strength in that region.
The electric field lines between two equal charges q of the same sign are shown
in Figure 10.6.6 for positive and negative charges. The region indicated by the
dashed line is where the electric field strength is zero because the electric fields
from both charges cancel each other.

a b
Figure 10.6.5 The electric field lines for two
point charges of equal
magnitude but opposite in sign.
+ + – –

Figure 10.6.6 Electric field lines around (a) two equal positive charges and (b) two equal
+ 2q + – –q negative charges.

The field lines around +2q and –q, as shown in Figure 10.6.7, have twice the
number of lines emerging from +2q as the number ending on –q. Half the number
of lines emerging from +2q go to –q; the other half go to infinity.
The field lines between two parallel metal plates that carry charges that are
opposite in sign but equal in magnitude are shown in Figure 10.6.8. Equally
Figure 10.6.7 The electric field lines
spaced and parallel lines indicate that the field is equal in magnitude and direction
around two point charges
of +2q and –q mostly in the centre of the plates. In this case the field is said to be uniform.
Moving out towards the edge of the plates, the field lines start to curve and
become unevenly spaced, indicating a non-uniform field (called the edge effect).
Electric field lines at a metal surface are always at right angles to the surface
+q
(if the charges are stationary).

–q

Figure 10.6.8 The electric field lines between

two oppositely charged parallel
metal plates

PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 10.1
Activity Manual, Page
94

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Worked example
QUESTION
+q
Draw the electric field lines around a point charge of +q placed above an initially uncharged
and insulated metal plate that is so wide that it can be considered infinitely wide.
– – – – – – – – –q
SOLUTION + + + + + + + +
+q
There are no edge effects for an infinitely wide plate. There was no electric field above the
plate prior to placing +q there. The electric field lines from the +q terminate on the metal
plate at right angles to the surface. The negative charge on the plate moves to the top
surface, leaving the lower surface positively charged. The charge on the top surface of the Figure 10.6.9 Solution to the worked
plate is –q, which is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the point charge of +q. example of electric field lines
The lower surface of the plate has a charge of +q. (See Figure 10.6.9.) between a point charge and a
metal plate

CHECKPOINT 10.6
1 Identify the similarity between electric and gravitational fields.
2 Draw the electric field lines around the following combinations of charged pairs separated by a distance.
a two identical positive charges
b one positive and one negative charge, where the charges have the same magnitude
c two oppositely charged plates, with the same charge magnitude
d a positive and negative charge, where the negative charge magnitude is twice that of the positive charge
3 Calculate the electric field needed to create a force of 1.6 × 10–13 N on an ionised hydrogen atom.
4 Draw the field lines at the edges of identical parallel plates with equal and opposite charge.

10.7 Electric current

Free ions and electrons can be moved through space by an electrical field.
Define electric current as the
An electric current is defined as the rate of flow of net charge through a rate at which charge flows
region. That is, if we add the number of positive charges and subtract the (coulombs per second or
number of negative charges moving together in the same direction, we should amperes) under the influence
have a non-zero number. If the net charge is zero, there is no current. of an electric field.
Only the outer electrons of atoms in conducting solids are free to move; the
remainder of the atoms, called ions, are bonded together and cannot move in
response to an applied electric field. However, ions and electrons produced from
a gas, such as in neon or fluorescent signs, are both free to move in opposite
–
directions under the influence of an electric field. –

As shown in Figure 10.7.1, the current I of N electrons, each with charge e –

–
(–1.6 × 10–19 C), moving through a cross-sectional area A in t seconds, is given by: A
–
–
–

N ×e Q – –
I= =
t t
Figure 10.7.1 Flow of electrons through a
wire constitutes an electric
where Q = Ne is the net charge. current.

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The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A); in fact, the coulomb
is defined as the charge carried past a point per second by 1 A of current.

Worked example
QUESTION
Suppose an electric current consists only of the flow of electrons. For 1 A of current,
calculate the number of electrons that flow past a point in 1 s.
SOLUTION
1 A is 1 C of charge flowing for 1 s. We need to find out how many electrons are in 1 C. The
charge on each electron is 1.6 × 10–19 C. The number of electrons can be obtained from the
definition of current I given by:
N ×e
I=
t
Rearrange this so that the left-hand side is the number of electrons N given by:
I ×t
N=
e
The number of electrons can now be calculated:
1×1
N= = 6.3 × 1018
1.6 × 10−19

The net charge of electric current is zero if equal and opposite charges are
moving together in the same direction. This means there is no current flow.

Worked example

–
+ +
+
+
– +
+ +
a b
– –
+
+
– The types of charges that
–
c d
Figure 10.7.2 Charge motion in four
different regions
QUESTION
The four diagrams in Figure 10.7.2 show different numbers of positive and negative charges
moving horizontally with the same speed. Rank them from highest to lowest current.
SOLUTION
If a positive charge +q moves in the opposite direction to a negative charge −q, there is a
net movement of charge of 2q. They only cancel if they move in the same direction. In this
problem: (a) is the highest, (b) and (c) are equal, and (d) is the lowest.
Vd
constitute an electric current are
known as mobile charge carriers
(charge carriers, for short). In metals, –
the charge carriers are electrons only.
In ionised gases, they are electrons and
positive ions because they are both free
E
to move. In electrolyte solutions, such
as salt water or copper sulfate, the Figure 10.7.3 An electron drifts in the
opposite direction to an
charge carriers are both positive and electric field while maintaining
negative ions. its random motion.

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Current in a conductor
The electrons in conductors are constantly moving and colliding with the atoms
of the metal in completely random motion. An applied field only changes the

Current
random motions slightly by causing a net movement in the opposite direction to
the field, as shown in Figure 10.7.3. This net movement of electrons is referred
to as drift and is responsible for the electric current in the metal. The average
speed with which drift takes place is called the drift speed (vd ). 10 20 30 40 50

Even though the instantaneous speed of the random motion is about 105 m s–1,
a typical drift speed is about 10–4 m s–1. An electron will drift 1 m in about 2.8 h!
For example, a light bulb is turned on almost instantaneously by flicking a switch; Time (ms)

the electric fields propagate throughout and around the wires very quickly Figure 10.7.4 The periodic change in the
(almost at the speed of light) to move the electrons in the light bulb. direction of current through
the power cord of an appliance
Direct current and alternating current connected to the household
Sources of electricity, such as batteries, that cause the electrical current to power outlet socket. Negative
flow in one direction are called direct current (DC) sources. Electrons flow from current means it is travelling
in an opposite direction.
the negative (−) to the positive (+) ends of the battery. Other sources of
electricity that cause the electrons to change direction periodically, such as Identify that current can be either
household electricity, are called alternating current (AC) sources (Figure 10.7.4). direct with the net flow of charge
In Australia, domestic electricity is AC at a frequency of 50 Hz. carriers moving in one direction or
alternating with the charge carriers
moving backwards and forwards
periodically.

CHECKPOINT 10.7
1 Calculate the current when 2 × 1016 electrons pass a point in a circuit during 10 s.
2 Explain why there are positive charge carriers in gases and liquids but not solids.
3 Explain why it is necessary to talk about the drift of electrons rather than their detailed movement.
4 Compare and contrast AC and DC.

10.8 Electric potential energy and

potential difference
Recall from Section 4.3 that doing ‘work on a system’ means you are adding + + + + + + +
+q A
energy and that the ‘amount of work done’ simply means the amount of energy
added. Work is done whenever a force is used to move an object through some mg

distance. Before the object starts to move, we say that the force on the object has
the potential to do work. This is known as potential energy; it can be thought of B
ground
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

as stored energy. An example of this is gravitational potential energy U, such as

a b
when a book is raised above the ground and held there (Figure 10.8.1a).
Figure 10.8.1 (a) A book with gravitational
potential energy; (b) a
positive charge with electrical
potential energy

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Exactly the same idea of potential energy applies in an electric field. An

Describe electric potential
difference (voltage) between
two points as the change in
potential energy per unit
charge moving from one point
to the other (joules per
coulomb or volts).
electrical force on a positive charge q (due to the electric field in Figure 10.8.1b)
will move the charge towards the negative plate, thus doing work on the charge.
This means that the charge has an electrical potential energy at point A (PEA).
Increasing the number of charges at point A increases the total electrical
potential energy at that point. A more convenient quantity to deal with,
and more easily measured, is the electric potential (V ). This is defined as
potential energy per unit charge. The electric potential at point A (VA) is
therefore given by:
PE
VA = A
q

Discuss how potential difference
changes between different
points around a DC circuit.
LIGHTNING
VERSUS COAL
The SI unit of electric potential is joules per coulomb (J C−1) or volt (V).
The electric field moves the charges from A to B. The work done W on the charge
is the difference in the potential energy between points A and B and is given by:
W = PEA − PEB
The electric potential difference between points A and B is given by:
W PE − PEB
= A = VA − VB = ΔV
q q
This is the energy per unit charge when moving a total charge of q from A to B.
The symbol for potential difference has been shortened to ΔV. In practice,
we leave out the delta (Δ) and define the electric potential difference as the work
done per unit charge, given by:
W
V =
q
The potential difference (or voltage) across the terminals of a battery is
usually written on it.

I t has been proposed that

lightning be used as an energy
source instead of generating
energy from coal-fired power
stations. A typical power station
is capable of producing roughly
109 J every second for 24 h
each day. From the worked
examples, that means one
lightning strike would be the
equivalent of roughly 4 s of
operation of a coal-fired power
station. Do you think capturing
the energy from lightning is a
realistic alternative?
Worked example
QUESTION
A lightning strike between a highly charged cloud and the ground involves the movement
of 40 C of charge. The potential difference between the ground and the cloud is 108 V.
Calculate the energy produced during the lightning strike.
SOLUTION
The energy is equivalent to the work done on the 40 C of charge. This is given by:
Work ≡ W = Vq
where V is the potential difference of 108 V and q is the charge moved, which is 40 C.
Therefore, the energy produced is:
W = 108 × 40 = 4 × 109 J

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CHECKPOINT 10.8
1 Calculate the potential difference when 10 J of energy is required to move a charge of 100 µC.
2 The electric potential lines shown in Figure 10.8.2 are equally spaced. Referring to Figure 10.8.2, calculate the
energy needed to move an electron from:
a A to B 80 V
A D
b B to A
B
c B to C 0V C
d A to C
e A to D Figure 10.8.2 Electric potential lines

10.9 DC circuits
A digital camera powered by a battery is an example of a DC circuit. Electrons
leave the negative terminal of the battery, go through the camera and then return
to the positive terminal of the battery. Other forms of DC circuits include
+
photovoltaic cells (solar cells) and power supplies that convert AC from the wall
+
power outlet to DC so that, for example, a mobile phone can be recharged.
The symbol for a DC power supply (no matter what it is) is shown in –
Figure 10.9.1. The longer and shorter lines represent the positive (+) and negative
terminals (−), respectively. A schematic diagram of a DC power supply connected
to a device is shown in Figure 10.9.2a. The electrons travel from the negative
terminal through the wires and device, ending up on the positive terminal. There
can only be a continuous flow of current if there are unbroken lines of wires
between the components of a circuit. –
Traditionally, current flow
device device Figure 10.9.1 The positive (+) and negative
in circuits was thought to be the
(−) terminals of a power
–
movement of positive charge from the supply are represented
+ – e + –
positive to the negative terminals. schematically by a long and
battery
a b
This is known as conventional a short line, respectively.
current (Figure 10.9.2b). In reality,
Figure 10.9.2 DC circuits with (a) real only electrons can travel through
current and (b) conventional metal wires. The idea of conventional
current
current was originated by Benjamin
Franklin (see Section 10.2). We now know better, but this convention has
persisted to this day. In practice, it doesn’t make any difference to the
mathematical analysis of a circuit. Perhaps you can be part of the revolution to PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
overthrow this outdated convention!
Activity 10.2
A short circuit is a direct connection between the two terminals of the DC Activity Manual, Page
98
power supply, bypassing any other electrical components.

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TRY THIS!
THE SIMPLEST POSSIBLE CIRCUIT
Take a 1.5 V battery, insulated wire with its ends
exposed and a small torch light bulb. Connect them
as shown in Figure 10.9.3 and the light bulb will
glow. The wire touches the side of the bulb, while the
pointed end of the bulb touches the battery terminal.
Ask your non-physics friends to make the light bulb
glow. You might be surprised by some of the ways
they try and do it. Figure 10.9.3 A simple circuit that lights up a light bulb

Resistance
Electrons travelling through a circuit will experience many collisions with the
Define resistance as the ratio
of voltage to current for a atoms that make up the conductors in the circuit. Each collision results in energy
particular conductor: being lost as heat. Sometimes this heat serves a useful purpose, such as that from
V an electric heater; other heat from electron collisions can be unwanted, such as
R= . that produced by the circuitry of your computer.
I
The property of a material that measures this collisional property of
electrons is known as resistance. The resistance R of a component in a circuit is
defined as the ratio of the potential difference across it and the current I through
it. This is given by:
V
R=
I
Regardless of the current flowing magnitude, this constant ratio is referred to
PRACTICAL as Ohm’s law (named after German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1789–1854),
EXPERIENCES who first investigated it in 1827). Consequently, the unit of resistance is known as
Activity 10.3 the ohm. A resistance with a constant ratio is referred to as an ohmic resistance;
Activity Manual, Page
105 otherwise it is non-ohmic. A potential difference of one volt produces a current
of one ampere through a component of resistance one ohm. The symbol for
ohm is Ω (the Greek letter omega). A component with known resistance is called
a resistor. The symbol for a resistor is a rectangle or a zigzag line with its value
100 Ω 100 Ω next to it, as shown in Figure 10.9.4. The zigzag line is an older symbol still
occasionally used.
Wires used to connect circuit components together should ideally have zero
Figure 10.9.4 A resistor of 100 Ω is shown resistance. In reality, wires do have some resistance; however, properly chosen
as a rectangle or zigzag line. wires will have a very small resistance.

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Worked example Solve problems and analyse

QUESTION information applying:
V
Car headlights contain incandescent light bulbs that have a very thin wire known as a R=
I
filament. The filament becomes very hot as current passes through it, which makes it glow.
A 12.00 V car battery powers the light bulbs, and a current of 5.00 A flows through each
light bulb.
a Calculate the resistance of the filament.
b After a while the battery’s voltage diminishes to 10.00 V as it runs out of charge. RESISTORS IN
Calculate the current that now flows through one light bulb. ELECTRONIC
SOLUTION CIRCUITRY
Both parts of this problem are solved by substituting into Ohm’s law.

a R= =
V 12.00
= 2.40 Ω
R esistors are an important
part of electronic circuitry.
Their resistance is usually
I 5.00
indicated by colour-coded stripes.
b Rearrange Ohm’s law to:
The experienced electronics
V 10.00 technician simply looks at these
I= = = 4.17 A
R 2.40 colours and instantly knows the
resistance in ohms.
Properties that determine resistance
Resistors are usually constructed of a length of wire or a thin film of material,
such as carbon. Different materials with the same dimensions result in different
resistance values. Materials with very low resistance, such as aluminium or
copper, are good conductors; the poorest conductors, such as plastics, wood and
glass, are insulators. The four factors that affect the resistance of a material
are its length, cross-sectional area, temperature and the type of material.
Figure 10.9.5 Colour-coded resistors
Length and cross-sectional area
Consider a section of a length of wire L with a cross-sectional area A.
Describe qualitatively how each
Experimentally, it is found that the resistance increases with length, but
of the following affects the
decreases with increasing cross-sectional area according to the following relationship: movement of electricity through
length a conductor:
Resistance • length
cross-sectional area
• cross-sectional area
L • temperature
R
A • material.

Power transmission lines that carry electricity from the power plant to our
homes are very long. Therefore, their resistance starts to become considerable.
As a result, they have to be made as thick as possible (large cross-sectional area)
to try to keep their resistance at a minimum so that a minimum of energy is lost
along the way. If they are too thick, they may not be able to support their own
weight. Quite often, aluminium is used as the conductor rather than copper
because it is both cheaper and lighter and almost as conducting as copper.
Aluminium wire is often strengthened with steel wire strands.

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Worked example
QUESTION
A wire of length 1 m and diameter 0.50 mm (0.50 × 10–3 m) has a resistance of 2.00 × 10–3 Ω.
A student wants to make another wire with the same resistance but can only find wire of the
same material with a diameter of 1.00 mm. To what length must he cut this new wire so
that its resistance will be the same as the original one?
SOLUTION
Recall that:
L1
R
A1
where A1 and L1 are the cross-sectional area and length of the original wire, which we
assume to be a cylindrical shape. L1 is given as 1.00 m. Let D1 symbolise the diameter,
which is 0.50 mm. First find the cross-sectional area:
2 2
D 0.50 × 10 −3
A1 = π 1 =π = 1.96 × 10 −7 m 2
2 2

Before calculating the length of the second wire L2, calculate the cross-sectional area A2
of the second wire, which has a diameter of 1 mm. Let D2 symbolise this diameter. That is:
2 2
D 1.00 × 10−3
A2 = π 2 =π = 7.85 × 10−7 m2
2 2

The ratio of length and cross-sectional area is constant, so the resistance remains
unchanged. That is:
L1 L 2
=
A1 A 2

1 L2
=
1.96 × 10−7 7.85 × 10−7

Solving for L2 we obtain:

L2 = 4.00 m
This means the second wire has to be four times longer than the original.

Temperature
The resistance of a conductor can be increased by heating it. Heating
causes the atoms that make up the material to vibrate with greater amplitude.
This results in the electrons colliding with the atoms more frequently as they
move through the material. Increased number of collisions means greater
resistance.
For example, the filament in a 60 W household incandescent light bulb may
be about 40 Ω when it is off but about 1000 Ω when it glows. The current
running through it heats it to very high temperatures, which dramatically
increases its resistance (Figure 10.9.6).

Figure 10.9.6 The resistance of an

incandescent light bulb
filament increases when it
becomes hot.

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Material
The type of material also determines the resistance of a conductor. Some
materials are more conducting than others because they may have more electrons
that are free to move (known as conduction electrons). Ordered from most to
least conducting, the metals from which wires can be made include: silver,
copper, gold, aluminium, tungsten, iron, lead and nichrome (an alloy of nickel
and chromium).
Silver gives the lowest resistance, provided that the dimensions of all the wires
are the same; however, silver is expensive, so the next best conductor to use is
copper since it is relatively cheap. Not surprisingly, most wires are made of copper.

RESISTIVITY
Table 10.9.1 Resistivity of some metals at room temperature
T he resistance of a material can be summed up in the
following equation:
L MATERIAL RESISTIVITY ρ (Ωm)
R=ρ
A Silver 1.59 × 10–8
Copper 1.72 ×10–8
The resistance R is directly proportional to the length L and
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area A. The Gold 2.44 × 10–8
constant of proportionality ρ (rho) is called the resistivity. Aluminium 2.82 × 10–8
The units of resistivity are ohm metres (Ω m). This is a Tungsten 5.60 × 10–8
constant that is characteristic of a particular material. Iron 9.70 × 10–8
Knowing the constant of proportionality enables the
Lead 20.8 × 10–8
resistance of a wire to be accurately calculated.
Nichrome 100.00 × 10–8
Resistivity data is readily available; some values are
given in Table 10.9.1.
As you can see, silver is the least resistive material,
followed closely by copper. The most resistive wire in
this list is nichrome, which is an alloy of nickel and
chromium. It is used as the heating element in electric
heaters (Figure 10.9.7).

Figure 10.9.7 An electric heater uses nichrome wire because of its

high resistance.

CHECKPOINT 10.9
1 Draw a circuit that includes a light, battery and switch.
2 Calculate the potential difference in a circuit that has 1.6 A of current and a resistance of 3 Ω.
3 Compare an ohmic resistor with a non-ohmic resistor.

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10 PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
Present diagrammatic
information to describe the
electric field strength and
direction:
• between charged parallel
plates
• about and between a
positive and negative point
charge.
200
CHAPTER 10
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
ACTIVITY 10.1: ELECTRIC FIELDS
Using a Van de Graaff generator, create an electric field in an oil-filled Petri dish
between two parallel metal plates or between two point conductors. Sprinkle a
thick layer of grass seeds all over the oil surface to create a visual map of the electric
field for both cases.
Equipment: Petri dish, olive oil or castor oil, two point conducting wires, two
flat metal plates, grass seeds, Van de Graaff generator.
a b
Figure 10.10.1 Grass seeds create a visual map of the electric field between (a) two metal
plates and (b) two point conductors.
Discussion questions
1 Describe the behaviour of grass seeds in both situations.
2 Identify the regions of highest and lowest electric field strengths.
 ELECTRICAL
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ACTIVITY 10.2: RELATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT Plan, choose equipment for
Connect the DC circuit shown in Figure 10.10.2 and deduce the relationship and perform a first-hand
investigation to gather data and
between voltage and current.
use the available evidence to
Equipment: connect resistor, power supply, switch, ammeter, voltmeter. show the relationship between
voltage across and current in a
V DC circuit.

A
resistor

switch + –
power
supply

Figure 10.10.2 Connect this DC circuit.

Discussion questions
1 Deduce the mathematical relationship between voltage and current from a
graph of voltage versus current.
2 Compare the value of the resistor with that deduced from the graph.
Assess the accuracy of the result.

ACTIVITY 10.3: POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ALONG A CIRCUIT

Using the circuit set-up shown in Figure 10.10.3 and a voltmeter as a probing Plan, choose equipment for
device, measure the potential difference between: A and B, A and C, A and D, and perform a first-hand
B and C, B and D, C and D, E and F. investigation to gather data and
Equipment: power supply, voltmeter, three resistors. use the available evidence to
show the variations in potential
A B C D difference between different
points around a DC circuit.

E F
+ –

Figure 10.10.3 Three resistors in series with

a power supply

Discussion questions
1 Identify the pairs of points with the same potential difference.
2 Write a short paragraph to explain how voltage difference changes
around a circuit.

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Chapter summary
• Electrostatic electricity is produced by friction. • An electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge.
• An electrically charged object is able to repel or attract • The unit of electric current is the ampere (A).
other objects. • Direct currents (DC) travel in one direction.
• There are two types of charge: positive and negative. Alternating currents (AC) change direction periodically.
• Electric charges originate from the charge on an atom. • Electrical potential is the potential energy per unit charge.
• Like charges repel; unlike charges attract. • The unit of electric potential is the volt (V).
• Charge can be neither created nor destroyed; it is only • Conventional current is the flow of a fictitious positive
moved around. charge in a circuit, whereas the real current is the flow
• The unit of charge is the coulomb (C). of electrons in the opposite direction.
• Conductors are materials that allow the movement of • Resistance is related to the energy lost by electrons
charge through them. Those that do not are insulators. colliding with the ions in a material.
• Conductors can be charged by direct contact or induction. • The resistance of a component is given by the ratio of
• An electric field is a region in space where an object potential difference across it and the current flowing
experiences an electric force. through it.
• Electric fields are represented diagrammatically by • The resistance of a material is determined by its length,
parallel lines whose spacing indicates the field strength. cross-sectional area, temperature and type of material.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Define the listed concepts in the table below.

CONCEPT DEFINITION SYMBOL UNITS

Charge V C
Force I A
Electric field W N C–1
Current q J
Work F N
Potential E V

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REVIEWING Look at the following combinations of materials

rubbed together and deduce which will become
positively and negatively charged.
Describe the behaviour of electrostatic charges and a rubber and cotton
the properties of the fields associated with them. b glass and cat fur
1 A negatively charged plastic rod is brought near a c rabbit fur and amber
metal sphere on an insulating stand. On a diagram, 7 a Draw the electric field lines around two identical
identify the resulting positively and negatively and insulated spheres with equal positive charge
charged regions on the sphere. and separated by a distance of a couple of
2 Identify whether the following pairs of balloons diameters.
attract, repel or do nothing. b Explain how it is possible to have an area in
a two positively charged balloons with the same which there is no electric field.
charge c Describe the effect on a charge placed in
b two oppositely charged balloons with the same this area.
charge 8 Describe the difference between electrostatics
c two negatively charged balloons with the same and current.
charge
9 Explain how it is possible to have moving charges and
d one balloon with a positive charge and one that is
yet no net current.
neutral
10 Electricity in a circuit is often explained using water
3 a Classify each of the following materials as either
in pipes as an analogy. Using this analogy, explain
conductors or insulators: tin, paper, wood,
how each of the following terms is related to water
plastic, aluminium, graphite, people.
flow in pipes.
b Identify the property of electrons in a material
a electrons
that makes that material a good electrical
b current
conductor.
c conductor
4 Explain why conductors do not retain their charge d resistance
when charged by friction.
11 Describe how electric field lines and potential lines
5 Identify the three main methods of charging an object. are related.
6 Some materials have a greater pull on electrons than 12 Define Ohm’s law in words.
others. The triboelectric series places materials in
13 When the voltage across a certain conductor is
order from greatest pull to least pull. This series is
doubled, the current is observed to increase by a
provided below.
factor of three. Assess whether the resistance of this
conductor is ohmic or non-ohmic.
TRIBOELECTRIC SERIES
14 Deduce how the resistance R of a wire changes if:
Celluloid
a the cross-sectional area is doubled
Sulfur b the length of the wire is increased to five times
Rubber its original length
Copper, brass c the radius of the wire is doubled.
Amber
Wood SOLVING PROBLEMS
Cotton
Human skin 15 Silk is used to rub a glass rod, which results in
Silk 4 × 1013 electrons being removed from the rod.
Cat fur Deduce the sign and calculate the magnitude of
the charge on the glass rod.
Wool
Glass 16 Calculate the number of electrons in a spark jumping
Rabbit fur from a student’s finger as she reaches for a door
handle if the charge is determined to be –5 µC.
Asbestos

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17 Two identical metal spheres placed on wooden 21
stands are separated, charged, placed in contact
with each other and then separated again. For each
of the original charges listed below, calculate the 22
charges after the above sequence of events.
a +2 µC and –1 µC
b +3 µC and +3 µC
c –3 µC and 0 µC
d –4.5 µC and +2 µC
Solve problems and analyse information using:
F top and bottom is 9.0 × 108 V.
E=
q 23
18 Four isolated 50 cent coins carry the following
charges: +2.0, –3.2, +5.8, –1.0 µC. The coins are
brought together simultaneously so that they all
touch one another. They are then separated. Assume
that the coins were isolated from earth all the time.
a Calculate the final charge on each coin. 24
b Identify whether there is a deficiency or excess of
electrons in the final charge on each coin.
c Calculate the number of electrons in deficiency or 25
excess in the final charge on each coin.
19 There is an electric field at the Earth’s surface, even
on a nice sunny day, owing to charges in the upper 26
atmosphere. The force on an electron due to
this electric field is measured and found to be
1.6 × 10–17 N. Calculate the magnitude of this field.
20 On take-off, an aeroplane flies through a large
thundercloud. The top of the cloud has a large
positive charge; the bottom has an equal but opposite
charge such that the electric field at the position of
the aeroplane is uniform and has a magnitude of
9.0 ×104 N C–1. Due to friction with the air, the
aeroplane has acquired a charge of +1.0 × 10–3 C.
a Deduce the direction of the electric field at the
position of the aeroplane.
b Calculate the electric force on the plane and
identify its direction.
c Assess whether the electric force will affect the
flight trajectory of the plane.
A potential difference of 2.0 × 104 V is used to
accelerate an electron in a TV set. Calculate the
work done on the electron.
The top and bottom of a thundercloud are oppositely
charged as a result of charge separation. The
electrical potential energy is equal to the work done
in separating this charge. Calculate the electrical
potential energy stored in the thundercloud if its top
and bottom have charges of +40 and –40 C,
respectively, and the potential difference between
The beam electron current in a particular TV is
30.0 µA. Calculate the number of electrons that
strike the tube screen every 40.0 s.
Solve problems and analyse information applying:
V = IR
A light bulb has a resistance of 1000 Ω when
operated with a potential difference of 240 V
across it. Calculate the current in the light bulb.
Calculate the number electrons that will flow in a
circuit when a 2.0 Ω resistor is connected across a
1.5 V battery in 1.0 s.
Light bulbs normally use a very thin tungsten wire
(known as a filament) curled many times so that
its length can be packed into a small space.
Using Table 10.9.1, calculate the resistance of
a 1.0 m length of a tungsten filament with a
diameter of 2.5 × 10–5 m.

204

PHYSICS FOCUS
LIGHTNING IN THE OUTBACK
It is a sunny day and you take a drive with a friend to
outback Australia. You reach the scenic open roads
and you can see for miles since the area in which you
are driving is flat. You stop to take a rest and as you
get out of the car, you are zapped painfully by static
electricity as you place your leg on the ground. Your
friend is a technical person and says, ‘Silly me, I
forgot to fit the conducting strap so that it dangles
from the car and touches the ground as we drive.’
She quickly fits the conducting strap to the back of
the car. Suddenly, black clouds cover the skies and
the rumble of thunder and flash of lightning is upon
you. Lightning bolts strike the ground nearby with
deafening explosions. The day is now shaping to be
an unpleasant one.
P4. Describes applications of physics
which affect society or the environment
Figure 10.10.4 Lightning over the town of Tamworth, NSW
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
1 Explain why your friend needed to fit a conducting
strap between the car and the ground.
2 Explain why static electricity is a particular
problem on dry days and not humid days.
3 You are in the middle of a plain and lightning is
striking all around you. Other than your car, the
only other structure nearby is a tall tree. Where is
the safest place for you to be during this time?
Propose an explanation.
4 Using a diagram, explain what happens in terms
of electric charge build-up on the clouds and
the ground.
5 You both quickly get in the car and drive out of the
immediate area. You shortly come to a farmhouse
and notice it has a sharp, tall metal rod sticking
out vertically from its roof. You stop and talk to the
farmer, who tells you it’s a lightning rod. Explain
how it might work and where its base should be
connected. Why?
6 The farmer invites you in and tells you that
lightning is a problem in the area. He shows a
piece of a previously unsuccessful lightning rod,
which had melted away. He tells you that it takes
about 100 000 A to melt such a thick rod.
Calculate a very rough estimate of the charge on
the cloud that melted this rod. Assume that the
lightning struck in a fraction of a millisecond.
EXTENSION
7 In terms of Ohm’s law, discuss why the air literally
explodes as lightning travels through it and results
in thunder.
8 You get home safely. The close proximity of the
lightning leads you to discuss Benjamin Franklin’s
supposed experiment of flying a kite into lightning.
Discuss the feasibility of this idea and any safety
implications.
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Basic circuit configurations
Most real circuits found in household devices, like those in TVs
and DVD players, contain a complex network of resistors and other
components (Figure 11.1.1). These complex circuits can be broken
series, parallel, equivalent series down into two basic ways of connecting components: in series and
resistance, equivalent parallel
in parallel. In this chapter we will look at series and parallel circuits,
resistance, ammeter, voltmeter,
which are the building blocks of most electronic circuit configurations.
RMS, fuse, circuit-breaker, voltage
drop, electric shock, electrocution,
ventricular fibrillation, active wire,
neutral wire, double insulation,
residual current device

11.1 Circuit combinations

For the remainder of this module, we will refer to potential difference as
voltage. Note that as current passes through a resistor, it loses energy. The potential
also decreases—in other words, there is a drop in voltage across the resistor.
However, as current passes through a power supply, it picks up energy, so there is a
voltage rise. Simply using the word voltage will refer to both situations. This is also
the terminology used in practice by physicists and engineers.

Figure 11.1.1 Real circuits contain a

network of resistors.

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Resistors can be connected in series or parallel (Figure 11.1.2). There Identify the difference between
are no restrictions on the number of resistors that can be in series or parallel. series and parallel circuits.
We will calculate the currents and voltages in the different components of
these circuits. This will enable us to calculate the rate of energy being used. All
energy-dissipating devices—such as light bulbs, heaters and toasters—can be
represented by resistors.

a b

Figure 11.1.2 Two resistors connected to a

power supply (a) in series and
(b) in parallel.

CHECKPOINT 11.1
1 Give three real-life examples of something that can be represented by a resistor.
2 Using Figure 11.1.2, define series and parallel circuits.

11.2 Series circuits

Figure 11.2.1 shows three resistors, R1, R2 and R3, in series with a power supply Compare parallel and series
of voltage V and current I flowing through the circuit. The voltages across the circuits in terms of voltage
individual resistors are V1, V2 and V3 respectively. For resistors connected in across components and current
series, two rules determine the current through them and the voltage across them: through them.
• All series resistors carry the same current I.
R1 R2 R3
• The sum of the voltages across resistors in series is equal to the total voltage
across all of them. In this case, V1 + V2 + V3 = V.
The current will stop flowing if any of the resistors or connecting wires are
removed. For example, a break in the filament of one of the three light bulbs in
the series shown in Figure 11.2.2 will cause the other light bulbs to stop working V
because the current can no longer flow through them. Figure 11.2.1 Three resistors in series with
a power supply
R1 R2 R3

battery

Figure 11.2.2 Three light bulbs in series

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Worked example
QUESTION
2.0 Ω 3.0 Ω 7.0 Ω A circuit consists of a 24 V power supply connect in series with three resistors, as shown in
Figure 11.2.3. The values of the resistors are 2.0 Ω, 3.0 Ω and 7.0 Ω.
a Calculate the current I through the resistors.
b Calculate the voltages V1, V2 and V3 across the resistors 2.0 Ω, 3.0 Ω and 7.0 Ω,
24 V respectively.
Figure 11.2.3 A series circuit
SOLUTION
a We use the second rule for series resistors: the sum of voltages across the resistors
must add to the total voltage V:
V1 + V2 + V3 = V = 24 V
Let 2.0 Ω, 3.0 Ω and 7.0 Ω be R1, R2 and R3, respectively. From Ohm’s law we have:
V1 = IR1 = 2.0I
V2 = IR2 = 3.0I
V3 = IR3 = 7.0I
The current is the same in all three equations because the resistors are in series.
Substitute these three equations into the total voltage equation above. That is:
V1 + V2 + V3 = V = 24 V
2.0I + 3.0I + 7.0I = 24
I(2.0 + 3.0 + 7.0) = 24
Solving for I, we obtain:
I = 2.0 A
There is a current of 2.0 A flowing through the circuit, and therefore through each of
the resistors.
b Calculate the voltages V1, V2 and V3 by substituting the current I = 2.0 A into Ohm’s
law for each resistor:
V1 = IR1 = 2.0 × 2.0 = 4.0 V
V2 = IR2 = 2.0 × 3.0 = 6.0 V
V3 = IR3 = 2.0 × 7.0 = 14 V

Equivalent series resistance

Let us re-examine the circuit of the worked example in a simpler way. The total
voltage across the whole circuit is given by:
IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = V
Simplifying this, we obtain:
I(R1 + R2 + R3) = V
The three resistors can now be treated as being equivalent to one resistor Rs.
That is:
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
So Ohm’s law becomes:
IRs = V

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The current may have easily been found by first adding the resistors to obtain
Rs and then using:
V
I=
Rs

In general, the equivalent resistance for any number of resistors in

series is always their sum. That is:
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 + …+ Rn
When calculating the current, it is best to first obtain the equivalent series
resistance Rs.

CHECKPOINT 11.2
1 A 3 Ω and a 5 Ω resistor are connected in series with a 12 V battery.
2.0 Ω 2.0 Ω 3.0 Ω
a Calculate the current in each resistor.
b Calculate the potential difference across each resistor.
2 Calculate the equivalent series resistance of the resistors in
Figure 11.2.4 Three resistors in series,
Figure 11.2.4. with values of 2.0 Ω, 2.0 Ω
3 Explain why the removal of a component in a series circuit will and 3.0 Ω
stop the current to all other components in the circuit.

11.3 Parallel circuits

Figure 11.3.1 shows three resistors in parallel with a power supply of voltage V. R1
The current through resistors R1, R2 and R3 is I1, I2 and I3 respectively. For
resistors connected in parallel, three rules determine the current and voltage for
each resistor: R2

• The voltage across each resistor is the same and, in the case shown in
Figure 11.3.1, is the voltage across the power supply V.
• The current through each resistor may be different and is determined by R3

Ohm’s law:
V V V
I1 = , I 2 = , I3 =
R1 R2 R3
V

• The total current I from the power supply is the sum of the individual Figure 11.3.1 Three resistors in parallel with
currents in each resistor: a power supply

I = I1 + I2 + I3

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Worked example
QUESTION
The parallel circuit shown in Figure 11.3.1 has the following components:
R1 = 4.0 Ω, R2 = 8.0 Ω, R3 = 12 Ω, V = 24 V.
a Determine the voltage across each resistor.
b Calculate the currents I1, I2 and I3 through the resistors.
c Calculate the total current I flowing from the power supply.
SOLUTION
a The voltage across each resistor is 24 V because they are in parallel with the
power supply.
b Using Ohm’s law, we can calculate the current through each resistor:
V 24
I1 = = = 6.0 A
R1 4.0
V 24
I2 = = = 4.0 A
R 2 8.0
V 24
I3 = = = 2.0 A
R 3 12

c The total current I is the sum of the individual currents:

I = I1 + I2 + I3
= 6.0 + 4.0 + 2.0 = 12 A

Equivalent parallel resistance

The circuit in Figure 11.3.1 can be simplified because the current from the
power supply is the sum of the individual currents through each resistor. That is:
I = I1 + I2 + I3
V V V
= + +
R1 R2 R3

1 1 1
=V + +
R1 R2 R3

Taking V to the other side:

I 1 1 1
= + +
V R1 R2 R3
Using Ohm’s law, the left-hand side is:
I 1
=
V Rp
where Rp is a single resistance that is equivalent to the three resistors in parallel.
Using the previous two equations, we can write:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... +
R p R1 R2 R3 Rn

where Rp is called the equivalent parallel resistance.

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In general, this rule can be applied to any number of resistors in

parallel. That is:
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
Rp R1 R2 R3

Worked example
QUESTION
Four of the five circuits in Figure 11.3.2 are equivalent parallel circuits drawn slightly
differently. Which circuit is not electrically equivalent to the others?

R1 R1 R1 R1 R1

R2 R2 R

2
R
2

R
V V V V V

A B C D E

Figure 11.3.2 Various two-resistor combinations with a power supply

SOLUTION
The answer is circuit D. Note that a line that connects two points is essentially a wire of zero
resistance, which means the two points are connected together. In this problem, the only
circuit that cannot be made to look like circuit A is circuit D.

CHECKPOINT 11.3 2.0 Ω

1 Describe what happens to the current in a parallel circuit.

2 For the circuit in Figure 11.3.3:
4.0 Ω
a Calculate the voltage across each resistor.
b Calculate the current in each resistor.
c Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit. 3.0 Ω

24 V

Figure 11.3.3 A parallel circuit

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11.4 Using ammeters and

voltmeters
An ammeter is used to measure current through a component, and a
Identify uses of ammeters and
voltmeters. voltmeter measures the potential difference (voltage) across it (Figure 11.4.1).
A voltmeter is connected across the component and the ammeter must become
Explain why ammeters and part of the circuit such that the current that flows through the component also
voltmeters are connected flows through the ammeter.
differently in a circuit. Voltmeters and ammeters are made V1
so that they do not affect the circuit
voltmeter to which they are connected. In
V
practice, there is some effect but it is A1 A2
resistor
negligible for most cases. Here we will
ammeter
assume that they have no effect on the
A current and voltage. This means
resistor + –
that we assume the ammeter has zero
resistance and that the voltmeter has
V2
infinite resistance. In reality, the
ammeter has a small resistance and the Figure 11.4.2 Both ammeters in this circuit read
+ –
switch voltmeter has a large but not infinite the same value. Both voltmeters
power
supply resistance. also read the same value.
Figure 11.4.1 Using a voltmeter and In Figure 11.4.2, ammeters A1 and
ammeter in a circuit A2 have identical readings because the current that flows into the
resistor will be the same that flows out of it. Voltmeters V1 and V2 have
identical readings since the full potential difference across the battery is in
PRACTICAL
parallel with the resistor.
EXPERIENCES
Activity 11.1 Worked example
Activity Manual, Page 110

QUESTION
A physicist wants to measure the currents through and voltages across the resistors in
Figure 11.4.3. Redraw the diagram with ammeters and voltmeters inserted to show how
these measurements will be carried out.
R1 SOLUTION V1
R3 The ammeters must always be in series
R1 V3
with the resistors being measured. The A1
voltmeters must be in parallel with the
R2 resistors, as shown in Figure 11.4.4. A3
R3
Ammeters A1, A2 and A3 measure the
A2
+ – currents in the resistors R1, R2 and R2
V R3, respectively. Voltmeters V1, V2 and
Figure 11.4.3 Two parallel resistors in V3 measure the voltages across R1, R2 and V2
series with one resistor and R3, respectively. The ammeters could have
a power supply been placed on either side of the resistors. + –
V

Figure 11.4.4 Figure 11.4.3 redrawn, with

ammeters and voltmeters

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CHECKPOINT 11.4
1 Draw a circuit diagram that includes an ammeter and voltmeter correctly connected.
2 Why do ammeters have very low resistance?
3 Referring to Figure 11.4.2, recall the reason for the two ammeters reading the same even though they are
connected in different parts of the circuit.

11.5 Household circuits

A word on AC circuits
The theory presented so far for DC circuits can also be used in AC
circuits: we can calculate voltages and currents for resistors with an alternating
340
current through them. Generally, an alternating current in a circuit means there
is an alternating voltage from a power supply. A particular example of this is

Voltage (V)
household electricity. In Australia, household voltage is 240 V AC. This means
10 20 30 40 50
the voltage changes sinusoidally, as shown in Figure 11.5.1.
You can see from Figure 11.5.1 that the maximum voltage (amplitude) of
household electricity is around 340 V; on average, however, this sinusoidal –340
Time (ms)
voltage only delivers as much energy per second to a circuit as a DC voltage of
240 V. So the ‘effective AC voltage’ of household electricity is 240 V AC, given by:
Figure 11.5.1 Household AC voltage is
340 V sinusoidal, with a peak
= 240 V
2 voltage of 340 V.

To calculate the effective AC voltage, always divide the amplitude by 2.

Calculating the effective AC current is the same: divide the amplitude of the
current by 2. (The correct name for this effective voltage or current is root
mean squared, or RMS voltage or current). This means we can analyse AC circuits
as if they were DC circuits by using effective voltage for the power supply.
For example, three light bulbs, each having a resistance of 450 Ω, are
connected in parallel to household voltage, which is 240 V AC (see Figure 11.5.2).
The current in each light bulb can be calculated by using Ohm’s law:
V 240
I= = = 0.533 A
R 450

Therefore, each light bulb has 0.533 A of RMS AC current flowing through it.
The total current that comes from the 240 V AC power supply is:
0.533 + 0.533 + 0.533 = 1.60 A of AC
Keep in mind that this is the RMS AC current. The maximum (or peak) current
(amplitude) that flows is:
1.60 × 2 = 2.26 A
In practice, we don’t usually quote the maximum value—only the RMS value.

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Different household circuits

Houses contain a set of hidden parallel circuits. The power outlets that you see in the
Explain why there are different
circuits for lighting, heating and
walls are a part of these circuits. Figure 11.5.2 illustrates a circuit used for lighting.
other appliances in a house. If one light bulb is removed or switched off, the current will continue to flow
through the others. For this reason, household circuits are always in parallel. For
example, say there are 10 identical light bulbs around your home, each operating
with 0.5 A of current. Since the light bulbs are in parallel, the total current I from the
switch
fuse power supply will be the sum of the individual currents. That is:
I = 10 × 0.5 = 5 A
240 V AC light bulb Therefore, 5 A of AC flow from the household power supply.
Household wiring can be found in the walls, roof or under the house.
Figure 11.5.2 Household lighting is part of This wiring will become hot when large currents (ranging from 8 to 32 A)
a parallel circuit. flow because they have some resistance. Hot wires are a potential fire hazard.
For protection, all houses have fuses or circuit-breakers on different circuits.
Fuses and circuit-breakers are small devices that will stop the electrical
current from flowing to the circuit if the total current exceeds a certain amount.
(More will be said about safety devices later in this chapter.) In Australia, the
maximum allowed total current for household lighting is 8 A. Power outlet
sockets have a higher rating. There may be more than one power outlet circuit so
that one is not overloaded.
Separate circuits ensure that if one circuit switches off, the others will
not be affected. For instance, you can still have room lighting even if your heater
draws too much current and switches off the power circuit.
Some circuits are dedicated to one appliance, such as an electric hot-water
heater or air conditioner, since these draw large currents.

HOUSEHOLD CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
T he household fuse or circuit-breaker box (also known as a
switchboard) is usually located with the meter that measures the
amount of electricity that your household uses. Sometimes you will
see names of the different circuits next to the different fuses or
circuit-breakers. For example, you might see names such as lights,
power, hot water and stove. Each separate label means it
is a fuse (or circuit-breaker) for a separate circuit.
Figure 11.5.3 A circuit-breaker box with a circuit-breaker
for each separate circuit

CHECKPOINT 11.5
1 Identify the difference between AC and DC.
2 Explain the difference between effective current and maximum (or peak) current.
3 Explain why there are different circuits in a house.
4 What causes heat in circuits?
5 Explain the purpose of fuses and circuit-breakers.

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11.6 Electric power

Electric current carries energy that we transfer to many types of appliances and
Explain that power is the rate
electronic devices that can be represented by resistors in circuit diagrams. A
at which energy is transformed
potential difference (voltage drop) across a device means that charges move from from one form to another.
high to low potential energy. This lost energy goes into operating the device. All
devices need energy at a certain rate; otherwise they will not operate. The
rate of energy transfer is known as power, given by:
energy transferred PRACTICAL
Power = EXPERIENCES
time taken for transfer
Activity 11.2
Activity Manual, Page 117
We saw in Chapter 10 that the energy W required to move charge q through
a potential difference of V is given by qV. Assuming that this energy expenditure
occurs in a time interval t, the power P can now be written as: Identify the relationship
qV q between power, potential
P = t = t × V = IV
difference and current.

q
where is the electric current I. Therefore, the power P dissipated by a current I
t
across a potential difference V is given by:
P = IV
As discussed in Module 1, the unit for power is the watt (W). Watts are
equivalent to joules per second (J s–1) since power is energy per unit time. The
watt is the more commonly used unit.
Devices that produce heat—such as toasters, heaters, incandescent light bulbs Identify that the total amount
and electric stoves—can simply be treated as resistors in a circuit. The power can of energy used depends on the
then be calculated by substituting Ohm’s law (V = IR) into the power equation: length of time the current is
flowing and can be calculated
P = IV = I × IR = I 2R
using:
V Energy = VIt
Alternatively, use I = :
R
V V2
P = IV = ×V =
R R
Since power is the rate at which energy is transferred, we can calculate the
energy by using:
Energy = power × time
Substitute P = IV for power. Hence, the energy transferred during time t is:
Energy = IV × t

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Worked example
QUESTION
Solve problems and analyse
information using: A 5 A current flows through the heating element of an iron plugged into a 240 V
P = VI power outlet.
Energy = VIt a Calculate the power delivered to the iron.
b Calculate the energy used by the iron in 1 h.
SOLUTION
a Power is given by P = IV, where I = 5 A and V = 240 V. Substitute these into the
power equation:
P = 5 × 240 = 1.2 × 103 W
Therefore, 1.2 kilowatts (kW) of power is delivered to the iron.
b The time t should be converted into seconds: t = 1 h = 3600 s. The energy is:
Energy = IV × t = 5 × 240 × 3600 = 4.3 × 106 J

Worked example
QUESTION
Calculate the resistance of a 100 W incandescent light bulb operating on 240 V of
household electricity.
SOLUTION
We use the expression for power that contains resistance, given by:
V2
P=
R
Rearranging this, the resistance is:
V 2 2402 57600
R= = = = 576 Ω
P 100 100

Worked example
QUESTION
R1 The resistors in the circuits in Figure 11.6.1 are in parallel and series, respectively.
R1 R2
a Calculate the power in each of the resistors in Figure 11.6.1a if R1 = 10 Ω,
R2 = 2 Ω and V = 10 V.
R2 b Calculate the power in each of the resistors in Figure 11.6.1b if R1 = 4 Ω,
R2 = 6 Ω and V = 20 V.
+ – + –
V V SOLUTION
a b a The potential difference across each resistor in Figure 11.6.1a is equal to that of
Figure 11.6.1 Two resistors in (a) parallel the power supply. Therefore, there are 10 V across each resistor. The power P in a
and (b) series resistor R with a potential difference V across it is given by:
V2
P=
R
The powers P1 and P2 in the resistors R1 and R2, respectively, are given by:
V 2 102
P1 = = = 10 W
R1 10
V 2 102
P2 = = = 50 W
R2 2
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b The current I through each of the resistors in Figure 11.6.1b is the same. The power
is given by:
P = I 2R
To find the current I, first find the total resistance R T of the circuit, which is the sum
of the two resistances in series, 4 Ω and 6 Ω:
R T = 4 + 6 = 10 Ω
The current I is given by Ohm’s law:
V = IR T
20 = I × 10
Therefore, I = 2.0 A. The power dissipated by each resistor is:
P1 = I 2R1 = (2.0)2 × 4.0 = 16 W
P2 = I 2R2 = (2.0)2 × 6.0 = 24 W

CHECKPOINT 11.6
1 Relate the potential energy that a charge has in a circuit to energy used by an appliance.
2 Calculate the power used by a light bulb that draws 0.2 A of current in a household.
3 Calculate the energy used by a house light that draws 0.42 A for 3 h.

11.7 Household electrical energy

consumption
Electricity companies require household owners to pay for the electrical energy
Explain why the kilowatt hour is
used. For example, a television set might use 200 W of power. The energy used used to measure electrical
by the television in 3 h (10 800 s) is given by: energy consumption rather
Energy = power × time than the joule.

= 200 × 10 800
= 2.16 × 106 J
The total electrical energy consumption in three months by all appliances
may be about 1010 J. This is a large number, so electricity companies use the
kilowatt hour (kWh) unit, which gives smaller numbers. A kilowatt hour
is the energy used by a 1 kW device in 1 h. We can calculate the number of
kilowatt hours by using:
Energy (kWh) = power of device (kW) × time (h)
For example, the energy used by a 200 W (0.2 kW) television turned on for 4 h is:
Energy = 0.2 kW × 4 h = 0.8 kWh
Use the following to convert kilowatt hours into joules:
1 kWh = 1000 W × 3600 s = 3.6 × 106 J

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Households are billed at a rate of, say, 12c per kilowatt hour. That means it
costs 12c to turn on a 1000 W heater for 1 h. If you turn on a 100 W (0.1 kW)
light bulb for 2 h, it will cost you:
0.1 kW × 2 h × 12c per kWh = 2.4c
In general, the cost of electricity used is calculated by:
Cost of electrical energy = power of device (kW) × time (h) × cost (per kWh)

ractiv
nte
Worked example
e
I

QUESTION
M o d u le
The cost of electricity is 10c per kilowatt hour. You use a 200 W (0.2 kW) television for
4 h per day for 90 days. What is the cost of watching television for 90 days?
SOLUTION
Cost = power of device (kW) × time (h) × cost (per kWh)
= 0.2 kW × (4 h × 90) × 10c per kWh
= 0.2 × 360 × 10
= 720c
= $7.20

TRY THIS!
READING HOUESEHOLD ELECTRICITY METERS
The dials on a household electricity meter register the number of kilowatt
hours used since the meter was installed (Figure 11.7.1). The order of
the numbers on the dials reverses from one dial to the next. Simply read
the lower of the two numbers on either side of the indicator. For example,
the dials in Figure 11.7.2 register as 2, 1, 3, 0, 3. The dials from left to
right represent the number of 10 000, 1000, 100, 10, 1 kWh.
The reading on this set of dials is:

Power = (2 × 10 000) + (1 × 1000) + (3 × 100) + (0 × 10) + (3 × 1)

= 20 000 + 1000 + 300 + 0 + 3
Figure 11.7.1 A domestic electricity meter
= 21 303 kWh used to monitor electrical
energy usage
Write down the number of kilowatt hours
on your meter, and then return the following
0
day (or hour) and write down the reading 1 9
0 2 8
again. The difference between the two 9 1 0
8 2 3 7 9 1
readings is the number of kilowatt hours 4
5
6 8 2
7 3
your household has used during this time. 0 6 7 3 0
1 9 4 100 kWh 1 9
5 6 4
2 8 5 2 8
There are digital meters that simply 1000 kWh
3 7 10 kWh 3 7
display the number of kilowatt hours and 4 4 6
6
5 5
make it easier to carry out this activity.
10 000 kWh 1 kWh

Figure 11.7.2 A reading on the dials of an electricity meter

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DEVICE EFFICIENCY
All devices waste energy to some degree. The efficiency of There are energy-rating labels on the front of
a device is given by: whitegoods, such as refrigerators, washing machines,
useful energy out clothes dryers and air conditioners (Figure 11.7.4). A label
Efficiency (%) = × 100 has six stars. A shaded semicircle that covers all six stars
energy input
is the most efficient in comparison to similar models of
For example, only 2.5% of the energy in a 100 W the same type of appliance. The energy-rating label also
incandescent light bulb is given out as visible light; the displays the energy used per year by the appliance under
remainder goes as heat. In contrast, up to 9% of the normal usage.
energy in a 20 W fluorescent light bulb or tube appears as
visible light (Figure 11.7.3). Both types of light bulbs
produce roughly the same amount of visible light, making
fluorescent lighting much more efficient.

t four
Figure 11.7.3 Fluorescent light bulbs are abou
times more efficient than whitegoods
Figure 11.7.4 Energy rating label found on
incandescent light bulbs.

CHECKPOINT 11.7
1 Define a kilowatt hour.
2 Calculate the electricity bill for the family that used the items listed in the table below. Each kilowatt hour is
being charged at 11c.

APPLIANCE POWER (W) TIIME USED (H)

Television 150 12.0
Light 100 24.0
Dishwasher 200 2.0
Washing machine 160 1.5
Computer 225 3.5

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11.8 Electric shock

Discuss the dangers of electric
shock from both a 240V AC
mains supply and various DC
voltages, from appliances, on
the muscles of the body.
Electric shock is the effect that an electric current has on the body when passing
through it. These effects can range from a mild tingling sensation to death (also
known as electrocution). The severity of the electric shock depends on the
magnitude of the current, its path through the body and whether it was AC or
DC. The main source of AC electricity is the 240 V mains voltage found in all
Australian homes. Dangerous DC voltages are found inside consumer electronics,
such as televisions and sound systems. School benchtop power supplies have
DC output terminals that may have high voltages on them.
As we saw in Chapter 9, electric currents can cause a dead frog to twitch its
legs by causing its muscles to contract. A high enough electric current in humans
can also cause muscles to contract to a point where a person loses control of them.
Still higher currents can burn and kill tissue. Table 11.8.1 shows the physiological
effects of different current ranges on the human body.

Table 11.8.1 Physiological effects of AC and DC currents on the human body

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT 50 Hz AC (mA) DC (mA)

Tingling sensation 0–1 0–5
Pain, muscles contract but still can control them 1–15 5–60
Very painful, cannot control contracting muscles, 15–100 60–500
difficulty breathing
Heart fibrillation, severe burns, may be fatal Above 100 Above 500

In general, five times more DC is needed to achieve the same physiological

effects as AC at a frequency of 50 Hz, which is the frequency used in Australian
household electricity. Both types of electricity can be lethal.
The greatest danger occurs above 15 mA for AC and 60 mA for DC,
where heart muscles can go into random spasms known as ventricular fibrillation.
The heart is then unable to pump blood properly to the body. This is the leading
cause of death from electrocution. To remedy this, defibrillation machines pass a
short current pulse across the heart to temporarily stop the heart and essentially stop
the fibrillation (Figure 11.8.1). This gives the heart a chance to restart itself with its
regular beating cycle.
Above these high currents, you no longer have control over your contracted
muscles. A person holding an electrified wire causing the shock will not be able
to let go. The person may also lose control of the diaphragm muscles that control
breathing, which will be fatal if the electric current is not removed.
Figure 11.8.1 Electrodes from a
defibrillation machine are Any current pathway through the body that goes through the heart is potentially
used to pass a pulse of lethal. Thus any current that goes from a hand to an opposing leg or from one hand
current across the heart. to the other can go through the heart.

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What about the effect of voltage?

Both the potential difference (voltage) V across the body and the body’s electrical Rs
resistance R determine the magnitude of the current I that will travel through the
240 V AC
body according to Ohm’s law:
V = IR Ri

The resistance varies greatly and is mostly dependent on skin resistance.

A crude model of such a circuit is shown in Figure 11.8.2, where the skin
resistance Rs is in series with the resistance of the internal body Ri. The current Figure 11.8.2 A crude model of skin
I that flows through the body is given by: resistance and internal body
resistance in series with
V 240 V AC
I=
Rs + Ri
The internal body resistance is about 100 Ω. Dry skin may have a resistance
of about 105 Ω. Using a voltage V of 240 V (AC) and the resistance of the skin
and internal body in the above equation, we get a current of 24 mA, which is not
lethal. However, the skin is rarely ever dry and may be moist to varying degrees.
Moist skin may have a resistance of 103 Ω. This results in a current of about
240 mA, which can be lethal.

CHECKPOINT 11.8
1 Describe the difference between electric shock and electrocution.
2 What determines the severity of the electric shock?
3 Why is DC considered ‘safer’ than AC?
4 Explain how a defibrillation machine can be considered similar to receiving an electric shock.
5 Give reasons why a certain voltage can cause electrocution in some people but only mild shock in others.

11.9 Safety devices

The two major hazards from household electricity are fire and electric shock. Fire
comes from the heat generated in the wires if a large current flows through them.
The devices and methods used around the home to prevent these dangers are
listed in Table 11.9.1.

Table 11.9.1 Devices and methods used around the home to prevent fire and electric shock

SAFETY DEVICE/METHOD HAZARD BEING PREVENTED

Fuse Fire, electric shock
Circuit-breaker Fire, electric shock
Earthing Electric shock
Double insulation Electric shock
Residual current device Electric shock

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Fuses and circuit-breakers

Describe the functions of
circuit-breakers, fuses, earthing,
double insulation and other
safety devices in the home.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 11.3
Activity Manual, Page
121
Most electrical wires are made from copper surrounded by plastic insulation
(usually polyvinyl chloride, or PVC). A high current will heat the copper to the
point of melting it and the insulation, and may start a fire. The thickness of the
wire determines the maximum current it can safely carry.
Fuses and circuit-breakers are devices inserted in series in household
wiring to stop the current from exceeding a certain value. A fuse is a thin wire
with a lower melting temperature than household wiring. A current exceeding
the safe limit melts the fuse, thus disconnecting the circuit—this is commonly
referred to as a ‘blown fuse’.
Fuse wires are held in ceramic holders so that the molten fuse wire does not
start a fire. A new fuse wire must be installed so that the current can flow again.
Circuit-breakers perform the same function as fuses, though with the
advantage of not having to replace a fuse wire. Circuit-breakers are switches
that turn themselves off when the current exceeds the safe limit. It is then a simple
matter of flicking the switch back to the ‘on’ position to allow the current to flow
again. Most modern household fuse boxes have circuit-breakers rather than fuses.
A circuit-breaker switching itself off is colloquially known as ‘tripping’.

Earthing
Earthing refers to physically connecting the metal casing of an appliance or
device to the ground around the house with a wire. Any dangerous voltages that
come in contact with the metal casing will lead to a large current flowing to earth
and blowing a fuse or tripping a circuit-breaker. The power to the appliance
would then be stopped, thus protecting a person from an electric shock if they
touch the casing.
The power cable connected to most homes has two wires known as the
active and neutral. The active has an oscillating potential difference with
respect to the neutral. The neutral is physically connected to the ground at the
fuse box (Figure 11.9.1).

meter
fuse
active
power
power line outlet
240 V AC

neutral
to the street

earth

Figure 11.9.1 The neutral is connected to earth at the fuse box in household wiring.

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The earth may sometimes be visible around the home as a wire with
yellow/green stripes connected to a metal spike either driven into the ground
or connected to a metal water pipe. Therefore, the neutral is at the same
potential as the earth.
The slanted slots of the power outlet socket are the active (left) and
neutral (right) connections. The lower vertical slot is connected to earth. The order
of the connections of the active, neutral and earth on the prongs of a power plug
are the mirror image of these so that they match. The active, neutral and earth are
coloured as brown, blue and yellow/green stripes respectively (Figure 11.9.2).

active
neutral

earth

Figure 11.9.2 A power plug showing the connections of the active (brown), neutral (blue) and
earth (yellow/green strips) to the prongs.

A loose active wire that touches the metal casing of, say, a toaster can lead to
an electric shock of a person that might touch the casing (Figure 11.9.3).
Connecting the casing to earth causes a large current to flow from the active line
and blow the fuse or trip the circuit-breaker. This stops the current flow to the
toaster and prevents electric shock.
Earthing can only work if the fuse or circuit-breaker is connected to the
active wire.

power outlet
heater fuse
socket
active 240 V AC
neutral

toaster earth

Figure 11.9.3 The active wire inside a toaster has become loose and is touching the metal casing.

Double insulation
Some appliances that have plastic casings, such as electric shavers, do not present
an electric shock hazard even if the live wire touches the casing since they are
insulators. The wires inside the casing are also covered with PVC. The two
layers of insulation—PVC round the wires and the plastic casing of the
appliance—is known as double insulation, thereby making an earth wire
unnecessary. Doubly insulated devices are characterised by having a two-prong
power plug, with the earth prong missing.

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Residual current device

The possibility of electric shock is always present even with the inclusion of
fuses, circuit-breakers, earthing and double insulation. An exposed active wire in
an extension cord can lead to electric shock, and none of the above safety
measures will be effective. A device known as a residual current device
(RCD) or safety switch, which is installed in the fuse box, will disconnect the
power to the active wire very quickly (Figure 11.9.4). An RCD can sense the
current in the active and neutral lines, which must always be the same. Current
leakage as little as 5 mA from active to earth leads to an imbalance in the active
and neutral currents. This trips the RCD and disconnects the wiring at the fuse
box typically within 25 ms. Similar to a circuit-breaker, the RCD is reset by
flicking its switch back to the ‘on’ position.

Figure 11.9.4 A residual current device switches off when there is an imbalance in the current
through the active and neutral wires.

CHECKPOINT 11.9
1 Describe the similarities and differences of fuses and circuit-breakers.
2 What is the purpose of the ceramic holders for fuses?
3 Define earthing.
4 Explain why connecting the active wire to the metal casing of a toaster will cause a large current to be drawn.
5 Define double insulation. Explain how this works.

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 ELECTRICAL
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES ENERGY IN THE
HOME

CHAPTER 11
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

ACTIVITY 11.1: SERIES AND PARALLEL

Compare the currents at different points in series and parallel circuits, as well as the
Plan, choose equipment or
potential differences across the resistors and power supplies resources for and perform
Equipment: power supply, two resistors with different values, DC ammeter, first-hand investigations to
DC voltmeter, switch, connecting wires. gather data and use available
evidence to compare
measurements of current and
R1 voltage in series and parallel
R1 R2 circuits in computer
simulations or hands-on
equipment.
R2

+ – + –
V V
a b

Figure 11.10.1 (a) Series circuit; (b) parallel circuit

Discussion questions
1 Compare the magnitudes of the three currents for the series circuit.
2 Measure the current flowing in each resistor and then add these currents.
Compare this with the total current flowing from the power supply.
3 What conclusions can you draw about the potential difference across each
resistor for the parallel circuit?
4 Add the potential difference across R1 and R2 for the series circuit and
compare with the potential difference across the power supply. What
conclusion do you draw about their relationship?

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ACTIVITY 11.2: POWER USED IN A HEATING COIL

Perform a first-hand
investigation, gather
information and use available
evidence to demonstrate the
relationship between current,
voltage and power for a model
6 V to 12 V electric heating
coil.
Measure the energy from a heating element used to heat water and relate this to the
power dissipated by the heating element.
Equipment: power supply, variable resistor (rheostat), DC ammeter,
DC voltmeter, electric heating wire (made from nichrome), Styrofoam cup
with a lid, measuring cylinder, 0°C–100°C thermometer, stopwatch, water.
Discussion questions
1 Compare the energy dissipated by the heating element with the energy
gained by the water.
2 Account for any discrepancies between the two measurements.

power
supply

A
+ –

rheostat

heating wire
in a cup
of water

Figure 11.10.2 Measuring the power used in a heating coil

ACTIVITY 11.3: HOUSEHOLD CIRCUITS

Plan, choose equipment or
resources and perform a first-
hand investigation to construct
simple model household
circuits using electrical
components.
Design a household circuit, given a set of appliances that need to be used and the
current for each. Also, gather information regarding conductors used in homes.
Discussion questions
1 Estimate the total power requirements for all the appliances.
2 Draw the different circuits, indicating the circuit-breaker and earthing
connections.
3 Indicate the safe current limits for the different circuit-breakers.
4 Gather information on the different wire gauges required for each circuit.

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Chapter summary
• The two basic configurations of connecting circuit
components are series and parallel.
• The current through components connected in series
is the same. Removal of any component will stop
the current.
• The voltage across components connected in parallel is
the same.
• An ammeter is used to measure electrical current and is
connected in series in a circuit.
• A voltmeter is used to measure potential difference and
is connected in parallel across a component.
• Ohm’s law can be used for both AC and DC circuits.
• The watt is the unit of power, which is the rate of
energy consumption.
• Household energy usage is measured in kilowatt hours.
• One of the greatest dangers of electric shock is ventricular
fibrillation, in which the heart goes into spasms.
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The items in the columns are not in their correct order. Copy the table and match
each of the key physics concepts with its correct definition, symbol and units.
CONCEPT DEFINITION
Voltage A circuit with several paths for the current to follow
Current Energy used per unit time
Series Potential difference in a circuit
Parallel A circuit containing only one path for the current to
follow
Power Number of electrons passing a point each second
REVIEWING
1 Identify the reasons for connecting appliances in
parallel circuits rather than in series.
Compare parallel and series circuits in terms of voltage
across components and current through them.
2 When resistors are connected in series, which of the
following would be the same for each resistor:
potential difference, current, power?
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
• Household wiring consists of the active, neutral and
earth wires. The neutral is connected to earth at the
fuse box.
• Earthing is the connection of the metal casing of
an appliance to the ground, thereby preventing
electric shock.
• Fuses and circuit-breakers cut off the current that
exceeds a safe limit in an active wire.
• Double insulation is two layers of plastic between the
active and the users of the appliance, so no earth
connection is required.
• A residual current device senses the current difference
between active and neutral and switches the power off
very quickly if a limit is exceeded. This prevents electric
shock when all other methods fail.
SYMBOL UNITS
P V
– W
V –
– –
I A
3 When resistors are connected in parallel, which of
the following would be the same for each resistor:
potential difference, current, power?
4 How would you connect resistors so that the
equivalent resistance is larger than the greatest
individual resistance? Give an example involving
three resistors.
5 How would you connect resistors so that the
equivalent resistance is smaller than the least
individual resistance? Give an example involving
three resistors.
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6 In a physics lab, a group of students set up a circuit 15 Determine the brightness of a light bulb if an
with one light bulb in it. They added another in identical second light bulb is added:
series, and then a third in series. The brightness of a in series
the light bulbs was noted at each step. The b in parallel.
experiment was repeated, but this time the light
16 A circuit has a resistance R0, a power supply of
bulbs were added in parallel.
voltage V0 and a current I0 flowing. Calculate the new
a List the students’ observations about the
current in terms of I0 if the resistance was doubled
brightness.
and the voltage was tripled.
b Explain these observations.
Solve problems and analyse information using:
Explain why ammeters and voltmeters are connected
P = VI and
differently in a circuit.
Energy = VIt
7 Describe what would happen if an ammeter was
17 An electricity company charges 11c per kilowatt
mistaken for a voltmeter and connected in parallel
hour. Calculate the cost of turning on a 1500 W
across a resistor in a circuit.
electric heater for 5 h.
8 Describe what would happen to the current in a
18 How long will a light bulb of 60 W run if it is
circuit if a voltmeter was mistaken for an ammeter
supplied with 6.48 × 105 J of energy?
and inserted in series into a circuit.
19 Two resistors, 5 Ω and 10 Ω, are connected in
9 In Chapter 10 we learnt that all wires have
parallel with each other and a 12 V battery.
resistance. Explain why we ignore this resistance
a Draw the circuit.
when calculating currents and voltages in a circuit.
b Calculate the current in each resistor.
10 Draw a household lighting circuit that contains three c Calculate the power dissipated by each resistor.
light bulbs and a fuse.
20 An electric heater is rated at 1500 W; a toaster, at
11 A student proposes that circuit-breakers (and fuses) 750 W; and an electric grill, at 1000 W. The three
and earth connections on appliances are unnecessary appliances are connected to a common 240 V
because the residual current device will switch off household circuit.
the power if there is any leakage to earth anyway. a How much current does each draw?
Discuss the flaw in the student’s reasoning. b Is a circuit with a 15.0 A circuit-breaker
12 Outline the possible outcome of a loose active wire if sufficient in this situation? Explain your answer.
the appliance was not connected to an earth.
13 Give some reasons for having more than one type of
electrical safety device.

SOLVING PROBLEMS
14 a Find the equivalent resistance between points a
and b in Figure 11.10.3.
b A potential difference of 34.0 V is applied
between points a and b. Calculate the current in
the 9.0 Ω resistor

7.0 Ω

4.0 Ω 9.0 Ω

10.0 Ω

a a

Figure 11.10.3 Circuit diagram

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PHYSICS FOCUS
ELECTRICITY MATTERS
P4. Describes applications of physics
It’s winter and you usually keep warm by turning on the which affect society or the environment
electric heater at maximum capacity so that the house
warms up. The heater is in the living room, where there is
also a very large plasma TV that is on all the time. If you 5 Define kilowatt hour.
use your hair dryer to dry your hair in the living room, the 6 You go out to check the meter in the circuit-
circuit-breaker trips and you lose power to the hair dryer, breaker box. You notice that the disk is spinning
TV and heater. However, if you move to another room and quite quickly, so you note that the meter reading
dry your hair there, the power stays on. was 54 306 kWh. An hour later it reads 54 310
kWh. The power company charges you 10c per
1 Define parallel and series circuits.
kilowatt hour. How much money have you spent on
2 Explain why the circuit-breaker would only trip when
electrical power during that one hour?
you dried your hair in the living room.
7 An electrician notices that a mains power plug is
3 Deduce the least number of outlet power circuit-
frayed. He decides to replace the plug with a new
breakers you might have.
one. The power plug has brown, blue and yellow/
4 One night you notice that even though you turned
green wires. Explain the purpose of each wire.
on all the lights in the house, only the living room,
8 Is it really necessary to connect the yellow/green
dining room and kitchen lights were on. The
wire for a washing machine? Explain why.
remainder of the house was in darkness. Your house
9 The electrician looks directly at the prongs of the
also has an electric hot-water heater and an electric
plug where the two-slanted prongs are at the top.
stove still working. Estimate the total number of
To which prongs should he connect each wire?
circuit-breakers that you have in your switchboard.

Figure 11.10.4 A thermogram shows the heat generated from an overloaded socket.

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12
poles, north-seeking pole,
north pole, south-seeking pole,
south pole, magnetic field,
electromagnetism, right-hand grip
rule, solenoid, electromagnet,
permanent magnet
Describe the behaviour of the
magnetic poles of bar magnets
when they are brought close
together.
S
N
geographic north direction
Figure 12.1.1 A suspended bar magnet
comes to rest in a geographic
north–south direction.
230
The attraction
of magnetism
Lodestones and ancient mariners
People have known about magnets for more than 2600 years.
A dark-coloured ore known as a lodestone was found to attract iron
and point in a fixed direction when it was freely suspended. This
second property enabled sailors to use a lodestone as a compass for
navigation. Lodestone means ‘leading stone’, which comes from its
behaviour as a compass. A compass needle always points (almost!)
in the geographic north–south direction.
To the ancient Greeks, lodestone was also known as a magnet
because the inhabitants of the town of Magnesia, who found
lodestones, were known as Magnetes. We know it as magnetite
(Fe3O4), which is an iron ore.
Today, magnets much stronger than magnetite are
made in all shapes and sizes for many applications,
such as electric motors and hard disk drives. In this
chapter we will also see how a magnet can be made
by using an electric current.
12.1 Magnetic poles
A bar magnet suspended by a string will always come to rest in a north–south
direction if there is no iron (or another magnet) nearby (Figure 12.1.1). The ends
of a magnet are known as the poles. The end pointing in the direction of geographic
North Pole is called the north-seeking pole, which is shortened to north pole.
Naturally, the other end is called the south-seeking pole, or south pole.
Most magnets available to you from school or hobby shops are in the shape
of a bar. The ends of two magnets will either repel or attract each other. Most bar
magnets have a mark on them to indicate the north pole (sometimes it is the
letter N or a circular indentation). You will notice that north repels north and
that south repels south. As a general rule, therefore, like poles repel and
unlike poles attract (Figure 12.1.2).
a b
S N S N S N N S
N S N S N S S N
Figure 12.1.2 (a) Unlike poles attract. (b) Like poles repel.
 ELECTRICAL
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TRY THIS!
MAGNETIC PUZZLE a b S

A magnet will always attract

iron from both the north and iron
N
south poles. A bar magnet and
a bar of iron have exactly the S N iron
same shape, size and colour
and no marks to identify either
Figure 12.1.3 (a) Weak attraction and
of them. Using only the two
(b) strong attraction
bars and nothing else, how
would you identify the magnet?
Answer: The magnetic force halfway between the poles is much
weaker than that at the poles. Placing the end of the iron bar midway
between the poles will result in very weak attraction compared with that
at the poles. However, placing the end of the magnet midway between the
ends of the iron bar will result in strong attraction.

It is impossible (as far as we know) to separate a north from a south

pole. Any attempt at breaking a bar magnet in half results in two new bar
magnets, each half having both north and south poles (Figure 12.1.4).
Although there have been theories about the existence of an isolated magnetic
pole, called a monopole, no-one has ever found it.

S N

S N S N

Figure 12.1.4 Breaking a magnet in half

produces north and south
poles for each half.

CHECKPOINT 12.1
1 Discuss the origin of the name north pole for a magnet.
2 Complete the following: opposite poles ______ and like poles ______.

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12.2 Magnetic field

Define the direction of the
magnetic field at a point as the
direction of force on a very
small north magnetic pole
when placed at that point.
N S
The space around a magnet is said to contain a magnetic field. The field has
both magnitude and direction. The direction of the magnetic field at any
point is the direction indicated by the north pole of a very small compass needle.
To visualise the magnetic field, we draw magnetic field lines around the
magnet (Figure 12.2.1). The lines are not actually there: they simply help us to
see the direction and qualitative magnitude of the magnetic force around the
magnet. The rules for drawing these lines are similar to those used for drawing
electric field lines. They are:
• Field lines start at the north pole and end at the south pole. This direction is
represented by arrows on the lines.
• Closer line spacing means a higher magnitude of the magnetic field. The
magnitude is greatest around the poles.
• Lines never cross one another.

Figure 12.2.1 The array of small compass N S N S N N

needles point in the direction

of the magnetic field.
a b c

Describe the magnetic field Figure 12.2.2 Magnetic field lines for (a) a bar magnet, (b) a north and a south pole opposite
around pairs of magnetic poles. each other, and (c) two north poles opposite each other.

An image of magnetic field lines can be created by covering a bar magnet with
a sheet of paper and sprinkling iron filings on top of the paper (Figure 12.2.3).
The tiny grains that make up the iron filings behave like tiny magnets when
they are in the magnetic field. They attract other grains, which in turn become
magnetised, attract other grains and so on. They seem to follow the field lines
because small pieces of iron tend to orient themselves so that their longest
dimension lines up with the magnetic field.

Figure 12.2.3 Iron filings help visualise magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.

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PHYSICS FEATURE
THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD is attracted towards geographic north. The Earth’s
magnetic poles do not exactly coincide with the

A compass needle can point in a geographic

north–south direction because the Earth itself
behaves as if a giant bar magnet is at its centre.
geographic North and South Poles. The magnetic
poles have been continuously moving throughout the
Earth’s history. One of the most remarkable of the
We do not fully understand the cause of this field,
movements is the complete reversal of the Earth’s
but it is thought to be electrical in nature and is
magnetic field—that is, its magnetic south pole
probably related to motion within the Earth’s partly
becomes a magnetic north pole and vice versa.
molten iron core caused by the rotation of the Earth.
This flipping of the poles has happened hundreds
Geographic North Pole is actually a magnetic
of times throughout Earth’s history.
south pole. That is why the north pole of a compass

Normal polarity Reversed polarity

Figure 12.2.4 The Earth’s magnetic field originates from the centre and behaves like a giant bar magnet.

CHECKPOINT 12.2
1 How is the direction of a magnetic field defined?
2 Explain how the magnitude of a magnetic field is related to the magnetic field line spacing.

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12.3 Magnetic fields produced by

B he passed a current through a wire. This connection between electricity and
Figure 12.3.1 A straight wire carrying a
current deflects the
compasses around it in a
circular pattern.
Describe the production of a
magnetic field by an electric
current in a straight current-
carrying conductor and describe
how the right-hand grip rule
can determine the direction of
current and field lines.
Present information using ⊗
and 䉺 to show the direction of
a current and direction of a
magnetic field.
electric currents
An electric current flowing through a wire produces a magnetic field around it.
Danish physicist Hans Christian Øersted (1777–1851) was the first to discover this
effect in 1820 when he noticed the deflection of a nearby compass needle whenever
magnetism was the start of the physics of electromagnetism.
A long, straight wire with an electric current flowing through it causes the needles
of the compasses around it to point in a circular pattern around the wire (Figure
12.3.1). Recall that a compass needle points in the direction of the magnetic field.
This implies there is a circular magnetic field around a straight wire.
Reversing the direction of the current causes the compasses to reverse direction,
indicating that the direction of the magnetic field has also reversed.
You can find out the direction of the magnetic field by using the right-
hand grip rule (Figure 12.3.2). Grip the wire with your right hand and point
the thumb in the direction of the conventional current (that is, the positive current)
along the wire. Your curled fingers will now point in the direction of the magnetic
field around the wire. Magnetic field lines are more closely spaced nearer to the
straight wire where the field becomes stronger.
Looking directly from above in Figure 12.3.3, the magnetic field lines point in a
counterclockwise direction. The symbol in the centre indicates that the current is
coming towards you (out of the page). In contrast, when viewing Figure 12.3.4
from above, the magnetic field lines point in a clockwise direction. The ⊗ symbol
indicates that the current is moving away from you (into the page).
The and ⊗ symbols represent the direction of the current out of and
into the page, respectively. You can remember this convention if you imagine that
is the head of an arrow pointing at you. The crossed feathers in the back of the
arrow are represented by ⊗, indicating that the arrow is pointing away from you.

electric current I
B B

magnetic field B

Figure 12.3.2 The curled fingers point in the
direction of the magnetic field
when the thumb points in the
direction of the conventional
current along the wire.
Figure 12.3.3 Magnetic field lines around a Figure 12.3.4 Magnetic field lines around a
conventional current going conventional current going
out of the page into the page

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To show that the magnetic field

conventional current I
points into or out of the page, we use
× or •, respectively. For example, the
straight wire in Figure 12.3.5 has a
conventional current upwards. The
magnetic field lines are directed into
B B
the page on the right-hand side
(represented by ×) and out of the page
on the left (represented by •).

Figure 12.3.5 Magnetic field lines into (×)

and out of (•) the page for a
wire carrying a conventional
current upwards in the plane
of the page

CHECKPOINT 12.3
1 What did Hans Christian Øersted discover? How?
2 What happens to the magnetic field around a wire when the current is reversed?
3 Draw the magnetic field around two parallel wires carrying currents in the same direction.

12.4 Magnetic field from a solenoid

You can use the right-hand grip rule on a loop of wire carrying a current to find
the direction of the magnetic field around the loop. Note that the magnetic field
in the centre always points in the same direction, no matter where your hand is
around the loop (Figure 12.4.1).

– +

a b

Figure 12.4.1 (a) The right-hand grip rule can be used for a current loop. (b) Magnetic field lines
around a single wire loop.

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Compare the nature and
generation of magnetic fields
by solenoids and a bar magnet.
S N
Figure 12.4.2 The right-hand grip rule is
used to find the direction of
the magnetic field inside the
solenoid.
Rather than a single loop, now imagine that you have a wire of many
turns. This is known as a solenoid, which is simply a long coil of wire. The
magnetic field lines are as shown in Figure 12.4.2.
The magnetic field is strongest and most uniform through the centre of the
solenoid. The direction of the field through the centre is again determined
by the right-hand grip rule; however, you must now curl your fingers in the
direction of the conventional current and your thumb will point in the direction
of the magnetic field. The field from a solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet
with a north and south pole.
A solenoid wrapped around a magnetic material such as iron, like an iron nail
or bolt, will have its magnetic field strength increased. This arrangement is
known as an electromagnet. Because an electromagnet can be switched on and
off using electrical current, it can be thought of as a temporary magnet; a magnet
that stays magnetic indefinitely, like a bar magnet or a fridge magnet, is
sometimes called a permanent magnet.

Identify data sources, gather,
process and analyse information
to explain one application of
magnetic fields in household
appliances.
Solenoids in loudspeakers
Speakers are found in many common devices, such as mobile phones, sound
systems and televisions. They convert an oscillating electrical current into
soundwaves.
A diagram of a cut-away section of a speaker is shown in Figure 12.4.3.
It consists of a coil of insulated wire connected to a paper diaphragm (or cone).
The coil is also wrapped around the centre post of a cylindrical permanent magnet.
The oscillating current through the wire makes the coil behave like a magnet with
oscillating strength. This causes it to be attracted or repelled by varying magnetic
forces and causes the diaphragm to vibrate, thus producing sound.

flexible edge

voice coil
fixed to cone
magnetic field

N paper diaphragm
(cone)

cylindrical
PRACTICAL tubular magnet
input
EXPERIENCES
Activity 12.1
Activity Manual, Page 126
Figure 12.4.3 A speaker produces sound from a solenoid interacting with a permanent magnet.

CHECKPOINT 12.4
1 How does a solenoid differ from a bar magnet?
2 Give applications of solenoids in everyday life and briefly explain how they work.

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 ELECTRICAL
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES ENERGY IN THE
HOME

CHAPTER 12
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

ACTIVITY 12.1: ELECTROMAGNETS

Make an electromagnet out of wire wrapped around an iron bolt, and study the
Plan, choose equipment or
dependence of its magnetic force on the number of turns of wire and the current
resources for, and perform
passing through it.
a first-hand investigation
Equipment: power supply, DC ammeter, iron bolt with an iron nut screwed on
to build an electromagnet.
its end, at least 1 m of enamelled copper wire.
Discussion questions
1 For a fixed current, how does the number of turns of the wire affect the
weight of an iron object that the electromagnet can lift?
2 For a fixed number of turns, how does changing the current affect the
weight that the electromagnet can lift?

variable
power
supply

Figure 12.5.1 An electromagnet made from

enamelled copper wire
wrapped around an iron bolt

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Chapter summary
• Magnets have two poles: north and south. • An electric current in a wire produces a magnetic field in
• Like poles repel each other; unlike poles attract. the surrounding space.
• The direction of the magnetic field at a point around a • The magnetic field around a current-carrying wire is
magnet is given by the direction of a small compass at determined by the right-hand grip rule.
that point. • A coil of wire with a current passing through is known as
• The Earth behaves as if it has a giant bar magnet at its core. a solenoid.
• The Earth’s geographic North Pole is a magnetic south • The magnetic field in and around a current-carrying
pole and vice versa. solenoid is similar to that of a permanent magnet.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING SOLVING PROBLEMS
The items in the columns are not in their correct order. 4 Two compasses are far apart and pointing towards
Copy the table and match each of the key physics concepts geographic north. The compasses are now brought
with its correct definition. close together side-by-side. Propose what will happen
to the directions of the two compasses.
CONCEPT DEFINITION 5 Propose whether
a N S
Magnetic material Exhibits magnetic properties unless each electromagnet
destroyed in Figure 12.5.4
Dipolar Material that can be made into a magnet or will attract or repel
the permanent b N S
is attracted to a magnet
magnet on the right.
Electromagnet Always has two poles
Permanent magnet Magnetic properties can be turned on
6 Propose whether
and off each electromagnet Figure 12.5.4
in Figure 12.5.5
will attract or repel a
the electromagnet
REVIEWING on the right.

1 Draw the magnetic field lines around each of the 7 Identify some
b
following arrangements of magnets. magnetic materials.
a bar magnet 8 If you were
b two bar magnets with their south poles facing standing at the
each other Figure 12.5.5
Earth’s geographic
c a horseshoe magnet North Pole and you
2 Draw the magnetic field were carrying an ordinary compass horizontally,
lines in the plane of the propose what would happen to the compass needle.
page around the Figure 12.5.2 9 A magnet is in the shape of a sphere. Propose how
current-carrying wires you can identify the locations of its north and south
given in Figure 12.5.2. poles using a bar magnet.
3 Identify the direction of 10 Imagine that you have a compass needle that can move
the conventional current in three dimensions (3-D) and that is not just limited to
in the straight conductor the horizontal planes like most ordinary compasses.
in Figure 12.5.3. Propose what would happen to this 3-D compass needle
in Australia. What would happen to the needle at the
equator? (Hint: The closest real compass
to this hypothetical 3-D compass is called
a dip circle, which can give the 3-D angle
Figure 12.5.3 of the Earth’s magnetic field at any
position on the Earth.)

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PHYSICS FOCUS
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
Many atomic nuclei, such as a hydrogen nucleus,
behave like little bar magnets. Magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) is a method by which the strength of the
magnetism of atomic nuclei is measured. The density
of nuclei in different regions is given by the collective
effect of the magnetic field. This enables body tissue to
be imaged by mapping these small magnetic fields in
space. To help achieve this collective addition of the
small magnetic fields of nuclei, a large magnetic field
is applied to them. This field is supplied by a large
solenoid in which the patient sits.
Figure 12.5.6 A patient is about to be placed inside the magnet of an MRI scanner.
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
P4. Describes applications of physics
which affect society or the environment
1 Sketch the magnetic field inside the solenoid.
2 Draw one atomic nucleus in this field and assume
it is a small bar magnet. Determine the orientation
of these small magnets with respect to the
magnetic field inside the solenoid.
3 The solenoid magnetic field is very powerful.
Sometimes, people who work with metals for a living,
and end up needing an MRI scan one day, are often
required to have an X-ray image taken of the area to
be scanned. Propose a reason why this is done.
239
 3 The review contains questions in a similar style and proportion to
the HSC Physics examination. Marks are allocated to each question
up to a total of 25 marks. It should take you approximately
45 minutes to complete this review.

3 Light bulbs A and B in Figure 12.6.2 are identical

Multiple choice and the switch is initially open. Given that the
brightness of a light bulb is proportional to the power
(1 mark each) dissipated, compare the brightness of the light bulbs
1 Identify which of the following diagrams in before and after the switch is closed. Choose the
Figure 12.6.1 has correctly drawn electric fields. correct answer from below.
A Light bulb A is brighter.
A B B Light bulb B is brighter.
+ – + –
C Light bulb A is dimmer.
D There is no change in brightness.

C D
A

+ – – + 24V
12V B

Figure 12.6.1 Figure 12.6.2 An electric circuit

2 Current in a circuit with a sample wire of length L, 4 Figure 12.6.3 shows the circuitry of a doorbell.
cross-sectional area A and made of copper is The striker has an iron core. The striker is also free
measured to be I. This sample wire is replaced by to move and strike the tone bar, but there is a spring
another copper wire that has a cross-sectional area between the left end of the striker and the solenoid.
that is double the original and has a length that is 6 The transformer is the power supply. When the
times as long. The new current would be: button is pushed and then released, the events that
A I occur in order are:
B 3I A striker attracted, spring compressed, wire
1 magnetised, striker hits tone bar, spring
C I
2 uncompressed, striker hits tone bar
2 B wire magnetised, striker attracted, spring
D I
3 compressed, striker hits tone bar, spring
uncompressed, striker hits tone bar
C wire magnetised, spring uncompressed, striker
attracted, spring compressed, striker hits tone
bar
D striker attracted, wire magnetised, spring
compressed, striker hits tone bar, spring
uncompressed, striker hits tone bar.

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 ELECTRICAL
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iron wire 5.0 Ω 5.0 Ω

spring striker
core coil
I = 2.0 A

R
10 V
PLEASE
RING

tone bar tone bar Figure 12.6.4 A circuit

transformer 8 Figure 12.6.5 shows an electricity meter with

readings on its dials.
a What is the reading on the meter? (1 mark)
b If the previous reading was 5014, calculate the
Figure 12.6.3 Circuitry of a doorbell number of kilowatt hours used. (1 mark)
c Calculate the cost of the electricity used if the
power company charges 10c per kilowatt hour.
5 The following is a list of safety devices and their (1 mark)
definitions, but they have been jumbled up.
0
1 9
0 2 8
NAME DEFINITION 9 1 0
8 2 3 7 9 1
Circuit-breaker i A safety device with a metal wire or strip 4 6 8 2
7 3 5
that melts when the current becomes 0 6 4
7 3
1
0
9
1 9 5 100 kWh
too large, cutting off the flow of the 6 4
2 8 5 2 8
1000 kWh
electrical current 3 7 10 kWh 3 7
4 6 4 6
Fuse ii A protection method of connecting the 5 5
metal body of an appliance to ground 10 000 kWh 1 kWh

Earthing iii A device for interrupting an electric circuit

to prevent excessive current; it can be reset Figure 12.6.5 An electricity meter
like a switch

The correct meanings for the words in the order they

appear are:
A i, ii, iii
B iii, ii, i Extended response
C iii, i, ii 9 Today, householders have a chance to switch to
D ii, iii, i renewable energy. Explain the impact on the
environment and society when using conventional
or renewable energy sources. (5 marks)

Short response
6 Compare and contrast the views of Galvani and Volta.
State how these views contributed to our
understanding of electricity and applications of its
use. (4 marks)
7 For the circuit shown in Figure 12.6.4:
a Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
(1 mark)
b Obtain the voltage across R. (1 mark)
c Calculate the value of R. (1 mark)
10 During the course of your study, you were required
to plan and perform an experiment that compared
the usage of current and voltage in series and
parallel circuits.
a Describe the method you used (including a
circuit diagram). (3 marks)
b Explain the advantage of using parallel circuits
in household electricity. (2 marks)

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4 ENGINE
CONTEXT
Figure 13.0.1 Looking past a nearby
galaxy like NGC 3370 in the
constellation Leo reveals
ever more distant galaxies.
242
THE COSMIC
‘Space is big. Really big. You just won’t believe how vastly, hugely, mind-bogglingly
big it is. I mean, you may think it’s a long way down the road to the chemist, but
that’s just peanuts to space.’
Douglas Adams, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy
In this lighthearted quote, writer Douglas Adams is probably doing as good a job as
any astronomer can in conveying the vastness of the universe. The distances and
times in astronomy are often so vast that it is impossible to relate them to our
everyday life. Like Adams, you can probably imagine driving to the local chemist,
but what about driving to the nearest star? Even if it was possible, it would take
about ten million years.
Instead, we aim to understand what is meant by an enormous distance, such as
a light-year, and then use it, even though we can’t imagine just how big it is.
In this module we will explore how we came to understand just how big the
universe is and where we are placed in this ‘big picture’. Then we will learn
something about the stars—the bright signposts that we now believe are merely
markers floating in the vast mysterious mass of dark matter and dark energy that
dominate the universe.
The most important star to us, the Sun, is the one we know best because it is
on our cosmic doorstep. As we shall see, the Sun not only provides us with light and
heat, but it also also washes over us with higher energy radiation and particles that
would kill us without the Earth’s protective environment.
 Figure 13.0.2 The stars of the constellation
Scorpius, with the red giant
Antares at its heart, lie in
front of the more distant star
clouds of the Milky Way.

INQUIRY ACTIVITY
EXPLORE A CONSTELLATION
We think of a constellation as a group of stars, perhaps with a mythical figure
associated with it, such as Scorpius, the scorpion. Officially, a constellation is
a patch of sky that has had a boundary drawn around it and a name assigned.
Perhaps, within that boundary, a pattern of bright stars forms an easily
recognisable shape like the scorpion. More often, the pattern is well known only
to keen amateur astronomers! The pattern is just a chance alignment of stars
seen from our perspective on Earth.
Try the following research activity to ‘get to know’ the constellation Scorpius.
1 Find a map of Scorpius, perhaps in a star atlas, a computer program that
shows the stars or on the Internet using Google Sky or WikiSky. You’ll need
to orient the map to match the picture of Scorpius (Figure 13.0.2).
2 Identify a few of the brightest stars in the constellation. The brightest will be
labelled alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), delta (δ) and so on using letters from
the Greek alphabet, but they may also have names.
3 Look at some of the brightest stars of the constellation. Are they all the same
colour? Why not?
4 Find the distances to several of the brightest stars of the constellation.
The easiest way to do this is to search the Internet. Look at a variety of
web pages to see if there is a range of values given. Why is this?
5 Do some research to find a ‘deep sky’ object within the constellation—a star
cluster, nebula (a gas cloud) or a galaxy. A star cluster or nebula will usually
be more distant than the bright stars in the picture. If it’s a galaxy, it is well
beyond all the stars in the picture. Can you find a picture of your object and
a distance for it?
243

13
cosmology, geocentric model,
heliocentric model, Tychonic model,
Kepler’s laws, ellipse, universal law
of gravitation, inverse square law,
spectroscopy, special theory of
relativity, general theory of relativity,
cosmological constant, cosmological
principle, Cepheid variable, period–
luminosity law, spectral lines,
Doppler effect, Hubble constant
244
Our view of
the universe:
cosmology
What is cosmology?
Cosmology comes from the Greek words cosmos (translated in
various ways, including world, harmony or order) and logos (reason
or plan). It is the study of the universe as whole—the ‘big picture’!
It asks big questions: How old is the universe? How did the universe
begin? What is the future of the universe?
For much of human history, cosmology had more in common with
philosophy and religion than science. Cosmology needed to explain
the world around us and the sky above us. The blossoming of
science and new astronomical observations enabled by the invention
of the telescope provided new phenomena to
incorporate into our ‘world view’. Today, this view is
summarised in the Big Bang model
of the universe.
13.1 Spirits in the sky
Few people in Australia today notice the night sky above them. The bright lights
of modern living make it hard to see the stars. Earlier Australians were more
fortunate: a deep knowledge of the sky threads through many of the hundreds of
Aboriginal cultures of Australia. For them, the night sky is an integral part of
their world, bearing the signs left by the ancestral spirits in the Dreaming.
For example, the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land tell how the Sun-woman
lights a small fire, creating dawn. She uses it to light the torch she carries from
east to west across the daytime sky. At night-time, she travels underground, back
to the morning camp in the east.
When the Sun-woman is making her underground trek during autumn,
the spectacular band of the Milky Way stretches across the sky from horizon
to horizon. The Yolngu people tell us that it is a great river, and on either side
of it lie the campfires—nebulae—of their ancestors. In the river, near the
constellation of the Southern Cross, is a dark cloud called the Coalsack (this
name originates from modern astronomers). To many Aboriginal groups, it
marks the head of the emu, one of the best-known Aboriginal constellations.
 THE COSMIC
ENGINE

In a dark sky, stretching away to its left and traced by dark clouds in the Milky Way,
you should be able to see its long dark neck, round body and legs (Figure 13.1.2).
This pattern of darkness is very different from the patterns of bright stars that
form the European constellations that most of us grew up with.
People all around the world had their own rich traditions of sky stories
and developed a deep familiarity with the cycles of motions in the sky. Many
great cultures, such as the Mayans of Central America, built monuments whose
orientation was determined by events in the sky (Figure 13.1.1).

Figure 13.1.2 Can you see the emu in the rock

carving and the emu in the
dark clouds of the Milky Way?
Figure 13.1.1 El Castillo is a Mayan pyramid temple oriented to match the setting of the Sun
in spring.

BANUMBIRR
A stronomers follow agreed rules when they name features on the surfaces
on planets. When naming features on Venus in the 1990s, some of the
names chosen represented names associated with Venus from cultures
around the world. For example, a valley near the equator is now called
Banumbirr Vallis. For many aboriginal people in northern Australia,
Venus is Banumbirr, the Morning Star.

CHECKPOINT 13.1
1 Define cosmology.
2 Outline a key difference in approach to the sky of the Australian Aboriginal cultures and the Mayan civilisation.

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13.2 The Earth at the centre

There are rich astronomical traditions in many ancient civilisations, but much
Outline the historical
of Western astronomy originates from the Greek philosophers over 2000 years
development of models of the
universe from the time of ago (Figure 13.2.1). The first of these is said to be Thales of Miletus
Aristotle to the time of Newton. (c.624–c.546 BC). Thales led the way by using logical argument to seek
explanations of the world from nature rather than from a supernatural world of
the ancient gods. In many ways, Thales was an early physicist, even if he believed
the Earth was flat and floating in a vast ocean. Perhaps the most influential of
the ancient Greek philosophers was Aristotle (384–322 BC). His ideas on
‘natural philosophy’—the branch of philosophy seeking to understand the
natural world (what we would now call ‘science’)—dominated European views
of the universe for almost 2000 years.
Aristotle applied logic to argue for a view that he inherited from earlier
region of fire
philosophers—the geocentric (Earth-centred) model of the universe, with a
spherical Earth at the centre of creation (Figure 13.2.2).
In his cosmological model, the imperfect, changing Earth was made of four
Air and clouds elements: fire, earth, air and water. The perfect, unchanging ‘heavens’ were
horizon horizon composed of quintessence (or aether).
The Earth was surrounded by a huge sphere of fixed stars that orbited
once every day. The Sun was carried on another sphere that was transparent—so
U
nd o that the stars could be seen through it. Greek knowledge of the motion of the
f

erg ses
the round cour es
heavenly bod i sky was easily good enough to know that one sphere could not explain all the
details of the Sun’s motion. Consequently, Aristotle added three more spheres to
Figure 13.2.1 Anaximander’s model of a explain the Sun’s movements. The motions of the Moon and planets were also
cylindrical Earth floating
beneath the stars, Moon complex, so Aristotle’s system ended up with a set of 55 transparent spheres
and Sun inside the sphere of the fixed stars.
At the heart of the geocentric model is the idea of the Earth,
motionless at the centre. This was consistent with other Aristotelian ideas:
• The natural state of heavy objects like the Earth was at rest; therefore, some
force would be required to keep them moving.
• A rotating Earth would leave behind the air and objects in it, such as birds.
Aristotle’s system may seem complex and silly to modern eyes, but it
explained the observations that Aristotle and his contemporaries had available.
Some philosophers, including perhaps Aristotle, believed it really represented
reality. However, the model wasn’t perfect: it couldn’t explain the changes in the
brightness of the planets or the size of the Moon in the sky.
In contrast to Aristotle’s geocentric model, Aristarchus of Samos
(310–230 BC) proposed a heliocentric (Sun-centred) model, with the Earth and
all the planets orbiting the Sun. It featured a vastly larger sphere of fixed stars to
explain why the stars showed no apparent motion as the Earth moved around its
orbit (that is, the parallax effect). It seems the theory of Aristarchus did not fit
the established ideas of Greek philosophy and was strongly rejected.

Figure 13.2.2 A simplified view of Aristotle’s

spheres surrounding the Earth

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 THE COSMIC
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The continued influence of the ideas of the ancient Greek philosophers was
ensured by the work of Claudius Ptolemaeus (c. 90–c. 168 AD), known as
Ptolemy. His great book Almagest incorporated geometrical ideas introduced by
Greek philosophers after Aristotle. Each planet moved around a circle called an
epicycle, which itself moved along a larger circle called a deferent. The varying
speeds of a planet’s motion were accommodated using an off-centre point called
the equant (Figure 13.2.3). This model allowed predictions of the motions of the centre of the
Sun, Moon and planets sufficient to satisfy Arab and European astronomers, deferent

astrologers and navigators for more than 1000 years! deferent

Knowledge of Greek astronomy was largely lost in Europe after the decline of epicycle
the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century AD. However, Ptolemy’s work Earth

was saved by Islamic scholars who translated many Greek works into Arabic.
They also corrected some errors in earlier Greek works and contributed their planet

own observations, with the result that many of the bright stars in the sky have
names derived from their Arabic origins. centre of
equant the epicycle
Islamic astronomy flourished from around 825 to 1450. In the 12th and
13th centuries, western European theologians rediscovered Greek philosophy as
Figure 13.2.3 Epicycles, deferents and
preserved by the Islamic scholars. Aristotle’s concept of a ‘prime mover’ became equants were elements of
associated with the Christian God and the geocentric model became entwined each planet’s path in
with Christian theology. Ptolemy’s complex model.

CHECKPOINT 13.2
1 Outline Aristotle’s model of the world.
2 Compare the basic concept of the heliocentric model with the geocentric model.
3 Sketch a short section of the motion of a planet in Ptolemy’s geocentric model.

13.3 The Sun at the centre

The year 1543 marks a landmark in science with the publishing of De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium (translated as On the Revolutions of the Celestial
Spheres) by Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1542). A largely
mathematical work in the tradition of Ptolemy’s Almagest, this book described a
heliocentric model of the universe (Figure 13.3.1).
This idea was not new, having been discussed long before by Greek, Islamic
and Indian astronomers. Copernicus is reputed to have delayed the publication
of De revolutionibus for fear of the Catholic Church’s reaction to the heliocentric
model (he received the first printed copy on his death bed). In fact, there was
little reaction from the Church. It was the work of Galileo 70 years later (see
page 252) that led to De revolutionibus being placed on the Church’s index of
forbidden books for 140 years. Copernicus might have been more worried by the
reception his book would receive from other scholars.

Figure 13.3.1 A simplified view of Copernicus’s

heliocentric model

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Copernicus argued that his heliocentric model was more elegant than
Ptolemy’s geocentric model; nevertheless, he retained the preference for circular
motions. This meant that about the same number of epicycles were required to
achieve accurate predictions! However, the epicycles were smaller than in the
geocentric model and the prediction of the motion of the Moon was better. Also,
the heliocentric model simply explained the retrograde (backwards) motion of
the planets in the sky at certain times.
Although the heliocentric model was widely rejected, De revolutionibus was
admired as a mathematical work that allowed predictions of planetary positions
to slightly better accuracy than Ptolemy’s model. For both models, their reality
was viewed separately from their mathematical usefulness.
Copernicus’s model was far more than just a new way to calculate
positions. It broke down Aristotle’s division between the heavens and the Earth.
It undermined the idea that heavy bodies like rocks fell to Earth because they fell
towards their ‘natural place’ at the centre of the universe.
The heliocentric model proved to be a landmark in a move that had already
begun away from the largely qualitative (descriptive) writings and deductions of
Aristotle. The new way was to use quantitative (numerical) thinking applied to
new measurements using new instruments.

TRY THIS!
SEEING PARALLAX
One major objection to the heliocentric model was the
STOP STOP
lack of apparent parallax motion as the Earth circled
the Sun. We will use parallax later to determine the
distance of the stars, but the parallax of the planets,
especially Mars, is more important to the geocentric–
heliocentric debate.
What is parallax? Parallax is a change in what you
see, depending on your viewing angle.
You can demonstrate a parallax effect using your Figure 13.3.2 Look at your thumb using one eye and then the
thumb held at arm’s length. Close one eye and see other to see the effect of parallax.
where your thumb is against the distant background.
Close the other and see where the thumb appears now. You can read more about using parallax to measure
Your thumb will appear to move against the more the distances of stars in Chapter 15 and in the Year 12
distant background scene. ‘Astrophysics’ option.

CHECKPOINT 13.3
1 Outline the improvements that Copernicus’s model offered to our understanding of our solar system.
2 Use a diagram to explain why, in the heliocentric model, a planet should show motion over a year due to the effect
of parallax as the Earth moves around its orbit.

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13.4 New observations

Tycho Brahe
The forerunner of the revolution in astronomical observations was Danish
nobleman Tycho Brahe (1546–1601). He constructed the finest observatory of
its time in Europe and equipped it with new instruments, each carefully built
ANGLES IN
and regularly checked (‘calibrated’). This resulted in observations of THE SKY
unprecedented accuracy. For example, his best positions were accurate to better
than 1 arc minute (one-thirtieth the diameter of the full Moon), which was more
than 10 times better than the typical accuracies achieved by earlier observers.
Y ou are familiar with
measuring angles in degrees;
however, 1° is a big angle in
Significantly, his planetary positions were more accurate than the predictions of astronomy. For smaller angles, we
either the geocentric or heliocentric models. divide each degree into 60 arc
Tycho also observed the ‘new star’ of 1572, which is now called Tycho’s minutes (or ‘minutes of arc’), and
supernova, and the comet of 1577. His careful observations proved that these each minute into 60 arc seconds
were beyond the Moon and therefore a changing part of Aristotle’s unchanging (or ‘seconds of arc’). The Sun
heavens. Also, the moving comet had to be passing through the tightly packed and Moon are both close to half a
transparent spheres that carried the planets. These contradictions quickly led to degree across—that is, 30 arc
minutes. The planet Jupiter
the end of any suggestion of the reality of these spheres.
varies from 31 to 48 arc seconds
Tycho apparently could not accept the Copernican idea that the Earth itself
in size, depending on where the
was just one of the planets. Instead, he devised a system to combine what seemed
Earth and Jupiter are in their
the best features of both the geocentric and heliocentric models. He placed
orbits and therefore how far apart
the Earth in the centre of the universe, but allowed all the planets to revolve
they are.
about the Sun (Figure 13.4.1). The path of the comet of 1577 was placed
between Venus and Mars. This Tychonic model seems odd to us today, but it
was a competitor to the heliocentric model for perhaps 200 years.

Figure 13.4.1 The Tychonic model showing a central Earth, orbited by the Moon and Sun. All the
planets orbit the Sun.

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Johannes Kepler
The greatest legacy of Brahe’s work was undoubtedly the observations of
planetary positions that formed the basis of the laws of planetary motion derived
by German mathematician Johannes Kepler (1571–1630). Kepler went to work
with Brahe in 1600 and continued to work on the observations of Mars after
Brahe’s death in 1601.
Kepler found that he could not reconcile his calculations with Brahe’s very
precise observations, so he abandoned the idea of circular orbits and eventually
decided the data demanded elliptical orbits in a heliocentric model. In 1609 he
published his conclusions in Astronomia nova (New Astronomy), in which he
described his first two laws of planetary motion. Six years later he added the third
law in his Epitome astronomia Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy).
Kepler’s laws are:
• The law of elliptical orbits: The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at
one focus. An ellipse is characterised by its two focal points (Figure 13.4.2a).
• The law of areas: A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in
equal intervals of time as the planet moves along its orbit. This means that the
planet travels faster when close to the Sun and slower when it is further away
(Figure 13.4.2.b).
• The law of periods: The orbital period of a planet T is related to the
semimajor axis of the orbit a by the relation:

T2
= constant
a3

This means that larger orbits a have longer periods T. Not quite so obvious,
the average speed of a planet on a larger orbit is slower than a planet on a
smaller orbit.

perihelion
(closest to
the Sun)

Sun
semimajor axis

aphelion aphelion
focus focus focus (farthest from Earth)
(farthest
from Earth)

Area = Area

a The path of a planet b Kepler’s second law

Figure 13.4.2 (a) An example of a highly elliptical orbit. (b) The law of areas—sweeping out equal
areas in equal times.

Kepler’s calculations of planetary positions remained very accurate decades

after the observations by Brahe on which they were based. This was a powerful
argument for the accuracy of Kepler’s laws and the heliocentric model.

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TRY THIS!
DRAW AN ELLIPSE
Take a piece of string about 50 cm long and tie the ends to form a
loop. Attach a piece of paper securely to a board and draw a straight loop of
pencil
line across the paper. Mark two points A and B on the line, as shown string

in Figure 13.4.3, and press a drawing pin into the paper at each
A B
point. Place the loop of string around the two drawing pins and,
thumb tack thumb tack
using a pencil to pull the string tight, run the pencil around the at focus at focus
inside of the loop. The shape you have drawn is an ellipse.
Choose two more points with a different spacing and draw a new ellipse traced
by pencil
ellipse. How is it different? What happens to the ellipse if two points
are very close together? Figure 13.4.3 Drawing an ellipse

Galileo
The world of observational astronomy was changed forever in 1608 by the
development of the optical telescope. The magnifying ability of lenses had been
known since ancient times, but it seems that the combination of two lenses to
form a practical telescope was first achieved by spectacle-makers in The Netherlands.
News spread rapidly and by mid-1609 it came to the attention of Italian
physicist Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) at the University of Padua, who quickly
began making a series of instruments with increasing magnification.
Galileo was probably not the first person to observe the sky with a
telescope, but his influence was immense because he quickly published his
observations and used them to promote the Copernican system. In March 1610
Galileo published Sidereus Nuncius (Sidereal Messenger), a short record of his
initial observations, including:
• the rugged surface of the Moon, which contradicted the Aristotelian concept
of heavenly perfection (Figure 13.4.4)
• the Milky Way and several ‘nebulous’ stars were actually composed of many
fainter stars
• four ‘stars’ moving back and forth relative to Jupiter, which he deduced were
actually ‘moons’ orbiting Jupiter in a Copernican-like system.
Later, Galileo made further important observations:
• Venus went through phases, like the Moon, which could not be explained by
a Ptolemaic system, but was a natural consequence of Venus circling the Sun,
as in the Copernican or Tychonic systems.
• Sunspots and their motion across the Sun was further evidence against the
immutable perfection in the heavens.
(Read more about Galileo’s observations in the Year 12 ‘Astrophysics’ option.)

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Figure 13.4.4 Galileo’s sketches of the Moon

Galileo’s advocacy of the Copernican system attracted considerable criticism.

In 1616 he was warned not to portray Copernican astronomy as fact. In 1632
he published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, in which he
discussed the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems. It presented a view of both
theories, although the Copernican theory was clearly favoured. Interestingly, the
book received formal authorisation from the Church but nonetheless resulted in
Galileo appearing before the Inquisition, primarily for violating the 1616 ruling.
This is a famous trial in the history of the interaction of science and religion, but
it is surrounded by a lot of misinformation. Galileo was not charged or convicted
of heresy, but he was forced to recant his heliocentric ideas. The Dialogue was
banned, and he was placed under house arrest for the remainder of his life.
The work of Brahe, Kepler, Galileo and others marked the emergence of
modern scientific methods and observation. Acceptance of the heliocentric
model spread, but it was not until the parallax motion of nearby stars was finally
observed 200 years later that the motion of the Earth around the Sun was shown
by clear experimental ‘proof ’.

CHECKPOINT 13.4
1 Outline Tycho Brahe’s contribution to astronomy.
2 Explain how Kepler changed astronomers’ way of thinking.
3 Explain how Galileo’s work inflamed the controversy over Copernicus’s model.

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13.5 Gravity goes to work

Galileo died on 8 January 1642. Almost one year later, the next giant figure in
the story of cosmology was born. English physicist Isaac Newton (1643–1727)
is famous for his contributions to many branches of physics and mathematics,
including the development of calculus (independently of Leibniz).
Newton’s first major scientific achievement was the construction of the first
successful reflecting telescope in 1668. He explored many other areas of physics,
but his major work was undoubtedly Philisophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
(Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), which was published in 1687.
The Principia, as it is often known, introduced the concept of a universal
law of gravitation (read more about gravity in the Year 12 ‘Space’ topic) and his
famous three laws of motion (see Chapter 3). Together, they form the basis of
classical mechanics that dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for
more than 200 years. In fact, in many ways, they continue to dominate since Figure 13.5.1 A replica of Newton’s original
they accurately describe motion in the everyday world around us. Newton reflecting telescope
realised that these laws apply equally well to planets orbiting the Sun.
The Principia may never have been published without English astronomer
Edmund Halley (1656–1742). In 1684 Halley showed that Kepler’s third law
implied that the force of attraction F between the Sun and planets obeyed
the equation:
1
F
d2
This inverse square law means that the force decreases rapidly with
increasing distance d. Halley visited Newton to discuss this result and found that
Newton already knew and had also derived many other properties of gravity.
Halley convinced Newton to publish his work and then checked the printing
and paid for it!
Newton’s universal law of gravitation states that every point mass, say
m1, attracts every other point mass, say m2, with a force given by the relation:
m1m2
F =G
d2
G is a constant believed to be the same everywhere. This force acts along the line
joining the two points. For large objects like the Sun and planets, the force on
the planet due to the Sun acts as if they were point masses and points back
towards the centre of the Sun. An equal but opposite force acts on the Sun,
pulling it towards the planet. Newton showed that Kepler’s laws were a direct
consequence of the law of gravitation.
Experimental confirmation of Newton’s theory of gravity accumulated with
time. For example, French expeditions in the 1730s established that the Earth
was flattened at the poles because of its rotation, as predicted by Newton.
However, the best-known vindication of Newton was provided by his friend
Halley, although only after both were dead. In 1705 Halley published the results
of his study of the orbits of comets. He calculated that the comet of 1682 (now
called Halley’s comet) was on an elliptical orbit and returned every 76 years; he
claimed that it would appear in December 1758, which it did.

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Worked example
QUESTION
Calculate the force the Earth exerts on a cricket ball. What is the resulting acceleration of
the cricket ball and the Earth?
SOLUTION
The mass of the Earth is 5.974 × 1024 kg. Take the mass of the cricket ball to be 0.160 kg.
The gravitational constant G is 6.673 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2. The distance d required is the
distance of the ball from the centre of the Earth—let’s use the average radius of the Earth
(6.371 × 106 m). So we have:
mEarth = m1 = 5.974 × 1024 kg
mball = m2 = 0.160 kg
G = 6.673 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2
REarth = d = 6.371 × 106 m
Substituting into the equation for gravitational force:
mm
F =G 12 2
d
(5.974 × 1024)(0.160)
= (6.673 × 10−11 )
(66.371 × 106 )2
= 1.571 N

≈ 1.6 N (rounded to 2 siggnificant figures)

Acceleration is calculated using Newton’s second law (see Chapter 3):

F
aball = ball
mball
1.571
=
0.160
≈ 9.8 m s −2 (rounded to 2 significant figures)

FEarth
aEarth =
mEarth
1.571
=
5.974 × 1024
≈ 2.6 × 10−25 m s −2 (rounded to 2 significant figuress)

The acceleration of the ball is the familiar value of 9.8 m s–2 that applies to any object
free-falling at the surface of the Earth (neglecting other effects, like air resistance). The
acceleration of the Earth is tiny in response to exactly the same force because the mass of
the Earth is so great.

CHECKPOINT 13.5
1 Remembering other work by Newton (see Chapter 3), list the four major laws of motion that Newton introduced in
his work Principia.

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13.6 General relativity has a say

Over the next 200 years, our view of the universe changed dramatically, moving
away from a solar system surrounded by a celestial sphere to a larger universe in
which the Sun was just one star. The technology also advanced, with bigger and
better telescopes revealing previously unknown deep sky objects (Figure 13.6.1).
In the 19th century, enormous strides were made by applying photography
and spectroscopy to the study of the sky. Photography provides a permanent,
unbiased record of the sky. Spectroscopy spreads light out in wavelength and,
along with rapidly developing understanding of physics and chemistry, allowed
astronomers to study what the stars were made of, not merely where they were.

a b c

Figure 13.6.1 Changing telescopes: (a) Herschel’s 0.5 m aperture ‘favourite’ telescope from the
1780s; (b) Earl of Rosse’s 1.8 m ‘leviathan’ from 1845; (c) the Hooker 2.5 m
telescope completed in 1917

During this time, Newton’s gravitational theory was spectacularly successful,

passing every experimental test—except one.
In Newton’s theory, a planet orbiting the Sun traces an elliptical orbit with the
Sun at one focus. The gravitational forces of the other planets cause the perihelion
of the orbit to ‘precess’—to rotate slowly around the Sun. All planets show this
effect, but Mercury’s measured precession differed from theory by an angle of 43 arc
seconds per century (Figure 13.6.2). This was tiny, but it could not be explained.
It was also well known that gravity itself could not be explained. Newton’s theory
described gravity very accurately, but it didn’t explain what gravity is.

P1 Mercury

orbit 3
P3
orbit 2
P2
orbit 1

Figure 13.6.2 A very exaggerated view of the precession of Mercury’s orbit, showing motion of the
perihelion—P1, P2 and P3

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Albert Einstein
It was not only gravity that was beginning to show unexplained discrepancies: in
several areas of physics, the explanation of various effects awaited the revolution in
physics of the early 20th century. The public face of that revolution is
undoubtedly German-born theoretical physicist Albert Einstein (1879–1955).
In 1905 Einstein published his special theory of relativity. This
theory starts with the idea that any observer, no matter how fast they are
travelling, always sees light travelling at the speed of light (usually represented by
c and equal to 299 792 458 m s–1 in a vacuum). This seems wrong—what if you
are travelling at almost c yourself?—however, the predictions that result are
bizarre but true. One consequence is the famous formula:

E = mc2

Figure 13.6.3 An embedding diagram shows
a two-dimensional slice (with
length and breadth) of
familiar three-dimensional
space (with length, breadth
and height). The effect of
a mass is to warp the slice
when it is shown in a three-
dimensional approximation
of space–time around the
mass.
Einstein realised this was a general principle that expressed the equivalence of
energy E and mass m. (Read more about this equation in the Year 12 ‘Ideas to
Implementation’ topic, as well as the ‘Quanta to Quarks’ option.)
Special relativity imposes a ‘speed limit’ of c for anything moving
through space. Light from the Sun, travelling at c, takes more than 8 min to reach
the Earth. However, it was known that Newtonian gravity had to operate
instantaneously to work as well as it did. Einstein and others worked for another
decade to reconcile gravity with his new theory. Their work culminated in 1915
in Einstein’s publication of his general theory of relativity.
General relativity is a complex mathematical theory, but it allows gravity
to be represented as a warping of the multi-dimensional structure of space and
time (or space–time). The curvature of space–time affects the way objects move
(Figure 13.6.3).
An immediate success of the theory was the explanation of the precession of
the perihelion of Mercury. Another prediction was that the path of light should
be bent by gravity—by the curvature of space–time. In 1919 this was observed as
the deflection of the position of stars observed near the Sun during a solar eclipse.
Newton’s theory continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the
effects of gravity. Relativity is only required either when there is a need for
extreme accuracy, or when dealing with very high speeds and gravitation for very
massive objects.

CHECKPOINT 13.6
1 Recount what technological developments caused astronomy to change dramatically between the times of Newton
and Einstein.
2 Explain the new view of gravity in Einstein’s general theory of relativity.
3 Present the early evidence that supported this theory.

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13.7 Expanding universes—in theory

In 1917 Einstein published a paper describing the implications of general
Outline the discovery of the
relativity for cosmology. He described a model universe that, on large scales, was expansion of the universe by
uniformly spread with matter and was static—neither expanding nor contracting. Hubble, following its earlier
This described the universe as it was perceived at that time. To achieve this result, prediction by Friedmann.
Einstein introduced an extra term into his equations: the cosmological constant
(Λ), which had a repulsive effect to counter the attractive effect of gravity. In the
same year, Dutch physicist Willem de Sitter (1872–1934) proposed a different
model, also based on general relativity, but expanding with time.
During the 1920s more model universes were proposed, most notably in the
work of Russian cosmologist Alexander Friedmann (1888–1925) and Belgian
physicist Georges Lemaître (1894–1966). The simplest of Friedmann’s universes
was the Einstein–de Sitter type with the cosmological constant set to zero, so
there is no repulsive force to oppose the inexorable pull of gravity.
For these models to be meaningful on a universal scale required some
extra assumptions:
• The universe is isotropic—on very large scales, it looks the same in every
direction.
• Our location in the universe is not likely to be special. (This was not an idea
that Aristotle would have liked!)
Put these together and you must conclude that the universe is much
the same at every location. This is called the cosmological principle.
If you extend the cosmological principle to say the universe is much the same
at every location and at all times, you have the perfect cosmological principle.
This is what Einstein was after in his model of a static universe. However,
Friedmann and Lemaître showed that most model universes weren’t static—at
different times they could expand or contract. Indeed, Lemaître was the
first to point out the likelihood of an initial state of very high density, much
different from the universe today. He called it the ‘primeval atom’, but we know
it as the Big Bang.
There are many types of possible models of the universe revealed by the
work of Friedmann and Lemaître (see Figure 13.7.1 on page 258). Which one
you have depends on:
• the strength of gravity, which is dictated by the density of energy (and hence
matter) in the universe
• the value of the cosmological constant.
The simplest models of an expanding universe can be described as open (if they will
expand forever) or closed (if they will eventually collapse). In between, there will be
the marginally open case in which the expansion slows but will never quite stop.
Therefore, the question is: which model describes the real universe? To
answer that, you must go from theory to observations.

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Constant expansion-rate universe

Galaxies accelerating open universes

further universe (expand forever)
apart

Size scale of the universe

marginally
open
universes
closed universes
the universe (eventually collapse)
NOW
Galaxies Friedmann
closer universe
together
14.0 9.5 past future

billion years ago now

Time

Figure 13.7.1 The behaviour in time of a few important examples of possible universes

CHECKPOINT 13.7
1 Describe the purpose of the cosmological constant.
2 Account for the universe being described as obeying the cosmological principle.
3 Outline the types of universes that were described by Friedmann and Lemaître.

13.8 The expanding universe—

in practice
At the beginning of the 20th century, some astronomers believed that the
universe consisted of one large system of stars, the Milky Way galaxy, spanning
perhaps a few tens of thousands of light-years. Others saw faint ‘spiral nebulae’
BIG DISTANCES and wondered if they were other ‘island universes’, like the Milky Way.

D istances between stars and

galaxies are large and they
need large units.
The most familiar distance
unit in astronomy is the
light-year (ly). This is the
distance that light covers in one
year, travelling at 3 × 108 m s–1:
1 light-year ≈ 9.46 × 1015 m
A little less familiar is
the parsec (pc):
1 parsec ≈ 3.26 light-years
≈ 3.09 × 1016 m
In 1908 American astronomer Henrietta Leavitt (1868–1921) suggested that
a class of very bright stars called Cepheid variables—stars that varied their
brightness in a certain predictable way—showed an important pattern. She
observed that the longer the time (the period) they took to vary in brightness, the
brighter (more luminous) the star. This is known as the period–luminosity law.
So, by measuring the period of a Cepheid, its true brightness could be estimated.
(For more on Cepheid variables, see the Year 12 ‘Astrophysics’ option.)
In 1918 American astronomer Harlow Shapley (1885–1972) used
observations of Cepheid variables to estimate the diameter of the Milky Way
galaxy—300 000 light-years (a bit too big, in fact) with the Sun well away from
the centre (Figure 13.8.1). In 1924 American astronomer Edwin Hubble
(1889–1953) used Cepheid variables to measure the distance to the Andromeda
nebula—the biggest and brightest of the spiral nebulae. His distance was 800 000
light-years, which was well beyond even Shapley’s estimate of the size of the Milky
Way although less than 30% of the modern distance value. The Andromeda
nebula was in fact the Andromeda galaxy, which is comparable in size to the
Milky Way. Measurements of other spiral nebulae showed even larger distances.

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Shapley and Hubble were not the only people looking at the spiral nebulae.
In 1912 American astronomer Vesto Slipher (1875–1969) at Lowell Observatory
first observed a small shift in the wavelength of spectral lines from spiral
nebulae. Spectral lines are bright or dark lines at very specific wavelengths
in the light of the galaxy (Figure 13.8.2). They reveal what elements are emitting
the light. A shift of these lines is usually caused by the motion of the galaxy
relative to us—either motion through space or by the expansion of space itself.
(Learn more about spectral lines in the Year 12 ‘Astrophysics’ option.)

rest frame

Figure 13.8.1 If we could see the Milky Way

Receeding
red shifted from the outside, it might look
from us
much like the galaxy M83.
The Sun would lie in the outer
Moving regions of the spiral pattern.
blue shifted towards
us

H gamma H beta H alpha

Figure 13.8.2 A comparison of position of spectral lines for a source at rest (top), red-shifted
when the source is moving away relative to the observer (middle) and blue-shifted
when the source is moving towards the observer (bottom).

PHYSICS FEATURE
THE DOPPLER EFFECT where c is the speed of light, λ is the measured
wavelength of a spectral line in light from the source,
In 1842 Austrian physicist Christian Doppler
λ0 is the measured wavelength of the same spectral
(1803–1853) discovered that objects moving relative
line in light from a comparison source in the
to the observer had the effect of their motion being
laboratory (that is, at zero velocity relative to the
imprinted in the light the observer receive from them.
observer), and Δλ is the difference between the
The Doppler effect is obvious in the wavelength of the
measured wavelength from the source and in the
spectral lines within the spectrum of light from the
laboratory.
object. For example, when a star or galaxy is moving
A more complex version of this formula is
away from us (the observer), the wavelength of all the
necessary when the relative velocity becomes more
radiation we receive is slightly increased (that is, the
than a few per cent of the speed of light.
frequency is decreased) and the spectral lines are
The Doppler effect is very important in astronomy
shifted towards the red end of the spectrum (a red
but, despite what you may read elsewhere, it is NOT
shift). When the source is approaching, the shift is
the correct explanation for the red shift seen in light
towards the blue end of the spectrum (a blue shift).
from galaxies. This cosmological red shift looks the
The same effect is heard in sound waves: a change in
same but is caused by the expansion of the universe.
frequency (pitch) of a siren is apparent as an
(See the Physics Phile ‘Cosmological red shift’, on
ambulance speeds past you.
page 260.)
The Doppler effect increases with increasing
relative velocity v according to the expression:
λ 0 − λ Δλ v
= =
λ λ c

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By 1923 Slipher had measured 41 spiral nebulae and found that 36 showed red
shifts, indicating they were moving away from us. The remaining five, including the
Andromeda galaxy, showed blue shifts. This was surprising since you would expect a
random mix of red and blue shifts in a static universe.
In 1929 Hubble put all this observational data for nearby galaxies together to
plot a graph of velocity versus distance (Figure 13.8.3). He found that the
further away a galaxy was, the faster it was moving away. In fact, he concluded that
COSMOLOGICAL there was a straight-line relationship between velocity v and distance d. That is:
RED SHIFT v = H0 × d

T hese astronomers making the

observations had discovered
a red shift–distance law that is
H0 is called the Hubble constant. The difficulty of measuring distances to
remote galaxies has made H0 a hard number to measure. In conventional
not quite the velocity–distance astronomical use, we measure v in kilometres per second (km s–1) and d in
law used by the theoreticians. megaparsecs (Mpc). With these units, the current best estimate for H0 is
The conversion from a measured 72 km s–1 Mpc–1 ± 10%.
red shift to a velocity actually
4 × 104
depends on the model you have
for the universe. The Doppler
conversion (described in the
Physics Feature on page 259) is
3 × 104
not appropriate, although it does
give the right answers for nearby
galaxies. The expansion of the
universe produces a
Velocity (km s–1)

cosmological red shift due to the 2 × 104

expansion of space itself, not a

Doppler red shift due to motion
through space.
1 × 104

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

0
Distance (Mpc)

Figure 13.8.3 Hubble’s original data for nearby galaxies occupies a small corner of a modern
velocity versus distance diagram for galaxies. The uncertainties in distances are
indicated by the horizontal lines.

So these observers had discovered the expansion of the universe that had been
PRACTICAL predicted in many of the models by the theoretical cosmologists. This was the
EXPERIENCES first key step towards the modern Big Bang model of the universe.
Activity 13.1
Activity Manual, Page
131

CHECKPOINT 13.8
1 Outline the properties of Cepheid variables and their importance in our understanding of the universe.
2 Explain what you actually measure when you observe a red shift.
3 Explain the difference between the cosmological red shift and a red shift caused by the Doppler effect.

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ENGINE

CHAPTER 13
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

ACTIVITY 13.1: HISTORICAL TIMELINE Identify data sources, and

In this activity your class will create a timeline for the room. On this timeline, gather, process and analyse
you will place major astronomical events that have occurred. This will only have information to assess one of
brief information, just enough to give you an idea about what has occurred the models of the universe
through the ages. developed from the time of
Aristotle to the time of Einstein
Discussion questions to identify limitations placed
1 List the scientists whose work contributed to the development of the on the development of the
heliocentric model of the universe, which replaced the geocentric model. model by the technology
2 Explain how current research into the expansion of the universe has available at the time.
confirmed Einstein’s theories.

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Chapter summary
• Cosmology is the study of the universe as whole. • The special theory of relativity starts with the idea that
• In the geocentric model of the universe, the motionless any observer, no matter how fast they are travelling,
Earth was surrounded by a huge sphere of fixed stars always sees light travelling at the speed of light c. This is
that orbited the Earth once every day. a maximum speed for anything moving through space.
• In the heliocentric model of the universe, the Earth and • Einstein’s principle expressing the equivalence of energy
all the planets orbit the Sun. E and mass m is E = mc2.
• Copernicus’s model of the universe broke down • The general theory of relativity allows gravity to be
Aristotle’s division between the heavens and the Earth. represented as a warping of the multi-dimensional
• The Tychonic model of the universe placed the Earth in structure of space–time. The curvature of space–time
the centre of the universe, but allowed all the planets to affects the way objects move.
revolve about the Sun. • The cosmological constant was introduced by Einstein
• Kepler’s laws are: to have a repulsive effect to counter the attractive effect
– The law of elliptical orbits: The orbit of a planet is an of gravity.
ellipse with the Sun at one focus. • The cosmological principle states that the universe is
– The law of areas: A line joining a planet and the Sun much the same at every location.
sweeps out equal areas in equal times. • Cepheid variables vary their brightness in a predictable
– The law of periods: The orbital period of a planet T is way, obeying the period–luminosity law. This allows
related to the semimajor axis of the orbit a by the them to be used as distance indicators.
T2 • Spectral lines are bright or dark lines at specific wavelengths
relation: 3 = constant.
a of light. They indicate what elements are emitting the light.
• Newton introduced the universal law of gravitation: • The Doppler effect is caused by relative motion
mm between the source and the observer, producing a red
F =G 122 shift or blue shift in the wavelength of the spectral lines.
d
1 • The red shift seen in light from galaxies is caused by the
It is an inverse square law—that is: F .
d2 cosmological red shift, not the Doppler effect.
• Spectroscopy allowed astronomers to study what the • Hubble found that the further away a galaxy was, the
stars were made of, not merely where they were. faster it was moving away—that is, v = H0 × d, where
H0 is the Hubble constant.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The columns in the following table about the historical development of the
models of the universe do not match. Rearrange them so that the ‘Scientist’,
‘Model/contribution’ and ‘Limitations’ match along a row.

SCIENTIST MODEL/CONTRIBUTION LIMITATIONS

Aristotle Introduced epicycles and deferents to explain motions Retained circular orbits
Aristarchus First heliocentric model to be accepted Lack of observation of parallax to support theory; still used
circles
Ptolemy Earth made of four elements; geocentric system Accuracy needed complicated models to match
Copernicus Laws to underpin motion Complicated; could not explain retrograde motion
Brahe Mathematical accuracy and laws to describe motion Could not explain what gravity was
Galileo Heliocentric model; fixed stars on much larger Could not explain the changes in the brightness of the
fixed spheres planets or the size of the Moon
Kepler Observational data to support previous theories Suppressed due to religious beliefs of the time
Newton Geocentric model with highly accurate data None

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REVIEWING 16 When uranium is forced to split, it forms new atoms

of barium and krypton. One possible reaction can be
1 Explain the main observations that were successfully represented by the equation:
explained by the geocentric model of cosmology. 236
U→ 138
Ba + 95
Kr + 3 × 01n
92 56 36
2 Explain the significance of attempts to observe
parallax in the development of cosmological models. (Refer to Chapter 15 for more information on the
symbols used in the equation describing this process.)
3 Galileo did not invent the telescope, but it was crucial
to his support of the heliocentric model. Outline some The reactant on the left of this equation has more
reasons why the telescope was important to Galileo’s mass than the products on the right. The difference
ideas. (known as the mass defect) has been converted into
energy. Calculate the amount of energy released
4 Outline the key points of Newton’s model of gravity.
during this fission reaction given that:
5 What did Einstein do for gravity that Newton could not?
236
U = 236.0456 amu
6 a List the three models of the universe put forward 92

by Friedmann. 138
Ba = 137.9052 amu
56
b Identify which, if any, is the currently accepted
95
model. 36
Kr = 94.9398 amu
7 Outline the cosmological principal. 1
n = 1.008 665 amu
0
8 a What did Einstein mean by the equivalence of
where amu is atomic mass unit.
energy and mass?
1 amu = 1.660 538 86 × 10–27 kg.
b How is this described mathematically?
17 Look at the graph in Figure 13.9.1, plotting the
9 Define the Doppler effect with reference to an
velocity of recession and distance of five galaxies.
everyday example.
Using the data:
10 Explain the significance of Slipher’s observation of a Determine H0.
differing numbers of red- and blue-shifted galaxies. b Determine how closely this value agrees with the
11 a Define H0. current accepted value of H0.
b State the current accepted value. c Assuming that the universe has been expanding at
c Explain why this is a difficult value to measure. a constant rate since the start (which is not true!),
the age of the universe can be determined by
12 a Discuss the contributions made by Hubble in the
calculating the Hubble Time:
field of cosmology in relation to the expansion of
1
the universe. Hubble Time =
b Outline how Hubble made his measurements. H0
To get the value in years, your value must be
SOLVING PROBLEMS multiplied by a conversion factor of 9.78 × 1011.
Based on this estimate, calculate the age of
13 The orbital radius r and period T of Jupiter’s moons Io the universe.
and Callisto are recorded accurately and are listed below. 10 000
r Io = 421 800 km rCallisto = 1 882 700 km
8 000
TIo = 1.77 days TCallisto = 16.69 days
)
–1

6 000
Another of Jupiter’s moons is Europa. If the orbital
Velocity (km s

radius of Europa is 671 100 km, determine its orbital 4 000

period.
2 000
14 a Use Newton’s law of gravitation to determine the force
of gravity of the Earth on you. (Use: radius of Earth 0
= 6.36 × 106 m; mass of Earth = 5.97 × 1024 kg) 0 50 100 150 200
Distance (Mpc)
b Calculate your acceleration towards the Earth.
c Calculate the Earth’s acceleration towards you. Figure 13.9.1
15 Determine the energy that would be produced by
converting 0.2 kg of mass entirely into energy.

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14
Big Bang, Planck curve, Wien’s law,
photon, energy density,
nucleosynthesis, recombination era,
cosmic background radiation, dark
matter, dark ages, protogalaxy,
elliptical galaxy, spiral galaxy,
irregular galaxy, dark energy
264
Where it
all started:
the Big Bang
Our universe
In the previous chapter, we described various models of the universe
and how developing theory and improving observations caused these
models to change. This led to the realisation that the universe is
expanding—as theory predicts and observations confirm.
The next step is to ask what the universe was like in the past that
resulted in the universe we see today. The model that best answers
this is called the Big Bang, but this popular name describes a basic
idea, the details of which are hotly debated by cosmologists as theory
and observation continue to improve.
14.1 Understanding an expanding
universe
The observation of the expanding universe shows galaxies moving away from us
at a rate that increases with distance. This suggests that we are at the centre of
the expansion. However, the cosmological principle says that the universe
is much the same everywhere (see Section 13.7). We don’t see an ‘edge’ (galaxies
to one side of the edge but not the other), so no observer should see an edge.
And if there is no edge, how can you define a ‘centre’?
These ideas don’t seem sensible since many people imagine the Big Bang to be
an explosion in space. In fact, it is an expansion of space and time (space–time) and
the galaxies are carried by that expansion.
It is not too hard to come up with a simplified model to show how the universe
can have no edge and no centre, and yet have galaxies recede faster with increasing
distance. Instead of thinking of the universe as having three spatial dimensions
(length, breadth and height—or perhaps x, y and z), consider a universe with just two
spatial dimensions (length and breadth, or x and y). One example of such a two-
dimensional universe can be constructed using a balloon, but this universe consists
only of the surface of a balloon (Figure 14.1.1). Remember that this isn’t the real
universe: it is a useful analogy—an imperfect model.
 THE COSMIC
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This universe expands as the surface stretches when you blow up the balloon.
This increases the distance between galaxies—as measured on the surface. Every
galaxy appears to move away from every other galaxy at a speed that increases
with their distance apart. Nowhere on the surface is special; in particular, there
is no centre or edge to the expansion within the universe—on the surface
of the balloon.

TRY THIS!
CREATE YOUR OWN UNIVERSE
Find an image of a field of stars or
galaxies—a ‘negative image with
black stars on a white background
is best. Using a photocopier,
create a transparency copy at
110% of the original size. Now
centre one star on the
transparency over the same star of
the original. Can you see that the
expansion seems to be centred on
the chosen star? Can you see that
stars further from the ‘centre’
seem to be moving faster?
You may be able to see the same
effect using an image-processing
application on your computer.
Figure 14.1.1 The balloon universe—as the
surface stretches, the
universe expands, increasing
the distance between
galaxies. The galaxies
themselves do not expand.
Figure 14.1.2 An expanding two-
dimensional universe

Understanding the universe is difficult because we cannot travel to other

places and other times to see if the universe looks any different. We are limited by
an inability to travel faster than the speed of light—or, currently, even close to it.
We cannot even see beyond a horizon imposed by the maximum distance that
light has travelled in the 13.7 billion years that the universe has existed. However,
that same limitation imposed by the speed of light opens up an opportunity.
As we look out over vast distances in the universe, we look back in time to
see the universe when the light was emitted—not as it is now. We see galaxies as
they were millions or billions of years ago. Even for the nearby Sun, we see it as it
was over 8 minutes ago!

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Many of the images you see of galaxies are quite nearby examples, with
distances measured in tens of millions of light-years and therefore ‘lookback times’
of tens of millions of years, reaching back to the age of the dinosaurs on Earth.
Between 1997 and 2001, the Anglo-Australian Telescope (AAT) conducted the
2-degree Field Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dFGRS) to map the distribution of
galaxies in two regions of sky (Figure 14.1.3). This survey looked back about
2.4 billion years. The Hubble Space Telescope has looked much deeper in very
tiny patches of sky. Its ultra-deep field observation reached a lookback time of up
to 12 billion years (Figure 14.1.4). The most distant confirmed observation of
distant galaxies reaches a lookback time of almost 13 billion years. Our models of
the universe need to explain the formation of these galaxies so early in the history
of the universe.

Figure 14.1.4 Galaxies in the Hubble

ultra-deep field—a small
patch of sky in the southern
constellation of Fornax t
hif
ds
Re

Bil
lio
nl
igh
t-y
ea
rs

Figure 14.1.3 A map of the galaxies observed in the 2-degree Field Galaxy Redshift Survey,
showing the filamentary distribution of the galaxies. Each dot is a galaxy of billions
of stars.

CHECKPOINT 14.1
1 Explain why a simple view of the universe seems to contradict the cosmological principle.
2 Using the balloon analogy, explain how the motion of galaxies can be explained by space expanding rather than
galaxies moving through space.

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14.2 A hot Big Bang

The idea of an expanding universe inevitably means that the portion of the
Define the relationship between
universe we see today was smaller in the past. Rewinding the universal the temperature of a body and
movie eventually leads to a situation when the universe was compressed into a the dominant wavelength of the
hot, dense state. The expansion from that state is what we call the Big Bang— radiation emitted from that
a named disparagingly assigned by English cosmologist Fred Hoyle (1915–2001) body.
in a radio broadcast in 1950. Our best recent estimates put this at a time
13.7 ± 0.2 billion years ago.

PHYSICS FEATURE
WHAT IS THE TEMPERATURE OF (Read more about Planck curves and Wien’s law
in Chapter 15 and in the Year 12 ‘Ideas to
THE UNIVERSE? Implementation’ topic.)

W hen we say the early universe was hot, what do

we mean? Any hot, dense object in thermal
equilibrium behaves the same way: it glows with a
colour characteristic of its temperature.
For example, a ‘red hot’ steel bar looks red
because most of the visible light it emits is red;
12000 K
Intensity

however, most of the radiation is actually infra-red (IR)

that we experience as radiant heat. The exact
7 500 K
relationship between wavelength and intensity is
6 000 K
shown by a Planck curve (or black body curve)
4 500 K
(Figure 14.2.1). The wavelength of peak emission 3 000 K

λmax is given by Wien’s law, where T is the temperature 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Wavelength (nm)
2.0 2.5 3.0

on the kelvin scale:

2.9 × 10−3 m K
λmax = Figure 14.2.1 Several Planck curves showing that the peak
T moves to shorter wavelengths with increasing
So the steel bar at 1000 K (or 727°C) actually temperature. Note also that most radiation for
cooler temperature is infra-red at the wavelengths
peaks its emission at λmax ~ 2.9 µm in the infra-red.
greater than ~ 750 mm.
With a surface temperature of ~5770 K, the Sun
peaks at visible wavelengths λmax ~ 500 nm, which is
about where the human eye is most sensitive. The
early universe had much higher temperatures, leading
to much shorter wavelengths—X-rays or γ-rays.

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Since the Big Bang, the universe has expanded and, like a rapidly
expanding gas, it has cooled. Wien’s law then tells us that the typical wavelength
λmax of the radiation permeating the universe has increased. If we instead think of
light as tiny bundles of energy called photons, the energy E of the average photon
of the radiation has decreased. Energy E of individual photons is given by:

hc
E = hf =
λ

Identify that Einstein described
the equivalence of energy and
mass.
where f is frequency of the light and h is Planck’s constant. (See more about the
energy of photons in the Year 12 ‘Ideas to Implementation’ topic.)
As the universe expands and the average photon energy drops, the
energy density (energy per unit volume) of the universe decreases. This is
important because Einstein’s theory of special relativity relates energy E to an
equivalent amount of mass m via the relation:
E = mc2
In the very early universe, it was common for a photon to spontaneously
produce a particle and its corresponding antiparticle (with the same properties
but opposite charge). This can only happen if the photon had at least
enough energy to create the mass of both particles. A tiny fraction of a second
later, each particle met one of its antiparticles and they annihilated, converting
their mass back into the equivalent energy in photons. With this principle in
mind, we can describe the very first moments of the universe.

Worked example
QUESTION
What is the maximum wavelength a photon may have to produce a positive proton and a
negative antiproton? What characteristic temperature of the universe corresponds to this
wavelength?
SOLUTION
Protons have mass m = 1.673 × 10–27 kg. So the energy equivalent to the mass of a proton
and an antiproton is:
E = mc 2
= 2 × (1.673 × 10–27)(3.00 × 108)2
= 3.01 × 10–10 J
This is the minimum energy the photon needs to create the pair of particles. The corresponding
wavelength is given by:
hc
λ=
E
(6.626 × 10−34)(3.00 ×108)
=
3.01 × 10−10
= 6.60 × 10−16 m
Using Wien’s law and this wavelength as λmax, we can calculate the corresponding
characteristic temperature of the universe that would allow this reaction to occur:
2.9 × 10−3 m K
T=
6.60 × 10−16
= 4.39 × 1012 K
So this reaction can occur if the temperature is higher than ~ 4.4 × 1012 K. (Hot!)

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The early history of the Big Bang universe

Some of the main events in the early history of the Big Bang universe are listed
below and represented in Figure 14.2.2.

~10–43 s since Big Bang (T ~ 1032 K)

Our current understanding doesn’t allow us to probe within 10–43 s of the
beginning of the expansion—a tiny time interval defined by our lack of a theory PRACTICAL
that melds gravity and quantum physics. However, after that instant, we know EXPERIENCES
the universe consists of a ‘soup’ of high-energy photons and particles, such as Activity 14.1
Activity Manual, Page 136
electrons and quarks.

~10–35–10–33 s since Big Bang (T ~ 1027 K) Describe the transformation of

This is the inflationary epoch, in which the universe suddenly ‘inflates’ by a radiation into matter which
factor of at least 1026 as the basic properties of the universe change. After followed the Big Bang.
inflation, the universe continues to expand more sedately while particle–
antiparticle pairs are repeatedly created and annihilated in a fog of photons and
short-lived particles.

~10–-5 s since Big Bang (T ~ 1012 K)

The average energy of photons has dropped below that required to produce
protons and neutrons. These particles and their antiparticles quickly annihilate
but, for reasons that remain unclear, an imbalance of about 1 in 109 in favour of
the particles results in a universe in which matter is dominated by particles (not
antimatter particles). Less massive particles—such as electrons and their
antiparticles, positrons—are still being created and annihilated.

~10 s since Big Bang (T ~ 5 × 109 K)

The characteristic energy of photons has now dropped below that required to
produce electron–positron pairs. Once again, annihilation eliminates all the
antiparticles, leaving only the particles—the electrons.
At this stage of the expansion the matter in the universe is primarily a mix
of protons, neutrons and electrons. A new process becomes important: the
formation of the light nuclei of the simplest atoms we know today in a process
known as nucleosynthesis.

~3 min since Big Bang (T ~ 109 K)

The temperature is now low enough to allow simple nuclei to form by
nucleosynthesis without being ripped apart again by collisions. Some protons
and neutrons react to form helium nuclei. Within a minute, the count of atomic
nuclei in the universe is set as we see it today: a ratio of ~90% hydrogen,
10% helium and traces of a few lighter elements, such as lithium.
The universe continues to expand; however, it remains an impenetrable fog
of photons travelling only a short distance before scattering off electrons in the sea
of simple nuclei.

~380 000 years since Big Bang (T ~ 3 × 103 K)

This is the recombination era. Electrons bind to nuclei to form neutral atoms,
primarily hydrogen and helium. The average photon is now an infra-red photon

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and does not carry enough energy to pull the electrons from the atoms. As a
result, the photons now barely interact with the matter and are free to travel vast
distances. The universe has become transparent for the first time.
The photons streaming through space after the recombination era continue
to be red-shifted as the universal expansion continues. Their average energy
continues to drop, tracking the falling temperature. This radiation is still
visible today, coming from all parts of the sky as the cosmic background
radiation with a characteristic temperature of just 2.7 K.

Sun born
proton and neutron nucleosynthesis
annihilation

dark ages

first stars and

galaxies born
inflationary epoch recombination
today
electron annihilation

300 000 1 billion 9 billion

Time (years)

Figure 14.2.2 An illustration of the history of the universe, from particle formation through galaxy
formation to the accelerating expansion of today.

Are we sure of this picture?

The early part of this story is purely theoretical, although there are clues in the
observable universe today. After about 10–11 s, when temperatures were below
1014 K, we have more confidence since this energy range can be accessed in
modern particle physics experiments.
The remainder of the Big Bang story is solidly built on three key
predictions that are confirmed by observation:
• expansion consistent with models based on general relativity
• the abundance of light elements, especially helium, made during
nucleosynthesis
• the existence and temperature of the cosmic background radiation.
Recent years have been exciting in cosmology because new observations have
allowed us to refine the basic Big Bang theory. Observations by the COBE
satellite, and more recently by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP) satellite, have revealed the incredible smoothness in all directions of the
cosmic background radiation. However, irregularities of about 1 part in 100 000
in the background are the seeds of the formation of galaxies in the universe today
(Figure 14.2.3).

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Figure 14.2.3 Temperature irregularities (coded in colour) in the cosmic background radiation are
the seeds that grew that led to the formation of galaxies.

CHECKPOINT 14.2
1 Describe the energy constraint that controls the creation of particle–antiparticle pairs from a photon.
2 Draw a timeline of the events in the history of the Big Bang universe, listing the energy and particles present during
the significant stages.

14.3 Lighting up the universe

The irregularities in the cosmic background radiation represent the irregularities
Outline how the accretion of
in the distribution of matter in the universe during the recombination era. galaxies and stars occurred
Observations have revealed that this matter is not merely the ‘normal’ through:
matter of nuclei and electrons, but that it is actually dominated by dark matter • expansion and cooling of
of unknown composition. While this sounds mysterious, many observations the universe
indicate the reality of dark matter, although they don’t clearly reveal what it is. • subsequent loss of particle
There appears to be five times as much dark matter as there is normal matter! kinetic energy
• gravitational attraction
Over time, the slightly denser regions gravitationally attracted nearby gas and
between particles
dark matter and thus grew even more dense. The details of this process remain
• lumpiness of the gas cloud
unclear; however, computer modelling shows that the filamentary structure of that then allows
galaxies we see today is a natural consequence of this process (Figure 14.3.1). gravitational collapse.
There were not yet any stars—the universe was in its dark ages.

Figure 14.3.1 Images from a computer model showing the development with time of large-scale
structure in the universe. Compare with the observed structure in Figure 14.1.3.

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a The densest knots of the emerging structure accumulated more mass and
collapsed under gravity to form protogalaxies. Around 400 million years after the
Big Bang, smaller collapsing fragments of the protogalaxies formed the first stars.
Fuelled by hydrogen and helium, these stars radiated powerfully in the ultraviolet
portion of the spectrum.
The largest of the early stars survived for around a million years before
exhausting their fuel. Then they exploded as a supernova, blasting much of their gas
back into space and thereby enriching the interstellar gas with some of the heavier
elements produced inside the stars. This provided fuel for the next generation of
stars. Smaller stars survived far longer and gradually the numbers of stars grew,
b lifting the veil of darkness from the universe. (Read more about the lives of stars in
Chapter 15 and in the Year 12 ‘Astrophysics’ option.)
The galaxies themselves appeared to form primarily into two types that we
now recognise as elliptical galaxies and spiral galaxies, the difference perhaps
relating to how quickly stars were made (Figure 14.3.2). If stars all form quickly,
they remain in their initial distribution and form an elliptical galaxy. If they are
formed over a long period of time, the earliest stars are left behind in the outer
regions of the galaxy as the remaining gas collapses to form a disk. Within the disk,
a spiral pattern forms and the result is a spiral galaxy.

Figure 14.3.2 Types of galaxies:

(a) Elliptical galaxy NGC
1132, (b) spiral galaxy
M101, (c) dwarf irregular
galaxy NGC4449 Figure 14.3.3 A pair of interacting spiral galaxies, collectively known as Arp 87

Complicating this simple picture are smaller irregular galaxies and collisions
between galaxies within the relatively dense confines of a cluster of galaxies. When
two galaxies come close to each other, they interact gravitationally, deforming one
another, inducing new star formation and perhaps merging. Larger galaxies such as
the Milky Way may consume smaller galaxies with no dramatic effects; however,
astronomers believe that giant elliptical galaxies result from the collision of large
galaxies (Figure 14.3.3). A consensus is emerging that galaxy collisions may be a
crucial factor in forming the galaxies we see today.

CHECKPOINT 14.3
1 What is the significance of supernova explosions in the early universe (and today!)?
2 Compare and contrast the appearance of elliptical, spiral and irregular galaxies.

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14.4 Refining the Big Bang

The Big Bang model is almost universally accepted by astronomers, but that
doesn’t mean the picture is right in every detail. That was emphasised in 1998
when two groups of astronomers, including several Australians, announced that
their observation of distant supernovae indicated that the expansion of the Heavy elements 0.03%
universe is accelerating. This was always a possibility; however, most astronomers
expected the universe to be simpler, with the expansion slowing under the
inexorable pull of gravity. Neutrinos 0.03%
To explain acceleration, we need to have a repulsive force at work in the
universe to overcome the effect of gravity. This force comes from dark “Ordinary” matter
5%
energy whose effects we can measure but, like dark matter, we don’t yet know
what it is. One possibility is that it is the cosmological constant that Einstein
Dark
suggested almost 100 years ago but later abandoned as unnecessary. energy
Other key observations made in recent years have probed the details of the 72%

cosmic background radiation and the filamentary structure of the distribution

of galaxies. Together, these have combined to refine the details of the Big Bang Dark
matter
model. The surprising result is that the energy density of the universe is 23% Stars 0.05%
dominated by dark energy and dark matter, with ‘normal’ matter making up the
stars and galaxies we see contributing only ~4% of the universe (Figure 14.4.1). Free hydrogen and
helium 4%
Some of the other important parameters flowing from the standard model are:
• Hubble constant (H0): 72 km s–1 Mpc–1 ± 10% Figure 14.4.1 The composition of the
• time since the Big Bang: 13.7 ± 0.2 billion years universe as we understand
• age of universe at recombination: 379 ± 8 thousand years. it today

THE SIZE OF THE UNIVERSE

I n descriptions of the history of the universe you often come across
statements like: ‘At this time, the universe was the size of a grapefruit.’
We have avoided statements such as this because they are confusing: they
suggest a universe with a centre and an edge, which does not represent the
real universe. However, the statement may be correct if you remember that
it is the ‘observable’ universe being considered—the part of the universe we
can see today. That part of the universe is marked by a horizon where light
emitted at the time of the Big Bang 13.7 billion years ago has just had
enough time to reach us. Our cosmological model tells us how big that part
of the universe was at earlier times.

CHECKPOINT 14.4
1 Discuss the consequences of the discovery of the acceleration of the expansion of the universe.

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14 PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
CHAPTER 14
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

ACTIVITY 14.1: ORIGINS OF THE UNIVERSE

Visit the Pearson Education Australia website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/
secondary to access NASA’s ‘Origins’ website. Using the information you have
obtained from this and other sources, design and produce a poster explaining to
non-scientific journalists the probable origins of stars and galaxies in the early
universe.
Discussion questions
1 Discuss why it has only been in recent times that we have been able to
confidently pin-down the age of the universe.
2 Identify what elements need to be thought through when considering the
audience for this task.

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Chapter summary
THE COSMIC
ENGINE

• The cosmological principle says that the universe is
much the same everywhere. There is no edge and
no centre.
• As we look out into the universe, we look back in time
to see the universe as it was when the light was emitted.
• The universe originated in a hot, dense state called the
Big Bang.
• Hot objects emit light at all wavelengths with a
distribution called a Planck curve. The peak of the
curve indicates maximum emission, at a wavelength
given by Wien’s law.
• As the universe expands, it cools and its energy density
decreases. The typical wavelength of cosmic microwave
background photons increases and hence the photon
energy decreases.
• Spontaneous production of particle–antiparticle pairs
can only happen if photons have at least enough energy
to create the mass of both particles.
• The Big Bang timeline includes:
– <10–43 s: our current physics can’t describe this time
– ~10–35–10–33 s: the inflationary epoch
– ~10–5 s: proton and neutron particle–antiparticle
pairs annihilate
– ~10 s: electron–positron pairs annihilate
– ~3 min: nucleosynthesis
– ~380 000 years: recombination era, followed by the dark
ages
– ~400 million years: galaxies growing and beginning
to light up with the first stars
– ~9 billion years: solar system forms.
• Photons from the recombination era are red-shifted by
the universal expansion, and are visible today as the
cosmic background radiation.
• The Big Bang is solidly built on three key observations:
– expansion
– the abundance of light elements
– cosmic background radiation.
• The matter content of the universe is dominated by
dark matter of unknown composition.
• Galaxies form as ellipticals, spirals and irregulars.
• The expansion of the universe is accelerating.
• Acceleration suggests a repulsive force in the universe
due to dark energy.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Complete the following passage using the words from below.

13.7 billion deeper space 13 billion expanding formation

universe age further Big Bang origins time

The ____________________________ is the currently accepted theory that describes the ______________ of the

______________. It is a hard concept to comprehend as the theory states that the ______________ itself is ______________.

Observations from spacecraft help us understand the ______________ of the universe. The ______________ into space we can

see, the ______________ back in ______________ we see. Current observations allow us to see at least ______________ years

back in time. The best estimate of the ______________ of the universe is ______________ years.

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REVIEWING SOLVING PROBLEMS

1 Outline the Big Bang theory. Define the relationship between the temperature of a
body and the dominant wavelength of the radiation
2 How does Wien’s law help our understanding of the
emitted from that body.
universe?
3 Look at the Planck curves in Figure 14.2.1. Use them 11 What is the energy equivalent of the mass of a
to answer the questions that follow. proton?
a At which temperature does blue light correspond 12 Using E = mc2, calculate the minimum energy
to the λmax? required to produce an electron–positron pair.
b Which temperature corresponds to maximum 13 a Using the data below, draw a graph to determine
emission at infra-red wavelengths? the relationship between the wavelength and
c Identify the λmax corresponding to 10 000 K. 1
temperature of a thermal source. Plot versus
4 a What did Einstein mean by stating that energy wavelength λ. T
and mass are equivalent?
b How is this described mathematically? WAVELENGTH λ (nm) 1
(K–1)
Describe the transformation of radiation into matter TEMPERATURE
which followed the Big Bang. 0 0.00
5 Discuss what effect the drop in temperature of the 100 34 509.31
universe had on creating antimatter. 200 69 018.63
6 At what times after the Big Bang did different types 300 103 527.9
of matter—protons, electron, neutral atoms—begin to
400 138 037.3
exist?
500 172 546.6
7 What is the significance of the fact that the cosmic
background radiation is not perfectly uniform across 600 207 055.9
the sky? 700 241 565.2
8 What is dark matter? 800 276 074.5
9 What is the importance of the cosmic background 900 310 583.8
radiation having a characteristic temperature of 2.7 K? 1000 345 093.1
Outline how the accretion of galaxies and stars
occurred through: b Describe this relationship in words.
• expansion and cooling of the universe c Determine the value of the slope.
• subsequent loss of particle kinetic energy d The value of the slope is known as Wien’s
• gravitational attraction between particles displacement constant and has an accepted value
• lumpiness of the gas cloud that then allows of 2.897 × 10–3. Calculate how closely your value
gravitational collapse. matches this.
10 Outline how galaxies formed during the creation of the e Determine the units for this constant.
universe.

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PHYSICS FOCUS
Everyone has been outside sometime in their lives and
looked up to admire the awesome sight of the stars
above. Now that you have learnt some physics about
them, let’s see what you know!
Figure 14.5.1 Van Gogh’s Starry Night over the Rhône
Figure 14.5.2 The Big Dipper
Figure 14.5.1 shows the painting Starry Night over
the Rhône by Vincent Van Gogh. It features a very
famous constellation, often called the Big Dipper,
which can be seen from the Northern Hemisphere but
barely rises above the northern horizon from anywhere
in New South Wales. Figure 14.5.2 shows a
photograph of the constellation.
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
1 What observations can you make about the stars in
the painting?
2 Compare the photo of the constellation with the
painting. Explain the differences.
3 This constellation is also known as Ursa Major—
the great bear—yet it does not resemble a bear.
Discuss the reasons that cultures had for creating
patterns like this.
4 Light must travel from the star to you for it to be
seen. Explain what this tells us about the stars.
5 The universe is expanding. Describe what effect
you believe this could have on this constellation
over time.
EXTENSION
6 Astronomy books always show spectacular images of
astronomical objects; however, when you look
through a telescope, they never look the same. Why?
7 Outline how the advancement of technology in
astronomy has allowed for a greater understanding
of the universe.
8 It has been said that a theory is correct unless
evidence is found to prove it wrong or incomplete.
The idea that stars all lie on an enormous celestial
sphere is one such idea. Name another
cosmological theory that this has happened to and
state what evidence has been found to disprove it.
9 Gravitational lensing is an effect that Einstein
predicted in his general theory of relativity. Explain
what it is and how evidence for it supports
Einstein’s theory of gravity.
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 Bright and colourful:
15 properties of stars
A sky full of stars
The bright stars of the Southern Cross (the constellation Crux) provide us
with a sample of the colour and brightness of stars commonly found in
our part of the Milky Way galaxy. Nearby in the sky is α (alpha) Centauri,
apparent magnitude, brightness, the nearest star system, which is composed of two Sun-like stars. They
absolute magnitude, luminosity,
are accompanied by the faint red dwarf Proxima Centauri, too dim to see
spectrograph, spectrum,
with the unaided eye but representative of the vast majority of stars in
Hertzpsrung–Russell (HR) diagram,
the galaxy. Brightness and colour are clues to the physics necessary to
main sequence, giant, supergiant,
understand the composition and structure of the stars and the sources
white dwarf, proton–proton chain,
carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle,
that power them.
triple alpha process, protostar, red
giant, planetary nebula, supernova,
neutron star, black hole

γ Crucis
15.1 Star brightness
δ Crucis When you look at the stars at night, it is easy to see how people in ancient times
imagined them as flickering lights attached to the dark vault of the sky. In fact,
they lie at different distances; therefore, we need to make the distinction between
the apparent brightness and the true or absolute brightness.

Apparent magnitude
Astronomers measure the brightness of stars using a system of magnitudes.
α Centauri The apparent magnitude is a measure of how bright a star is in our sky. For
example, one of the stars of the Southern Cross, γ (gamma) Crucis, has an
apparent magnitude of +1.6. A slightly fainter star such as δ (delta) Crucis has a
larger apparent magnitude of +2.8. One star that looks much brighter in the sky
Figure 15.1.1 The sky around the Southern
Cross is the Sun! Its apparent magnitude is –26.7. This value needs to be negative
because it is more than 28 magnitudes brighter in our sky than the stars of the
Southern Cross.

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How much is this really? Ideally, ‘brightness’ is a measure of the energy

received in a certain time by your eye, camera or telescope. In SI power units,
this would be measured in watts (joules per second). This will be affected by
the area we use to collect the light, such as the small pupil of your eye or a
large telescope. So the best unit is watts per square metre (W m–2).
Technically, this is called irradiance; however, in everyday use it is often
simply called brightness.

TRY THIS!
FINDING SOUTH Southern Cross

Do you know how to find south α Centauri

using the Southern Cross? There

are several ways, but the simplest
False Cross
is just to extend the long axis of South
Celestial
the cross four and a half times to Pole
Canopus
a seemingly blank point in the
sky. This is close to the South Small Large
Magellenic Magellenic
Celestial Pole—the point about cloud cloud

which the sky seems to turn

during the night. Drop straight Achernar

down to the horizon from there south

and you have geographic south
(slightly different from magnetic Figure 15.1.2 One way to find south using
south given by a compass). the Southern Cross

Absolute magnitude
Everyday experience tells us that the apparent brightness may not reflect the
absolute brightness: one star may simply be further away. The magnitude
system handles this by calculating how bright the stars would appear in our sky
if all were moved to a standard distance of 32.6 light-years (10 parsecs). The
absolute magnitude of γ Crucis is then –0.6, while δ Crucis is brighter with
an absolute magnitude of –2.5. This means that δ Crucis, the star that appears
fainter in our sky, would be brighter if both stars were at the same distance
because it is an intrinsically brighter star.

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We capture this idea by calculating a star’s luminosity—its total energy

output in watts. Thinking back to brightness (irradiance) measured in watts per
square metre (W m–2), we can calculate the luminosity if we know how many
square metres we have. If we can construct an imaginary sphere of radius r
around a star, we know that all the energy radiated by the star must strike the
sphere. If the star radiates equally in all directions, we can calculate the luminosity
by taking the brightness measured at the surface of the sphere (W m–2) and
multiplying by the surface area of the sphere (m–2):

Luminosity = brightness × surface area

= brightness × 4 πr 2

or
luminosity
Brightness =
4 πr 2

No matter how big the sphere is, the luminosity is constant. So this
relation reduces to:
1
Brightness
r2

This is known as the inverse square law (Figure 15.1.3). Brightness decreases
with the square of the distance.

r=1
r=2
r=3

1 area unit

4 area units

9 area units

Figure 15.1.3 Light illuminating 1 area unit at a radius r = 1 is over 9 area units at r = 3. The
brightness has dropped by a factor of r 2.

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Worked example
QUESTION
The brightness of the Sun measured above the Earth’s atmosphere is given by the solar
constant and averages to about 1366 W m–2. What is the luminosity of the Sun?
SOLUTION
The average distance from the Earth to the Sun is 149.6 million km (1.496 × 1011 m), so
a sphere with a radius equal to this distance will intercept all the radiation from the Sun.
We can therefore estimate the solar luminosity as:
Luminosity = brightness × surface area
= solar constant × 4πr 2
= (1366 W m–2) × 4π(1.496 × 1011)2 m–2
≈ 3.84 × 1026 W

CHECKPOINT 15.1
1 Compare luminosity and brightness.
2 Explain the need for an absolute magnitude.

15.2 Star colour

The picture of the stars of the Southern Cross makes it clear that stars have
Define the relationship between
different colours (Figure 15.1.1). In the previous chapter we saw that any hot, the temperature of a body and
dense object in thermal equilibrium glows with a wavelength of maximum the dominant wavelength of the
emission characteristic of its temperature. There, we were describing the radiation emitted from that body.
cauldron of the early universe; however, the same applies (approximately) to the
surface of an individual star. Both emit their energy with a characteristic
spread of energy versus wavelength that depends on temperature—the Planck
curve (see Figure 14.2.1). (To read more about Planck curves and Wien’s law,
see Chapter 14 and the Year 12 ‘Ideas to Implementation’ topic.)
Since light emitted by the surface of many stars is close to a Planck curve, we
can assign each star an effective temperature. Using this temperature, Wien’s law
then gives the wavelength of peak emission. Most stars have surface temperatures
between about 2000 and 30 000 K; therefore, as seen in Figure 14.2.1, they emit
a lot of light in the visible portion of the spectrum.
A star’s overall colour depends on the sum of all visible colours we
receive. With an effective surface temperature of ~5770 K, the Sun has a Planck
curve that peaks at λmax ~ 500 nm, which is about where the human eye is most
sensitive (Figure 15.2.1). The overall colour is a mix and, as a result, the Sun is
Identify that the surface
often called a yellow dwarf. γ Crucis looks rather orange both to the eye and in temperature of a star is related
Figure 15.1.1, reflecting its cooler surface temperature of ~3400 K. In contrast, to its colour.
δ Crucis is called blue with its much hotter surface temperature of ~22 500 K,
but it actually looks blue–white.

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solar spectrum outside

the atmosphere

solar spectrum at sea level

Brightness
visible infra-red
0.5

0.4 0 500 1000 1500 2000

Wavelength (nm)
Brightness

0.3

0.2
Figure 15.2.1 Light from the Sun—above the Earth’s atmosphere it is close to a Planck curve.
Absorption in the atmosphere makes it a bit different at sea level.
0.1

0 We can learn much more about the star by splitting the light into its component
400 600 800 1000
Wavelength (nm) colours using a spectrograph. This allows us to study the distribution of light
(the spectrum) more closely, and reveals that the simple Planck curve is altered by
Figure 15.2.2 A more detailed view of the
visible light portion of the presence of spectral lines due to the absorption of characteristic wavelengths by
Figure 15.2.1 reveals spectral individual elements within the outer layers of the star (Figure 15.2.2). This enables
lines as narrow dips in the us to understand the temperature and composition of a star in much more detail
Planck curve. and is the foundation of modern astrophysics. (Read more about spectral lines in
the Year 12 ‘Astrophysics’ option.)

CHECKPOINT 15.2
1 Deduce the approximate peak wavelength of a star that looks red.
2 Explain the concepts of the spectrum, spectral lines and spectrographs.

15.3 The Hertzsprung–Russell

Describe a Hertzsprung–Russell
diagram as the graph of a star’s
luminosity against its colour or
surface temperature.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 15.1
Activity Manual, Page
138
diagram
The brightness and colour properties of stars can be neatly summarised in
a single graph known as the Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram. Each star is
represented on the diagram as a single point, plotted using a measure of the star’s
luminosity (on the vertical axis) against a measure of its surface temperature
(on the horizontal axis). The luminosity is usually measured in terms of either
absolute magnitude or luminosity relative to the Sun. Temperature can be
plotted directly, but other measures such as spectral class or colour index are
often used. (Read more about spectral class and colour index in the Year 12
‘Astrophysics’ option.)

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−10

supergiants
−5
β Centauri giants
Antares
Absolute magnitude

0
δ Crucis
γ Crucis

Sun
5 Sirius
main sequence

α Centauri A
10 Barnard’s
Star

Sirius B
white dwarfs
15
20 000 10 000 8000 6000 4000 3000
Temperature (K)

Figure 15.3.1 An illustration of the distribution of stars on the HR diagram. The relative numbers
and sizes of stars are suggested by the diagram but not accurate.

Plotting the diagram immediately reveals that stars group themselves into
certain parts of the diagram and tend to avoid others (Figure 15.3.1). Much more
information is embedded in the diagram, making the HR diagram a powerful
tool to summarise the properties of stars and understand their evolution.
Plotting a large sample of stars reveals several main groups of stars:
• The main sequence is where the majority of stars lie.
• Giants are larger and therefore brighter than the main sequence stars of the
same temperature in the yellow, orange and red stars.
• Supergiants are even brighter, but they are extremely rare.
• White dwarfs are typically white stars much fainter than their main sequence
cousins of the same colour because they are much smaller.
In addition, the following trends apply across the diagram:
• Luminosity increases from bottom to top.
• Surface temperature increases from right to left (backwards to what you
might expect).
• Size increases from bottom left to upper right.
–10
• Although not immediately apparent, the mass of the main sequence stars
increases as you move up the main sequence. –5
Absolute magnitude

In reality, it is very difficult to obtain a representative sample of the stars in

0
the galaxy because of ‘selection effects’. This is emphasised in Figure 15.3.2,
which reveals that the bright stars we see in our sky (in blue) are dominated by 5 Sun
stars more luminous than the Sun, whereas the nearest stars (in red) are
dominated by stars much less luminous than the Sun. The way we selected these 10

two samples has produced two quite different groups of stars. Neither sample is 15
representative of all stars in the galaxy. –0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Coming back to the region of the Southern Cross, Figure 15.3.3 is a real B–V colour index

HR diagram of 3500 stars within about 15° of the Southern Cross in the sky. Figure 15.3.2 HR diagram of the nearest
Even this large sample is selective and the faintest stars that should be seen in (red) and brightest (blue)
overwhelming numbers are almost absent. stars as seen from Earth

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–12

–10

–8

–6

–4

–2

δ Crucis γ Crucis
Absolute magnitude

4
α Centauri
Sun

10

12

14
25 000 10 000 6 000 4 000 2 000

Temperature (K)

Figure 15.3.3 An HR diagram of stars around the Southern Cross, based on data from the
Hipparcos satellite. Stars from Figure 15.1.1 are identified. Other bright stars of the
constellations Crux and Centaurus are highlighted.

CHECKPOINT 15.3
1 What features of the HR diagram make it so useful?
2 Make a table of the major groupings of stars that appear on the HR diagram, showing the characteristics of each.
3 Explain how and why the HR diagram of the Southern Cross region (Figure 15.3.3) differs from the general form of
an HR diagram (Figure 15.3.1).

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15.4 Energy for the stars

A star forms from the collapse of a dense knot in a larger cloud of interstellar gas

gravity
and dust. The collapse might be triggered by a shock wave from the death of a
nearby star in a supernova explosion. However, once it starts, more mass is pulled
into the gradually warming protostar and (because the strength of gravity around
a body is proportional to the body’s mass) the gravitational force pulling the
mass inwards increases. gas
gravity gravity
pressure
To form a stable star, this collapse must be stopped by a force pushing
outwards and opposing gravity. In most stars, this opposing force mostly results
from the pressure of the hot gas. At each layer within the star, the inward
gravitational force is balanced by the force of outward gas pressure (Figure 15.4.1).

gravity
When the star was forming, the gas was heated by the conversion of
gravitational potential energy into thermal energy, similar to the way that
dropping a ball converts gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy.
However, the Sun has long since stopped contracting, so where does the energy Figure 15.4.1 Everywhere within a stable
star, gas pressure must
come from now to heat the gas?
balance gravity.
In 1920, English astrophysicist Arthur Eddington (1882–1944) first
proposed that the energy source of the stars might come from the conversion
of hydrogen into helium. We now know there are two processes at work to
achieve this: the proton–proton chain and the carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle.
In both cases the net reaction is a combination of four hydrogen nuclei
(protons) into one helium nucleus, with the release of energy and some other
light particles, given by:
4 × 11H → 42 He + other particles + energy

Energy is available because the mass of the four hydrogen nuclei is Identify that energy may be
more than the one helium nucleus. The lost mass is converted into energy released from the nuclei of
according to Einstein’s famous equation E = mc2. atoms.

REPRESENTING NUCLEI For example:

1
H is normal hydrogen with 1 proton and no neutrons.
A n atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
The number of protons is the atomic number A that
defines the element. The sum of the protons and neutrons
1

2
1
H is heavy hydrogen (deuterium) with 1 proton and
1 neutron.
is the mass number Z. Different isotopes of the same
3
element will have the same number of protons but 2
He is light helium with 2 protons and 1 neutron.
different number of neutrons. 4
He is normal helium with 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
2

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Worked example
QUESTION
The mass of a proton is 1.6726 × 10–27 kg. The mass of a helium nucleus is
6.6465 × 10–27 kg. If all of the mass difference between the helium nucleus
and the four protons is converted into energy, how much energy is produced?
SOLUTION
Mass of 4 protons = 4 × 1.6726 × 10–27 kg
Mass of 1 helium = 6.6465 × 10–27 kg
Mass difference = 0.0439 × 10–27
Therefore the equivalent energy is:
E = mc2
= (4.39 × 10–29 kg)(3.00 × 108 m s–1)2
= 3.95 × 10–12 J

Proton–proton chain
In the Sun, the dominant reaction is the proton–proton chain, which is illustrated
in Figure 15.4.2. It proceeds in a series of steps to produce helium, but also emits
positrons (positive electrons, e+), neutrinos (particles with very small mass, ν) and
γ rays that carry away the energy:
4 × 11H → 42 He + 2 e + + 2 ν, releasing 4.3 × 10−12 J

Comparing this energy released in each reaction with the observed luminosity of
the Sun indicates that 600 million tonnes of hydrogen is transformed each second!
This reaction only occurs deep in the core of the Sun, where the temperature
is 15 million K and the pressure is about 100 billion times the atmospheric
pressure at the surface of the Earth. Even then, it is unlikely that two protons
will react to start the process. Only the effect of the quantum physics process
known as quantum tunnelling allows the reaction to happen fast enough.
1H
1

2H υ
1H 1
1H
1 1
3H
2
1H
1
1H
1 4He
2
3H
2 1H
1H 1
1 2H
1

1H
υ proton
1
neutron
positron
neutrino
υ

Figure 15.4.2 A series of reactions must occur to form helium in the proton–proton chain.

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Carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle
In more massive main sequence stars, the core temperature is even higher and the
carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle takes over as the dominant reaction. This process
has the same result but uses carbon nuclei as a catalyst (Figure 15.4.3). It uses the
hydrogen fuel much more quickly than the proton–proton chain.
12
1H 6 C
1 4
12
C re 2 He
cyc 12
led
γ 6 C

13 1H
7 N 1
υ

υ 15
7 N
13 γ
6 C γ
positron
15
8O γ gamma ray
1H 14 neutrino
1 7 N υ
1H
1

Figure 15.4.3 A series of reactions starting with carbon make up the carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle.

Other reactions
In stars where the supply of hydrogen fuel runs low, the central temperature rises
even further and a new reaction occurs. The triple alpha process converts
three helium nuclei (also known as α particles) into a carbon nucleus:
3 × 42 He → 126 C, releasing 1.2 × 10−12 J
This occurs much faster than the hydrogen reactions and so consumes the star’s
fuels relatively quickly. Many red giant stars are powered mainly by this reaction.
As massive stars age, the core temperature rises above 600 million K. This
means that more reactions can occur to produce heavier elements, such as
oxygen, neon and magnesium; however, many of these reactions only occur
briefly at the very end of a massive star’s life.

CHECKPOINT 15.4
1 Describe the pressure balance inside a star.
2 Compare the fusion of the proton–proton chain with that of the carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle.

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15.5 The life of a star

The life of a star is a constant battle between gravity trying to pull the mass of the
Identify energy sources
characteristic of each star
star inwards and the pressure of the hot gas pushing outwards. (See Figures 15.5.1
group, including main sequence, and 15.5.2).
red giants and white dwarfs.
1

Figure 15.5.1 The life of the Sun. Numerical labels here and in Figure 15.5.2 relate to specific
descriptions in the text (for example, [1]).

The battle starts when gravity begins to collapse a small part of an interstellar
gas cloud [1]. As the gas falls in under the force of gravity, it heats up,
forming a protostar glowing warmly with infra-red light through an obscuring
cocoon of gas and dust [2]. Eventually, hydrogen begins to fuse to form helium
in the core. This heats the gas, slowing and finally stopping the collapse. A stable
main sequence star has been formed [3]. The mass of this star dictates its life
story and how long it will live.

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A star like the Sun will remain balanced in this state for around
10 billion years, converting hydrogen into helium in the core (mainly via the
proton–proton chain) and slowly getting a little bigger and brighter. About
6 billion years from now, the supply of hydrogen deep in the Sun’s core will be
largely gone and the core will begin to contract as gas pressure begins to lose out
to gravity. However, the outer layers will expand and the Sun will swell to become
a red giant [4], perhaps 100 times larger and 1000 times brighter than it is today.
It will envelope the orbits of Mercury, Venus and perhaps the Earth.
As a red giant, the Sun will begin to fuse helium into carbon in its core
via the triple alpha process. This new energy source only delays the inevitable:
within about a billion years, it will peel off its outer layers to form a planetary
nebula [5] and reveal a core in which nuclear reactions have ceased. What we see
is a white dwarf [6], slowly cooling off over billions more years. It is stable because 100 100
106 Rsu 0R
the crushing force of gravity is opposed by electron pressure, not just gas pressure. 10
Rsu
n sun

Luminosity (solar units)

n
Cooler, lower mass stars begin their lives lower down on the main sequence 104 1
R 5
sun
and the proton–proton reaction progresses much more slowly. Despite having less 4
100 0 Red giants 2
fuel available, hydrogen fusion continues over times so long that not even the .1 R
su 1
n
oldest of them have yet completed their main sequence life. In contrast, more 1 0
.01 Sun
3
Rsu
massive stars consume their somewhat larger stocks of nuclear fuel at a prodigious n 6
10–2 0
.00 White dwarfs
rate via the carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle. They move from a position higher up 1 Rsu
n
the main sequence to become red giants in just a few million years. 10–4

Stars formed with more than about eight times the mass of the Sun blow away 30 000 20 000 10 000 6 000 3 000
Surface temperature (K)
much of their outer layers during their lives, but not enough to be able to survive
as a white dwarf. Instead, they blow up in a brilliant supernova explosion, leaving Figure 15.5.2 The evolution of the Sun on
a neutron star or a black hole remnant. the HR diagram

CHECKPOINT 15.5
1 Consider two stars: one of the same mass as the Sun and the other with 20 times the Sun’s mass. Draw a flow
chart to show the possible paths a star can evolve along from formation in a molecular cloud to death. At each
stage, state the relative mass and energy source.

NEUTRON STARS AND BLACK HOLES

M assive stars die spectacularly in a supernova explosion. If the remains
after the explosion are between about 1.4 and 3 times the mass of the
Sun, a neutron star is likely to be formed. Despite the intense force of gravity,
the neutrons making up much of the remnant star refuse to collapse any
further than a dense ball about 20 km across. Neutron stars are sometimes
seen as pulsing sources of radiation and are therefore called pulsars. If the
remnant contains more than about 3 solar masses of material, the strength of
the gravitational force cannot be resisted. The collapse produces a black hole
from which even light cannot escape. Any matter that falls within the boundary
of a black hole is lost from view; however, it radiates intensely as it falls in.

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PHYSICS FEATURE
RADIOACTIVITY Describe the nature of emissions from the nuclei
When nuclei of elements are formed in a star or of atoms as radiation of alpha (α) and beta (β)
supernova explosion, different isotopes may be created particles and gamma (γ) rays in terms of:
• ionising power • effect of magnetic field
(with different numbers of neutrons). Many of
• penetrating power • effect of electric field.
the isotopes are radioactive, which means they will
spontaneously decay over time into a different isotope,
often of another element. In the process, they emit one
PRACTICAL
of three types of ‘radiation’: α (alpha), β (beta) or
EXPERIENCES
γ (gamma). A summary of their properties is shown in
Activity 15.2
Table 15.5.1. Activity Manual, Page
144
Table 15.5.1 The properties of α, β and γ radiation
α β γ
4 0
Type of emission 2
He (helium nucleus) −1
e (an electron) High-energy electromagnetic
or radiation
0
+1
e (a positron)
Charge +2 –1 (electron) or +1 (positron) 0
Example decay Decay of natural uranium: Decay of an isotope of potassium, γ decay of nickel after a β
238
92
U → 234
90
Th + 42He the largest source of radiation decay of a cobalt isotope:
within the human body: 60
Co → 60
Ni* + 0
e +v
Half-life: 4.5 billion years 27 28 –1
40
19
K→ 40
20
Ca + -10e + v Half-life 5.24 years:
Half-life: 1.2 billion years 60
Ni* → 60
Ni + γ(1.33Mev )
28 28

(*indicates an energetically
excited nucleus)
Effect of electric field Charged particles experience an Charged particles experience an No effect
electric force and are accelerated electric force and are accelerated
Effect of magnetic field Charged particles experience a Charged particles experience a No effect
magnetic force and their path is bent magnetic force and their path is bent
Ionising ability (depends High Medium Low
on energy)—ability to
remove electrons from
atoms of a medium
Penetrating ability Low Medium High
(depends on energy)— Stopped by centimetres of air or a Stopped by a metre of air or Stopped by centimetres of
what is required to stop it? sheet of paper millimetres of aluminium lead

Every day we are exposed to radiation from low-
level radioactive sources in the ground and the
atmosphere. Some of these, especially in high-flying
aircraft, are produced by cosmic rays coming from
space, and some coming from distant supernova
explosions. Supernovas provide an interesting example
of the importance of radioactivity.
In 1987, astronomers in Australia and elsewhere
in the Southern Hemisphere observed supernova
SN1987a, the brightest and nearest supernova seen
in over 400 years! It produced 0.07 solar masses of
nickel-56, which is radioactive. Nickel-56 decays with
a half-life of 6.1 days (that is, half the original mass
decays in that time) into cobalt-56, which in turn
decays with a half-life of 77.1 days into iron-56. Both
kinds of decay give off γ-rays of particular energies
that power the glow of the supernova. γ-rays from
SN1987a revealed the presence of cobalt-56, exactly
as predicted, and died away with exactly the half-life
of cobalt-56. Also, astronomers at the Anglo-
Australian telescope saw the signature of cobalt fading
in the supernova’s spectrum as the cobalt turned into
iron. (Read more about radioactivity in the Year 12
‘Quanta to Quarks’ option.)

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CHAPTER 15
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

ACTIVITY 15.1: WHAT HR DIAGRAMS MEAN

In this activity you will be using Excel to produce some HR diagrams of different
Process and analyse information
groups of stars, and identifying the main characteristics of each. using the Hertzsprung–Russell
Equipment list: computer with Excel (or equivalent) and Internet access. diagram to examine the variety
of star groups, including main
–12
sequence, red giants and white
–10 dwarfs.
–8

–6

–4
Absolute magnitude

–2 δ Crucis
γ Crucis
0

4 α Centauri
Sun
6

10

12

14

16
25 000 10 000 6 000 4 000 2 000

Temperature (K)

Figure 15.6.1 An example of an HR diagram, showing some stars around the Southern Cross and a
line representing the main sequence

Discussion questions
1 List the characteristics of each of the main groups on the HR diagram.
2 When the HR diagram is drawn for a small group of specific stars, it does Perform a first-hand investigation
not contain all the groups. Why? to gather information to compare
the penetrating power of alpha,
beta and gamma radiation in a
ACTIVITY 15.2: RADIATION range of materials.
Using different pieces of detection apparatus, determine the type of radiation and
the penetration ability of the radiation being emitted.
Equipment list: alpha, beta and gamma radiation sources, aluminium foil
of varying thicknesses, paper, 2 mm thick lead sheets, Geiger Müller tube/
counter, spark counter, cloud chamber, dry ice, methylated spirits, ruler.
Discussion questions
1 List the apparatus best suited to detect each form of radiation.
2 In order of penetrating ability, list each radiation.
3 Identify the properties that make each radiation identifiable.
Figure 15.6.2 A hand-held Geiger counter

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• Astronomers describe the brightness of stars using
apparent magnitude (to indicate how bright a star appears
in our sky) and absolute magnitude (to indicate how
bright a star would appear in our sky if it was moved to a
standard distance of 32.6 light-years, or 10 parsecs).
• Brightness is measured in watts per square metre.
• Luminosity measures a star’s total energy output in watts.
• The inverse square law says that brightness decreases with
the square of the distance from a point source.
• The emission of light from stars is approximately
described by a Planck curve.
• A spectrograph allows us to study the distribution of light
(the spectrum) more closely, and reveals spectral lines due
to individual elements within the outer layers of the star.
• On a Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram, each star is
represented as a single point, plotted using the star’s
luminosity and surface temperature.
• The main groups of stars on the HR diagram are:
– main sequence stars
– giants
– supergiants
– white dwarfs.
• In a stable star, the inward gravitational force is balanced
by the outward force of gas pressure.
• In the proton–proton chain and the
carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle, the net reaction is
4 × 11H → 42 He + other particles + energy..
Mass lost in the reaction is converted into energy.
• The dominant reaction in the core of the Sun is the
proton–proton chain. In more massive main sequence
stars, the carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle takes over as the
dominant reaction.
• In stars where the supply of hydrogen fuel runs low, the
core temperature rises and the triple alpha process occurs.
• The main stages in the life of solar mass stars are:
– protostar
– main sequence star
– red giant
– planetary nebula
– white dwarf.
• Massive stars blow up in a supernova explosion, leaving a
neutron star or a black hole.
• Many of the isotopes of an element are radioactive, which
means that over time they will spontaneously decay into a
different isotope, often of another element. In the process,
they emit α (alpha), β (beta) or γ (gamma) radiation.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The items in the columns are not in their correct order. Copy the table and
match each of the key physics concepts with its correct definition and units.

CONCEPT DEFINITION UNIT

Luminosity A measure of the thermal energy of an object W
Brightness Total output of energy K
Magnitude The distance between peaks of a wave W m–2
Wavelength The scale used to compare the brightness of stars –
Temperature Amount of matter in an object m
Energy A unit of distance larger than a light-year pc
Mass Energy received in a given area ly
Parsec Distance that light travels in a year J
Light-year Ability to do work kg

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REVIEWING
1 Draw a diagram to explain why brightness decreases with distance.
800 T = 5500 K
Describe a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram as the graph of a star’s luminosity
against its colour or surface temperature.
600
T = 5000 K Process and analyse information using the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram to
Brightness

examine the variety of star groups, including Main Sequence, red giants and
400 white dwarfs.
T = 5400 K
2 Look at the Planck curves in Figure 15.6.3.
200 T = 4000 K a What trend can be seen as the temperature changes?
T = 3500 K b How is this trend with temperature expressed mathematically?
c Describe the shape of an individual curve as the wavelength changes.
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 3 Refer to stars A to D on the HR diagram in Figure 15.6.4.
(nm)
a Identify each type of star.
Figure 15.6.3 Planck curves b What unique characteristics does each star have that places it in
this group?
O B A F G K M
106 4 a Describe how the luminosity of stars in the main sequence is related
A
Luminosity (solar units)

to their temperature.
104
b What physical feature changes in white dwarfs and red giants to make
B these objects not fit the main sequence?
102

1 5 Sketch an HR diagram for a cluster of stars that were all born at the same
C time but are now one million years old.
10–2
D 6 If red stars are cool and red, explain why red giants are very bright and
10–4 therefore high on the HR diagram.
25 000 10 000 5 000 3 000
Surface temperature (K)
7 Complete the table below by identifying the number of nucleons in the
most common isotope of the following elements.
Figure 15.6.4 An HR diagram
ELEMENT PROTONS NEUTRONS
Li
He
K
U

8 Create a table that states the stages in the evolutionary life of a star, like
the Sun. Include columns in this table to state the energy source of the
star at this stage.
Identify energy sources
9 Explain how main sequence stars can have two different processes
characteristic of each star
occurring to create energy.
group, including main sequence,
red giants and white dwarfs. 10 Discuss the most important factor that will determine the evolution of
a star.
Describe the nature of emissions 11 Complete the following table about radiation.
from the nuclei of atoms as
radiation of alpha and beta β α (ALPHA) β (BETA) γ (GAMMA)
particles and gamma γ rays in
Type of emission
terms of:
• ionising power Charge
• penetrating power Ionising ability
• effect of magnetic field
Penetrating ability
• effect of electric field.

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15 Bright
Brig
Br ight
ig
ght aand
properties
prop
proper
op erti
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ties
ties o
col
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olou
olourf
ou
off st
star
rful
rf
stars
ars
ar s
ul::
ul

SOLVING PROBLEMS
12 One star has an apparent magnitude of +2 while a second has a magnitude
of –1. Which star is more luminous? Explain your answer.
13 a A flash light has an 8 W power rating. The bulb has a 1 cm diameter,
with the filament at its centre. Calculate the brightness of the bulb at
its surface.
b Calculate the brightness of the light at a distance of 2.5 m away from
the filament.
14 a Below is a table of data that was obtained as a light meter was moved
progressively away from an overhead projector to confirm the inverse
square law.

DISTANCE (M) INTENSITY (ARBITRARY UNITS)

0.1 3500
0.2 875
0.3 387
0.4 215
0.5 140
0.6 96

a Determine what needs to be graphed to confirm the inverse square law.

b Which is the independent variable? How can you determine this?
c Graph the data to attempt to validate the inverse square law.
d What feature of the graph will help you achieve your aim?
15 Complete the following nuclear reactions by finding the values to replace
the question mark (?) in each equation.
a 15
7
N + 11H → 12
?
C + 2?He

b 3 × ??He → 12
6
C

c 1
?
H + 21H → 2?He

d 2 × 3?He → 42He + 2 × 1?H

16 Using the data in the table below, calculate the mass difference between:
a the hydrogen 21H nucleus
b the lithium 73Li nucleus
and the particles that make them up. Then calculate the equivalent energy
of each mass difference. This energy is known as the binding energy of the
nuclei.

PARTICLE MASS (AMU*)

Neutron 1.008 665
Proton 1.007 276
2
1
H 2.013 553
7
3
Li 7.016 003
*Remember: 1 amu = 1.6605 × 10–27 kg

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PHYSICS FOCUS
RADIOACTIVE BOY SCOUT: physics than what the country is spending billions on,’
he says. ‘It causes them to think. They’re not going
TEENAGER ACHIEVES NUCLEAR down the mainstream path to oblivion.’ And, aside
FUSION AT HOME from using high voltage and emitting low-level
by Stephen Ornes radiation, the machine has been deemed harmless.
‘About a week ago, the department of health from
In 2006 Thiago Olson joined the extremely sparse
Michigan called my principal,’ Olson says. ‘They
ranks of amateurs worldwide who have achieved
wanted to come over and inspect it. They did that,
nuclear fusion with a home apparatus. In other words,
they were impressed, and it checked out.’
he built the business end of a hydrogen bomb in his
basement. The plasma ‘star in a jar’—shown at the
left—demonstrated his success.
For two years, Olson researched what he would need
and scrounged for parts from eBay and the hardware
store. Flanges and piping? Check. High-voltage X-ray
transformer? Check. Pumps, deuterium source, neutron
bubble dosimeter? Check, check, check. ‘I have cross-
country and track, so during those seasons I don’t have
much time to work on it,’ says Olson, a high school
senior in Michigan. ‘It’s more of a weekend project.’ Last
November the machine finally delivered the hallmark of
success: bubbles in the dosimeter. The bubbles indicate
the presence of neutrons, a by-product of fusion—an
energy-releasing process in which two hydrogen nuclei
crash together and form a helium nucleus. Fusion is
commonplace in stars, where hydrogen nuclei fuse in
superhot plasma, but temperatures that high are hard to Figure 15.6.5 Thiago Olsen’s apparatus
achieve on Earth. Still, the prospect of creating all this
Source: Discover Magazine (03.06.2007) http://discovermagazine.
energy while forming only nonradioactive helium and com/2007/mar/radioactive-boy-scout
easily controlled neutrons has made harnessing fusion
one of the most sought-after and heavily funded goals in 1 How much hotter is the plasma in Olsen’s
sustainable energy. apparatus than the surface or core of the Sun? Is
Olson’s apparatus won’t work for generating this an important difference?
commercial power because it takes more energy to run 2 Why do you think neutrons are emitted in the
than it produces. But he has succeeded in creating a reaction in Olsen’s apparatus?
‘star in a jar’, a tiny flash of hot plasma. ‘The
temperature of the plasma is around 200 million EXTENSION
degrees,’ Olson says modestly, ‘several times hotter 3 Do you believe this report? Why or why not?
than the core of the Sun.’ 4 Why is the use of controlled nuclear fusion on
Robert Bussard, a nuclear physicist who has spent Earth to produce power so hard if Olsen can
most of his career investigating fusion for both the produce the reaction in his basement?
government and private companies, applauds Olson’s 5 What is the current state of efforts to achieve
ambition. ‘These kids are studying much more useful controlled nuclear fusion on Earth?

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The nearest star

solar constant, core, radiative zone,
ionise, plasma, convection zone,
convection, photosphere, granulation,
chromosphere, corona,
helioseismology, active regions,
sunspot, solar flare, prominence,
filament, solar wind, coronal hole,
coronal mass ejection,
magnetosphere, Van Allen belts,
auroras, geomagnetic storm
So where does the Sun fit into the scheme of things? In Chapter 15
we looked at the different types of stars and their characteristics.
Our Sun is a typical middle-aged, main sequence star. It is cool,
yellow and of average size—an ordinary star.
The Sun dominates the solar system and makes life possible on
Earth. At the same time, it threatens us with sunburn from ultraviolet
light and, worse still, from particles that stream outwards from violent
activity on its surface. The Earth provides a protective cocoon that
allows us to live in inner regions of the Sun’s domain.

16.1 The Sun as a star

If the Sun is average, what does that mean? Let’s look at the statistics (Tables 16.1.1
and 16.1.2).

Table 16.1.1 Solar statistics

Mass 1.99 × 1030 kg
Average diameter 1.39 × 109 m
Escape velocity 618 km s−1
Rotational period at surface 25−36 days
Apparent magnitude −26.7
Absolute magnitude +4.8
Luminosity 3.83 × 1026 W
Surface (effective) temperature 5770 K
Core temperature 15 million K
Age 4.6 billion years

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Table 16.1.2 Composition of the Sun

CHEMICAL MAKE-UP % OF TOTAL NUMBER OF ATOMS

Hydrogen 92.1 SAFETY FIRST IN
Helium
Oxygen
7.8
0.061
VIEWING THE SUN
Carbon
Nitrogen
Neon
0.030
0.0084
0.0076
N ever look directly at the
Sun—especially not with any
optical instrument, unless it is
Iron 0.0037
Silicon 0.0031 equipped with a special solar
Magnesium 0.0024 filter and operated by someone
Sulfur 0.0015 with experience. The brightness
All others 0.0015
of the Sun can cause permanent
damage to your eyes.
These statistics do not make the Sun stand out in a galaxy full of similar stars; in The simplest and safest way
our solar system, however, they reveal the Sun as a giant that dominates the system. to observe the Sun is simply
To put it in perspective, the Sun makes up 99.85% of the mass of the solar projecting the image of the Sun
system (Figure 16.1.1). Compared with Earth, the largest of the rocky inner planets, through a pinhole in a piece of
the Sun is imposing at 109 times the diameter and 333 000 times the mass. card onto a screen (Figure 16.1.2).
The brightness of the Sun can be expressed as the solar constant—the It works especially well when
power received from the Sun per square metre at the top of the Earth’s atmosphere. viewing the Moon covering the
It is measured to be 1366 W m−2. Adding up the energy across the Earth, we get Sun during an eclipse.
about 1.7 × 1017 W. This is about 10 000 times the average power consumption
of the human race in 2004.

a small pinhole in
a piece of card

image of the sun

on the screen

Figure 16.1.2 Using a ‘pinhole

camera’ to view the Sun

Figure 16.1.1 The relative size of the Sun and planets

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TRY THIS! energy absorbed by your water per second p is

given by:
ΔT (o C)
MEASURING THE SOLAR CONSTANT p = 4186 × mass of water (kg) ×
t (s)
1 Fill a small, flat-sided bottle with 150 mL of water 2 Estimate the area of the water exposed to sunlight
coloured by a few drops of black, water-soluble ink and use this to calculate the average power P per
or some dark food colouring. Seal the top tightly with unit of surface: p
a cork or stopper, which has a thermometer inserted P=
surface area (m2 )
through it to measure the water temperature. Put
your bottle in the Sun for about 20 min, and you 3 Multiply by 2 to allow for light absorbed by the
should see the temperature rise a few degrees. The atmosphere and the glass. How does your value
specific heat of water is 4186 J kg–1 K–1, so the compare with the solar constant value?

The Sun emits light across the all wavelengths of the electromagnetic
Identify the nature of emissions
reaching the Earth from the Sun.
spectrum (remember the Planck curves in Figure 14.2.1). Luckily for us, not all
of it reaches the Earth’s surface. The Earth’s atmosphere blocks some
wavelengths, while allowing others to pass almost unimpeded (Figure 16.1.3).
Gamma Visible light and much of the radio portion of the spectrum penetrate easily,
Radio and microwave IR V UV X-rays rays
while infra-red (IR) light is partially blocked by trace amounts of various gases in the
800 atmosphere, especially water vapour. This partial blocking is very important: without
400 satellites this natural greenhouse effect, the Earth’s surface temperature would oscillate
200
100 rockets dramatically between day and night and the average would be around –18°C, which
Altitude (km)

balloons
50 is below the freezing point of water! In addition, in recent years an enhanced
25
greenhouse effect caused by human activity is increasing the trace amount of carbon
12 aircraft
6
dioxide in the atmosphere and seems to be further raising the surface temperature.
3 At the other end of the spectrum, higher energy ultraviolet (UV), X-ray and
Sea level
1 km 1m 1 mm 1 μm size of size of
γ-ray radiation are largely blocked by the atmosphere. The longer wavelength UV
atoms atomic that does reach the ground can give you sunburn and skin cancer and is just a
nucleus
warning of what would happen without the protection of the Earth’s atmosphere.
Figure 16.1.3 The Earth’s atmosphere
protects us. Only radio and
light near the visible band
reaches the ground.

NOT REALLY A ‘GREENHOUSE EFFECT’

T he name greenhouse effect is a poor one since the Earth’s surface and a
greenhouse stay warm for different reasons. The atmosphere governs the
outward radiation of IR light and keeps the Earth’s surface warm in the
process. A greenhouse is warm primarily because the glass walls prevent the
exchange of warm air inside with cooler air outside.

CHECKPOINT 16.1
1 Define the solar constant.
2 Describe how the atmosphere offers protection from the Sun.

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16.2 The structure of the Sun

To understand the effects we see here on Earth, we need to have a closer look at
the Sun (Figure 16.2.1).

photosphere

turbulent convection
coronal convective zone
hole radioactive thermonuclear
zone reactions
core
coronal neutrinos
loops

sunspot
prominence

sunspot group
filament

Figure 16.2.1 The structure of the Sun

Core
The Sun’s core is the region where nuclear fusion (discussed in Section
15.5) is producing energy inside the Sun. The core makes up approximately 25%
of the radius of the Sun and contains about 50% of the mass. Despite the
incredibly high pressure, the core remains gaseous because of the extremely
high temperature (15 million K). This dense gas is continually absorbing and
re-emitting the γ-rays produced by the nuclear reactions, slowing the outward
flow of energy. Neutrinos produced in those same reactions cut through the gas
and escape the Sun within seconds.

Radiative zone
The energy produced in the core is passed out through the surrounding radiative
zone towards the surface of the Sun. It moves outwards as electromagnetic
radiation, typically as X-rays that are repeatedly emitted by atoms and then
re-absorbed after travelling just a millimetre or two. As a result, the energy takes
more than 100 000 years to reach the outer edge of the radiative zone at about
70% of the solar radius.
With temperature ranging between 2 and 7 million K, the radiative zone gas
is so hot that the atoms are ionised—stripped of most or all of their electrons—
which then move independently within the gas. The ionised gas is called plasma.

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Convection zone
Reaching from the outer edge of the radiative zone to the surface is the convection
zone. The gas gets progressively cooler as it moves towards the surface, meaning that
more atoms in this zone can hold on to their electrons, making it harder to pump
the radiation outwards. Instead, the transport of energy is taken over by
convection currents. Convection is the process in which hot gases rise, release their
energy, and then cool and sink again.

Figure 16.2.2 Each granule on the solar
surface is typically 1000 km
across. Therefore, about
12 would span the diameter
of the Earth.
Photosphere
The photosphere is the visible ‘surface’ of the Sun. This does not mark a dramatic
change in properties, unlike the transition from the rocky surface of the Earth to the
gaseous atmosphere. The photosphere is merely the layer, a few hundred
kilometres thick, where the light we see is emitted and finally escapes the Sun. The
temperature here has dropped to about 5800 K and the density is much less than
the air around you on Earth. At this temperature, some of the atoms of the gas are
ionised but many others are not.
The photosphere is not smooth. A close look reveals the lumpy appearance of
the surface. This is called granulation and actually marks the tops of the convection
currents that are reaching the surface from deeper in the underlying gas (Figure 16.2.2).

TRY THIS!
CONVECTION CURRENTS
Set up a large beaker of water with Condy’s crystals (potassium
permanganate) placed at the bottom. Heat the beaker with a Bunsen
burner and watch the coloured patterns form as the water heats up.
Look at the beaker from the top (making sure you are a safe distance
away) and compare the convection patterns in the water with the
granulation at the Sun’s surface.

Chromosphere
The region of the Sun above the photosphere is often called the atmosphere of
the Sun. The first layer encountered is the 2000 km thick chromosphere, or
‘sphere of colour’. Images centring on a single wavelength emitted by this layer
reveal tremendous detail not seen in ‘white light’ images of the photosphere
(Figure 16.2.3). These images of the chromosphere reveal the importance of
magnetic fields on the surface of the Sun, dictating the structures in the gas.
For reasons that remain unclear, the temperature of the solar atmosphere
begins to climb in the chromosphere, increasing from the 5800 K at the
photosphere to perhaps 20 000 K at the top of the chromosphere.

Figure 16.2.3 An active portion of the solar

surface about 64 000 km
across, seen in red light from
hydrogen in the chromosphere

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Corona
At the outer edge of the chromosphere is a narrow transition region where
the temperature suddenly climbs towards 1 million K. It continues to rise as we
move into the corona, the Sun’s spectacular but tenuous outer atmosphere.
These high temperatures tell us that the energy available to fast-moving
individual atoms is enough to produce X-rays. However, the corona is a very thin
gas and a Planck curve doesn’t describe its emission. As a result, the corona is
dim in visible light compared with the photosphere. It can only be seen visually
either during a solar eclipse (Figure 16.2.4), or using a specialised instrument
called a coronagraph.

Figure 16.2.4 The faintly glowing corona

is revealed during a
solar eclipse.

PHYSICS FEATURE
CAN WE PROBE BELOW THE SURFACE?

H elioseismology is the study of waves moving through the

gaseous body of the Sun to understand its internal
structure. It is much like studying earthquakes here on Earth
to probe beneath the Earth’s surface.
The surface of the Sun moves up and down periodically
because of minor fluctuations in pressure within the Sun.
These pressure waves are sound waves. They are reflected
downwards into the Sun by the rapid change in density near
the surface; they are also bent and reflected upwards by the
higher density inside the Sun. As they bounce backwards and
forwards, many different patterns of oscillation are set up.
Helioseismology studies these waves to determine the Figure 16.2.5 Model of a star in which different colours
indicate high and low pressure in the
properties of the Sun, like temperature, density, composition waves sweeping through the star
and motion of the interior.
Work by astronomers at the University of Sydney and others around the world is extending this study to the
stars, revealing details of the interior of stars ranging from Sun-like stars to giants.

CHECKPOINT 16.2
1 Construct a table to summarise the layers within the Sun and their characteristics.
2 Explain how convection currents move energy through the convection zone.
3 Compare convection and radiation as methods of transferring energy.

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16.3 The active Sun

The Sun has a strong and changing magnetic field that is the key to
understanding activity seen on the Sun’s surface and in its atmosphere.
There is a lot of churning of plasma going on inside the convection zone.
Since magnetic fields are created by moving electric charges, the Sun’s magnetic
field is thought to be generated by the moving charges of the plasma. At its
simplest, this magnetic field looks overall much like that of the Earth’s, similar to
a bar magnet. However, as the Sun rotates, the field gets twisted and local
active regions appear where the field is strong and emerging through the surface.
The most obvious sign of an active region is often a sunspot group (Figures
16.3.1 and 16.3.2). (Read more about magnetic fields in Chapter 12.)

Figure 16.3.1 A sunspot seen against

the background of the
solar granulation

April 2, 2006 April 3, 2006

Describe sunspots as
representing regions of strong
magnetic activity and lower
temperature.
April 4, 2006 April 5, 2006

Figure 16.3.2 The rotation of the Sun is revealed here by the motion of sunspot groups across the
disc over four days.

Figure 16.3.3 Extreme UV light from the
corona traces the magnetic
field over an active region.
Sunspots
Sunspots are dark areas on the surface of the Sun. They may appear small
relative to the Sun, but a big spot will be far larger than the Earth!
The spot is dark because strong magnetic fields at that point impede the flow
of energy by convection. As a result, the gas in the spot may be more than 1500 K
cooler than the surrounding gas and therefore glows less brightly. It looks black
only in comparison to its brilliant surroundings.
The magnetic field strength can be measured by studying the light from the
spot and is found to be up to 0.4 tesla—about 10 000 times stronger than the
magnetic field at the surface of the Earth! The magnetic field is revealed in images
of the solar atmosphere above spot groups to loop from one spot to another as if
there was a magnet below the surface (Figure 16.3.3).

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The sunspots do not appear entirely at random: they follow an 11-year cycle of
Outline the cyclic nature of
sunspot numbers and position on the disc (Figure 16.3.4). Sunspot numbers range sunspot activity and its impact
from hundreds a day down to none and are symptomatic of the overall magnetic on Earth through solar winds.
activity on the Sun. They also move from higher latitudes near sunspot minima to
closer to the equator near sunspot maxima. The number of sunspots seen at
maximum is not the same in each cycle, and even the cycle length varies.
Monthly average sunspot number
250

200

150

100

50

0
1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850
250

200

150

100

50

0
1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950
250

200

150

100

50

0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 1210 2020 2030 2040 2050
Date

Figure 16.3.4 The 11-year sunspot cycle is clear in 350 years of data.

The 11-year cycle in sunspot numbers is in fact part of a 22-year solar

cycle of active regions on the Sun. During every sunspot maximum, the Sun’s PRACTICAL
magnetic poles swap. This effect is illustrated in Figure 16.3.5, which plots the EXPERIENCES
magnetic fields across the Sun as they vary over time. It can be seen that the Activity 16.1
Activity Manual, Page 149
intense fields associated with sunspots drift towards the equator during a cycle,
and that the magnetic pattern swaps from one cycle to the next.

–0.001 T +0.001 T
90˚N

30˚N
Latitude

EQ

30˚S

90˚S
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Date

Figure 16.3.5 In this ‘magnetic butterfly’ diagram, yellow regions represent one magnetic polarity
(north); and blue, the other (south). During the sunspot cycle, the intense magnetic
fields above sunspots appear progressively closer to the equator, creating the so-
called ‘butterfly wing’ pattern. The uniform blue and yellow regions near the poles
reveal the orientation of the Sun’s underlying magnetic field.

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Solar flares
Another phenomenon associated with active regions are solar flares (Figure 16.3.6).
These are essentially massive localised explosions above the surface of the Sun.
They only last for minutes but release massive amounts of energy, heating the
surrounding gas by millions of degrees and accelerating particles to close to the
speed of light.
Flares usually occur in active regions where the strong magnetic fields become
too highly twisted and snap back into a simpler pattern, releasing the energy
stored in the field. They are therefore more frequent during the Sun’s maximum
activity.

Prominences/filaments
Images of the Sun often show cooler, dense gas suspended above the surface
of the Sun in the hot, thin gas of the corona. When viewed against the dark
backdrop of space, they often appear to be giant bright loops of gas and are
known as prominences (Figure 16.3.7). If seen against the bright solar disc, they
appear as dark strands and are called filaments. Clearly, they are supported by
magnetic fields within the corona and as the magnetic field changes, the
prominence may erupt outwards or simply fade away. The mechanisms that
produce and maintain this activity remain unclear.

Figure 16.3.6 A solar flare

PREDICTING THE SUNSPOT CYCLE

A number of methods are used to predict the size of each upcoming solar
maximum—with only modest success, however. A new technique
devised by Australian astronomer Richard Thompson allows, in principle, for
much earlier and more accurate predictions.
Thompson’s analysis begins with the idea that an extended solar cycle,
the current one and the next one overlay one another. While flares and
coronal mass ejections are linked to the current cycle, coronal holes (where
solar winds start) are associated with the next. They can cause geomagnetic
disturbances in the Earth’s magnetic field. By relating the number of days a
geomagnetic disturbance lasts within a sunspot cycle, a prediction of the
amplitude of the next cycle can be obtained.

Figure 16.3.7 An enormous prominence

seen hanging in the solar
corona by the SOHO
spacecraft in 1999

CHECKPOINT 16.3
1 Define sunspot, solar flare and prominence.
2 Outline the 22-year activity cycle of the Sun.

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16.4 The solar wind

The hot gas of the corona is moving too fast for the Sun’s gravity to hang on to
Identify the nature of emissions
it. The outer regions of the corona continually boil off into interplanetary reaching the Earth from the Sun.
space as the solar wind (Figure 16.4.1). The particles are mainly high-energy
electrons and protons travelling with an average speed of 400 km s–1. With all
these particles leaving the surface, the Sun’s mass is decreasing, but only by about
109 kg s–1. This is about 1 part in 10–14 of its mass each year and around the Describe the particulate nature
same amount as the mass lost as energy through fusion. of the solar wind.

open magnetic lines

fast
wind

coronal hole

closed
magnetic lines
slow
wind

coronal streamer

Figure 16.4.1 A simplified view of the solar wind’s origins relative to the Sun’s magnetic field

Studies of other stars show that the solar wind is not unique to our Sun.
Stellar winds are common to all stars and cause significant loss of mass in certain
stages of a star’s life. They are especially important in massive stars where the
pressure of the intense radiation output simply blows away a billion times more
mass per year than the Sun does, thereby losing a large fraction of a star’s mass
during its brief but brilliant lifetime.
The charged particles of the solar wind experience a magnetic force when
trying to move across the magnetic field lines surrounding the Sun. This bends
their path into a spiral path along the field line, channelling the flow of the
particles. This results in escaping particles leaving with especially high velocity
through cooler, lower density coronal holes (Figures 16.4.1 and 16.4.2). These
are areas on the Sun that have open magnetic field lines that extend into space
rather than loop back to the surface. The location and number of coronal holes
vary during the solar cycle. (Read more about charged particles moving in
magnetic fields in the Year 12 ‘Ideas to Implementation’ topic.)

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Figure 16.4.2 Coronal holes are seen here as darker areas of the hot coronal gas. Arrows illustrate
the outflow in one of these regions.

Sometimes a massive ejection of material and embedded magnetic field

occurs from the corona. The material in these coronal mass ejections (CMEs)
is superheated to tens of millions of degrees (Figure 16.4.3). A single event can
eject over 100 billion kilograms of material into the solar wind, moving at over
1000 km s–1.

Figure 16.4.3 The brilliant Sun (white circle) is blocked by a disc (brown) to reveal the coronal
mass ejection (top) moving through the corona.

CHECKPOINT 16.4
1 Describe the make-up of the solar wind.
2 Explain why open magnetic field lines in coronal holes are related to a large outpouring of particles.
3 Using Figure 16.4.1, deduce reasons for the different speeds of the solar wind.

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16.5 The Earth’s magnetosphere

As discussed in Chapter 12, the Earth has a magnetic field around it, produced
by currents flowing within the Earth’s core. The magnetic field envelopes
the Earth in a magnetically protected region called the magnetosphere
(Figure 16.5.1).
Left by itself, the shape of the magnetic field would resemble the field around
a bar magnet; however, the solar wind squashes the field, which behaves like a
bubble being blown in the wind. It is squashed on the leading side and elongated
into a magnetotail on the trailing side. The leading edge of the magnetosphere
lies approximately 80 000 km from the surface of the Earth, while the tail
extends to 300 000 km or more. The surface of the Earth’s magnetic bubble is
known as the magnetopause.
As the solar wind hits the magnetosphere, a sudden change occurs. This is
known as the bow shock—by analogy, with the wave created in front of the bow
of a moving ship. It is here that most of the particles in the solar wind are slowed
and deflected around the Earth. This turbulent plasma behind the bow shock
forms the area called the magnetosheath.
Within the magnetosphere are regions with a high density of charged
particles called the Van Allen belts. There are two regions that look like donuts
around the Earth. Particles that venture into these regions tend to be trapped by
the magnetic field. The energies of these particles allow them to penetrate
spacecraft, thereby damaging instrumentation and threatening the safety of
astronauts.

magnetopause magnetosheath

cusp
magnetotail

solar wind

Van Allen belts

bow shock

Figure 16.5.1 Earth’s magnetosphere

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Some of the solar wind particles manage to get through the protective
magnetopause layer via the polar cusps. These are areas in the magnetic
field that act like funnels for the particles, which spiral down the field lines into
the atmosphere. As the particles strike the atmosphere, they lose energy to the
air molecules, causing the air to glow in a spectacular light show—the auroras
(Figures 16.5.2 and 16.5.3). The different colours, usually greens or reds, result
from the particles interacting with the different molecules in our atmosphere.
Earth is not the only planet to have a magnetic field. Jupiter’s field is much
stronger than the Earth’s and is affected by the solar wind in the same way.
Jupiter has powerful auroras around it poles, generating at least 1000 times the
energy of the Earth’s auroras—more than enough to supply electrical power to
all of Australia (Figure 16.5.4).

Figure 16.5.2 An aurora over Hobart

Figure 16.5.3 The glowing auroral oval seen Figure 16.5.4 Auroral emission seen around
over Antarctica Jupiter’s poles by the Hubble
Space Telescope

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Geomagnetic storm
When the plasma from a major solar outburst collides with the Earth’s
magnetosphere, perhaps one or two days after the event, a major disturbance PRACTICAL
of the magnetic environment can occur. This is called a geomagnetic storm. EXPERIENCES
When a geomagnetic storm hits, the effects can be dramatic. The increased Activity 16.1
Activity Manual, Page 149
pressure from the solar wind alters the shape of the magnetosphere and the flow
of charged particles in the magnetosphere increases. In turn, these affect the
electric currents in the ionised uppermost part of the Earth’s atmosphere, the
ionosphere and in ground beneath it. Currents can be induced in power lines,
potentially overloading transformers and causing the shutdown of power grids.
Currents in pipelines can increase the corrosion of steel pipes. The changes in
the ionosphere can affect high-frequency communications that rely on the
reflection of signals from the ionosphere. The atmosphere itself also heats up
and expands outwards, increasing the drag on satellites and causing their orbits
to decay more quickly. Table 16.5.1 lists some effects of a geomagnetic storm,
grouped according to the severity of the storm.
With this potential of major disruption occurring, especially to
communications, the need for the monitoring and prediction of geomagnetic
storms is obvious. In Australia, the ‘space weather’ is monitored by IPS Radio
and Space Services. IPS operates an extensive network of monitoring stations and
observatories within Australia, the surrounding region and Antarctica. These
gather information on the space environment, which is combined with data from
similar organisations overseas and from spacecraft. Data and predictions are
distributed to organisations whose operations may be affected by changes in
space weather.

Table 16.5.1 The effects of geomagnetic storms

STRENGTH OF EFFECTS
GEOMAGNETIC STORM
Extreme • Aurora may be visible in dark skies across southern Australia.
• Some power grid systems may experience complete collapse or blackouts; transformers may
experience damage.
• Spacecraft may experience extensive surface charging and problems with orientation,
uplink/downlink and tracking.
• High-frequency radio propagation may be impossible for one to two days; low-frequency radio
navigation can be out for hours.
Strong • Aurora may be seen as far north as Melbourne.
• False alarms triggered on some protection devices at power grid systems.
• Spacecraft may experience surface charging; drag may increase on low-Earth-orbit satellites;
orientation may need to be corrected.
• High-frequency radio may be intermittent; low-frequency radio and satellite navigation problems
may occur.
Minor • Aurora not usually seen from anywhere in Australia.
• Weak power grid fluctuations can occur.
• Possible minor impact on satellite operations.
• Migratory animals are affected at this and higher levels.

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AURORA
SUPERSTITIONS
F or centuries, auroras have been
associated with superstitions
and each culture had its own
explanation. In ancient Roman
times it was called ‘blood rain’; in
ancient China, Zhu Lung or the
‘candle dragon’; in Eurasia, the
‘wind light’. The name aurora
comes from the Roman goddess of
dawn who was said to renew herself
every morning and fly across the
sky announcing the arrival of the
Sun. The Eskimos of North America
believed that if you whistled at the
aurora, it would sweep down and
take you from the Earth. By
clapping your hands you could
force it to retreat. Figure 16.5.5 Northern lights above Nürnberg, Germany, in 1591

CHECKPOINT 16.5
1 Describe the Earth’s magnetosphere.
2 Explain the origin of the auroras.
3 Explain why geomagnetic storms affect power systems, spacecraft and communications.

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CHAPTER 16
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

ACTIVITY 16.1: SUNSPOTS AND COMMUNICATIONS

In this activity you will graph the number of sunspots on the Sun over several days.
Identify data sources, gather
You will also research the effects of sunspots and other solar activity on power grids and process information and
and satellite communications. use available evidence to
assess the effects of sunspot
activity on the Earth’s power
grid and satellite
communications.

Figure 16.6.1 Example of a sketched sunspot diagram

Discussion questions
1 Graphing sunspot activity over time reveals some patterns. Describe these.
2 Explain why sunspot activity can have such an influence on
communications and power grids.

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Chapter summary
• The Sun is an average, middle-aged main sequence star • Sunspots are dark areas on the surface of the Sun where
that makes up 99.85% of the mass of the solar system. magnetic fields are impeding the flow of energy.
• The solar constant is the power received from the Sun • Sunspot numbers follow an 11-year cycle that is part of a
per square metre at the top of the Earth’s atmosphere. 22-year solar magnetic cycle of active regions on the Sun.
• The Earth’s atmosphere protects us from radiation at • Solar flares are massive, localised explosions where the
certain wavelengths, especially higher energy UV rays, strong, complex magnetic field patterns snap back into a
X-rays and γ-rays. simpler pattern, releasing energy.
• Gas throughout the Sun is so hot that most atoms are • Dense loops of gas, suspended above the surface of the
ionised to form plasma. Sun in the corona, are known as prominences or
• The Sun is composed of: filaments.
– the core, where nuclear fusion produces energy • The hot gas of the corona streams away from the Sun as
– the radiative zone, where energy moves outwards as the solar wind.
electromagnetic radiation • Solar wind particles escape faster and more easily
– the convection zone, where the transport of energy is through cooler, lower density coronal holes that have
taken over by convection currents open magnetic field lines.
– the photosphere, which is the visible surface of the Sun • Coronal mass ejections are massive outbursts of material
– the chromosphere, which is the beginning of the solar from the corona.
atmosphere where the temperature begins to rise again • The Earth’s magnetosphere is the magnetic environment
– the corona, which is the hot, tenuous outer surrounding the Earth. It contains the Van Allen belts.
atmosphere. The outer ‘surface’ is the magnetopause, which is
• Helioseismology is the study of waves moving through surrounded by the magnetosheath and the bow shock.
the Sun to understand its internal structure. • Some of the solar wind particles spiral down the field
• The Sun has a strong and changing magnetic field that lines at the poles into the atmosphere to create an aurora.
drives the activity seen on the Sun’s surface and in its • Plasma from a major solar outburst collides with the
atmosphere. Earth’s magnetosphere to create a geomagnetic storm.
• Active regions appear where the magnetic field is strong
and emerging through the surface.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Match the following terms with their meanings.

TERM DEFINITION
Core The Sun’s outer atmosphere
Radiative zone Total power output
Corona Time for the activity on the Sun to go through maximum and
minimum, and for a magnetic reversal to occur
Flare Zone of the Sun where nuclear fusion occurs
22-year cycle Magnetic field around the Earth
Luminosity Massive explosion and burst of light in an active region on the Sun
Magnetosphere Region where energy transfer takes a long time and is achieved
by radiation

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REVIEWING
1 Write a biography (a life history) for the Sun.
2 Explain the difference in the apparent and absolute magnitude of the Sun
in Table 16.1.1.
3 What information can be determined about the Sun during a solar eclipse?
4 Detail the journey of energy from the centre of the Sun to the surface.
5 Outline the relationship between magnetic fields and the appearance
of sunspots.
6 What is the significance of the number of sunspots on the Sun’s surface?
Identify the nature of emissions
7 a List the types of emissions from the Sun. reaching the Earth from the Sun.
b Explain why not all these reach the Earth.
8 Compare and contrast flares and prominences.
9 Describe what the solar wind is made of.
Describe the particulate nature
10 a Define a sunspot. of the solar wind.
b Describe the relationship between solar activity and geomagnetic storms.
11 Discuss the significance of the Earth having a magnetosphere.
12 Discuss how it is possible for particles from the solar wind to penetrate Outline the cyclic nature of
the magnetosphere. sunspot activity and its impact
on Earth through solar winds.
13 Auroras occur on Earth and on Jupiter. Explain the likely similarities
and differences.

SOLVING PROBLEMS
14 Calculate the solar constant as measured at Jupiter, using the fact that Describe sunspots as
the average distance of Jupiter from the Sun is 5.20 times the Earth’s representing regions of strong
average distance. magnetic activity and lower
temperature.
15 Knowing the diameter of the Sun (see Table 16.1.1), use Figure 16.3.2
to estimate the rate of rotation of the gases near the equator where
sunspots lie.

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 4 The review contains questions in a similar style and proportion to
the HSC Physics examination. Marks are allocated to each question
up to a total of 25 marks. It should take you approximately
45 minutes to complete this review.

4 A student undertook an experiment to determine the

Multiple choice type of the radiation emitted by two sources. The
results are shown in Figure 16.7.1.
(1 mark each)
1 Tycho Brahe is credited with creating the most – +
precise instruments up to his time for mapping the – +
magnetic field

stars. This was a major contribution to the study of
the stars because:
A Prior to this, there was no mapping of the stars.
B His measurements were more accurate than
previous mapping.
C No-one has to repeat the mapping now.
D He corrected the recorded position of many stars.
2 Current theories suggest that for stars and galaxies to
form, the following order of events must occur:
A inflation of universe, formation of nuclei,
formation of neutral atoms, gas cloud collapse
B formation of nuclei, inflation of universe, gas
cloud collapse, formation of neutral atoms
C formation of neutral atoms, inflation of universe,
formation of nuclei, gas cloud collapse
D inflation of universe, formation of neutral atoms,
gas cloud collapse, formation of nuclei
3 The relationship between the temperature of a body
and the dominant wavelength of radiation is:
A λ T light. This shows that:
1 A Voltage is not related to the colour of the globe.
B λ
T
1
C T
λ
1 1
D
λ T
– + away from viewer
– +
– +
– +
radioactive sample
in lead block
Source 1 Source 2
with electric field applied with magnetic field applied
Figure 16.7.1 Determining the type of radiation emitted by two sources
The type of radiation emitted by sources 1 and 2 are
most likely to be:
A 1: alpha; 2: beta
B 1: beta; 2: gamma
C 1: alpha; 2: gamma
D 1: beta; 2: alpha.
5 A globe was connected to a power pack and the
voltage on the pack was turned up slowly. As the
voltage was increased, the colour of the globe
changed from a dull red glow to a bright hot white
B As the supplied energy increases, the brightness
and temperature increase but total brightness
across all wavelengths decreases.
C As the temperature increases, the energy use
decreases and the colour becomes redder.
D As the supplied energy increases, temperature
increases and the colour becomes bluer.

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Short response
6 Figure 16.7.2 shows a diagram illustrating the
beliefs held long ago about the structure of the
universe. With reference to features shown in this
diagram, explain how the knowledge that we have
gathered about the universe through history has
impacted on our view of the world. (4 marks)
7 Students set up a telescope to view sunspots every
clear day during the year. They aimed the telescope
at the Sun and projected the image onto a blank
sheet of paper. Then they traced the details they saw
in the image onto the paper.
a Make a risk assessment of this experiment. (2 marks)
b The students have been undertaking this project
since they were in Year 7. Now in Year 12, they
have a set of data that spans 6 years. Outline what
the students should see in their data. (2 marks)
Figure 16.7.2 An ancient view of the structure of the universe
THE COSMIC
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8 a Make a sketch of the Hertzsprung–Russell
diagram. (1 mark)
b On it, mark the location of main sequence stars,
white dwarfs and red giants. (1 mark)
c Outline the energy source for each of these
groups. (3 marks)
9 a Briefly outline a method that could be used in
the laboratory to show that the inverse square law
of intensity of light holds. (2 marks)
b Explain how this experiment shows how the
brightness of a star varies with distance.
(2 marks)
10 Star A has an absolute magnitude of +2.5 and an
apparent magnitude of –3. Star B has an absolute
magnitude of +1 and an apparent magnitude of –2.
Determine which is the closer star and explain why.
(3 marks)
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5 So what’s so special about physics? It’s the power of physics to predict the future
CONTEXT behaviour of things from an understanding of their past and present. Why was
Edmund Halley able to correctly predict that a comet he saw in 1682 would come
back every 75–76 years? How is it that physicists can predict the behaviour of
things, ranging from individual atoms and biologically important molecules up
to entire galaxies?
Physics gets its predictive power partly because it is based on logic and
mathematics. Most of physics is a quantitative kind of knowledge, different from
the everyday way of talking about the world. Because of this, many people think
physics seems an ‘unnatural’ way to think, even though the laws of physics
underlie every aspect of nature.
Physics can produce reliable knowledge because ideas, hypotheses and
theories are tested using measurements and experiments; comparing people’s ‘pet
theories’ with reality and then rejecting theories that fail.
In physics, most important sentences must eventually be able to be translated
into equations. This can only work if the important words are strictly defined—
that is, they must always mean precisely the same thing and have a quantitative
definition. So the first steps in learning to think like a physicist are not only to learn
the strict meanings of words used in physics but also how to express and
manipulate numerical quantities.
Figure 17.0.1 Theories must be tested
using measurements
and experiments.

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 Figure 17.0.2 How many in a jar?

Table 17.0.1 Different methods for working

INQUIRY ACTIVITY out the number of jelly beans

METHOD HINTS
HOW MANY JELLY BEANS ARE IN A JAR? Guess Have stab at how many
there are.
If you were given a sealed jar of jelly beans and told to accurately estimate the Measure/ Take measurements
number contained inside, how would you do it? The most obvious thing that volume (length, width, height) to
most people do is guess; as physicists, however, we can do more than that! calculate the volume of
the jar and a jelly bean.
Have a closer look at Figure 17.0.2. What do you notice about the jelly
beans? Are they all the same size? Do they completely take up all the space Displacement/ Submerge a jelly bean in
volume 100 mL of water and
in the jar? If they were arranged a different way, would there be more inside? measure the
What do jelly beans have to do with physics? Well, if you can answer the title displacement; from this,
of the inquiry, you are on the way to learning the skills necessary to do well work out the volume of a
in physics. jelly bean. Devise a
method for working out
To solve the problem, use only the items in Figure 17.0.2 to determine the the volume of the jar
number of jelly beans in the jar. Try using each of the different methods listed in using displacement of
Table 17.0.1 and compare the values you get. For each method, where possible: water.
• repeat with a handful of jelly beans rather than one Mass Measure the mass of a
• repeat each measurement five times and take averages. jelly bean and the jar.
Design your Plan and carry out
QUESTIONS own another measurement
that you think would
be suitable.
1 Identify the most accurate measurement that you used.
2 How did your guess compare with the values gained through measurements?
3 Explain why is it necessary to repeat each measurement and take averages.

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17
measurement, scientific notation,
accuracy, precision, order of
magnitude, unit, significant figures,
limit of reading, absolute error,
percentage error, independent
variable, dependent variable, line
of best fit, secondary source,
reliable, valid
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Physics skills
How much? How big? How long?
How far is it to your house from school? How much do you weigh? How
long until the end of this lesson? Simple questions with simple answers?
What if not everyone takes measurements with the same rules that you
do? It would make things really difficult.
In science so far, you have learnt some basic rules that are accepted
by the scientific community, as well as a variety of skills, such as how to
solve problems and communicate ideas to others. You have learnt these
skills in a scientific framework. In physics, you will now develop these
further and add to your repertoire.
Skills are the foundation on which to build your knowledge of physics.
Without them, you would have a jumble of facts and figures.
All measurements consist of three parts: the value, the units and the
uncertainty. To be fully expressed, a measurement should quote all three.
The value of your measurement is the numerical part of the data
obtained from your instrumentation. During your studies, you will be
collecting and interpreting a lot of data from investigations. Data is
information that has meaning and is usually extracted from an experiment
or other measurement. If it is not organised/collected/stored in the correct
manner, however, it can lose its meaning.
17.1 Expressing the value clearly
Scientific notation
Numbers in science can be very large or very small. A convenient way to
represent this is through scientific notation, which is a standard of writing
numbers in a compact manner.
To write a number in scientific notation, the decimal place is positioned
between the first two significant digits (see Section 17.3). This is then multiplied by
10 to the power of the number of places the decimal has been moved. If the decimal
has been moved to the left, the power is positive. If it has been moved to the right,
the power is negative. For example, 23 045 can be written as 2.3045 × 104, and
0.023 can be written as 2.3 × 10–2.
Writing numbers in scientific notation also avoids ambiguity in the number
of significant digits. This is important when trying to show the accuracy of a
measurement. The accuracy of a measurement refers to how close the
value is to an accepted value.
 SKILLS

Order of magnitude
It is also important to understand that some values are not very precise.
Identify the orders of
The precision of a measurement refers to the closeness of two or more magnitude that will be
values to each other. The order of magnitude of the value is the exponent appropriate and the uncertainty
of nearest powers of 10 to that value. that may be present in the
measurement of data.
Worked example
QUESTION
Find the order of magnitude of:
a 236
b 9251.
SOLUTION
a 236 can be written as 2.36 × 102. The nearest power of 10 is 102. Therefore the
order of magnitude is 2.
b 9251 can be written as 9.251 × 103, which is nearest to 104. Therefore the order of
magnitude is 4.

17.2 Units
Of course, data is just a meaningless number unless there is a unit attached. Units
Identify and use correct units
tell us what the measurement is of. When original units were designed, convenient for data that will be collected.
measures were used, such as a hand, foot or cubit. These were very subjective.
A modern standard of units that is used is the SI system (Le Système International
d’Unités), which is a way of standardising units across cultures. The system has a
series of fundamental, or base, units from which all others can be derived, three of
which are explained below. You will come across these often in physics this year.
Using SI units, the standard unit for length is the metre, which is defined as ‘the
length of the path travelled by light during the time interval of 1/299 792 458
of a second (299 792 458 m s–1 being the accepted value for the speed of light
in a vacuum)’.
Mass is measured in kilograms and is defined as being ‘equal to the mass of the
international prototype of kilogram’ (Figure 17.2.1).
Time is measured in seconds and is defined as the ‘duration of 9 192 631 779
periods of radiation corresponds to the transition between the two hyperfine
levels of the ground state of caesium-133 atom’.

Figure 17.2.1 The standard for a kilogram

kept in France

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Fundamental units in SI
S tandard units can be classified into two types: base and derived. Derived units can be obtained from the base units,
but they have been adopted as the standard for some measurements. The seven base units are listed in Table 17.2.1.

Table 17.2.1 SI base units

BASE QUANTITY SI BASE UNIT

NAME SYMBOL NAME SYMBOL
Length l, x, r, etc. Metre m
Mass m Kilogram kg
Time, duration t Second s
Electric current I, i Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature T Kelvin K
Amount of substance N Mole mol
Luminous intensity Iv Candela cd

Source: SI Brochure, section 2.1, Bureau International des Poids et Mesure (BIPM)

It is important to express values in SI units—especially when the unit is a

Present information by using
symbols and formulae to
express relationships and using
appropriate units for physical
quantities.
derived unit (that is, not a base unit)—as it requires all the quantities
to be expressed as such to make the conversion correct.
For example, in the SI system, force is measured in units of newtons. For
the value to be newtons, all values used to calculate the value must be SI units.
Therefore, to calculate a force on an object with a mass of 200 g and an
acceleration of 3 cm s−2, you can use either of the following:
F = ma F = ma
= (0.2)(0.03) = (200)(3)
= 0.006 kg m s−2 = 600 g cm s−2
= 6 × 103 N
Both of the values above are correct for force; however, only the first is expressed
in SI units, which means the units of newtons can be used.

Changing units
Sometimes it is necessary to change the units of a measurement. This can be
easily done in your head most of the time, but the calculations can get tricky
occasionally. What you have to remember is that there are different ways of
expressing the same value. For instance, 1 km is the same as 1000 m, and 1 h is
the equivalent of 3600 s. How does this help? An example will make it all clear.

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Worked example
QUESTION
Let’s see what 16 m s–1 is in kilometres per hour (km h–1).
SOLUTION
x km 16 m 1 km 3600 s
= × ×
h s 1000 m h
1 km
This can be done without changing the original measurement because multiplying by
1000 m
is the same as multiplying by 1. This is also true with the time multiple. So:
x km 16 m 1 km 3600 s
= × ×
h s 1000 m h
This leaves:
x km 16 1 km 3600
= × ×
h 1 1000 h
The units left are the ones required and by multiplying the values through, the final value
can be obtained:
x km 57.6 km
=
h h
Therefore, 16 m s–1 is equivalent to 57.6 km h–1.
This method can be used to change any units as long as the values are only multiplied by
the equivalent of 1.

CHECKPOINT 17.2
1 Express each of the following numbers in scientific notation.
a 3000
b 0.005
c 51.502
d 150.0
2 Convert the following numbers into their full form.
a 3 × 108
b 1.5 × 10–17
c 1.00 × 10–2
d 7.165 × 105
3 What is the order of magnitude of the following numbers?
a 715
b 2100
c 0.0156
d 51765.7
4 a Using F = ma, what is another unit that force can be expressed in?
b Power is measured in the unit of watts. What can also be used for the unit? (Hint: P = VI)
5 Convert the following values into the units given.
a 100 km h–1 into metres per second (m s–1)
b 45 min per revolution into hertz (Hz)

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Identify the orders of
magnitude that will be
appropriate and the uncertainty
that may be present in the
measurement of data.
17.3 Uncertainty
The uncertainty of the value is an expression of how accurate the value is. This is
initially expressed with significant figures, but it can be further interpreted by
adding an error margin. This is a plus/minus value that gives the value a range in
which it can lie.
Significant figures
Significant figures are the number of digits needed to fully express a value.
This is usually determined by the accuracy or precision of the instrumentation
the value is taken with. For example, a digital stopwatch that records numbers to
one-thousandth of a second will have three decimal places. However, the number
of significant figures depends on the measurement taken. Therefore, 2.035 s has
four significant figures, whereas 0.234 s has only three. Any zero is not
significant if it is used to determine the position of the decimal place, which is
the case in the second example. The zero becomes significant only when it
expresses the accuracy of the instrument. Hence, 2.300 still has four significant
figures because the zeros tell us that the instrument could measure the value to
one-thousandth of a second.
When more than one value is being used in a calculation, it is important not
to invent accuracy by placing extra digits at the end of the value. There are two
main differences to consider:
• When doing multiplication or division, the answer must only contain
the same number of significant figures as the value with the least number of
significant figures.
• When doing addition or subtraction, the answer must not have more
decimal places than the value with the least number in the question.

Worked example
QUESTION
a 53 + 0.54 = ?
b 23 × 2.351 = ?
SOLUTION
a The least number of decimal places is 0. Therefore, the final answer has to be
expressed with no decimal places:
53 + 0.54 = 53.54
The answer is 54.
b 23 has 2 significant figures. 2.351 has 4 significant figures. Therefore, the answer
needs to be expressed with only 2 significant figures:
23 × 2.351 = 54.073
The answer is 54.

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Limit of reading
The best reading that can be taken from a piece of equipment is the smallest
reading marked on the equipment. This is known as the limit of reading. The
random error that results from this is normally quoted as ± half the limit of
reading. For example, a 30 cm ruler, with the smallest marking being 1 mm, is
used to measure an object 5 mm long. The measurement is 5 ± 0.5 mm. This
means the object’s length lies between 4.5 and 5.5 mm.
Errors (or uncertainty) in measurements can be expressed either in the same
way as the 5 mm object above, which is known as an absolute error, or as a
percentage value. A percentage error is calculated as follows:
accepted value − experimental value
Percentage error = × 100
accepted value

This is often used when errors need to be compared between measurements of

differing units or size.

CHECKPOINT 17.3
1 Determine the number of significant figures in each of the following.
a 435
b 0.34
c 0.034 50
d 34.602
2 Express each of the following measurements with the correct limit of reading.

INSTRUMENT SMALLEST MARKING MEASUREMENT WITH LIMIT OF READING

a 30 cm ruler 1 mm

b 1 m ruler 1 cm

c Stopwatch 1
s
1000

d Electronic scales 1
g
100

3 A student collected the following data for the value of acceleration due to gravity and was asked to determine which
was the most accurate value. Which value is the most accurate?
A 9.7 ± 1.3 m s–2
B 9.6 ± 0.3%
C 10.0 ± 0.5 m s–2

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17.4 Recording data

Once you have the data, how do you record it so that it makes sense?
Recommend the use of an
appropriate technology or Tables
strategy for data collection or
Tables are the most obvious way to record data. They let you record data clearly
information gathering that will
assist efficient future analysis.
as it is obtained, make calculations easily and extract information and trends
quickly. There are a few suggested rules to design tables well:
1 Consider all the raw data that you are collecting and what calculations you
Use a variety of pictorial need to do. Make sure to have a column for each and a number of trials
representations to show
and averages.
relationships and present
2 The table should have a title that describes what the information is about.
information clearly and
succinctly. 3 Each column has a title and the units of the measurements that it holds.
4 All measurements should contain the same number of significant figures.
5 Record zero measurements when obtained; don’t leave a blank.
Gather first-hand information by:
• using appropriate data
Worked example
collection techniques,
employing appropriate QUESTION
technologies, including
Figure 17.4.1 shows a page from a student’s notebook. The teacher has asked for the data
data loggers and sensors
• measuring, observing and to be copied into a proper table.
recording results in
accessible and recognisable
forms, carrying out repeat
trials as appropriate.

Figure 17.4.1 Data from a student’s notebook

SOLUTION

TEMPERATURE (°C)
TIME (min)
TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3 AVERAGE
0 20.0 19.5 20.0 19.8
1 21.0 21.0 21.0 21.0
2 22.0 22.0 21.5 21.8
3 22.5 22.0 22.0 22.2
4 23.0 23.0 23.0 23.0
5 24.0 24.0 23.5 23.8
6 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0

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Graphs
Using graphs is a better way to analyse data to find mathematical trends
Present information by
(Figure 17.4.2). Many types of graphs can be used to do this, but the most selecting and drawing
common in physics is the line graph. Rules to follow when graphing are: appropriate graphs to convey
1 The graph should have a title. information and relationships
2 The independent variable is always graphed on the horizontal axis, while clearly and accurately.
the dependent variable is graphed on the vertical.
3 Axes should be clearly labelled to indicate the relevant variable, including units.
4 Points should be marked with a clear cross (X).
5 Select scales that allow the range of data displayed to extend over most of the
available grid.
6 An axis does not need to start from zero; if this is the case, clearly mark the
start point.
7 Where appropriate, the trend demonstrated by the plotted points on a graph
should be shown. If used, the points should not be joined to the origin or
axes unless this is given in the data or can be reasonably assumed.
8 If there is more than one line shown on a graph, or if symbols are used, a key
must be given so that each line or symbol is readily identifiable.

16

14 y = 2.036x – 1.953

12
Velocity (m s–1)

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)

Figure 17.4.2 Example of a graph with all the required components

Line of best fit

A line of best fit is a line or curve that runs through (or near) as many
Identify situations where use of
points as possible. a curve of best fit
If a straight-line relationship is shown, the two variables have a linear is appropriate to present
relationship. This means that the linear equation can be applied to them: graphical information.

y = mx + b
where y is the variable on the y-axis, x is the variable on the x-axis, m is the
gradient of the line and b is the y-intercept.
This can be clearly seen in Figure 17.4.2. The y-axis carries the variable of
v (final velocity). The x-axis is plotted as time. There is a linear relationship
between these two variables.

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The gradient of the graph can be calculated easily by using the following:
rise y 2 − y1
Gradient = or
run x 2 − x1

In the case of Figure 17.4.3, the gradient equals 1.98.

Note that it is usually a good idea to mark in on the graph the points that
you have chosen to calculate the gradient as it allows you to go back and check
if you need to and, more importantly, teachers can see what you have done.
From Figure 17.4.3, you can see that the y-intercept is –2. Put this into the
basic linear equation and you obtain the following:
v = 1.98t – 2

16

14 y = 2.036x – 1.953

12

10

8
Velocity (m s–1)

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
–2

–4

Figure 17.4.3 Drawing lines to show how the gradient is obtained

Interpreting data from graphs

Extract information from
numerical data in graphs and
tables as well as
from written and spoken
material in all its forms.
Now that you have a graph, you have to be able to interpret what it actually means.
The linear equation looks very much like one of the equations of motion:
v = u + at
Using the data from Figure 17.4.3, we can therefore say that the initial velocity
of the motion of this object is –2 m s–1 and the acceleration is 1.98 m s–2.

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17.5 Rearranging formulae

Many situations in physics will require you to rearrange a given formula to make
Identify and apply appropriate
another variable the subject of the equation. You need to remember a few things mathematical formulae and
when rearranging formulae: concepts.
1 Remember the order of operations—when moving variables to the other side
of the equation, first do addition and subtraction and then multiplication
and division.
2 To move a variable, the opposite operator is applied.
3 What you do to one side, you must do to the other.

Worked example
QUESTION
Make the variable a the subject of the formula v = u + at.
SOLUTION
The variable a needs to be on its own on the left of the equation, which requires you to move
the other variables to the right. Start with u first as it is has a positive (+) operator. To move
it, you must use the opposite operator, which is negative (−) is this case.
v = u + at
v – u = u + at – u
v – u = at
Next, move the t. To do this, use the opposite operator, which is division (÷).
v − u at
=
t t
v −u
=a
t

Linearising a formula
What happens if the relationship between two variables in a formula is not a
straight line? This is not a problem. It just means we have to rearrange the
formula to graph the two variables so that they relate to each other in a linear
way. Confused? Let’s look at the steps to follow with an example.

Worked example
QUESTION
A student is looking at how the v of a ball relates to the displacement s it falls through
when dropped. To do this, the student drops a ball and records the start velocity, the
displacement it goes through and the end velocity. What does the student need to graph
to get a linear relationship?
SOLUTION
The formula that we can use to relate these two variables is:
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
From this equation, we can see that there is no linear relationship between v and s, but:
v2 s
Graphing this would therefore produce a straight line.

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CHECKPOINT 17.5
1 A student was asked to verify the relationship between the kinetic energy a ball has just before hitting the ground
when it is dropped from varying heights. (Given that kinetic energy and release height can be related by the
1 1
following formula: mgh = mv 2 and KE = mv 2 , where KE = kinetic energy, m = mass of the ball,
2 2
g = acceleration due to gravity, h = release height and v = velocity just before impact.)
a List the variables that will need to be included in a table to undertake this experiment.
b Determine the graph that is needed to be drawn to achieve the student’s aim.
c Below is a list of heights and velocities that were calculated. Draw the appropriate graph.

HEIGHT (m) VELOCITY (m s–1)

0.1 1.40
0.2 1.98
0.3 2.42
0.4 2.80
0.5 3.13
0.6 3.43

d State what you need to see in order for this graph to support the mathematical relationship.
e From the equations given above, determine what the slope of the line represents.
f Determine the mass of the ball if the kinetic energy is determined to be 0.88 J when dropped from a
height of 0.45 m.
2 Rearrange the following formulae to make the stated variable in each case the subject.
a v = u + at, make a the subject
b v 2 = u 2 + 2as, make u the subject
c W = Fs cos θ, make θ the subject

Gather information from

secondary sources by:
• accessing information from
a range of resources,
including popular scientific
journals, digital
technologies and
the Internet
• practising efficient
data collection techniques
to identify useful
information in secondary
sources.
17.6 Secondary sources
Your course requires you to be able to gather and interpret material from
secondary sources, such as books, journals and the Internet.
To do this and actually get something meaningful out of it, you need to be
able to say that the information is reliable and valid. So how do you do this?
To start with, the meanings of the words reliable and valid should be clear.
Reliable secondary sources
Reliable information from secondary sources means that it is consistent
with information from reputable sources. When looking for information, start
with sources that you know are correct, your teacher, science textbooks and so
on. Any information that you find should agree with these sources.
When you look for sources, run through the following checklist to verify the
reliability:
Author: Who wrote the source? What credentials do they have? Do they have
a good reputation in this area of study?

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Accuracy: Has the author cited the sources they have gathered information from?
Process information to:
Website: Check the domain of the website. For example, <gov> is a government • evaluate the validity of
agency, <edu> an educational institution, <com> a commercial business and first-hand and secondary
<org> is a non-profit organisation. This will tell you if the information is biased information and data in
towards selling a product rather than being purely objective. relation to the area of
Bias: When reading through the material, has the author only considered one investigation
side of an argument? Are opinions and emotions included? • assess the reliability of
first-hand and secondary
Valid secondary sources information and data by
Valid sources are those that actually have information about what they considering information
from various sources.
assert. When you are checking the validity of secondary sources, run through the
following checklist:
Currency: How recently has the information been reviewed? Has more recent
work been done to alter the information in this source?
Scope: How complete is the information? Is it only basic, in which case could
Present information
it be misleading if not read in conjunction with other sources? Is the site a by selecting and using
research-based site or for the popular media? appropriate methods to
Relevancy: Does the source actually answer what it is you’re looking for? acknowledge sources
of information.
Referencing secondary sources
Once you have found the sources that will answer your research in a reliable and
valid way, you must remember to reference where they came from. Some examples
of how to write a bibliography for different source types are listed below.

Books
Author: surname and name
Year published
Title of book
Publisher
Place of publication

Example
Bosi, S, Hogg, K, O’Byrne, J, Kachan, J, Woodward, S
2008
in2 Physics @ Preliminary
Pearson
Sydney

Internet source
Title of web page
Date accessed
URL

Example
Pearson Education
18/6/08
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary

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Journals
Author: surname and name
Year published
Title of article
Title of journal
Volume number
Issue number or month
Pages of article

Example
McLeod, E and Arnold, C
2007
‘Mechanics and refractive power optimization of tunable acoustic gradient lenses’
Journal of Applied Physics
102
Issue 3
Pages 1–9

Hints for using the Internet effectively

The most common secondary source that you will use is the internet. This has a
myriad of information, so it is important to understand how you can effectively
search it.

Identify data sources to analyse
complex problems to determine
appropriate ways in which each
aspect may be researched.
Gather information from
secondary sources by
identifying practising male and
female Australian scientists,
the areas in which they are
currently working and
information about their
research.
Hint 1
When looking for information, take some time before typing words into the
search engine to actually work out what it is you want. Be as specific as you can
about what you want to find and what you don’t want to find.
For example, your teacher has given you the following to research: ‘Identify
practising male and female Australian scientists, the areas in which they are currently
working and information about their research’. Added to this, the research is to be
about a physicist whose work focuses on one of the topics you have studied this year.
Typing “Australian scientist” into your search engine will return a range of
topics about scientists, including those past and present and from any discipline
in science. However, if you include extra words, such as “Australian scientist
physics biography”, a narrower range appears.
Hint 2
Use three to six key words in your search. This enables the search to pinpoint
more relevant items.

Hint 3
If there is a specific phrase you are looking for, place it in quotation marks (“ ”).

Hint 4
If there is more than one name for what you are looking for, use the ‘OR’
function to search for either term.

Hint 5
If there are two concepts that you need together, use the ‘AND’ operator.

Hint 6
Refine your search.
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CHECKPOINT 17.6
1 Use the Internet to search for information regarding the following: ‘Identify practising male and female Australian
scientists, the areas in which they are currently working and information about their research’. Added to this the
research is to be about a physicist whose work focuses on one of the topics you have studied this year.
a Type in each of the following word options and record how many relevant web pages are returned within the
first ten listed.
i identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the areas in which they are currently
working and information about their research
ii Australian scientist
iii Australian scientist physics communication
b Choose one scientist related to a topic in physics you have studied this year.
c Record the following information: name, the year the scientist was born, what field of study in physics, what
research this has scientist done.
2 Compare the results from searching for information about how induction cooktops work using the following search words.
a induction cooktops
b induction cooktops physics work
c induction cook tops AND physics work

17.7 Planning an open investigation

During the course of your studies, you are required to complete an open
investigation. This means you will have to think of a topic that you can research
and design an experiment to determine the answer.
When you have to plan an investigation, a series of steps need to be followed.
Figure 17.7.1 features a flow chart that shows exactly how it works.

Decide on a topic

Carry out research

Write the hypothesis

Design the experiment

Aim

Equipment

Look for improvements,

make a new hypothesis Method

Results

Check hypothesis Discussion

No Data fits
hypothesis

Yes
Conclusion

Figure 17.7.1 Flow chart of scientific method

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Plan first-hand investigations to:
• demonstrate the use of the
terms dependent and
independent to describe
variables involved in the
investigation
• identify variables that need
to be kept constant, develop
strategies to ensure that
these variables are kept
constant, and demonstrate
the use of a control.
Process information to:
• evaluate the validity of
first-hand and secondary
information and data in
relation to the area of
investigation
• assess the reliability of
first-hand and secondary
information and data by
considering information
from various sources.
Plan first-hand investigations to:
• design investigations that
allow valid and reliable data
and information to be
collected
• describe and trial procedures
to undertake investigations
and explain why a procedure,
a sequence of procedures or
the repetition of procedures
is appropriate.
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Decide on the topic
What are you going to study in detail? It is important to make sure that you have
refined your query to a specific problem. The more specific it is, the easier it is to
develop an experiment to test it.
Carry out research
Once you have decided what you are going to question, go and find out as much
as you can about it. Has someone performed an experiment about this topic
before? Are there theories that help decipher the question posed? What
observations have already been made? (Refer to Section 17.6.)
Write the hypothesis
A hypothesis is an educated guess as to what you believe will happen—that
is, it is the answer to the question that you posed at the start of the process. The
better your research, the more educated this statement will be.
Your hypothesis should be written as a statement; for example, ‘If A is true,
then B will happen.’ If you have more detailed research, you can elaborate on
this statement to include mathematical relationships and other helpful details.
Design the experiment
This is the part where you get to play! Your experiment should only test one
variable at a time. The variable that you manipulate during the
experiment is known as the independent variable. The one that changes as a
result is the dependent variable. All other variables must be kept constant to
make it a fair test.
When designing the experiment, you must be able to show that both the
experiment and the data gathered are reliable and valid. A reliable
experiment can be repeated to obtain the same results each time. To make an
experiment reliable, the method must be clear and well defined. It is also
important to remember to take a number of trials to show that your procedure is
reliable. A valid experiment is one that tests what the aim sets out to do.
The experiment has a basic format:
• Aim: A statement that rewords the hypothesis as an inquiry, such as ‘To see
how A is related to B’.
• Equipment: A list of things that will be used to carry out the experiment.
Check to find the most appropriate items for the task. Computer-based
technology may allow you to achieve higher accuracy and clear results.
• Risk assessment: Look through each item that is being used and assess any
potential harm that could result from lack of care or improper use. An easy
way to do this is by completing a table, like Table 17.7.1.
Table 17.7.1 Risk assessment of equipment
EQUIPMENT RISK PRECAUTION
Glassware Breaking if dropped Place away from edges; secure in clamps
 SKILLS

• Method: A step-by-step guide to how the experiment is done. Remember

Plan first-hand investigations
that the method should be able to be read by someone else and carried out to predict possible issues that
exactly as you have without explanation or assumptions. may arise during the course
• Results: A record of data collected and observations made. This includes of an investigation and identify
tables and graphs. (Refer to Section 17.4.) strategies to address these
• Discussion: This involves an analysis of the data in relation to the research issues if necessary.
that you carried out previously. This is where it will be clear whether or not
your hypothesis was correct. If it is not correct, you will need to make Perform first-hand
suggestions for improvements and alternatives to future experiments. investigations by carrying out
• Conclusion: What can you draw from the data? This should be a brief statement the planned procedure,
that answers the aim: ‘A is related to B as in the equation X’. This needs to recognising where and when
summarise your findings and state whether the hypothesis is true or false. modifications are needed and
analysing the effect of these
adjustments.

CHECKPOINT 17.7
1 Write a hypothesis that will predict the outcome of the following problem when tested: ‘Bikes seem to run faster
when the tyre pressure is higher. Is the tyre pressure marked optimum for top speed?’
2 Sally and Gianni carried out an experiment to see if the frequency of sound played to plants would change the rate
of growth. Each day they changed the frequency coming from the speakers and recorded the height of the plants.
a State the independent and dependent variables in this experiment.
b List two other variables that need to be kept constant throughout the experiment to maintain a fair test.
c Design a table that Sally and Gianni could use to record their results, remembering that they must be able to
say that their test was reliable and valid.
3 Below is a set of observations and data that was taken from an experiment to determine if the amount of force
required to move a block of wood across another changed as the weight of the wood changed.

WEIGHT OF FORCE REQUIRED TO GET OBJECT MOVING FORCE WHEN OBJECT IS IN CONSTANT MOTION
OBJECT TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 AVERAGE TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 AVERAGE
0.49 0.202 0.203 0.203 0.148 0.146 0.147
0.98 0.411 0.411 0.411 0.294 0.294 0.294
1.47 0.620 0.616 0.618 0.445 0.397 0.441
1.96 0.823 0.823 0.823 0.588 0.588 0.588

The mathematical formula that was found to link the results is:
Ffriction = µFnormal
where Ffriction = the force due to friction, µ = the frictional coefficient (this is a different value for an object when it
is stationary and when it is in motion), and Fnormal = the force due to gravity (that is, F = mg).
a Record what observations you can make about the data from the table.
b Explain why it is necessary to carry out two trials and average the results.
c Using the data and the formula, what numerical data can you extract? (Hint: You should use a graph to
determine this properly.)
d Propose an explanation for there being a reading on the spring balance even though the object was
definitely moving at a constant speed.
e The student’s hypothesis stated that the weight of any object will not affect the force required to move it. Was
the student’s hypothesis correct? Justify your answer.

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 Understanding
18 and using the
BOS key terms
Verbs in action
The glossary of terms has been put together by the NSW Board of
Studies (BOS) to make sure the questions that you will encounter in
the HSC are consistent both in meaning and with the answers that
are required of you. (Many other terms could be used; however, this
chapter will concentrate on those outlined by the BOS.)
Knowing the definitions of these words is only the first step.
What depth is required in an answer for each verb? How many
marks is the question worth?
The marks allocated to a question are the first indication of the depth
of answer that is required of you. A question may be straightforward in
its answer but have several marks allocated. This is a signal that the
examiners want more than a brief statement. This chapter is designed
to help you answer the questions in the HSC with ease.

Figure 18.1.1 Analysing a question before answering it is the key to a good answer.

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Key words
Account Account for, state reasons for, report on. Give an account of; narrate
a series of events or transactions.
Analyse Identify components and the relationship between them; draw out
and relate implications.
Apply Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation.
Appreciate Make a judgement about the value of.
Assess Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size.
Calculate Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information.
Clarify Make clear or plain.
Classify Arrange or include in classes/categories.
Compare Show how things are similar or different.
Construct Make, build, put together items or arguments.
Contrast Show how things are different or opposite.
Critically Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge and
(analysis/evaluate) understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to
(analyse/evaluation).
Deduce Draw conclusions.
Define State meaning and identify essential qualities.
Demonstrate Show by example.
Describe Provide characteristics and features.
Discuss Identify issues and provide points for and/or against.
Distinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to
note differences between.
Evaluate Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of.
Examine Inquire into.
Explain Relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things
evident; provide why and/or how.
Extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details.
Extrapolate Infer from what is known.
Identify Recognise and name.
Interpret Draw meaning from.
Investigate Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about.
Justify Support an argument or conclusion.
Outline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of.
Predict Suggest what may happen based on available information.
Propose Put forward (for example, a point of view, idea, argument,
suggestion) for consideration or action.
Recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences.
Recommend Provide reasons in favour of.
Recount Retell a series of events.
Summarise Express, concisely, the relevant details.
Synthesise Put together various elements to make a whole.

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Unde
Un ders
de
using
usin
using
in
rsta
rs
g th
tand
ta
the
ndin
nd
e BO
ing
in
BOS
g an
S ke
and
key
d
y te
tterms
rms
rm s

18.1 Grouping the verbs

We can make small groups within the list of verbs to help us structure answers.
Each group contains verbs that require a similar manner of thinking and
therefore the same approach to answering the question.
Each group builds on the previous and can be approached by following a
series of steps. This is reflected in the scaffold below (Table 18.1.1). You will only
need to use the part of the scaffold that relates to the group your verb falls into
and the points above.

Table 18.1.1 Answer scaffold

GROUP ACTION HINTS YOUR ANSWER

All Verb
Definition
Topic related to What topic is the verb asking you about?
Group 1 Specifics of topic List what you know about the topic. Include
definitions, formulae and diagrams.
Group 2 Your interpretation of Look through your information, highlight, interpret
the information it and state it in your words.
Group 3 Application/example Link concepts you have learnt to an example or
application.
Group 4 Relate concepts to Interpret the information, the relationships.
application Determine the reliability and quality of the
components of your topic.
Group 5 Build/create your Use your creative thinking to put the information
answer that you have gathered together in a format that
shows your understanding of the concepts in the
question.
Group 6 Make judgement Your opinion based on the facts you have gathered
and any criteria that you have been asked to
assess against.
Draw conclusion What can be concluded from the information?

In some situations, you will find that some steps are redundant as you will be
repeating yourself. In any case, you need to work through them to make sure you
are developing your answer fully. As you become more familiar with the verbs,
you will find that you can do this without the scaffold.
When answering any question, the following steps should always be followed:
• Highlight the verb in the question.
• Recall the definition.
• Identify what the verb is relating to and highlight this.

Group 1: knowledge
These verbs require specifics. List all the information about the topic in question;
this includes using diagrams and definitions.
define, extract, identify,
A step to add when answering questions in this group includes:
outline, recall, recount
• List specifics of the topic in the question.

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Worked example 1
QUESTION
Define communication using the principles of physics. (1 mark)
SOLUTION

Table 18.1.2 Answer scaffold for group 1

GROUP ACTION YOUR ANSWER

All Verb Define
Definition State meaning and identify essential qualities
Topic related to Communication
Group 1 Specifics of topic Transfer of information between two parties: must
have the information sent and it must be received

Your answer: Meaning of the word communication

Communication is the process of exchanging information. The information is sent and must
be received in order for communication to have taken place.
Essential qualities
Group 2: comprehension
This group of verbs requires you to show understanding. This is a little more
difficult than the first group, so it will require greater depth. To answer these
questions properly, you need to define and describe the concepts or topic and
to restate it in your own words—it is your interpretation. account, clarify, compare,
Steps to add when answering questions in this group include: contrast, describe, discuss,
• List specifics of the topic in the question. distinguish, extrapolate,
• Restate the data in your own words. interpret, predict

Worked example 2
QUESTION
Compare a permanent magnet with a temporary magnet. (2 marks)
SOLUTION

Table 18.1.3 Answer scaffold for group 2

GROUP ACTION YOUR ANSWER

All Verb Compare
Definition Show how things are similar or different
Topic related to Permanent and temporary magnets
Group 1 Specifics of topic • Permanent magnet always magnetic
• Easily broken; can’t change strength once made
• Temporary magnet can change strength, can turn
on and off, attract same items, bipolar
Group 2 Your interpretation of • Similar: attraction, polarity
the information • Different: strength, brittleness, magnetism

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Your answer:
Differences
PERMANENT MAGNET TEMPORARY MAGNET
Always magnetic Can be switched on/off
Easily broken Maintains magnetism when on
Strength is set Can be varied
Similarities Bipolar Bipolar

Group 3: application
Taking it a step further, this group requires you to apply the knowledge that you
have learnt to a situation that you may not have encountered before.
apply, calculate, classify,
The steps to add when answering questions in this group are:
demonstrate, examine
• Recall the material learnt.
• Identify the specifics of the topic in the question.
Use your knowledge—that is, the specifics you list—to answer the situation.

Worked example 3
QUESTION
Calculate the force needed to accelerate a 60 kg ice-skater from rest to a final speed of
10 m s–1 in 10 s. (2 marks)
SOLUTION

Table 18.1.4 Answer scaffold for group 3

GROUP ACTION YOUR ANSWER

All Verb Calculate
Definition Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or
information
Topic related to Newton’s second law
Group 1 Specifics of topic F = ma
v −u
a=
t

Group 2 Your interpretation of F=?

the information m = 60 kg
a=?
v = 10 m s–1
u=0
t = 10 s
Group 3 Application/example 10 − 0
a= =1
10
F = 60 (1)
= 60 N

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Your answer:
F = ma Show how the answer is achieved.
v −u
a=
t
F = ?, m = 60 kg, a = ?, v = 10 m s–1, u = 0, t = 10 s
F = ma
10 − 0
a= =1
10
F = 60(1)
= 60 N

Group 4: analysis
Relationships between concepts need to be shown to fully answer these
questions. This will require information to be organised into categories in
analyse, explain, investigate
a manner that most clearly shows this, such as tables, charts or graphs.
The steps to add when answering questions in this group are:
• Recall the material learnt.
• List specifics in the form asked for.
• Remember to show the relationship between concept and application.
• Summarise the findings.

Worked example 4
QUESTION
Below is an excerpt taken from a newspaper article about Pluto no longer being called a
planet. Analyse the implications of this information. (4 marks)

Pluto no longer a planet

Pluto was stripped of its status as a planet overnight when scientists from around
the world redefined it as a ‘dwarf planet’, leaving just eight classical planets in the
solar system.
With one vote, toys and models of the solar system became instantly
obsolete, forcing teachers and publishers to scramble to update textbooks and
lessons used in classrooms for decades.
‘Pluto is dead,’ Mike Brown of the California Institute of Technology bluntly
said on a teleconference.
Discovered in 1930 by the American Clyde Tombaugh, Pluto has
traditionally been considered the ninth planet, farthest from the Sun in the
solar system.
However, the definition of a planet approved after a heated debate among
2500 scientists from the International Astronomical Union (IAU) meeting in
Prague drew a clear distinction between Pluto and the other eight planets.
The need to define what is a planet was driven by technological advances
enabling astronomers to look farther into space and to measure more precisely
the size of celestial bodies.
Mr Brown added impetus to the decades-old debate on the definition of a
planet when he discovered UB313 in 2003. Xena, as it is nicknamed, is larger
than Pluto, instantly creating a buzz over whether a new planet had been
discovered.

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The scientists agreed that, to be called a planet, a celestial body must be in

orbit around a star while not itself being a star.
It must be large enough in mass for its own gravity to pull it into a nearly
spherical shape and have cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
Pluto was disqualified because its oblong orbit overlaps with Neptune’s.
Xena also does not make the grade of being a planet, and will also be known as
a dwarf planet.
‘It’s an issue mainly for the public, not really for scientists. Some people may
be upset, but we’ve long regarded it (Pluto) as a minor planet,’ said Richard
Miller of the University of Chicago.
The new definition—the first time the IAU has tried to define scientifically
what a planet is—means a second category called ‘dwarf planets’ has been created,
as well as a third category for all other objects, except satellites, known as small
solar system bodies.
‘We are just defining a new class of planets and I think it’s very appropriate.
We are finding more planets in our solar system, and some are larger than Pluto,’
said Philip Diamond, a professor at the University of Manchester and a delegate
attending the IAU meeting.
‘I think what we have done is a good thing, we have actually expanded the
number of planets in our solar system, but just spread them over two categories.’
From now on, traditional planets will be restricted to eight: Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
Source: Reuters, Herald Sun, 25 August 2006, <www.news.com.au/heraldsun/
story/0,21985,20246737-661,00.html>

SOLUTION

Table 18.1.5 Answer scaffold for group 4

GROUP ACTION YOUR ANSWER

All Verb Analyse
Definition Identify components and the relationship between
them; draw out and relate implications
Topic related to Definitions in science; planet
Group 1 Specifics of topic In this case it is highlighting the main points of the
article
Group 2 Your interpretation of • Pluto no longer planet
the information • Redefined as dwarf planet
• Need for definition arose as technology allows us to
discover new objects that are further and smaller
• Pluto meets part of definition but is disqualified as
crosses Neptune orbit
• Expanded number of planets in solar system
• Eight traditional planets
Group 3 Application/example Already applied to the example of Pluto

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Group 4 Relate concepts to • Pluto is now known as a dwarf planet

application • Definition of planet is same but added that it must
not cross other planets’ orbits
• Dwarf planet is a subcategory of planets, so there
are actually more planets in solar system
• Need to change books etc. to number planets
differently
• New bodies in solar system that are being found
due to technological advances can easily be
classified without reorganising what is already
done; without the clarification, objects that are
being discovered that are larger than Pluto could be
debated to be planets
• Example of how science is changing as more
knowledge is made available

Your answer:
Pluto is no longer considered a traditional planet. It is now in a subcategory of planets
known as dwarf planets. Implications
The traditional number of planets is now eight but the number of total planets (which
includes the subcategories) is now larger. Relating information
The results of the meeting have implications for the education of students as textbook
definitions have to be rewritten, but Pluto is still a main part of the solar system.
It makes way for a clear definition of what a planet is, which has not happened before,
and shows how science is not a static knowledge base but evolves as technology allows us
to discover more. Implications

Group 5: synthesis
This requires you to put together ideas that you have learnt to form a new answer.
The steps to add when answering questions in this group are:
• Recall what have learnt on the topic.
construct, propose,
• List specifics in the form asked for.
summarise, synthesise
• Show the relationship between concepts.
• Use relationships to determine the answer.

Worked example 5
QUESTION
Summarise the effects of the Sun on communication on the Earth. (Use your textbook to
help you answer this.) (4 marks)

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SOLUTION

Table 18.1.6 Answer scaffold for group 5

GROUP ACTION YOUR ANSWER

All Verb Summarise
Definition Express, concisely, the relevant details
Topic related to Solar flares, solar wind, communication
Group 1 Specifics of topic • Solar wind made up of charged particles: protons,
electrons and He nuclei
• Moving charged particles have magnetic field
• Earth has protective fields; magnetosphere
• Trap particles in Van Allen belts 80 000 km wide
• Sun spot cycle—when high activity = high wind and danger
• Solar flare—emit EM rays: gamma to X-ray
• Communication uses ionosphere reflection or absorption
Group 2 Your • Solar wind produces charged particles, which have B
interpretation of field; Earth usually protected from charged particles by
the information magnetosphere; particles interact and are forced aside
• High sunspot activity means more particles, some of
which get through
Group 3 Application/ • Auroras trapped particles in ionosphere highly
example energised and glow
• Ship-to-shore communications; ground-to-air
• Wrong information broadcast by satellites
• Power lines have induced current, causing surge and
damage to transmitting equipment
Group 4 Relate concepts • Solar wind → charged particles → B field → interact
to application with magnetosphere → result in aurora visually
• Communication relying on ionosphere and using
high- frequency waves disrupted by penetrating waves,
e.g. ground-to-air, satellites
Group 5 Build/create your As above
answer
Defining communication that is affected
Your answer:
The Sun emits particles as well as waves. It is the particles that are particularly harmful to
communication. The particles that leave the Sun in the form of the solar wind are mainly
Defining solar wind protons, electrons and helium nuclei. Charged particles that are moving have their own
magnetic field, which will interact with the Earth’s magnetosphere. This can be seen
Examples visually as auroras: the trapped particles obtain high-energy states and emit light. The
wind squashes the magnetosphere on the Sun side, making it teardrop-shaped.
Many forms of communication on Earth rely on the ionosphere either to absorb or reflect
Effects of wind the high-frequency EM ray that is used.
Usually the magnetosphere is big enough to absorb the energy from these particles and
stop them travelling into the atmosphere to a point that is harmful to communication.
During a solar flare, the particles are more numerous and can travel further. This means
Examples the communication such as ground-to-air, ship-to-shore and satellites are affected. Power
lines have current induced and cause surges that damage transmitting equipment. This can
lead to blackouts that are wide spread and affect millions of people. Satellites have been
known to send incorrect information to users during these solar storms.

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Group 6: evaluation
Here is where your opinion counts. To evaluate a subject, it is important to
objectively list facts for and against. It doesn’t stop here, however. You must
appreciate, assess, deduce,
then use these facts to conclude an answer on the subject.
evaluate, justify, recommend
The steps to add when answering questions in this group are:
• Recall the material learnt.
• List specifics for and against the concept.
• Make a judgement on the topic.
• Draw a conclusion.

Worked example 6
QUESTION
American astronomer Professor Carl Sagan (1934–1996) once wrote: ‘We are made of star
stuff.’ Evaluate this statement. (5 marks)
SOLUTION

Table 18.1.7 Answer scaffold for group 6

GROUP ACTION YOUR ANSWER

All Verb Evaluate
Definition Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of
Topic related to Evolution of stars and elements
Group 1 Specifics of topic • Hydrogen is main component of stars
• All other elements made from hydrogen and the processes
by which stars undergo, such as fusion and supernova
explosions
• Main components of humans: H2O and C
Group 2 Your • All elements traced back to H and the processes that
interpretation of are cycled through in the stars
the information • Humans made of material that was made in these
processes
Group 3 Application/ • H becomes He through fusion, which is naturally
example occurring in stars as the parameters for it to occur are
correct; on Earth this must be artificially done with the
use of lots of energy
• Elements beyond Fe on the periodic table are made
through supernova explosions and recycling of material;
these are not found to be made naturally on Earth
Group 4 Relate concepts How far back are you tracing the materials in your body? It
to application can be argued that you are Earth stuff.
Group 5 Build/create your • Stars made primarily of H
answer • Through the processes that a star cycles through,
elements up to Fe can be synthesised
• Elements larger than this made in star activity by
supernova explosions and recycling material
• Humans made of H2O and C
• These can easily be traced to original existence in star
activity
Group 6 Make judgement Even through some processes can be carried out on Earth,
the original components can be traced to star activity.
Draw conclusion From this, we can say we are star stuff.

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Defining what stars are made of
Link of the relationship between the two
Defining what we are made of
Judgement
Conclusion
Your answer:
Stars are made primarily of hydrogen.
Through the processes that a star cycles through, elements up to iron can be
synthesised. For example, hydrogen becomes helium through fusion.
Elements larger than this can be made in star activity by supernova explosions and
recycling of material.
Humans are made of water and carbon. The elements that make these can easily be
traced to original existence in star activity.
Even through some processes can be carried out on Earth, such as the making of the
water molecule, the original components can be traced to star activity.
From this, we can say we are star stuff.

CHECKPOINT 18.1
1 Explain the difference in your answer if worked example 1 was worth three marks instead of one.
2 How would your answer change to worked example 2 if the verb was changed and the question now read:
‘Distinguish between a permanent magnet and a temporary magnet’?
3 Account for the ability of a car to have constant speed and yet be accelerating.
4 Classify each of the following examples as uses (mainly) of Newton’s first, second or third law: ice-skater skating,
two ice-skaters pushing off each other, car braking, car accelerating, Newton’s cradle, body moving as turning
corner, weightless feeling as falling.

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PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Match the verb with its meaning

VERB MEANING
Calculate Infer from what is known
Deduce Express, concisely, the relevant details
Evaluate Draw conclusions
Extrapolate Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information
Interpret Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences
Recall Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of
Summarise Draw meaning from

REVIEWING
1 Compare AC and DC.
2 Evaluate the following sentence: ‘Given the profound importance of science
and technology in predicting and shaping our future, we all need easy
access to scientific knowledge. I would even say that we have a social
obligation to participate in discussion and debate about science.’
3 Apply Newton’s laws to help explain why you feel weightless as you fall.
4 _________ the ability to jump higher when on the Moon than on Earth.
The sentence above has the verb missing.
a Write an answer to this question using the verbs: outline, explain.
b Compare the two answers.
5 In each sample answer below, deduce which verb was used in the question
and give reasons for your answer.
a The Sun is a star and the Earth is a planet; stars emit light, whereas
planets can only reflect it.
b The observations made during the experiment show that as the object
increased its displacement from the start line, the time taken to
complete each 1 m interval increased by 2 s. If the object was to
continue beyond the recorded data and follow this trend, the next
interval would take 17 s to complete.
6 On page 346 is a second article about the renaming of Pluto, but this one
is taken from a scientific journal rather than a newspaper (see page 339).
Assess the accuracy of the information presented in the two articles.

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PLUTO AND THE PLANETS IAU RESOLUTION: DEFINITION OF A PLANET

The planet Pluto has been in the headlines for the last
time. The 26th general assembly of the International
Astronomical Union (IAU) in Prague was due to decide
what is and what is not a planet. A committee had been
formed three years earlier to come up with a proposal for
the assembled astronomers to vote on. The initial
proposal was rejected. Pluto would have remained a
planet. But there would immediately have been three
further planets: the asteroid Ceres, Pluto’s moon Charon,
and the trans-neptunian object 2003 UB313. There
would have been about a dozen known trans-neptunian
candidates for planetship, and more to discover.
In the end the astronomers decided otherwise. They
removed much of the complexity of the initial proposal
and added the orbit-clearance criterion for a planet. We
now have only eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Pluto is
demoted to being a ‘dwarf planet’, Ceres will most likely
be promoted to dwarf planet, and 2003 UB313 is
another known dwarf planet. Two or three large asteroids
may turn out to be dwarf planets, if they are large and
massive enough to pull themselves into a round shape.
The same holds for the dozen or so trans-neptunian
objects that may fulfil that criterion. According to the
IAU press releases the shape of objects with mass above
5 × 1020 kg and diameter greater than 800 km would
normally be round due to self-gravity. Be that as it may,
Pluto’s moon Charon will be just that, a satellite and not
a dwarf planet.
The full resolutions passed by the IAU general
assembly are:
IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Contemporary observations are changing our
understanding of planetary systems, and it is important
that our nomenclature for objects reflect our current
understanding. This applies, in particular, to the
designation ‘planets’. The word planet originally
described ‘wanderers’ that were known only as moving
lights in the sky. Recent discoveries lead us to create a
new definition, which we can make using currently
available scientific information.
Resolution 5
The IAU therefore resolves that ‘planets’ and other
bodies in our solar system, except satellites, be defined
into three distinct categories in the
following way:
1 A planet1 is a celestial body that:
a is in orbit around the Sun
b has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome
rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic
equilibrium (nearly round) shape
c has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
2 A ‘dwarf planet’ is a celestial body that:
a is in orbit around the Sun
b has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome
rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic
equilibrium (nearly round) shape2
c has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit
d is not a satellite.
3 All other objects3 except satellites orbiting the
Sun shall be referred to collectively as ‘small
solar system bodies’.
1 The eight ‘planets’ are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune.
2 An IAU process will be established to assign borderline objects into dwarf
planet and other categories.
3 These currently include most of the solar system asteroids, most
trans-neptunian objects (TNOs), comets and other small bodies.

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IAU RESOLUTION: PLUTO

Resolution 6
The IAU further resolves:
Pluto is a ‘dwarf planet’ by the above definition and
is recognised as the prototype of a new category of
trans-neptunian objects1.
1
An IAU process will be established to select a name for this category.

From opinions that I have heard directly, astronomers

seem reasonably happy with or indifferent to this
decision. There is some doubt that Pluto’s demotion will
go down well with others, and attempts to re-instate it as
a planet can be expected.
Meanwhile, the Minor Planet Center stake their claim
and assign numbers to the new dwarf planets: (134340)
Pluto and (136199) 2003 UB313. The other new dwarf
planet already has a minor planet number, because it is
(1) Ceres. A little later 2003 UB313 is given the official
name Eris.
Mike Brown—whose team discovered the ‘tenth
planet’ 2003 UB313—changes his web page to call the
object the largest known dwarf planet. The whole planet
question had come to a head when it had become clear
that Eris is larger than Pluto. Both will now not be
planets. People involved with NASA’s New Horizons
mission to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt were initially not so
happy. In September their website says:
Poor New Horizons. When it launched in January
2006 it was with all the prestige of the first spacecraft to
study Pluto, the last unvisited planet in the solar system.
That changed seven months later, when astronomers
decided that Pluto was not a planet. For the time being,
New Horizons is at least the first mission to a dwarf
planet—the new class of objects into which scientists
dumped Pluto. But that doesn’t mean it will be the first
spacecraft to visit a dwarf planet. Under the new
definition (it’s still unclear), Ceres may be upgraded from
asteroid to dwarf planet, and if NASA’s Dawn mission
launches as planned next summer, it will arrive at Ceres
in February 2015, five months before New Horizons gets
to Pluto.
Horst Meyerdierks
Source: The Astronomical Society of Edinburgh Journal, No. 51
(December 2006), www.astronomyedinburgh.org/publications/journals/51/
meyerd2.shtml

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Numerical answers
These are selected numerical answers only. A complete set of Module 2 The World Communicates
answers can be found in the Teacher Resource.
Chapter 5
Module 1 Moving About Review questions
Chapter 1 1 a Th = 43 200 s, Tm = 3600 s, Ts = 60 s b fh = 2.31 × 10–5 Hz,
fm = 2.78 × 10–4 Hz, fs = 1.67 × 10–2 Hz 10 0.211 m 11 ~0.2 m
Review questions 12 1.2 m s–1 13 7.5 m s–1 14 5 m s–1 15 2 Hz 16 a 4 m b 1 Hz
7 1.4 × 10–2 m s–1 8 a both same: 1000 m b tortoise: 1000 m; c 4 m s–1 17 a ≈0.5 Hz b ≈10 cm 18 a 0.5 m b 0.3 Hz
hare: 1164 m c tortoise: 900 s; hare: 776 s (winner) d tortoise:
1.11 m s–1; hare: 1.29 m s–1 9 a 1.8 m s–1 b 0.20 m s–1 south Chapter 6
c no 10 a 4.85 m s–1 down b 0.50 s 11 a 0 m s–1 b 98 km h–1 Review questions
north c 94 km h–1 north 12 a 9.4 m s–1 b 2.93 m s–2 c 5.88 m 9 both 25° 10 a 4% b 96% 11 2 times further 12 star B, 4 times
d 9.2 m s–1 13 a 6–8 s b 105 m c –25 m d –30 m s–1 14 a 3–6 s, 13 45 pc 14 1.2 × 10–3 mW m–2
11–13 s b 9 s and 14.5 s c +20 m s–2 d +80 m 15 a 29.4 m
Chapter 7
Chapter 2
Checkpoints
Checkpoints
–1 –1 7.4 1
2.2 Using ↑
↑
+

+ and , 2 a vx = +31.8 m s , vy = –31.8 m s

b vx = +65 m s–1, vy = 0 m s–1 3 v = 102 m s–1 at 18.2° clockwise PHASE DIFFERENCE PHASE DIFFERENCE PATH LENGTH
from the positive x-axis 2.3 2 ≈ 0.034 m s–2
(DEGREES) (RADIANS) DIFFERENCE (METRES)
Review questions
0 0 0
10 88 m N15.6°E 12 15.37 m 8.6° anticlockwise from the downward
90 π λ
direction 13 243 m s–1 N13.9°E 14 102 km h–1 S65.4°W 15 4.68 m s–2
2 4
S67.5°W 16 vv = 273 m s–1 (up), vh = 326 m s–1 (positive direction)
17 typically around 2.97 m s–1 18 6 minimum (3 each team) 180 π λ
2
Chapter 3 270 3π 3λ
Checkpoints 2 4
3.2 3 490 N 360 2π λ
Review questions
Review questions
11 a 627 N b 627 N 12 3.1 m s–1 13 F = 5.17 N, a = 11.5 m s–2
2 b 345 m s–1 3 38 m 4 2.2 × 10–5 s 6 humans: ~20 mm to ~20 m;
(both 52.8° anticlockwise from horizontal) 14 3.9 N and 1.96 N
bats: ~2 mm to ~0.3 m 7 T = 10 ms, f = 100 Hz 8 b t200 m = 0.58 s,
15 a 590 N b 890 N c 470 N d 590 N 16 2.54 m s–2 downhill 17
t1200 m = 3.5 s 9 b 1.46 s c 342 m s–1 11 b –16.7°C 12 b 0.80 m
1.68 m s–2 downhill 18 a = 0.0809 m s–2 in direction opposite to
and 0.40 m 13 b 32 cm and 12 cm 14 string: 0.66 m; air: 1.40 m
motion, s = 25.5 m in direction of motion 19 13.7 m s–1 or 49.3 km h–1
15 2340 Hz 16 a 23 m
Chapter 4 Chapter 8
Checkpoints
Review questions
4.1 4 1390 J (or 1.39 kJ) 5 157 J 4.2 4 9.8 m
4 2.0 × 108 m s–1 5 7.35 × 10–7 m 6 0.12 m 7 ~1.4 × 1011 m
Review questions 8 0° 10 0° 18 19.2° 19 1.27 20 48.8° 21 59° 22 1.35
11 0.234°C 13 a 78.4 kJ b 14 m s–1 c –31.4 kJ d 0 J e 90% 23 a 400 nm
f B and D, B and D 14 5020 J 15 2.08 × 105 J, 6.93 × 104 W
16 Using + →: a Δv1 = –4.6 m s–1, Δv2 = +6.5 m s–1
Module 2 review
b Δv1 = –3.1 m s–1, Δv2 = +4.4 m s–1 17 a vf = 5.00 m s–1 west Multiple choice
b Δp = 2.00 kg m s–1 west, Δp = –2pi c vf = 4.47 m s–1 west, 1A2C3D4C5D
Δp = 1.89 kg m s–1 west, Δp = –1.89 pi d Perfectly elastic: Short response
Fav = 40.0 N west; inelastic: Fav = 37.8 N west 18 0.67 m s–1 right 6 7.01 × 10–7 m 7 1500 m s–1 8 Weaker one is 1.73 times further
19 a 8.0 km h–1 right b 54.3 km h–1 left c 30.7 km h–1 left away.
20 18 × 106 N 21 4.0 cm

Module 1 review
Multiple choice
1C2B3B4B5C
Short response
6 a 6–9 s and 18–20 s b 5.5 m s–1, 16–17s c 29.0 m d 8.0 m
7 7.6 kg 8 u1 > 66 km h–1

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Module 3 Electrical Energy in the Home Chapter 15

Review questions
Chapter 9
13 a ≈ 25 000 W m–2 b ≈ 0.1 W m–2 15 a 15 1 12 4
7 N + 1H → 6 C + 2 He
There are no numerical answers for this chapter.
6 C c 1H + 1H → 2He d 2 × 2 He → 2 He + 2 × 1H
3 4 1
b 3 × 42 He → 12 1 2 3
Chapter 10
16 a 3.57 × 10–13 J b 5.84 × 10–12 J
Checkpoints
10.5 2 – 0.5 µC 10.7 1 3.2 × 10–4 A = 32 m A 10.8 1 105 V Chapter 16
2 a 6.4 × 10–18 J b – 6.4 × 10–18 J c 3.2 × 10–19 J d 9.6 × 10–18 J Review questions
e 0 J 10.9 2 4.8 V
14 50.5 W m–2 15 1215 m s–1
Review questions
Module 4 review
15 +6.4 × 10–6 C 16 3 × 1013 electrons 17 a +0.5 µC b +3.0 µC
c –1.5 µC d –1.25 µC 18 a +0.9 µC c 5.6 × 1012 electrons Multiple choice
19 100 N C–1 20 b 90 N downwards 21 3.2 × 10–15 J 22 36 × 109 J 1B2A3B4A5D
23 7.5 × 1015 electrons 24 0.24 A 25 4.7 × 1018 electrons
26 114 Ω Module 5 Skills
Chapter 11 Chapter 17
Checkpoints Checkpoints
11.2 1 a 1.5 A b 4.5 V across 3 Ω, 7.5 V across 5 Ω 2 7.0 Ω 17.2 1 a 3 × 103 b 5 × 10–3 c 5.1502 × 101 d 1.500 × 102
11.3 2 a 24 V across all resistors b 12 A for 2.0 Ω, 8.0 A for 3.0 Ω, 2 a 300 000 000 b 0.000 000 000 000 000 015 c 0.0100
6.0 A for 4.0 Ω c 0.92 Ω 11.6 2 48 W 3 1.1 × 106 J 11.7 2 61.9c d 716 500 3 a 7.15 × 102, order of 2 b 2.100 × 103, order of 3
Review questions c 1.56 × 10–2, order of –2 d 5.17 × 104, order of 4 4 a kg m s–2
3I o b VA 5 a 27.8 m s–1 b 2700 Hz 17.3 1 a 3 b 2 c 4 d 5
14 a 17.1 Ω b 2.0 A 16 17 83c 18 3 h 19 b 2.4 A (for 5 Ω), 2 a 300.5 mm b 100.5 cm c 0.0005 s d 0.005 g 3 9.6 ± 0.3%
2 v−u
1.2 A (for 10 Ω) c 28.8 W (for 5 Ω), 14.4 W (for 10 Ω) 17.5 1 e 2 g f 0.2 kg 2 a =a b v 2 − 2as = u2, u = v 2 − 2as
t
20 a 6.25 A (heater), 3.13 A (toaster), 4.17 A (grill) W W
c = cos θ, cos–1 =θ
Fs Fs
Chapter 12
There are no numerical answers for this chapter. Chapter 18
There are no numerical answers for this chapter.
Module 3 review
Multiple choice (5 marks)
1D2C3D4B5C
Short response
10 R
7a b 10 V c 10 Ω 8 a 06 246 kWh b 1232 kWh c $123.20
10 + R

Module 4 The Cosmic Engine

Chapter 13
Review questions
11 b 72 km s–1 Mpc–1 ± 10% 13 TEuropa = 3.55 days
14 a 5900 N b a = 9.8 m s–2 c 9.88 × 10–23 m s–2
15 1.8 × 1016 J 16 2.609 × 10–11 J 17 a 61.22 km s–1 Mpc–1
b 15% c 16 billion years

Chapter 14
Review questions
3 a ~7500 nm b 3000 K c ~300 nm 11 1.50 × 10–10 J
12 1.64 × 10–13 J 13 c slope = 2.898 × 10–12 m K
(or = 2.898 × 10–3 nm in normal SI units) d 0.008% e nm K

349
Numerical
Nume
Numeri
merica
ricall an
ca answ
answers
swer
swers
er s

Glossary
absolute error the uncertainty of a measurement
expressed in the same units as the measured value
absolute magnitude how bright an object, such as a star,
would appear in the sky if all were moved to a standard
distance of 32.6 light-years (or 10 parsecs)
absorb to transform energy into another form (usually
heat) so that it is not transmitted
acceleration the rate of change of velocity
accuracy how close a value is to an accepted value
action old-fashioned term used in Newton’s third law of
motion, now translated as ‘force’
action potential the change in the electric potential
difference between the inside and outside of nerve cells as a
response to a stimulation of some kind
active region a region on the surface of the Sun where the
magnetic field is locally strong and emerging through the
surface, leading to activity such as sunspots and flares
active wire a wire that has an oscillating potential
difference with respect to the ground
air resistance a resistive force that opposes the motion of
objects through air
alternating current electricity that causes the electrons to
change direction periodically
ammeter a device used to measure current through a
circuit component
amplify to increase the intensity of audio waves
amplitude the maximum distance a particle oscillates from
its equilibrium position (m)
amplitude modulation (AM) when the amplitude of the
carrier wave is varied so that the shape of the varying
amplitude is a copy of an audio or video wave
analogue the representation of information by a
measurable physical quantity with continuous values
animal electricity an old-fashioned term used to describe
how electricity is produced in the nerves, causing the
contraction of muscle
anti-node a region of maximum particle oscillation in a
standing wave
350
apparent magnitude how bright an object, such as a star,
appears in the sky
atmosphere a roughly 100 km thick layer of gas
molecules and ions surrounding the Earth
audio wave an EM wave that is a copy, or analogue, of
the shape of the original sound wave
aurora a spectacular light show caused by charged particles
striking the Earth’s atmosphere, losing energy to the air
molecules and causing the air to glow
average speed the total distance for a journey divided by
the total time taken
bandwidth a range of frequencies that need to be accessed
by transmitters and receivers in order for the information
to be transferred
battery a series of two or more electric cells arranged to
produce or store electricity
Big Bang the original hot, dense state of the universe
bimetallic arc a curved metal rod made of two different
metals connected end-to-end
binary code a base-2 number system; it has only two
numbers, 0 and 1
black hole a stellar remnant, with gravity so strong that
even light cannot escape, formed during a supernova
explosion when the remaining core had too much mass to
form a neutron star; also supermassive versions in the
centre of some galaxies
boundary the interface between two media
braking distance the distance a vehicle travels from the
moment the brake is first pushed to when the vehicle
comes to a halt
braking force a force that opposes the vehicle’s motion
when operating the brakes. While braking, the wheels exert
static friction on the road. The (backward-acting) reaction
to this force is the braking force
brightness the energy per unit area received in a certain
time from an object
carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle the dominant nuclear
reaction in main sequence stars more massive than the Sun,
producing helium from hydrogen using carbon nuclei as a
catalyst

carrier wave a single high-frequency electromagnetic wave
cell an arrangement of a single pair of electrodes (usually
metal) in a reactive solution (electrolyte) that can produce
or store energy
centre of mass the representative point in a complex
system to which Newton’s law apply; if an object or system
is divided into many small pieces of equal mass, the centre
of mass is the average position of these
centripetal centre-seeking
centripetal acceleration the acceleration experienced by
an object moving in a circle at uniform speed
centripetal force a force that acts on an object to keep it
moving in a circle
Cepheid variable a supergiant star in a time of its life
when it varies its brightness in a certain predictable way
charge carrier an electron or ion
chromosphere the thin layer of the Sun’s atmosphere
above the photosphere where the gas temperature starts to
rise into the corona
circuit-breaker a switch that turns itself off when current
exceeds the safe limit
compression a high-pressure region in a longitudinal
(compression) wave
compression wave see longitudinal wave
conductor any material that allows the movement of charge
conservation of charge charge can neither be created nor
destroyed; it is conserved—that is, the charge can only be
moved from one object to another
constructive interference the superposition of two waves
in phase
contact force a force that acts between objects in contact
with one another, such as tension, friction and normal force
convection the process in which hot gases rise, release
their energy, and then cool and sink again
convection zone the region of the Sun that reaches from
the radiative zone to the surface, where energy is primarily
transported by the ‘boiling’ motion of the gas
conventional current the flow of fictitious positive charge
in current
core (solar) the inner region of the Sun where nuclear
fusion is producing energy
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
ossary
sary
corona the Sun’s thin, high-temperature outer atmosphere
coronal hole an area on the Sun that has open magnetic
field lines that extend into space rather than loop back to
the surface
coronal mass ejection a massive ejection of material and
embedded magnetic field that occurs from the corona
cosmic background radiation photons from the
recombination era that are red shifted by universal
expansion
cosmological constant a value in general relativity’s
description of the universe that has a repulsive effect to
counter the attractive effect of gravity
cosmological principle the principle that states that the
universe is much the same at every location—there is no
edge and no centre
cosmology the study of the universe as a whole
crest a point of maximum positive particle displacement
from the equilibrium on a wave; also called a peak
critical angle the angle of incidence in the denser medium
for which the angle of refraction in the less dense medium
is 90°
dark ages a time in the formation of the universe after
recombination but before the formation of the stars
dark energy an unknown form of energy that causes a
repulsive force that opposes the attractive effect of gravity
over cosmological distance
dark matter matter in the universe of unknown
composition, emitting little or no light, whose presence is
known from its gravitational effect
DC circuit an electric circuit in which the flow of
current, from the power supply, occurs in one direction
deformation energy energy expanded to deform an object,
resulting in a combination of thermal energy and trapped
elastic potential energy
dependent variable the variable that changes in an
experiment as a result of manipulating the independent
variable
destructive interference the superposition of two waves
180° out of phase
digital the representation of information in discrete
rather than continuous values; binary code (ones and zeros)
is used
351
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
ossary
sary

digital technology a technology that handles information
like sound, text and pictures that has been converted into
binary code
direct contact a method of charging an object simply by
touching a charged metal with an uncharged metal
direct current electrical current flowing in one direction
displacement an overall change in position; the straight-
line distance and direction between two points (m)
distance the total length of a path taken during a
journey (m)
diverge spread
Doppler effect a change in wavelength of the light
received from an object moving relative to the observer
double insulation two layers of insulation; for a
household appliance, the wires into the casing are covered
with PVC and the plastic casing of the appliance
drag a resistive force that opposes the motion of objects
through gas or liquid
drift the net movement of electrons; it is responsible for
the electric current in a metal
drift speed the average speed with which drift takes place
driving force the force resulting from the operation of a
motor that pushes a vehicle forwards
dynamic equilibrium velocity is non-zero and constant;
net force is zero
echo the repetition of a sound caused by the reflection of
the original sound wave
echolocation a technique that uses echoes to determine
the distance to an object
edge effect moving out towards the edge of two metal
plates, electric field lines curve and become unevenly
spaced, indicating a non-uniform field
effective weightlessness the apparent weightlessness that
results when a body is in free-fall or orbit
elastic collision a collision in which objects return rapidly
to their original shape after being distorted, with negligible
generation of thermal energy
elastic potential energy potential energy stored in an
elastic object when it is stretched or compressed
electric current the rate of flow of net charge through a
region
electric field any region of space where there is a force on
a stationary charged object
electric field strength the magnitude of an electric field
electric potential potential energy per unit charge
electric potential difference the work done per unit
charge
electric shock the effect that an electric current has on the
body when passing through it
electrical charge the excess or deficiency of electrons on
an object
electrocution death by electric shock
electromagnet a solenoid wrapped around a magnetic
material, thereby increasing the material’s magnetic field
strength
electromagnetic spectrum a continuum of
electromagnetic waves with a range of frequencies,
including gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light,
infra-red, microwaves and radio waves
electromagnetic wave a wave generated by oscillating
electric and magnetic fields that does not require a medium
for propagation
electromagnetism the study of the connection between
electricity and magnetism
electron the smallest stable particle in matter that carries a
negative electric charge
electrophorus a metal plate with an insulating handle
electrostatic generator a machine that produces electric
sparks
electrostatics the study of electrostatic electricity
ellipse a geometric figure, of which the circle is a special
case, describing the orbit of a planet around a sun
elliptical galaxy a spherical or ellipsoidal-shaped galaxy,
typically dominated by older, yellower stars with relatively
little gas and dust
energy the ability to cause motion
energy density energy per unit volume
energy transformation the change of energy from one
form into another
enhanced greenhouse effect an increase in average air
temperature as a consequence of the emission of carbon
dioxide in combustion

352

equilibrium a situation in which the sum of all forces
is zero
equilibrium position the original undisturbed position
of a particle in a medium before any oscillation caused by
a wave
equivalent parallel resistance a single resistor with a
value that is equivalent to a combination of parallel
resistors
equivalent series resistance a single resistor with a value
that is equivalent to a combination of resistors in series
external force an apparent force that appears to act when
observing from an accelerating frame of reference
field a region of influence produced by charged and
magnetised particles or gravity
filament a prominence seen against the bright solar disc,
appearing as a dark strand
fixed boundary a boundary at which the particles are
unable to oscillate
focal length the distance between the focal point and the
mirror or lens surface
focal point the point at which light rays from a mirror or
lens intersect
focus concentrate
force any push or pull; forces can change the velocity of
an object or cause distortion in the size or shape of an
object
fossil fuels fuels derived from carbon-containing
substances obtained from the ground
frame of reference the point of view from which velocity
is judged
free boundary a boundary at which the particles in the
adjacent media are free to move
free-body diagram a diagram in which an object is
represented by a dot and the forces on it are represented by
arrows, with their tail starting at the dot
frequency the number of wavelengths that pass a fixed
point per second (Hz)
frequency modulation (FM) when the frequency of the
carrier wave is varied so that the pattern of the varying
frequency is a copy of the audio wave
friction a force that acts between objects in contact that
resists sliding
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
ossary
sary
fuel cell a device used to create electricity by oxidising a
fuel, such as by combining hydrogen and oxygen; it can
also be used in reverse to store electricity by creating, for
example, hydrogen and oxygen from water
fuse a thin wire with lower melting temperature than
household wiring, thereby preventing current from
exceeding a certain value
g the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m s–2)
at the Earth’s surface
general theory of relativity a complex mathematical
theory that allows gravity to be represented as a warping of
the multi-dimensional structure of space–time
geocentric model a model of the universe in which the
motionless Earth was surrounded by a huge sphere of fixed
stars that orbited the Earth once every day
geomagnetic storm a major disturbance of the Earth’s
magnetic environment caused by plasma from a major solar
outburst colliding with the Earth’s magnetosphere
geosynchronous satellite a satellite that orbits the Earth
at an altitude of 35 580 km directly above the equator
giant a star with a significantly larger size and brightness
than a main sequence star of the same surface temperature
global warming an increase in the average air temperature
granulation lumpy appearance of the Sun’s surface that
are actually the convective cells reaching the surface from
deeper in the underlying gas
gravitational potential energy the energy stored when an
object is lifted against gravity
heliocentric model a model of the universe where the
Earth and all the planets orbit the Sun
helioseismology the study of waves moving through the
gaseous body of the Sun, used to understand its internal
structure
Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram a graph of a
measure if a star’s luminosity against its colour or surface
temperature
Hubble constant the straight-line relationship between
velocity and distance
image the two-dimensional reproduction of an object
formed by a mirror or lens
impulse a change in momentum
incident the incoming wave front or ray
353
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
ossary
sary

independent variable the variable that is manipulated in
an experiment
induction a method of charging an object by having a
charge induced on it—that is, without direct contact
industrial revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, the
change from the simple machinery used in the cottage
industries to the power-driven machinery used in the mass
production in factories
inelastic collision a collision in which kinetic energy is
not conserved
inertia resistance to change of velocity; an object’s mass is
a measure of its inertia
instantaneous speed speed measured at a particular
instant of time
insulator any material that does not allow the movement
of charge
intensity the rate of energy transfer by a source of waves
through a given area; intensity is proportional to amplitude
squared (W m–2)
interference the change in waves that occurs as a result of
superposition
internal force a force between parts inside a system
inverse square law an effect that decreases with the square
of increasing distance, such as gravity
ionise to strip one or more electrons from an atom
ionosphere a region of the Earth’s atmosphere that
extends from 50 to 500 km above the surface
irregular galaxy a galaxy without a clear structure, often
with many bluer stars and rich in gas and dust
Kepler’s laws three laws of planetary motion, specifically
the law of elliptical orbits, the law of areas and the law of
periods
kinematics describing motion using equations and graphs
kinetic energy energy of motion (K = 1 mv 2 )
2 form a white dwarf but not enough to collapse to a black
kinetic friction friction when objects are sliding
law of conservation of energy energy can be neither
created nor destroyed; it is conserved
law of reflection the angle of incidence equals the angle
of reflection (θi = θr)
limit of reading the smallest division on the scale of a
measurement apparatus
line of best fit a line that runs through (or near) as many
points as possible on a graph
longitudinal wave a wave in which the direction of wave
propagation is parallel to the direction of the displacement
of the oscillating particles; also called a compression wave
luminosity a star’s total energy output
magnetic field a region of space that can influence the
direction of a compass needle
magnetosphere a magnetically protected region that
envelopes an object with a magnetic field, such as the Earth
magnitude the size of a quantity
main sequence a band across the Hertzsprung–Russell
diagram in which the majority of stars lie
mass the amount of matter inside an object (kg)
measurement a value obtained from experimentation and
expressed with units and uncertainty
mechanical energy kinetic energy and all forms of
potential energy taken together
mechanical wave a wave that requires a material
substance as the medium
medium an object or material through which a wave
propagates
modulation a kind of superposition in which audio
and video waves are combined with carrier waves to form
a single wave in such a way that the information contained
is preserved
momentum mass multiplied by velocity
net resultant
neutral wire a wire that is physically connected to the
ground at the fuse box
neutron a neutral subatomic particle
neutron star a stellar remnant formed during a supernova
explosion when the remaining core has too much mass to
hole
Newton’s first law of motion if no external force is
applied to an object, its velocity will remain constant
Newton’s second law of motion F = ma, where F is the
net external force on an object or system, m is the object’s
mass and a is the resulting acceleration

354
 Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
ossary
sary

Newton’s third law of motion for every action (force), permanent magnet a magnet that stays magnetic
there is an equal and opposite reaction (counterforce) indefinitely
node a region of zero particle oscillation in a standing wave phase the point in the cycle that an oscillating particle is
up to at a given time
non-ohmic resistance a resistance with no constant ratio
photon the elementary ‘particle’ carrying the energy
normal a line drawn perpendicular to a boundary
associated with light at all wavelengths
normal force force exerted on an object in contact with a
photosphere the ‘visible’ surface of the Sun
surface; its acts in the direction normal to the surface
pitch related to frequency: low-pitch sounds have a low
north pole a shortened form for north-seeking pole
frequency and high-pitch sounds have a high frequency
north-seeking pole the end of a magnet that points in
Planck curve (or black body curve) a curve that describes
the direction of geographic North Pole
distribution versus wavelength of light from hot objects,
nuclear fission the splitting of an atomic nucleus and is approximated in the light from stars
nuclear fusion the joining together of two atomic nuclei planetary nebula a short-lived nebula (cloud of gas)
nucleosynthesis the process of making (synthesising) formed from the ejected outer envelope of a red giant star
heavier nuclei from lighter ones via nuclear reactions plasma highly ionised gas
Ohm’s law electrical resistance is equal to the ratio of plastic objects that remain distorted after a collision and
voltage to current virtually all work done distorting them is converted into
ohmic resistance a resistance with a constant ratio of thermal energy
voltage to current pole the end of a magnet
optical fibre a fine cylindrical fibre or tube made of glass or potential energy stored energy
plastic that is used to transfer large amounts of information
power work done per unit time; more generally, the rate
in the form of light pulses using total internal reflection
of energy transformation or transfer
order of magnitude the exponent of the nearest power of
precision the closeness of repeated measurements to each
10 to a value
other
oscillation a vibration about a fixed position (the
prominence cooler, dense gas suspended by magnetic
equilibrium position)
fields above the surface of the Sun in the hot, thin gas of
parallel circuit a circuit with several paths along which the corona
the current can flow
propagate to travel through space
path length difference the difference in distance travelled
protogalaxy a massive galaxy-sized cloud of gas forming
between two waves
its stars
percentage error the uncertainty of a measurement
proton a positively charged subatomic particle
expressed as a percentage of the measured value
proton–proton chain the dominant nuclear reaction in
perfectly elastic collision a collision in which kinetic
the core of the Sun, changing hydrogen nuclei (protons)
energy is conserved
into helium nuclei
perfectly inelastic collision a collision that results in
protostar a stage in the formation of a star, during the
objects sticking together
collapse of the cloud gas, prior to the ignition of significant
period for circular motion, the time taken by a rotating nuclear reactions in the core
object to complete one cycle; for sine waves, the time taken
radiation any form of energy that propagates outwards
to complete one wavelength (s)
from its source
period–luminosity law the longer the time (period) a
Cepheid variable takes to vary in brightness, the brighter
(more luminous) it is

355
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
ossary
sary

radiative zone the region of the Sun between the core and resultant the sum of several vectors
the convection zone, where energy is primarily transported
reverberation the smearing of sounds caused when a large
as radiation
number of echoes reach the human ear in a short period of
rarefaction a low-pressure region in a longitudinal time
(compression) wave
RMS root mean squared
rate how much a quantity changes per unit of time
rolling resistance a resistive force exerted by a wheel as it
ray an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to a wave front rolls
in the direction of propagation
scalar a quantity with magnitude only
reaction a resulting, opposing force; see Newton’s third
scientific notation a standard of writing numbers in a
law of motion
compact manner
recombination era the period during the Big Bang when
secondary source an account or set of facts based on a
electrons first bind to nuclei to form neutral atoms,
primary source of information
primarily hydrogen and helium
semiconductor any material with electrical conduction
red giant a luminous phase late in the life of a low- or
properties between those of conductors and insulators
medium-mass star when the outer envelope expands and cools
series circuit a circuit containing only one path along
reflect to bounce off a boundary and travel back into the
which the current can flow
original media
short circuit a direct connection between two terminals
refraction a bending of light when passing between two
of a DC power supply, bypassing any other electrical
different media
components
refractive index the ratio of the speed of an EM wave in a
SI units a set of units based on metres, kilograms and
vacuum to that in matter
seconds (in French, Système International d’Unités)
relative velocity the velocity as judged from a frame of
sign convention the choice of which direction to call
reference of another moving observer
positive when solving problems
reliable information that is consistent with information
significant figures the number of digits in a measured or
from a reputable source
calculated value that are reliable
renewable energy energy that is freely available from
sinusoidal a wave that is shaped like a sine function when
natural phenomena and that is almost inexhaustible with
graphed
little or no polluting by-products while power is being
extracted solar constant the power received from the Sun (in watts
per square metre) at the top of the Earth’s atmosphere
residual current device a safety switch installed in a fuse
box that disconnects power to the active wire if a leakage of solar flare a massive localised explosion of energy above
current to earth occurs the surface of the Sun
resistance the ratio of voltage to current for a conductor solar wind particles (mainly high-energy electrons and
protons) in the outer regions of the Sun’s corona that
resistive force a force that resists motion, such as friction
continually boil off into interplanetary space at an average
and air resistance
speed of 400 km s–1
resistivity the constant of proportionality ρ that relates the
solenoid a long coil of wire
resistance of a conductor to its length and cross-sectional area
source the origin of the wave or energy, such as a light
resistor a component with known resistance
bulb, speaker or star
resolve to divide a vector into its components
south pole a shortened form for south-seeking pole
resonance the natural tendency of an object to vibrate at
south-seeking pole the end of a magnet that points
a specific frequency
approximately in the direction of geographic South Pole

356

special theory of relativity a theory that describes the
consequences of the fact that any observer, no matter how
fast they are travelling, always sees light travelling at the
speed of light
spectral lines bright or dark lines at very specific
wavelengths in the light from a source, such as an
astronomical object
spectrograph an instrument that allows astronomers
to study the distribution of light versus wavelength (the
spectrum), and reveals spectral lines due to individual
elements within an object, such as the the outer layers
of the star
spectroscopy a technique that allows astronomers to study
the composition, physical properties and motion of
astronomical objects, such as stars and galaxies
spectrum the distribution of light versus wavelength
speed distance travelled per unit of time
spiral galaxy a disc-shaped galaxy, with a central bulge
dominated by older, yellower stars in contrast to the bluer
stars in the gas and dust-rich disc
spring balance a weighing scale that has a hook connected
to a spring that stretches when pulled; when calibrated in
newtons, it can used in the laboratory to measure tensile
(stretching) force
standing wave the superposition of sound waves to
produce a steady state distribution of energy; also known as
stationary waves
static stationary for an extended time
static electricity electricity that is acquired by friction
static equilibrium velocity is zero and constant; net force
is zero
static friction friction that prevents sliding
sunspot a dark area on the Sun’s surface where a strong
magnetic field impedes the flow of energy
supergiant the most massive and luminous star lying
across the top of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
superimpose see superposition
supernova an explosion that largely destroys a massive star
or white dwarf, caused by the collapse of the core
superposition two or more waves combining at the same
point in space at the same time
tangential in the direction of a tangent to a circle
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
ossary
sary
tension a force that a taut string or rope exerts on an
object it is attached to
terminal speed speed at which air resistance exactly
cancels weight; acceleration is zero
test charge a small positive charge used to determine the
direction of an electric field
thermal energy energy in hot objects
timbre the sensation experienced when hearing the
different frequencies of the component waves in a sound;
the different quality of sounds from different instruments
or voices
total internal reflection for incident rays greater than
the critical angle, all the wave’s energy is reflected at the
boundary back into the incident medium
transverse wave a wave in which the direction of wave
propagation is at right angles to the direction of the
displacement of the oscillating particle
triple alpha process the nuclear reaction that converts
three helium nuclei into a carbon nucleus at temperatures
much higher than currently found in the core of the Sun
trough a point of maximum negative particle displacement
from the equilibrium on a wave
Tychonic model a model of the universe that placed the
Earth in the centre of the universe, but allowed all the
planets to revolve around the Sun
uniform constant
uniform circular motion circular motion at a constant
speed
unit a grouping that has a given size
universal law of gravitation every mass attracts every
other mass with a gravitational force proportional to the
masses and inversely proportional to their separation
valid a conclusion that is correctly inferred or deduced
Van Allen belts regions of the Earth’s magnetosphere
where highly energised particles are trapped, leading to
high-particle densities
vector a quantity that has magnitude and direction;
vectors can be represented by arrows
vector components two separate, perpendicular vectors
that add up to the original vector
velocity displacement per unit time
357
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
ossary
sary

ventricular fibrillation the condition in which the heart

muscles go into random spasms
video wave an electromagnetic wave that is a copy, or
analogue, of the pattern of the original picture
voltage drop potential difference
voltaic pile the first battery to be made, consisting of a
stack of cells made from a combination of salt water
between silver and zinc discs
voltmeter a device used to measure potential difference
(voltage) across a circuit component
volume the loudness of a sound, related to amplitude:
low-volume sounds have small amplitudes
wave front an imaginary line or surface that joins points of
equal phase
wavelength the distance along the x-direction between a
crest (or trough) and its nearest neighbour (m)
weight the force that gravity exerts on a body
white dwarf the cooling remnant of a low- to medium-
mass star, typically around the mass of the Sun packed into
an object the size of the Earth
Wien’s law a law that describes the inverse relationship
between temperature and the wavelength of peak emission
from an ideal hot object (a black body), as seen in Planck
curves corresponding to difference temperatures
work using a force to displace an object, resulting in either
a transfer of energy from one object to another or a
transformation of energy from one form to another.
work–energy theorem the change in kinetic energy of a
rigid object (or system) equals the sum of work done by all
the individual external forces acting on the object (or
system)

358
 Inde
In
Index
dex
de x

Index
absolute magnitude (stars) 279 apparent magnitude (stars) 279 car, forces in driving a 48–9
absorption (wave energy) 106 application questions 338–9 car safety 71
AC (alternating current) 193 arc seconds 249 and impulse 68
AC circuits 213 Aristarchus of Samos’s heliocentric carbon dioxide 172
acceleration 8–9, 10 model of the universe 246 carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle 285,
centripetal 28, 29 Aristotle’s geocentric model of the 287, 289
universe 246 carrier waves 151
measuring 50
atmosphere 139, 298 cells 176
acceleration due to gravity 11
atmospheric carbon dioxide 173 centre of mass, and Newton’s laws of
accuracy of measurements 318
atomic nuclei, representing 284 motion 44
action potential 177
atomic number 285 centripetal acceleration 28, 29
action and reaction 42–3
atoms 183 centripetal force 46
active wire 222, 223
audio waves 150, 151 Cepheid variables 258
adding
auroras 308, 309, 310 changing units 320–1
vector components 27
average acceleration 8 charge carriers 192
vectors 23–5
average speed 5, 16 charging methods (conductors) 187
air resistance 11, 41, 45
average velocity 7 direct contact 187
airbags 68
induction 188
alpha radiation 290
bandwidth 152, 156 chromosphere 300
alternating current see AC
bats, echolocation 124 circuit-breakers 214, 222
AM (amplitude modulation) 151, 152
batteries 176, 177 circuits 206
AM radio 152, 156
beta radiation 290 AC 213
bandwidth 152
Big Bang universe 257, 260, 264, DC 195
ammeters 212 267–71
household 213–14
ampere 192 basis of predictions 270
parallel 209–11, 225
amplitude 88, 97, 121 early history 269–70
series 207–9, 225
amplitude modulation see AM model refinement 273
circular motion 28–9
amplitude-shift keying (ASK) 157 bimetallic arc 176
circular wave 82
analogue signals 150 binary code 156
climate change 173
analysis questions 339–41 biomass energy 174
closed loop (vectors) 24, 25
Andromeda nebula 258 black holes 289
coal 171
angle of incidence 107, 141 blue shift 259
collisions
relationship to angle of refraction BOS key terms 334–5
158 elastic 66
grouping the verbs 336–41
angle of reflection 107, 141 energy transformations 65–7
bouncing balls 71
angle of refraction 158 inelastic 66
braking distance 11
animal electricity 175–6 with very massive objects 66
braking force 48
anti-nodes 127, 128 communications, and sunspots 311
brightness of stars 278–80, 297

359
Inde
In
Index
dex
dex

communications technologies coulomb 184, 192 Earth, as centre of universe 246–7

limitations of electromagnetic critical angle 147–8 earthing 187, 222–3
spectrum 156 current Earth’s ionosphere, and radio wave
physical principles 159 and voltage 201 reflection 153–4
using EM waves 148–57 see also electric currents Earth’s magnetic field 233
compass needle 230 Earth’s magnetosphere 307–9
comprehension questions 227–8 dark ages (universe) 270 echo 123
compressions 87, 117 dark energy 273 echolocation 124–5
concave mirrors dark matter 271 Eddington, Arthur 285
applications 143 DC (direct current) 193 edge effect 190
converging rays 141 DC circuits 195 effective weightlessness 37, 38
reflection 141, 142 DC power supply 195 Einstein, Albert 84
conductors 185 de Sitter, Wilhelm 257 energy and mass equivalence 256,
charging methods 187–8 deceleration 11 268
current in 193 deformation energy 66 general theory of relativity 256
conservation of charge 184 dependent variable 325 model of static universe 257
conservation of energy 55 designing the experiment 332–3 special theory of relativity 256,
destructive interference 102, 103, 126 268
conservation of momentum 63–5, 71
destructive waves 81 elastic collisions 66
and Newton’s third law of motion
69 digital signals 150, 157 elastic potential energy 66
constellations 243 modulation 157 electric circuits see circuits
constructive interference 102, 126 digital technology 156–7 electric currents 191–2
contact forces 44 direct contact, charging by 187 alternating current (AC) 193
convection currents 300 direct current see DC in a conductor 193
convection zone (Sun) 300 direction (displacement) 6 definition 191
conventional current 195 displacement 6–7, 87 direct current (DC) 193
convex mirrors displacement–time graphs 13–14 magnetic fields produced by 234–5
applications 144 distance 5 net charge equal to zero 192
divergent rays 141 domestic energy, sources over time types of charges 192
reflection 141 170–2 electric field lines 189
Copernicus’s heliocentric model of the Doppler effect 258 drawing 190–1
universe 247–8, 252 double insulation 223 electric field strength 189
core (Sun) 299 drag 45 electric fields 136, 137, 188–9, 200
cornering (car) 48 drawing vectors 22 electric potential 194
corona 301, 304 drift 193 electric potential difference 194
coronal holes 305 drift speed 193 electric potential energy 194
coronal mass ejections 306 driving a car, forces involved 48–9 electric power 215–17
cosmic background radiation 270 driving force 48 used in a heating coil 226
irregularities in 271 driving on ice 49 electric shock 220, 223
cosmological constant 257 dynamic equilibrium 40 voltage effects 221
cosmology 244 electrical appliances, energy efficiency
219

360
 Inde
In
Index
dex
de x

electrical charges, origins of 183 elliptical galaxies 272 fictitious force 40

electrical conductors 185 elliptical orbits in a heliocentric filaments 204
charging methods 187–8 model (Kepler) 250 fire 170–1
electrical energy consumption 217–19 energy 54, 55–6 FM (frequency modulation) 151, 152
electrical insulators 185 conservation of 55 FM radio 152, 156
electrical interference 152 elastic potential 66 bandwidth 152
electrical resistance see resistance gravitational potential 55, 56 focal length 141
electrical safety devices 214, 221–4 kinetic 55–6, 57, 71, 96–7 focal point 141
electrically charged objects 182 potential 55, 193, 293 forces 25, 34–6, 44–7
electricity 168 sources over time 170–2 centripetal 46
early studies 175–8 thermal 55 contact 44
life without 170 and waves 96–9, 121 in driving a car 48–9
and magnetism 169 energy density 268 external 40
in remote locations 174–5 energy efficiency (devices) 219 friction 44–5
electricity generation 171 energy and mass equivalence 256, 268 fundamental 35
electricity meters 218 energy source for the stars 285–7 internal 44
electrochemical reaction 177 carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle and Newton’s laws of motion
285, 287, 289 39–44
electrocution 220
proton–proton chain 285, 286, normal 44, 45
electrolytes 176, 177, 192
289
electromagnetic spectrum 138–9 resistive 45
energy transformations 96
limitations in communications tension 44
in collisions 65–7
156 formulae
in devices 85–6
electromagnetic waves 79, 84, 85, 136 linearising 327
in mobile phones 85–6
applications and detection rearranging 327
methods 140 and motion 57–8
fossil fuels 171–2
communications technologies enhanced greenhouse effect 172, 298
Fourier analysis and synthesis 103, 104
using 148–57 equations of motion 9–12
frames of reference 8
modelled using inverse square law equilibrium 35
inertial 39
98 equilibrium position (sine waves) 88
free-body diagram 35
properties 136–40 equivalent parallel resistance 210–11
free-fall 41–2
reflection 141–4 equivalent series resistance 208–9
frequency 88
refraction 145–8 evaluation questions 342–3
frequency modulation see FM
speed of 137 expanding universe 264–6
frequency-shift keying (FSK) 157
transmitting over long distances Big Bang model 257, 260, 264,
153–5 friction 44–5
267–71, 273
electromagnetism 35, 234 Friedmann, Alexander 257
in practice 258–9
electromagnets 236, 237 frog muscle experiments (Galvani)
simple model 264–5
175–6
electrons 183, 269 theories 257–8
fuel cells 175
electrophorus 186 experimental design 332–3
fundamental forces 35
electrostatic charges, behaviour 184–5 external force 40
fuses 214, 222
electrostatic generators 175
electrostatics 182

361
Inde
In
Index
dex
dex

galaxies 258, 259, 266
formation 272
types of 272
Galileo
advocacy for Copernican system
252
astronomical observations 251
Galvani, Luigi 175–6, 178
Galvani–Volta debate from a modern
perspective 177
gamma radiation 290
gamma rays 140
general theory of relativity 84, 256
geomagnetic storms 309
effects of 309
geosynchronous satellites 155–6
geothermal energy 174
giants (stars) 283
global warming 172–3
glossary 352–7
granulation (Sun’s surface) 300
graphs 325
of impulse 70
and motion 13–15
recording data from 36
gravitational potential energy 55, 56,
193
gravitational waves 84
gravity 35, 253–4, 255
and general relativity 256
greenhouse effect 172–3, 298
greenhouse gases 172
Halley, Edmund 253
harmonics 104, 118, 128, 129
head-to-tail (vectors) 23
helioseismology 301
Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram
282–4, 291
evolution of the Sun 289
HF radio 154
highly elastic collisions 3
historical timeline 261
household circuits 213–14
household electrical energy
consumption 217–19
Hubble, Edwin 258, 259, 260
Hubble constant 260
Hubble Space Telescope 139, 266
human voice 118
hydro-electric power 174
hypothesis 332
image 142
impulse 67–8
and follow-through in ball sports
69
graphing 70
to calculate force on an object with
changing mass 69–70
and vehicular safety 68
independent variable 325
induction, charging by 188
industrial revolution 171
inelastic collisions 66
inertia 39–40
inertial frames of reference 39
infra-red waves 79, 140
instantaneous acceleration 8
instantaneous speed 5
instantaneous velocity 7
insulators 185
inverse square law 98, 253
modelling 110
investigation planning 331
carry out research 332
decide on the topic 332
design the experiment 332–3
write the hypothesis 332
ionosphere, and radio wave reflection
153–4
irregular galaxies 272
joule 59
Joule, James Prescott 58
Kepler, Johannes, elliptical orbits in a
heliocentric model 250
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion 250,
253
key words (BOS) 335
kinematics 4, 9–12
kinetic energy 55–6, 57, 71
and sound waves 96–7
kinetic friction 44, 49
knowledge questions 336–7
law of areas 250
law of conservation of energy 55
law of conservation of momentum
63–5
law of elliptical orbits 250
law of inertia 39–40
law of periods 250
law of reflection 107
law of refraction 145
Lemaître, Georges 257
length and cross-sectional area, effect
on resistors 197–8

heliocentric model of the universe interference 100 life of stars 288–9

Aristarchus of Samos 246 constructive 102, 126 light-years 258

Copernicus 247–8 destructive 102, 103, 126 lightning 90

Galileo’s advocacy for Copernican internal forces 44 lights, energy efficiency 219
system 252 Internet, hints for efficient use 330 limit of reading 323
Kepler’s elliptical orbits in 250 line of best fit 325–6

362

linearising a formula 327
lodestones 230
longitudinal waves 87, 88, 117–19
loudness 121
loudspeakers, solenoids in 236
luminosity (stars) 280–1
magnetic field lines 232, 234–5
magnetic fields 136, 232–3
direction of 234
from a solenoid 235–6
produced by electric currents
234–5
Sun 302
magnetic poles 230–1
magnetism, and electricity 169
magnetite 230
magnetosphere 307–9
magnitude 6, 7
main sequence stars 283
carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle 287
Marconi, Guglielmo 150
mass 36
mass number 285
material, and resistance 199
measurements 318
accuracy 318
precision 319
units of 319–21
mechanical energy 57
mechanical waves 83, 98
medium for wave travel 83–4
microgravity 37, 38
microwave ovens 130
microwaves 140
Milky Way galaxy 258, 259
mobile charge carriers 192
mobile phones, energy
transformations 85–6
modulation 151
digital signals 157
Inde
In
Index
dex
de x
momentum 63 ohmic resistance 196
conservation of 63–5, 71 Ohm’s law 196, 221
energy transformations in 1-D wave motion 82
collisions 65–7 open-ended pipes, standing waves 129
momentum–time graph 70 optical fibres, total internal reflection
monopole 231 148
Morse code 149 order of magnitude 319
motion oscillating system, with two fixed ends
and energy transformation 57–8 128–9
equations of 9–12 oscillations 80, 82
graphical representation 13–15 of electric and magnetic fields
136–7
Newton’s first law 39–40
Newton’s second law 41–2, 50
parallax effect 248
Newton’s third law 42–3, 69
parallel circuits 209–11, 225
musical instruments, standing waves
parsec 258
127–8, 129
path length difference 126
negatively charged materials 183 percentage error 323
neutral wire 222 perfect pitch 121
neutron stars 289 period 88
neutrons 183, 269 period–luminosity law 258
newton 35, 36 phase (waves) 101
Newton, Isaac 253, 255 and wave equation 101
Newton’s first law of motion 39–40 phase-shift keying (PSK) 157
Newton’s laws of motion 39–43 photons 268, 269, 270
and centre of mass 44 photosphere 300
Newton’s second law of motion 41–2, 50 pipes
Newton’s third law of motion 42–3 with both ends open, standing
and conservation of momentum 69 waves 129
Newton’s universal law of gravitation 253 with end left open, standing waves
129
night sky
pitch 120–1
Aboriginal Australian beliefs 244–5
Planck curves 267, 281–2
Mayan beliefs 245
plane mirror, reflection 142
nodes 127, 128
planetary nebula 288
non-ohmic resistance 196
planning an open investigation 331–3
normal 107
plasma 299
normal force 44, 45
poles (magnets) 230–1
north-seeking pole 230
positively charged materials 183
nuclear fission power plants 173
potential difference 194, 215, 221
nuclear fusion 173
along a circuit 201
nuclear waste 173
potential energy 55, 193
nucleosynthesis 269
363
Inde
In
Index
dex
dex

in an electric field 293
power 60–1, 97
electric 215–16, 226
precision of measurements 319
prominences 304
protogalaxies 272
proton–proton chain 285, 286, 289
protons 183, 269
protostars 28
Ptolemy’s model of the universe
246–7
quarks 269
radiation 80, 290, 291
radiative zone (Sun) 299
radio 150–1, 152, 154
radio waves 140
reflection and Earth’s ionosphere
153–4
radioactivity 290
rarefactions 87, 117
rays 105, 111
rearranging formulae 327
rechargeable batteries 175
recombination era 269
recording data 324–6
graphs 325
interpreting data from graphs 326
line of best fit 325–6
tables 324
red giants 287, 288
red shift 259
referencing secondary sources 329–30
reflection 103, 106, 107, 109
concave mirror 141, 142
convex mirror 141
electromagnetic waves 141–4
plane mirror 142
sound waves 123–5
refraction 106, 108–9
angle of 158
electromagnetic waves 145–8 series circuits 207–9, 225
refractive index 109, 137, 145, 146 Shapley, Harlow 258, 259
refractive lenses 145 short circuit 195
relative velocity 8 SI units 4, 319–20
reliable secondary sources 328–9 sign convention 10
renewable energy sources 172, 174–5 significant figures 322
researching the topic 332 sine waves 87, 117
residual current device (RCD) 224 features 88
resistance 196 slinky spring 82, 88
equivalent parallel 210–11 Slipher, Vesto 259, 260
equivalent series 208–9 Snell’s law 145
length and cross-sectional area solar constant 297, 298
effects 197–8 solar eclipse 301
material effects 199 solar energy 174, 175
properties that determine 197–9 solar flares 304
temperature effects 198 solar statistics 297
resistive forces 45 solar system 297
resistivity 199 solar thermal energy 62
resistors 196, 197, 207 solar wind 304–5, 308
resonance 120 solenoids
resonant frequencies 121, 128, 129 in loudspeakers 236
resultant (vectors) 23 magnetic fields 235–6
resultant force 25, 30, 35 SONAR 124–5
reverberation 123–4 sound 116, 120
right-hand grip rule 234, 235 echolocation 124–5
risk assessment of equipment 332 pitch 120–1
RMS voltage or current 213 reverberation 123–4
rockets, in space 43 speed in different media 118–19
rolling resistance 45 timbre 122
volume 121
safety in cars 68, 71
sound wave speed 118–19
safety devices, electrical 214, 221–4
and ear structure evolution 119
scalars 7
sound waves 82, 98
scientific method, flow chart 331
boundary effects 96–7
scientific notation 318–19
constructive and destructive
secondary sources 328
interference 126
referencing 329–30
echo 123
reliable 328–9
and energy 96–7
using the internet effectively 330
from human voice 118
valid 329
from tuning fork 118
semiconductors 186
as longitudinal waves 87, 117–19

364
 Inde
In
Index
dex
de x

observing and analysing 131 static electricity 182 television 152–3

reflection 123–5
as sine waves 117
standing waves 127–30
superposition 126–30
as transverse waves 117
south-seeking pole 230
Southern Cross 278, 279, 281
HR diagram 283
space–time 256
space weather 309
special theory of relativity 256, 268
spectral lines 259
spectroscopy 255
speed 5
of a ball 16
speed of sound 118–19
measuring 131
and temperature of medium 119
spiral galaxies 272
spring balance 36
standing waves 127–30
in a fixed guitar string 128
in open-ended pipes 129
in pipe with end left open 129
star brightness 278, 279
absolute magnitude 280
apparent magnitude 279
Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
282–4, 289, 291
luminosity 280–1, 282
star colour 278, 281–2
Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
282–4, 289, 291
star formation 272
stars
energy source for 285–7
life of 288–9
main sequence 283, 287
pressure balance within 285
types of 283
static equilibrium 40 bandwidth 152
static friction 44, 48, 49 temperature, and resistance 198
static universe (Einstein’s model) 257 tension 44
stellar winds 305 terminal speed 45
stereotactic radiotherapy 28 test charge 188
strong nuclear force 35 theory of general relativity 84
subtracting vectors 25 thermal energy 55
Sun 242, 288 solar 62
active regions 302 3-D wave motion 82
brightness 297 timbre 122
as centre of the universe 246, time 4
247–8 time behaviour, in possible universes
composition 297 257–8
evolution on HR diagram 289 total internal reflection 147
helioseismology studies 301 in optical fibres 148
light emission across transverse waves 87, 117
electromagnetic spectrum 298 triple alpha process 287
magnetic field 302 tsunamis 81
prominences/filaments 304 tuning fork 118
proton–proton chain 286, 289 2-D wave motion 82
solar flares 304 Tycho Brahe’s model (Tychonic
solar wind 305–6 model) of the universe 249
as a star 296–8
ultraviolet radiation 140
structure 299–301
uncertainty 322
viewing the 297
limit of reading 323
sunspot cycle 303
significant figures 322
sunspots 302–3
uniform circular motion 28
and communications 311
units of measurement 319–21
supergiants 283
changing units 320–1
superimposition 123
SI units 4, 319–20
supernova 289, 290
universal law of gravitation 253
superposition 100, 102–3, 105, 110
universe 242
sound waves 126–30
Aristarchus of Samos’s heliocentric
SUVAT equations 9–12
model 246
synthesis questions 341–2
Aristotle’s geocentric model 246
tables 324 behaviour of time, possible models
257–8
tangential velocity 28, 29
Big Bang model 257, 260, 264,
telegraph 149
267–71, 273
telephone 150
Copernicus’s heliocentric model
telescopes 251, 253, 255

365
Inde
In
Index
dex
dex

247–8 video waves 152 gravitational 84

dark ages 271 visible light 140 infra-red 79
dark matter 271 Volta, Alessandro 175, 176, 178 interference 100, 102, 103
expanding universe 257–9, 264–6, voltage 194 longitudinal 87, 88, 117–19
267–71, 273 and current 201 mechanical 83
galaxy and star formation 272 in electric shock 221 phase 101
Galileo’s advocacy of Copernican voltage drop 215 sine 87–8
system 252
voltaic pile 176, 177 superposition 100, 102–3, 105
historical development of models
voltmeters 212 transverse 87
246–52
volume (sound) 121 video 152
Kepler’s elliptical orbits in a
heliocentric model 250 weak nuclear force 35
water waves 98
origins 274 weight 36–7
watts 60, 215
Ptolemy’s model 246–7 weightless 37
wave absorption 106
size of 273 white dwarfs 283
wave diagrams 105
temperature 267 Wien’s law 267
wave energy 97, 174
Tycho Brahe’s model 249 wind energy 172, 174–5
wave equation 89
wood 171
valid secondary sources 329 and phase 101
work 59, 193
Van Allen belts 307 wave fronts 105, 109, 111
sign convention 59
Van de Graaff generator 184, 186, 189 wave intensity 97–8, 99
work–energy theorem 60
vector components 26–7 and inverse square law 98
adding 27 wave medium 83–4 X-rays 140
finding 27 wave model 87–8
Young, Thomas 100
vectors 7 wave motion, in one, two and three
dimensions 82
adding 23–5
wave propagation 80, 82, 105
drawing 22
wave reflection 106, 109
subtracting 25
from fixed boundaries 103
velocity 7–8, 10
from free boundaries 103
tangential 28, 29
wave refraction 106, 108–9
velocity–time graphs 14–15
wave speed 89, 138
ventricular fibrillation 220
waveform 104, 122
verb groupings (to structure answers)
326 wavelength 88, 105
analysis 339–41 waves 78, 80
application 338–9 audio 150, 151
comprehension 337–8 carrier 151
evaluation 342–3 as carriers of energy 80–1
knowledge 336–7 destructive 81
synthesis 341–2 electromagnetic 79, 84, 85, 136–48
VHF radio 154 and energy 96–9, 121

366
FORMULAE SHEET FORMULAE SHEET CONTINUED
v =fλ m1m2 F = qvB sinθ Vout
Ep = − G A0 =
r Vin
1 F = mg V Vout Rf
I E = = −
d2 d Vin Ri
v1 sin i vx 2 = ux 2
= E = hf
v2 sin r
c = fλ
F v = u + at
E = Z = ρv
q

R=
V vy 2 = uy 2 + 2ay Δ y Ir
=
[ Z2 − Z1] 2
I
P = VI Δ x = ux t
I0
[ Z2 + Z1] 2
Energy = VIt Δy = uy t +
1
a t2
2 y

Δr
DATA SHEET
vav = r3 GM
Δt = Charge on electron, qe –1.602 × 10–19 C
T2 4π 2
Mass of electron, me 9.109 × 10–31 kg
Δv v−u Gm1m2
aav = therefore aav = F =
Δt t Mass of neutron, mn 1.675 × 10–27 kg
d2
Mass of proton, mp 1.673 × 10–27 kg
Σ F = ma E = mc 2
Speed of sound in air 340 m s–1
mv 2 v2
F = lv = l0 1− Earth’s gravitational acceleration, g 9.8 m s–2
r c2
1 t0
Ek = mv 2 tv = Speed of light, c 3.00 × 108 m s–1
2 2
v μ0 2.0 × 10–7 N A–2
1− Magnetic force constant, k =
c2 2π
W = Fs m0
mv = Universal gravitational constant, G 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2
v2
1−
c2 Mass of Earth 6.0 × 1024 kg
p = mv m0 Planck constant, h 6.626 × 10–34 J s
mv =
2
v Rydberg constant, R (hydrogen) 1.097 × 107 m–1
1−
2
c
Atomic mass unit, u 1.661 × 10–27 kg
Impulse = Ft 1
d = 931.5 MeV/c2
p
1 eV 1.602 × 10–19 J
F I1I 2 d
= k M = m − 5log
l d 10 Density of water, ρ 1.00 × 103 kg m–3

F = BIl sinθ IA ( mB − mA ) 5
Specific heat capacity of water 4.18 × 103 J kg–1 K–1
= 100
IB

τ = Fd 4π 2r 3
m1 + m2 =
GT 2
τ = nBIA cosθ 1 1 1
= R 2− 2
λ n f ni

Vp np h
= λ =
mv
Vs ns

367
368
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
1 2
H He
1.008 4.003
Hydrogen KEY Helium

3 4 Atomic Number 79 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Au Symbol of element B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 Atomic Weight 197.0 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
Lithium Beryllium Gold Name of element Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.41 69.72 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 [97.91] 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon

55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 [209.0] [210.0] [222.0]
Caesium Barium Lanthanoids Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon

87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111

Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg
[223] [226] [261] [262] [266] [264] [277] [268] [271] [272]
Francium Radium Actinoids Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium

Lanthanoids
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 [145] 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium

Actinoids
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
[227] 232.0 231.0 238.0 [237] [244] [243] [247] [247] [251] [252] [257] [258] [259] [262]
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

For elements that have no stable or long-lived nuclides, the mass number of the nuclide with the longest confirmed half-life is listed between square brackets.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Periodic Table of the Elements (October 2005 version) is the principal source of data. Some data may have been modified.