Using smartphone language learning applications to

stimulate Chinese international students’ Willingness to

communicate: a Confucian Heritage Cultural perspective
Contents
1. Introduction: ............................................................................................................................ 2
1.1 Mobile Application Software : .............................................................................................. 3
1.2 MALL: .................................................................................................................................. 6
1.3 Language Learning Theories in apps .................................................................................... 8
1.3.1 Language Acquisition Device (LAD) ............................................................................ 8
1.3.2 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: ................................................................. 9
1.3.2Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: ................................................................................ 10
1.3 Famous mobile applications & recommended Designs: ..................................................... 11
1.4 Social construction and constructivism Theories: .......................................................... 16
1.5 The oral skills developed by technology ........................................................................ 17
1.6.1 Connectivism ............................................................................................................... 18
2. Chinese international students in the UK Higher Education ................................................ 19
2.1 Chinese Students in general: ................................................................................................... 19
2.2 Confucian Heritage Culture (CHC): ....................................................................................... 20
2.2.1 Educational Culture ..................................................................................................... 21
2.2.2 Now and Then: ............................................................................................................. 22
2.3 Challenges in Speaking English as a Foreign Language: ....................................................... 22
2.3.1 Reluctance to Contribute in Class: ................................................................................... 24
3 Willingness to Communicate Pyramid Model: .......................................................................... 24
3.1 WTC in L2 .......................................................................................................................... 24
3.2 WTC developed by technology ........................................................................................... 26
3.3 WTC in Chinese international students ............................................................................... 26
4 Research Gaps:........................................................................................................................... 27
4.1 Apps & WTC ...................................................................................................................... 27
4.2 Apps & CHC ....................................................................................................................... 28

1. Introduction:
This is modern age and information and communication technology (ICT) is not only fundamental
but baseline of every department ranging from business to educational sector. Oliver (2013)
highlighted that there are immense benefits information and communication technologies in the field
of education. These technologies have not only modified the way of living but also transformed
cultural and communal practices of students. ICT enhances working, learning and communication
practices of students especially when it comes across cross-cultural subjects. Digital age not only
enhances the understanding of students in one country but also help them to underpin their
knowledge without any bounds. In this chapter, use of technology especially smartphone applications
will be taken into consideration specifically for Chinese students and how smartphones helped them
to transform themselves in Confucian journey.

Before going to that stage, let's have a short overview of China. China is a geographically vast
country. It occupies a very large region of earth and ranked as the highest populated country. It is
hence maintaining the beautiful bouquet of ethnic culture and consists of 56 recognized ethnic groups
in a single country. These heterogeneous cultures produce mixed teaching and learning techniques
and methodologies too. Not only in terms of education, even language learning practices for wealthy
and poor districts are very much different from each other. The fact of enormous socio-economic
differences directly influences the instructor’s selection making it difficult to get the clear picture of
learning and teaching systems of urban and rural areas. China’s is widely recognized as the most
advanced country in terms of economic development but unfortunately, its educational system is not
as swift as it should be (Cortazzi and Jin, 1996; Nunan, 2003).

1.1 Mobile Application Software :

This is an era of technological innovations. Handy technology like smart phones, laptops, Ipads,
tablets with the combination of high speed internet is now every student’s basic necessity to seek
help in studying and life necessities (Yunfei, 2015). Smartphones educational use is have been
increased in China. Mobile application software can be downloaded from the app market and
they have different names in different operating systems of smart phones like Apple App Store,
Windows Phone Store, BlackBerry application etc. The two massive usage phones are Android
and Apple and therefore their applications markets are also two most favorites and these are
Google Play for Android phones market and Apple App store of iOS. Google Play store is
basically a worldwide applications store for Android phones (Chu, 2009) and the first market
which set all the standards for app dissemination services is Apple App store for iOS (Rao,2011).
According to Liu et al. (2018), mobile learning applications in 2014 were the second largest
downloading applications, after game applications. Overall mobile learning applications are
76.1%. Alongside the educational purpose use of mobile applications is more than 70% over the
past 6 months. Total of 70,000 users have used educational applications for their learning
whereas 85.8% showed their willingness to use smart phone applications in future too (Liu et al.,
2018). Researches have shown that these smartphone applications not only enhance the learning
interests but also contribute in the improvement of grades (Mouza & Greenly, 2015; Hetrick,
2015). Mobile application software are vastly used not only for learning language but also for
entertainment, information gathering ad socially mobilizing. Many persons are using mobile
phones for connecting to their loved ones via calls, internet technology or text messages. Internet
made communication easier because through which one can visually see persons living in far
flung areas and communicate too.

Learning language is also one of the very important factor to come closer with the people
anyone in living in any country. There are many terms used for mobile learning in literature.
Some of researchers call it m-learning and many researchers have highlighted the term
“mobility” of mobile learning (Kukulska-Hulme, 2007; 2009). According to Kulkulska-Hulme;
mobility can be anytime which shifts and cross like spatial movements time and boundaries can
be termed as mobility like the movements or enhancements in language learning which enables a
person to help in time-shifting and boundary-crossing (Kulkulska-Hulme, 2009). Other
researchers like Kloper et al (2002) wrote in their research that correct use of mobile phone
devices can enable user to attain five distinguished education properties which can be precisely
fall in to mobile learning are: portability, compactness, social interaction, connections, and
context sensitivity.

There are three different noteworthy areas for the use of mobiles mentioned by El-Hussein &
Cronje (2010). These areas are as follows:

 Mobility of education
 Mobility of Technology
 Mobility of learner
To attain these mobility factors; mobility of technology includes handheld technological devices
like GPS, handheld computers or other wireless devices which deliver information through
internet and satellite devices anywhere and anytime to learn and these mobility of technology
directly influence learner to learn and seek education of any kind and learn language if one need
to (El-Hussein & Cronje, 2010). The versatility of the technology, preferably mobile technology
comprises of Global positioning system (GPS) devices, smartphones, latest cameras, hand held
computers for example PDA, PC etc. And some other mobile related devices equipped with Wi-
Fi or wireless application protocol (WAP). Through the use of satellites and internet, these
technologies convey content that can be used by learners to absorb something at any time and
any place. Cell phone technology makes social networking features possible to use. These
include communication technology (SMS, SNS, emails, Phone calls), organization functions
(calendars, reminders, address etc.), applications for office use (office, tools, e-books), any sort
of information from around the world using web or fun apps (camera, music, games or movies)
(Trinder, 2005) The potency of learning creates new methods of delivering education such as
customized, situated, learner-centered, pervasive, communal and lifelong learning (Sharples,
Vavloula and Taylor, 2005)

People who learn from mobile can have distinctive and very personal incidents related to the
context. There are no limitations or entitlement in account for time, duration, place or age. They
can make contacts with each other for their own aims and benefits. Their way of organizing,
constructing and reconstructing knowledgeable information is established on the element of
social trust (Globeck, 2006, 2009) in the context of social affairs. Learning from mobile is
responsible for increasing the mobility of individual learners. Mobile learning makes it easy for
the learners to facilitate work rate and effectiveness, giving them the opportunity to be more
accessible, pliable, and organize their learning activities. Atmosphere for new learning
approaches should captivate them in their ongoing learning activities and increase their
productivity and fruitfulness.

Advantages that are obtained from learning such has accessibility, flexibility and more
personalized learning events gives encouragement for further learning (Ting, 2005). Learners
which use mobile phones for learning tend to develop a keen sense of uniqueness, versatility and
community in learning, that brings them happiness and joy with a specified amount of freedom.
Figure 1 show and elaborated the mobile learning and how it is influencing students in higher
education,

Figure 1: The concept of Mobile Learning in three areas; Source: Kim & Kwon; 2012

There are many software and applications that help students and common man to learn new
languages without the help of any person. Let’s discuss MALL which is Mobile-Assisted
Language Learning.

1.2 MALL:
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) is an environment which centres on the use of
smartphone technology for the sake of learning any language. MALL enables and facilitates new
learner to learn any language without visiting any language school or sitting in front of computer. It
can’t be wrong to say that MALL is an interface which vanish the barriers of time and location
(Miangah & Nezarat, 2012). According to Liu et al., unlike classical classroom system, this
technology magically interacts with user with the combination of litheness, user-friendliness, and
interactivity with the help of mobile applications. This combination not only enables user to
successfully learn language but also enhance and polishes develop problem-solving skills (Liu et al.,
2009, Liu et al., 2014). Alongside, MALL brings remarkable assistance to the students with the help
of which they can use more than one application in their smart phones for learning languages using
different techniques like watching videos, reading materials, listening recorded English and online
tutorials (Banister, 2010). Not only this but they can pause, record and forward material providing
them complete control over the application, in this way they can decide the pace of their learning
process according to their speed of information gathering (Banister, 2010).
MALL boosts the teamwork and co-construction of familiarity of languages (Kukulska & Shield,
2007). Not only individuals but also worldwide education departments are encouraging and accepting
the advantages of this relatively new technology. According to researches, Japan and USA are
providing iPods to their students to encourage student’s participation (McCarty, 2005; Belanger,
2005). There are many researched evidences that MALL is being used all over the world for the sake
of gaining confidence in speaking English language, like Liu et al., (2014) have concluded that
mobile phones lessen the burden of learning English language by providing wide range of resources
of all kind. Alongside, Kukulska & Shield (2017) also worded and researched centered on the
influences on the verbal and listening skills and concluded that MALL is giving students space to co-
construct knowledge for the sake of problem solving, filling information gaps and expanding
knowledge grounds from teacher-learner to two-way listening-speaking environment. Similarly,
Cinnery (2006) also confirms that mobile phones are positively influencing the lives of students who
are learning new languages.
Kukulska-Hulme & Shield (2008) offers a formative overview of MALL asking whether and
how mobile devices can help to cooperate in speaking and learning tasks. The research showed
there are mainly two major approaches to MALL, content and design-related studies. These
proposals still have their influence on the literature, although the concentration is tilting towards
studies regarding design orientation when creating genuine and social mobile learning
surroundings (Wong & Looi, 2011).The repeated MALL actions that use mobile phones seem to
use SMS (Short Message Service) for the learning of the language. Especially, SMS is an
important characteristic of mobile phones which allows practice of communicative language
(Chinnery, 2006). In both studies performed by Kennedy and Levy (2008) and Levy and
Kennedy (2005), the students were given some Italian words, idioms, and some sentences with
examples with the help of students’ cell phones as messages and SMS. Both the experiments
proved the fact that the use of SMS in language learning is a pretty victorious technique.
Furthermore, almost all of Students taking part showed a better response towards receiving SMS.
Li and Erben (2007) also found that these of quick messages made the language learners to grow
their awareness of the surrounding culture and critical thinking methodology. Like Thornton and
Houser (2005), Lu’s (2008) and Zhang et al.’s (2011) researches both performed same
experimental investigations to see the efficacy of learning the vocabulary by using SMS. In Lu
(2008), 30 high school students were made to differentiate into 2 groups. One group learned
English vocabulary with the help of phone, while the other used printed materials for learning
vocabulary. The result showed that mobile users elicit proficient gain in vocabulary than
Students based on printed material. Zhang et al. (2011) also came to discover that the group
studying vocabulary by using their cell phone SMS text messages remember and then write more
vocabulary in their respective tests than the other students learning with the help of paper
material. In the same way, Motallebzadeh and Ganjali (2011) studied the effects of SMS on 40
persons belonging from Iran EFL learners’ performance on retention of the vocabulary and
reading comprehension skills. The performance showed that cell phone users outclassed the rival
group in case of both vocabulary and reading comprehension skills. Students ultimately find it
easier to learn English in China too with the help of MALL and there are many researches showed
that MALL is a helping tool for Chinese students. One of the main reluctance which Chinese students
faced during class is reluctance in class.

1.3 Language Learning Theories in apps

Language is gift and means of communication throughout the world. It can not only help to transfer
ideas but also enhances the ability to think about complex ideas and comprehension of them in a
proper manner. First of all, it will be attempted to give basic understanding of the language learning
theories and at the end, the association of theories will the studied with modern world mobile based
applications which are now used for learning languages now a days.

1.3.1 Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Avram Noam Chomsky has given this theory of Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in 1965.
Chomsky’s point of view is totally based on abstraction of grammatical knowledge. Human brain is a
really complex thing in living organizations. According to him, basic language format i.e. the
elementary form is stored in human brain. Language is a know-how that is exceptional for man. Even
two individuals with same language capabilities possess different knowledge experiences. Chomsky
discusses that human brain owns a unique factor that can be simply termed as language factor as it
has proper construction and coordination. According to Chomsky, the main component of any
linguistic theory is to highlight the nonfigurative complex abilities in every human being that enable
them to think and speak grammatically correct sentences in a language (Chomsky, 1965).
In simple words; LAD clarifies that despite of the fact that any language is composed of infinite
number of sentences and thousands of possibilities; human mind is such a remarkable creation that its
possible to produce them with simple understanding and effort and also its impossible to learn them
by force or imitation (Chomsky, 1965).

1.3.2 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:

Piaget’s Theory is the very important theory in the field of cognitive development. According to
Piaget, social interaction is main factor of cognitive development. Piaget stressed the importance
of social interaction to intellectual development. Piaget observed that interaction is the key to
show the tendency to overcome the variability of the symbols we have tendency to severally
construct. Piaget tied the role of social interaction to the importance of language. Piaget tied the
role of language in the development of abstract and logical understandings. He made language
associate integral half of his concepts on intellectual development. Piaget connected the role of
social interaction in intellectual development to the role of language. According to Piaget,
language is integrally a communal influenced factor and partially affected as a result of standard
traditional nature of words and this conventional nature of words is crucial for abstract
development. Piaget theorized that language was merely one of children's ways that of
representing their acquainted worlds, a reflection of thought, and that language didn't contribute
to the event of thinking. Cognitive development, he argued, proceeded that of language. Piaget
stated that it’s impossible to teach cognitive development, but according to researches the pace
of development can be increased (Zimmerman & Whitehurst, 1979).
Piaget’s theory can be related with mobile phones and language learning applications that it can
help in cognitive development. It’s totally on the will of students that how they are using
applications and how much time they are giving to learning in order to enhance their cognitive
development. Cognitive development using mobile phone applications have no bounds, it can be
done anywhere in own country or foreign to enhance their learning skills.
1.3.2Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory:
Lev Vygotsky was born in 1896. He was the student of combination of subjects like phycology,
philosophy, and literature. He also received his degree in law in 1917. He worked in psychology
library after graduation and there he wrote a book on educational psychology (Tudge &
Scrimsher, 2003). His journey continued and he wrote another book his journey of writing
psychological books started. Some of his writing was also published after his death (Gredler,
2009). According to Bruner (1984), Vygotsky espoused revisionist thinking. He gained the title
of founder for introducing society and cultural effects in psychology and highlighted that socio-
cultural activities have huge impact on human consciousness (Tudge & Winterhoff, 1993; Bredo,
1997). He rejected the effects of behavior only can impact on consciousness but a mix of
environment and behavior effects cognitive growth.
Vygotsky enlightened human thoughts in a new dimension. According to his theory dealing with
individuals in environment might be in the form of apprenticeships or collaborations etc. boosts
the growing procedure of cognitive learning. These interactions should be productive and non-
traditional to stimulate children’s mental structure and let them learn new words of language.
Furthermore, it enlightens that interpersonal i.e. social, cultural i.e. environmental, historical i.e.
family background and individual dynamics are key to human development which is directly
linked with language (Tudge & Scrimsher, 2003).
Unlike Chomsky, Vygotsky is main concern was directly linked with the relationship of thought
process and that of language. He introduced the word “Devoid of thought” as a dead thing and an
unexpressed thought as a shadow. He was psychologist and defined ‘word’ as a microcosm of
human cognizance. Role of teacher in an educational environment is vital and undeniable.
According to the theory, an excellent teacher has ability to use language as a center of attention
so that they can easily understand the concept (Bell and Woo, 1998).
MALL and Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory:
The main ideology of the theory which can be taken into account for our study of interest too is
“Zone of Proximal Development”. It can’t be wrong to say that modern day era is all about
mobile phones and electronic devices. MALL is modern day “Zone of Proximal Development”.
Now-a-days students want to learn languages through MALL using smart phone applications.
Basically, Zone of Proximal Development is the rate of learning increase in the children learning
abilities along with the learning outcomes with proper assistance. Here the learning assistance
tool is smart phone applications. Students are learning all of the languages not only English using
applications in which they can play, rewind, listen or read as much times as he want. And that’s
what the theory says too that interaction with an environment which can be digital environment
enhances learning abilities of any student.

1.3 Famous mobile applications & recommended Designs:

Language learning has been made easy using voice-recognition software since 80s. For more
mutual oral practices, “English as a Second Language (ESL)” also known as “English as a
Foreign Language (EFL)” software incorporated in Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR)
devices has been used. These technological based software helped students with different
background to modify English based assignments in to their native language.

The storage, memory and speed quality of wireless phones have been improved that result in
advances in mobile speech processing technology. Voice dialing and automatic translation are
some of the features we can enjoy using voice-recognition apps. Dragon dictation and Nuance
use voice to preform micro-blogging and text messages. According to conference proceeding
paper related to discovering students’ digital footprints, although this paper is from Colombia but
can be generalized for all the students. Conclusions showed that 100% of the sample students
owned smart phones. 34% of them use websites and applications for learning English whereas
more than 70% used mobile applications for learning English and only less than 20% are used
free online courses.

Many authors have designed their own criteria for mobile based applications which should be
fulfilled for practical learning of English resources. One of them is Tomlinson (2010), according
to him the practical criteria for an application are as follows:

 English resources should be a mix of verbal and non-verbal text.

 Contextualization must be done for language input in tools.
 There should be more than one samples of sentences or language terms for the exposure
of learner
 For the encouragement of critical thinking, there should be activities related to English
materials.
 English materials should be thought provoking, engaging and exciting for learner.
 Howard and Major also listed some of the guidelines for specific English Language courses
in 2004 which are as follows:

 Online English resources encourage communication and should be propagative.

 Strategy and learning oriented environment should be given to learners when they use
Online English resources.
 Easy to use with proper instructions should be given to the learner
 Learner should be given an attractive and flexible online resources to learn a new
language in an interesting way
 There must be linkages between the progress, skills, and understanding which learner
is making with the help of Online English resources.

The first project that used cell phones in language learning was introduced by the Stanford
Learning Lab, which transverse their use in learning language (Brown, 2001). Especially, they
designed study programs for Spanish language using both voice and email with cell phones.
These programs may include in them practice of vocabulary, fun quizzes, word translations, and
approach to live talking tutors. Their results showed that cell phones were effective for
delivering quiz if given in small units; they also highlighted that automatic voice-controlled
vocabulary lectures and quizzes had great ability. Their small screen sizes were considered
"inapplicable for learning new things but effective for practicing and reviewing" (Thornton &
Houser, 2002). Live tutoring was also helpful, but very poor quality of the audio was judged
afterwards to potentially affect and have adverse effects on comprehension. Thornton and
Houser (2002; 2003; 2005) also formed many new projects using cell phones to teach English to
people at a Japanese university. They focused and provided vocabulary instruction by SMS. In a
day 3 times, they emailed short lessons to students, sent in small separable parts so as to be easily
made to read on the small screens. Lessons gave five words per week, recycled last vocabulary,
and used the words in various subjects, including some great stories. Students were given a test
bi-weekly and when made comparison with other groups that received same lessons with the
help of Web and on paper. The authors then found Learning and usage issues. The results
showed that the SMS students learned more than double the number of vocabulary words as
compared to the Web students, and that SMS students increased their scores by almost twice as
much as students who had received their lessons on paper.
Many other free of cost and commercial mobile language learning programs become available
recently: the BBC World Service’s Learning English section gives English lessons with the help
of SMS in Francophone West Africa and China (Godwin-Jones, 2005); BBC Wales has also
given same Welsh lessons since 2003(Andrews, 2003); and an EU-funded enterprise known
simply as 'm-learning' gives English lessons Given towards non-English speaking young
students. The purpose of such programs is to capture new things of learners (e.g., young,
disabled) in a time and place of their ease (Godwin-Jones, 2005; Kadyte, 2004; Kukulska-
Hulme, 2005). Norbrook and Scott (2003) suggest that it should be easily carried and
immediately done, rather than restricted to local, are the essential factors that motivate in mobile
language learning. More, lessons are given in the bite-sized format, a fact that is attractive to
busy students (McNicol, 2004). Lessons are especially given many times a week or even daily,
which includes translations, and give options for further applications which are context based.

Voice translating apps like that of Jibbigo allows the alternative peaking of two parties and
translates simple sentences or words or phrases. Bing, Google Voice, Sir Assistant or Vlingo are
some of the ASR based apps that are hand-free task performing engines.

One of the brand-new technologies with larger application in language learning is mob-logging,
mixture of mobile and web-logging. Mielo (2005) gives the definition of mob-logging as using a
mobile phone application in the field to post pictures and words to a website. Blogs themselves is
a new and upcoming trending teaching language. It gives opportunities for creation of language
(i.e., journaling) and collective actions. Mob-logs offer the ability to show the advantages by
removing time and place lines and addition of content which is authentic and accurate.

Programs that develop vocabulary have become more revolutionary and advanced. One of them
is e-Stroke which is been using to learn Chinese language. Its major motive is to make students
who are non-Chinese familiar about how to write Chinese characters using the stroke order, but it
also have an immense dual-language dictionary, have wonderful animation features, and also
provide with quizzes functions and personal library. Pleco is another popular Chinese learning
app, which is primarily a free app, but afterward adds different features through a great number
of paid add-ons such as special dictionaries, increased handwriting recognition, and recognizing
optical characters. Chinese Pod offers a pleasantly designed app which provides us with a
number of tools to work with the podcast's lessons and their phrases and vocabulary. The app
also spontaneously synchronizes the learning status of the user on the app with that is present on
the Web site and allows offline study material to be downloaded, which is another advantage of
apps over live Web.

Shao (2010) identified the application of mobile blogging for Chinese students who were new in
the British lands. The results showed that the mobile group blog could help the people taking
part understand in understanding the authenticity of culture been targeted and use of language. In
addition, the mobile blogs could provide us with a practical gadget even for the potentiated
students in China to create readiness of the language under target use and confidence in being
known of the culture under target.

Some other nice characteristics that new smartphones offer Chinese learning people, and non-
Latin using writing system individuals, is the facility with which we can change the virtual
keyboard’s system of text input, making it doable on the iPhone, for example, to type Chinese
characters by using one’s fingers to draw them or changing to pinyin text entry which displays
related equivalent letters. The mobile version provides specifically the same advanced features as
the desktop version, which includes card editing and deck, support for audio, and modifiable
review options. It also synchronizes with the versions of web and desktop. The famous Quizlet
flashcard system also provides its users with a mobile application, which has a unique auto-
define feature when new items are added, which helps the user to choose definitions that other
Quizlet users have set in for that terminology.

Wordreference.com application has a connection with language discussion platforms that use
reference for searched terms. Conjugation Nation provides a number of apps in a diversity of
languages for web form drillings. Connecting a mobile application to the Internet services or an
online database is being often used in the language learning applications, specifically in private
enterprise items such as Rosetta Stone or Transparent Language’s Byki, and also in online
services such as Babbel.com or hello-hello, all of which are have mobile applications which
synchronizes with the versions of desktop and mobile full language courses, for example as that
of Living Language for French, are now also being proposed as applications.

A fascinating method to reduce the server-client association on mobile devices is the Cloudbank
project explained by Pemberton et al., 2009. The location aware program has been used by the
Micromandarin to provide a context bounded language practicing context. This application
makes use of the GPS to detect the location of users and provides information regarding
vocabulary and practice suitable to that location: vocabulary related to food and drink, for
example, if the user is present in a restaurant.

As gadgets of personal use, smartphones are ideal for informal individual learning. The students
have independence to decide which application to have and how to make use of them. It can’t be
wrong to say that language teachers should appreciate and help the learner freedom. This allows
and gives freedom to learners to combine both informal and formal language. Song & Fox
(2008) defines a project which functions an open-ended, learners-oriented perspective to learning
vocabulary where EFL students were given access and guidance on using different vocabulary
building gadgets.

Hello Talk is also an application that can be used for chatting having over 4 million users. It is
typically based in Hong Kong and China. It has been used by Confucian students for
communication with their fellows in the form of chat. This software has ability to translate
chatting of two persons from one language to the desired one.

Luis Von Ahn is the founder and maker of Duolingo. He is Associate Professor, in one of the 50
most influential persons in technology by Discover Magazine. His goal was to help and boost
confidence of every person to translate the Web into their mother tongue (Von, 2013). This
application have over 300 million learners. According to many researchers like Kukulska-Hulme
in 2016 that Duolingo is most widely used application for language practicing and testing. One
of the very effective studies related to Duolingo was conducted by Vesselinov & Grego in 2012.
According to this research, an extensive eight weeks study had been carried on the samples of 18
years of age who were residents of United States and learning Spanish. The effectiveness criteria
were calculated by only one year of study and the results have shown tremendous improvements
in language abilities. The results have shown that there is significant improvement and naïve/new
learners tend to gain more knowledge than the advanced learners. Also, the satisfaction level
question associated to their experience with Duolingo was asked and it was very interesting to
note that total 66 people answered the question. Out of these respondents 95.5% agreed or
strongly agreed that this software is convenient and easy to operate, 94.4% agreed that it helps
them to get education and now how of Spanish, 87.9%had enjoyed their journey of learning
Spanish via Duolingo and 78.8% showed their satisfaction about Duolingo. According to Net
Promoter Score (NPS), this depicts the loyalty of costumers towards certain product and the 50+
of after the NPS analysis showed that Duolingo is considered to be an excellent an outstanding
indicator of software shown that the users will continue using the software. The research paper
also highlighted that it will be fair but not 100% can generalization for other languages.

1.4 Social construction and constructivism Theories:

The notion of social constructivism takes place in the era of 1990’s when rapid technological
growth and information technology had taken place (Bondarouk, 2006). Above discussed
theories of cognitive development have great influences and can be considered as a baseline for
constructivist school of thought.

According to social constructivism: No one can deny the impacts of environmental factors
which are social, cultural, experimental (based on personal experiences) habits,
knowledge/education and priorities on the learning of a person or society through which the
process of changes in behaviors and cognitive abilities started to happen (Schwandt, 2003; Ward
et al., 2006; Bondarouk, 2006). Contrariwise, social construction theories prerogatives that
learning is the generation of ideas and the process of meaning formation via the relation between
human beings, people and environmental objects (Young & Collin, 2004). Alongside, the
importance of learners and learning objects, many philosophers and thinkers like Charmaz,
(2006) projected to deliberately use these two terms interchangeably and commonly as
“constructivism”. Alongside, the vision about construction can be taken in to account as mutual
and collective cognition method and the intentionality of contribution of learners (Collin, 2002).
This intentionality for example: sentiment, aim and faith; can be the factors which help to
investigate and highlight commonality between the concepts of social constructivist and social
constructionist (Collin, 2002).

Taking in to account the concepts social constructivism and social constructionism in to the
Chinese students’ point of view, language learning activities and nature of proper education in
new Language i.e. English in this case improves not only their grades but also boosts confident
to communicate in class. This is also confirmed by various researchers like Schunk (2012) &
Tinio (2002) that social constructivist theories elaborates the fact that this collective working,
collaborations, problem solving and use of cognitive methods are effective for educational point
of view too. There are many other researchers who also agree that involvement of variety of
learning techniques and approaches, ideas affects the learning speed and processes (Phillips et
al., 2008). This same concept gives a positive insight about the effectiveness of unique learning
techniques. These learning techniques can be smartphone applications which enhance students’
capacity to learn any new language and according to the theory they are very useful. It is also
researched and proves that learning takes place when learners are independent and influences by
society to contribute (Bruner, 1986, 1990). Bruner beliefs also contributes in this research in a
way that students in different countries need to learn language to contribute in society in order to
get better grades and maintain self confidence in classroom environment.

1.5 The oral skills developed by technology

Mobile technologies are swiftly tempting newer users, providing more detailed and complex use
and increase the services capacity. Cultural practices are influenced and new contents for
learning are made accessible (Pachler et al, 2010). The incorporation of such technologies into
the process of learning and teaching has been slower, as teachers need to understand how they
can use different kind of learning methods effectively (Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008) and
develop efficient methods and materials for mobile assisted language learning (MALL), a mobile
learning specialist (m-Learning). The main features of mobile learning, which include
permanency, availability, immediacy, synergism, locating the instructional activities, are
organized and introduced by Ogata & Yano (2005).While the definitions may not match, it is
clear that not only technology but also people can be adaptable. We can define m-learning as a
“process that makes people come to know each other through communication across multiple
circumstances and technologies that promote personal interaction” (Sharples et al., 2007, 225)
with concentration on the contexts. The technology to help us in this procedure includes any type
of mobile devices that can be hand handled such as mobile phones, personal digital assistants
(PDAs), smartphones, pads, tabs, etc. Laptops are nowadays specifically not considered mobile
in this matter, even though they clearly are mobile to some extent. Ogata et al. (2010) state:
“computer aided learning use gadgets which are light weight such as that of personal digital
assistant (PDA), cellular mobile phones, and others like that” (p.8). In lacking a proper
definition, for this research its technology that can be used while walking and can be hand
carried easily. As we know that mobile technologies give us a lot of benefits: flexibility,
comparatively cheap, small in size and friendly for users, researchers are finding different ways
to use mobile technology to help in learning a language (Huang et al., 2012). Nevertheless, there
are also some clear drawbacks, such as small screen, low quality graphics (Albers & Kim, 2001),
and reliance on those networks that may not every time provide very high transmission capacity
and may fall prey to many distortions. In spite of such disadvantages, Thornton and Houser
(2005) show that mobile devices can possibly a very helpful tools for providing language
learning materials to different students.

1.6.1 Connectivism
The newest and latest paradigm in the world of learning is connectivism. As the name
“connectivism” makes it clear that it is about the connectivity or combination of various theories
to elaborate the journey of educational access with the help of information and communication
technologies (Strong & Hutchins, 2009). The reason to take connectivism into account is that
many researchers supported the fact that connectivism is directly linked with the interpretation of
leaning in digital era (Seimens, 2004, 2006; Downes, 2007).

Seimens have been researched on connectivism and elaborated various factors during many years
and according to him following are the connectivism viewpoints about getting education under
the umbrella of technology enhanced learning (Seimens 2004, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c).

 Education and knowing are ongoing and persistent practice. A successful learner can be
the one who is persistently learning new ideas, fields, diversify the point of views and last
but not the least familiarized themselves with patterns of concepts.
 Learning matures decision making process. Learner become independent in making their
decisions regarding to the area of interest due to tremendous shifts in learning
environment which enhances decision making capacity and strategies.
 Learning is a procedure which interlinks sources of knowledge from different ‘networks’
such as learning groups like classrooms; social connectivity like communication devices
and personal associations. Even, gaining information and knowledge can be created and
facilitated through non-human appliances.

Siemens was a great researcher and his knowledge about learning was extraordinary. And
this learning can be integrated with learning any new language from communication devices
say smart phones. According to Siemens many researches, it can be concluded from the
 present point of view that learning applications help international students to connect socially
with classroom environment. He also emphasized on non-human appliances which can be
either computers or smartphones. So in this modern age, smart phones are one of the most
used device and almost every person own it.

2. Chinese international students in the UK Higher Education

Chinese students are traveling in whole world for educational purposes. In this section it is
attempted to evaluate the approach of Chinese students about learning English while living in
their home town, many related topics is explored to further analyze the Confucian Heritage
Culture, education culture of students while living and residing in UK, the problems they faced
during their education in a country with totally different culture and ethnic background. Not only
will these English speaking challenges be discussed. Current status of Confucian Heritage trend
has also been enlightened.

2.1 Chinese Students in general:

In China, education is generally related to seek knowledge, enhance ethical values and to obtain
stability in society (Bian, 2002). Chinese people believe that education is very important and
they can obtain honor in their family. Chinese students have to pass Gaokao which is a
competitive examination, scores of the students in Gaokao determines not only the future
university but also affiliate with family honor and career pathways (Liu, 2013). Students who
resides in cities enjoys more opportunities to participate in extracurricular activities and it is
noticed that their parents spend a fancy amount of around a third of their per year family income
to encourage competitive environment (Liao, 2012). Alongside every student is not fortunate
enough to study in elite class. It is estimated by Shuang (2016) that around 94 million students
attempted gaokao in 2015 but only 10% got admission in top universities whereas 75% of them
got their admissions to peruse higher education including 10% mentioned above.

Government of China motivates Chinese educational system to encourage English teaching.

Wide range of researches has been carried out in this regard. According to Hu (2003, 2005),
Chinese are developing many improvements to make their students capable of learning English
language, now learning English is in secondary schools curriculum and encouragement is given
to primary children too. Leaning English as an international language is considered to be the key
to open doors of many world economic forums, sports and artistic for a which will definitely lead
to strengthen their vision of being super power (Adamson, 2004). Alongside, it is considered that
not only China’s modernization but also individual’s career development too, as a pathway for
the socio-economic development and educational prospects (Wang & Gao, 2008) to get national
and international educational certifications leading stable financial prosperity and communal
stability (Peng, 2012). Many researchers agreed that not only students but employers believe that
English language expertise is a benchmark for higher salaries and better promotion opportunities
in China (Campbell, 1995; Jiang, 2003; Gao, 2006).

2.2 Confucian Heritage Culture (CHC):

Since 200 BC, Confucianism has positively influenced Chinese educational practices and
contemplations (Deng, 2011). According to Wu (2015) in 1978, after the Deng Xiaoping’s
reforms, Ministry of Education in China took steps to send their students abroad in western
institute of higher educations. Wu, (2015) also enlightened that during 1978’s Confucianism was
not popular but recently it becomes a protuberant fundamental element of Chinese educational
culture. Chinese international students usually come from Confucian Heritage Culture and
Confucianism has significant influence on the educational system ranging from teachers to
students in not only schools but also on habits and learning motivation in China (Luo, Huang &
Najjar, 2007) and also in other countries specifically Asian with Confucian Culture. For
Confucianism, learning also have impacts on society along with the benefits which are related to
individual development towards sainthood (Sheng Ren). Citizens of any country mostly possess
the linkages which ran in their families and particular area. Confucianism also have a significant
amount of impacts on students which are learning from their lifestyles, homes and institutions in
which they are studying. They are integrating knowledge, talents as well as socio-cultural norms
which are diffused in the syllabi (Zhu, 2011). All the ancient works stated in (Confucius 500 B.C
a & b) which are the Analects, The Book of History clearly revealed that thinking, feelings and
actions are the important element of individual’s cultivation. In some books it is also stated that
repeated doings of any practice becomes habit. Also it is said by Wang in 1991 that ‘If habit is
cultivated when one is young it becomes like one’s own nature, habit is then the second nature’.
It can’t be wronged to say that Confucian heritage Culture feed their citizens from very early age
to stick with a certain behavior and this makes long practices of rituals their habits. This is the
reason why Chinese international students adopt surface learning techniques in the acquisition of
education (Biggs, 1987; Biggs & Watkins, 1996). Surface learning approaches are non-dynamic
approach which is non-holistic, lacking in creativity, memorization-based and most importantly
unable to integrate new knowledge with the existing knowledge system.

2.2.1 Educational Culture

For Chinese students, UK is the second most desired place next to the US (International
Students, 2014). UK government makes the policy of full fee-paying basis to appeal international
students. In the academic year of 2012-2013, out of total student population, 13% consists of
international fellows and one third (1/3) of the 13% are from China (International Students,
2014). In this one third, 5% of the total students pursue their undergraduate degree in Law where
are over 80% of Chinese international students choosing their educational degrees related to
business (Hou et al., 2014). It is also estimated that most of the students continue their education
for master’s degree after under graduation because of inflation and high educational cost in
China (Iannelli & Huang, 2014). Despite of the challenges of difference of educational systems,
students who belong to middle class families choose to take education from UK (Biao & Shen,
2009).

Since in the past few years China go on board with Britain to get university degrees (Huffington
Pot, 2013). Importance of getting masters degree from UK might be the short time span of
degree i.e. only one year, whereas China and every other country usually complete the degree
programs within two to three years. The other reason that Chinese prefer UK for their education
might be the career prospects. UK degree holder is considered to be more valued as compared to
other or Chinese degree and get more career opportunities (Cortazzi & Jin, 2006). Despite of
getting good grades in their degrees Chinese are considered to be stereotyped in western
classrooms as they are passive learners and learn in silent uncommunicative environment
(Cheng, 2000; Xia, 2009; Wang, 2010). The reasons have been explored by Gu & Maley (2008),
they researched specifically on Chinese students in UK and they said that Chinese by nature are
highly idiosyncratic, psychosomatically rough and counter-intuitive due to new unfamiliar
educational and socio-cultural environment. This can be easily concluded that UK brings
language anxiety in many students i.e. they feel that they are language subordinate in front of
their peers (Xia, 2009; Tian & Lowe, 2009). Not only in UK but also many researches have
shown that Chinese students have been a center of attention for academicians of universities
like USA (Gieve & Clark, 2005), Australia (Chen, 2007); New Zealand (Skyrme, 2007) for their
English learning experiences.

2.2.2 Now and Then:

After all the literature review and getting in-depth knowledge about Confucian in UK, it has been
observed and confirmed by Leedham et al (2014) that during 1980’s and 1990’s the culture of
studying in UK was considered as luxury and only Chinese elite class considered themselves
eligible to visit UK and study there. So in back days education in UK was class oriented. But
now the trend is changing and it is mentioned above and also in many other researches that
middle class families are sending their kids to UK for higher education (Leedham et al., 2004).
Alongside it has been observed that students who were not good in studies in China and didn’t
even past entry tests of Chinese institutes have proved themselves in UK and showed their
academic abilities there (Crattazzi & Jin, 2006). The project of blogging photos described by
Wong et al., (2010) describes those students using iPhones to capture photos to elicit Chinese
idioms that are being studied and to share their pictures and comments through a wiki with class.
Students were motivated to capture photos which are based on their daily lifestyle using their
outer environment. This utilization of the student’s real surrounding goes on improving upon
alike projects that have used a feigned space such as a lab (Stockwell, 2008) or a class (Liu,
2009).It is clear that the future is bright and learning becomes more original and permanent when
linked with the students outside life other than the academic one. Mobile devices are an awesome
method to obtain that goal.

2.3 Challenges in Speaking English as a Foreign Language:

Language is a key for coordination and communication especially for the adaptation of cross
cultural influences (Gudykunst & Kim, 1984). As Gaokao curriculum includes Chinese,
Mathematics and English aiming that incorporating English will help students to peruse their
careers but unfortunately it’s still a foreign language to get grades and failed as a daily speaking
commutative language (Boltan & Graddol, 2012). Chinese are less motivated to speak English
and many students are unable to write or speak English (Yu, 2014). Alongside all the hurdles of
language, people of China avails UK government’s initiative for international students. Cross
cultural students especially Chinese struggles the most in English speaking institutions (Liu et
al., 2010) due to their writing issues (Zhao & McDougall, 2008). Alongside, intercultural
sensitivity, fear to speak wrong words i.e. necessary communication abilities, verbal and non-
verbal behaviors are also the reasons of students falling behind. Not only Gaoko but also CET
(College English Test) which is for very valuable for employers as it is considered to be the test
which can determine either the person is English language proficient enough and get better jobs
as compared to the person who didn’t take the test (Adamson, 2001).But it is also noticed that
even passing these tests individual might not be capable enough to speak English so the oral
skills of the student might not be proficient enough and thus these tests doesn’t encourages
students to enhance their oral skills (Peng, 2012). Also Wen & Clement (2003) and Ning (2011)
confirms that despite of passing CET or getting higher scores in CET; many graduates are
incompetent in oral English language skills.

As the tests seems to fail in order to develop the oral skills of English language in students the
suggestions to develop classroom learning environment have been taken in to consideration. To
tackle the oral problems of students, the solution presented was to encourage students to express
their views and ideas in English in order to improve their speaking skills and communication
competitiveness. Many researches have been done in order to test whether this technique is
working but the researchers have shown that due to heterogeneous psychological, ethnic and
linguistic diversities, students feel hesitant to speak in English (Lui & Jackson, 2012) whereas,
Wang (2010) highlighted the impacts of this practice leads to downheartedness, nervousness and
inferiority complex within the students. There is difference of opinion here in this context that
above mentioned situations are due to English learning specifically yet Cheng (2000) have stated
that it is not due to Confucian influences but Chinese students are overall reluctant and passive
learners. Whereas, a huge community of researchers have argued and concluded their researches
saying that Chinese students have strong self-identity and peculiar anatomy when it comes to
learning a new language which definitely represents a new culture Wang and Li, 2003; Cortazzi
& Jin, 2013; Ryan, 2013;Wang, 2013).
2.3.1 Reluctance to Contribute in Class:
While noticing a Confucian student with the western culture point of view they are generally
passive learners. One reason might be that they are from middle class families as discuss earlier
but also they appears to be shy in class too. But the researches have showed that they are not the
passive learners but according to Chalmers and Volet (1997) they don’t like to speak in class
considering it showoff behavior and time wasting. All the communication is in the hands of
teachers who deliver lectures and allow the person to talk (Kato, 2011). A study in 2005 shown
that around 50% of the surveyed international students are received lower than expected grades
in which 31% also admitted that they are unease of participation in class discussion sessions due
to language barriers (Krause et al., 2005). Not only this but the students also feel unconnected
with the curriculum taught by English native lecturers as that have no direct relevance with their
background education and culture (Mulligan & Kirkpatrick, 2000). Before this study Reid et al.,
(1998) also highlighted this that students ideology behind every subject is that lecturer and native
students might have some sort of life experiences whereas they don’t.

3 Willingness to Communicate Pyramid Model:

3.1 WTC in L2
Willingness to Communicate (WTC) models provides the theoretical framework about the
mindset of persons to speak English with another person in a specific contextual setting. This
model fits on the students of China and in 1976, Burgoon conceived and worked on the
impression of ‘unwillingness to communicate’. She attempted to related two sub-factors
mentioned below, both of them, falls under the scale she formulated and call it as ‘Unwillingness
to Communicate Scale’ (UCS). The two sub-factors are

 ‘‘approach-avoidance’’ i.e. the correspondence with the communication fear

 “reward” which does not relate with the correspondence with the communication fear

In 1998 Maclantyre with his team worked on this model and formulated a pyramid by adding
more than thirty variables and empirical model have been formulated to consider the second
language issues and in this model, L2 has been represented as the second language conversation
as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: L2 Willingness to communicate Pyramid; Source: MacIntyre et al., 1998

This model is a six-layered model and each category is discussed as layers. The six layers are
also systematized into two structural areas. Basically, this is a simple model not complicated to
understand at all. L2 is the transition of native language to other 2nd language and the first three
layers i.e. Layer 1, Layer 2 & Layer 3 are the situation-specific parameters which force an
individual to speak other language or learn it. These situation specific influences inspects first of
all communication behavior i.e. the circumstances which forces an individual to transit from one
language to another, behavioral intention which is the willingness to communicate and thirdly
the situated Antecedents which are further divided into the background which is again situation
specific and linked with desire to communicate and state communicative self-confidence. The
next three and final layers (Layer 1V, Layer V & Layer VI) indicates the enduring influence on
L2 WTC. In these last three layers , Layer IV highlights the motivational propensities which are
the inclinations towards specific language and it can be motivation given by group, interpersonal
or can be even self-confidence to learn more about the language. Layer V shoes social situations,
group’s attitude and competence confidence which is collectively known as Affective-Cognitive
Context. The last and the broader layer is Social and Individual context which is linked by the
overall intergroup climate and person’s personality. WTC gives both broader and narrow
analysis of any person’s not only willingness but the potential and competitiveness to learn a
new language and this can be easily related with the confusion students living abroad and
striving hard towards the learning of new language.

3.2 WTC developed by technology

English is an international language. English can be understood by most of the persons in the
world.

3.3 WTC in Chinese international students

There are number of researches who researched about the concept of WTC in international
perspective. Firstly McCroskey and Richmond (1990) enlighten the role of cultural differences in
WTC. He also discussed the factors which influence individual’s willingness to communicate in
second language and confirms that most of these factors are directly linked with culture. Culture
is one of the key factors which create hurdles in learning new language as language is directly
associate with the society you are living in and the culture you are opting. It is also observed that
a very fluent and impressive communicator in their own country, faced so many difficulties to
show their skills in second language country due to lack of confidence and new environment
which doesn’t allow a person to flourish. McCroskey and Richmond had an extensive research
on two scales Perceived Communicative Competence (PCC) and Communicative Anxiety (CA)
of WTC and find considerable differences in communication orientation which exists in United
States, Australia, Sweden and Puerto Rico (McCroskey and Richmond, 1990). Although the
research only identified that the residents are using English as a second language and in the
context of this research it can be concluded that Chinese participants also speaks English as L2
communicational orientation.

WTC in Chinese students are directly related with the personality factor which is in Layer VI-
box 12. The factors in Box 12 are “social context, situations and environment” and considered to
be more prominent factors in person’s L2 WTC. In this context, many researches have shown
that Chinese English language students tends to be more shy, embarrassed, silent and tends to
adopt defensive strategy and avoid taking risks (Hu, 1994). It is also observed that change in
environment make them self-conscious and less confident.

4 Research Gaps:
It is noticed that there are many literature gaps in this field of study. Literature related to
Confucian Heritage Cultural perspective is not very broad and very limited especially when it
comes to learning with applications. To fill this gap, literatures of different countries have been
taken and consider it best fit for the literature. It is expected that this dissertation will fill this
literature gap and provides a baseline for the researchers to research further in this field.
Alongside, literature related to mobile applications is also missing especially when it comes to
the international students who are using them and how they are learning using these applications
is also a gap in literature. So this research will gives an insight about all the new horizons which
are yet to be explored.

4.1 Apps & WTC

The models and theories used in the literature being reviewed mostly arise from formerly
developed theories of learning that are situated learning theory and constructivism. The
experiments in the papers that are reviewed are then specifically administered on mature
pedagogy. There are, nevertheless, also some studies that discuss learning through mobile or
Mobile Learning Theory or even Modernized Mobile Learning Theory in the attempt to create a
special field-specific theory. There are also a number of common theories used, as such as
Activity Theory and Sociocultural Theory. Some theories have their origin from psychology, as
that of Cognitive Load Theory and Dual Coding Theory, and some have direct relationship to use
of technology like the frequently used Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). Many researches,
however, do not show any clear-cut written backgrounds.

In common, theories are roughly used it is found out only one theory promoting study (Liu et al.,
2008) and no theories are testing one. The influencing research methods within MALL for the
given years are studies involving description (44 %) and what we name them as “theory-based
studies” (46%), where the writers show a theory which shows relation with the theories or case
studies. For instance, de Jong et al. (2010) employ of sociocultural angles, where prominence is
on the social object for learning a second language. There is sometimes an absence of a clear
relation in between the theory and the discussion part in the papers that are being reviewed.
There are some deviations, e.g. TAM which is specifically put into operation, but then other gaps
may also be present; TAM, again, is not relevant to learning something, only to use some
technology.

As for the studies that are descriptive, a specific example is Godwin-Jones (2011) who showed
the condition of applications that help in learning language, the gadgets they can be used on, and
how they are made. The explaining studies mostly include philosophical elements of embryonic
origin or theory making categories. For example, the research performed by Kukulska-Hulme
(2009) explains discoveries from last research and consider upon the occurrence of MALL
without any obvious use of theory. The theories and applications used in this literature are based
on the scope of the research and limited it to mobile learning and the Chinese students who are
studying abroad.

4.2 Apps & CHC

There are research gaps related to the literature. There is very less literature related to detailed
applications and individual’s learning practices related to mobile phones. Alongside, research
related to the trend of using mobile phones in students for language learning perspective should
be done. There is need of literature on the development and a percentage of usage of applications
towards Chinese students is needed. There is need of context-aware mobile applications, which
have ability to collect information through background, incorporate it and performs the
scaffolding.

5. Conclusion
English is undoubtedly vast language and it has huge impacts not only on Confucian student but
on the students who move from all over the world for the sake of learning and getting education.
Alongside, mobile phones are also common, technological advancements enabled students to use
smart phone applications to seek knowledge related to language. The literature review have
clearly indicated that mobile phone applications are the most effective and one of the common
ways for not only students but also for employees to learn foreign languages. Students seek
knowledge easily using smart phone application whereas an employee considers that it’s the key
to get promotion and sustainability in work environment.
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