BIOLOGY (REVIEWER)
Asexual Reproduction
Communication – system between receptors
and effectors, allows the organism to:
 Monitor changes in the internal and external
movements.
 Respond adaptively to such changes.
 Coordinate the activities of different organs.
Cell Signalling
 Electrical – nerve cell (neurones)
• synaptic signalling
 Chemical – messengers (hormones)
• Paracrine
• Autocrine
• Endocrine
Homeostasis – the maintenance of a relative
stable internal within an organism.
Homeo – similar
Stasis – stable
Ectotherms – have no homeostatic control and
derivative body heat from their surroundings.
Endotherms – have homoestatic control
3 TYPES OF ADAPTATION
1. Structural – the animal or plant has
particular physical features which help its
survival in an otherwise hostile environment.
2. Functional – the metabolism of the animal
or plant is able to adjust to changes in
conditions as they are detected.
3. Behavioural – the actions and interactions
of the individual, either alone or with others
help it to survive in its particular
environment.
Feedback Mechanisms – are the general
mechanism of nervous or hormonal regulation.
1. Negative Feedback – response diminishes,
climate changes
Ex:
 Blood glucose after meal
 Exercising, a raise of body temperature
 Production of human red blood cells
(erythropoiesis)
2. Positive Feedback – enhance strengthen
stimulus
Ex:
 Blood clotting
 Breastfeeding
 Delivery of the baby (child birth)
Ex:
 Sea star
 Strawberry
 Archaebacteria
 Eubacteria
 Yeast
Sexual Reproduction
Ex:
 Fish
 Mammals
 Amphibians
 Birds
 Reptiles
 Insects
 Crustaceans
 Flowers
Male Reproductive System – makes sperm cells
(gametes) which can fertalize female gametes to
produce a zygote.
Scrotum – a pouch of skin that hangs from the
body below the pelvic cavity.
- has a temperature of about 93.2F
- sperm formation occurs most rapidly at
this cooler temp.
Testes – the primary reproductive organs of the
male reproductive system.
Seminiferous Tubules – contains sperm forming
cells, setoli cells (supporting cells)
Epididymis – holds the testes in place and
connects the testes to the vas deferens.
Vas Deferens – drains the testes and epididymis,
carrying sperm to the pelvic cavity.
Penis – delivers sperm into the female reproductive
tract.
- the opening is called the External
Urethral Orifice.
Glans – enlarged end of the penis.
Prepuce – loose foreskin that covers the glans
penis.
Sperm Morphology
 Adapted for reaching and fertilizing the egg
 Head contains DNA and the acrosome with
enzymes for penetrating the egg
 Midpiece contains mitochondria to form ATP
for energy
 Tail is flagellum used for locomotion
Female Reproductive System
 Ovaries produce eggs (oocytes) and
hormones
 Uterine tubes transport the eggs
 uterus where fetal development occurs
 Vagina or birth canal
 External genitalia constitute the vulva
  Mammary glands produce milk.
Ovaries
 Produces female gametes and hormones
 Females gametes are called ova
 Secrete the hormones estrogen and
progesterone
 Ovaries do not contain ducts
 Instead, there are ovarian follicles
Uterus
 The “womb”
 Hollow organ located behind the bladder
and in front of the rectum
 Receives an egg to be fertilized and
nourished.
Layers of the Uterine Wall
 Outer layer : Perimetrium
 Smooth Muscle Layer: Myometrium
 Inner mucosal layer : Endometrium
Endometrium
 Engulfs and nourishes a fertilized egg
 Shed during menstruation
Cervix
 Narrow passageway which connects the
lumen of the uterus to the vagina
Vagina
 A thin-walled structure below the uterus
 “birth canal”
 An acidic environment to prevent bacterial
infection
Mammary Gland
 Produce milk (lactation)
 Areola is pigmented area around nipple
Reproductive Hormones
 Sex hormones are synthesized from
cholesterol ( a fatty acid )
 Male gonads (testes) produce sperm
 Female gonads (ovaries) produce egg
Menstrual Cycle
 28 days
 2 phases of parallel events
1. Ovaries – follicular and luteal phase
2. Endometrium – proliferative and secrotory
phase
Flow Phase (days 1 to 5)
 Shedding of endometrium (menstruation).
 Used to mark beginning of menstrual cycle
Ovulatory Phase (day 14)
 Secondary oocyte released from ovary
 Corpus luteum develops
Luteal Phase (days 15 to 28)
 Corpus luteum secretes progesterone to aid
in the implantation of the embryo
Menstrual cycle abnormalities
 25- 35 days → menstrual cycle range
 28 days → average cycle
 Amenorrhea → absence of menstruation
 Primary Amenorrhea → a woman who had
never menstruated.
 Secondary Amenorrhea → a woman who
had at least one menstrual cycle followed by
absence of menses for a minimum of 3-6
mos.
 Oligomenorrhea → infrequent of irregular
menstrual bleeding with a cycle length of
35-40 days
 Menorrhagia → uterine bleeding in excess
of 7 days.
Hermaphroditism – a term referring to being both
sexes (intersexual)
True hermaphroditism → requires the presence
of both ovarian and testicular reproductive tissue
and is relatively rare and poorly understood.
Pseudo-hermaphroditism → is more common
Types of Contraception
1. Barrier contraceptives
 Methods that physically or chemically block
sperm for reaching an egg and provide a
barrier between direct skin to skin contact.
 Act as a physical block between you and
your sexual partner.
 Great for STD protection.
Dental Dam
 Small, thin, square pieces of latex.
 Used to keep partners’body fluids out of
each other’s bodies
 Can help to prevent skin-to-skin contact.
 Placed on the vulva or the anus when the
mouth, lips or tongue are used to sexually
arouse a partner.
 Cal also cut a condom open on one side
2. Hormonal contraceptives
 Methods that prevent the release of an egg
(ovulation)
 Prevents a fertilized egg from implanting in
the uterus (prevents pregnancy)
 No hormonal methods reduce chances of
STD’s
Oral Contraceptives (the pill)
 Some contain estrogen, progestin or mix of
other hormones depending on pill
 The pill is 91 to 99 percent effective at
preventing pregnancy.
 Prescribed by doctor
 A pill is taken at the same time each day (
once a day for three weeks, no pill fourth
week – will get menstrual period)
Birth Control Patch
 Worn on the lower abdomen, buttocks, or
upper body
 The patch is 91 to 99 percent effective at
preventing pregnancy
 It releases hormones progestin and
estrogen into the bloodstream
 You put on a new patch once a week for
three weeks. During the fourth week, you
don’t wear a patch, so you can have a
menstrual period.
Vaginal Ring
 Releases the hormones progestin and
estrogen
 Ring goes inside vagina up around your
cervix
 You wear the ring for 3 weeks, take it out for
the week you have your period, and then
put in a new ring
 Doesn’t protect you from HIV or STD’s
Birth Control Shot
 Every 3 months or 12 weeks, women get
shots of the hormones progestin in the
buttocks or arm from their doctor.
 It is 94 to 99 percent effective at preventing
pregnancy
 It doesn’t protect you from HIV or STD’s
Intrauterine Device
 Placed inside the uterus by a doctor
 99% effective t preventing pregnancy
 Copper IUD : can stay for up to 10 years
 Interferes with sperm, fertilization, and
prevents implantation
 Hormonal IUD : can stay for up to 5 years
 It releases a small amount of hormones
each days to keep you from getting
pregnant
3. Sterilization
 Vasectomy : this operation is done to keep
a man’s sperm from going to his penis. So
his ejaculate never has any sperm in it that
can fertilize an egg.
Tubal Ligation or “tying tubes”
 A woman can have her fallopian tied or
closed to stop eggs from being fertilized
 Over time, the ends of your fallopian tubes
could fuse back together and it may be
possible to get pregnant.