ASHRAE Fundamentals of Air System PDF

Fundamentals of
Air System Design
SI
Robert McDowall
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International System
A Course Book for

Self-Directed or Group Learning
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Includes Skill Development Exercises

for PDH, CEU, or LU Credits
Fundamentals of
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Air System Design
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Robert McDowall
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A Course Book for Self-Directed or Group Learning

ASHRAE
Fundamentals of Air System Design SI
A Course Book for Self-Directed or Group Learning
ASHRAE ISBN 978-1-933742-87-8
Fundamentals SDL Number: 42878
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Design
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Cooling Loads ASHRAE STAFF
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Heating Systems ASHRAE Learning Institute Special Publications
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Thermodynamics Group Manager of Education and Editor/Group Manager of
Water System Certification Handbook and Special Publications
Design Karen Murray Cindy Sheffield Michaels
Manager of Professional Managing Editor
Refrigeration Development Matt Walker
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Managing Editor Heather Medlock
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eLearning Secretary/
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Karen M. Murray Email: kmurray@ashrae.org

Manager
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Professional Development
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Dear Student,
Welcome to an ASHRAE Learning Institute (ALI) self-directed or group learning course. We look forward to
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working with you to help you achieve maximum results from this course.
You may take this course on a self-testing basis (no continuing education credits awarded) or on an ALI-monitored
basis with credits (PDHs, CEUs, or LUs) awarded. ALI staff will provide support and you will have access to tech-
nical experts who can answer inquiries about the course material. For questions or technical assistance, contact us
at 404-636-8400 or edu@ashrae.org.
Skill Development Exercises at the end of each chapter will gauge your comprehension of the course material.
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When you finish all exercises, you will receive a link to submit a course evaluation. Once the evaluation is com-
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pleted, you will be sent a Certificate of Completion indicating 35 PDHs/LUs or 3.5 CEUs of continuing educa-
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continuing education credit. You will have two years from the date of purchase to complete each Self-Directed
Learning Course.
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We hope your educational experience is satisfying and successful.
Sincerely,
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Karen M. Murray
Manager of Professional Development
ASHRAE
AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
Robert McDowall is a professional engineer who has been involved in
building services for over forty years and has taught courses on heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning for thirty years. He has been responsi-
ble for the construction and maintenance of buildings for IBM and the
University of Manitoba. An active member of ASHRAE, Robert served
as a member of the board of directors from 1997–2000, as a member of
the Standard 62 committee, and as author of the online courses Funda-
mentals of HVAC Systems (with course book) and Fundamentals of
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HVAC Control Systems.
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Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Airflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Static and Dynamic Compressible Fluid (Air) Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
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Friction Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
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The Friction Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Density and Altitude Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chapter 2: Air Distribution System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Air Distribution System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
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Air-Handling Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Air Distribution Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Sound Absorbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Chapter 3: Human Comfort and Air Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
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Principles of Human Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Principles of Space Air Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Types of Air Distribution Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Chapter 4: Relationship of Air Systems to Load
and Occupancy Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Operating System Selection Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
System Types by Heating/Cooling Equipment Type . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
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System Type by Duct Configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Air-Side Economizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Outdoor-Air Intake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
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Chapter 5: Exhaust and Ventilation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Design Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Ventilation and Exhaust Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Energy Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Chapter 6: Air Movers and Fan Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
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Fan Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Fan Drives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Fan Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Fan Installation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Fan Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Effect of Variable-Resistance Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
vi Table of Contents
Chapter 7: Duct System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Duct System Design Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Duct Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Duct Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Duct Design and Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Sample Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Chapter 8: Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
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Building Code Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
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ASHRAE Standard 62.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Other Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Sources of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
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Chapter 9: Air System Auxiliary Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Dampers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Air Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Humidifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Duct Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Duct Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
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Chapter 10: Sound and Vibration in Air Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Fundamentals of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Sound and Vibration Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Sound Attenuation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Vibration Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Chapter 11: Air System Startup and Diagnostics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
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Design Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Air Volumetric Measurement Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Balancing Procedures for Air Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
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Noise and Vibration Diagnostics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Chapter 12: A Duct Design Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Duct Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
The Building and System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Working through the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
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Skill Development Exercises

Preface
Fundamentals of Air System Design SI is an introductory guide to

designing systems for the transfer of air in buildings and is intended for
an audience of professional engineers or engineering students.
For this SI version, standards and guidelines have been updated,
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damper information has been revised based on research project infor-
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mation, and Chapter 10, “Sound and Vibrations in Air Systems,” has
been completely rewritten.
The course begins with a presentation of airflow fundamentals and
then proceeds to an overview of various system components that may
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be included, such as fans, filters, and coils. Human comfort and the siz-
ing and location of air supply outlets are addressed to enable the
designer to develop a system for effective thermal, ventilation, and
comfort control. Methods of duct sizing are discussed, and detailed
design calculations are demonstrated using the constant-pressure-drop
method. Design issues for sound and vibration control are introduced,
followed by a discussion of the main industry standards governing air
systems. Finally, a system design is presented in a step-by-step format
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that allows the reader to make design decisions and calculations and
then check them against those provided in the text.
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Acknowledgments
Production of this SI version of the course has been a joint effort. I am

particularly grateful to Tino Mendez for reviewing the changes, catch-
ing mistakes, and making helpful suggestions. ASHRAE associate edi-
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tor, Matt Walker, did an excellent job as editor and in encouraging the
project to completion.
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Robert McDowall
Winnipeg, MB
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December 6, 2010
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Fundamentals of
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Air System Design
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Fundamentals of
Airflow
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Study Objectives
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After completing this chapter, you should be able to
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explain static pressure, velocity pressure, and total pressure and the rela-
tionship between them;
calculate change in volume of air with change in temperature at constant
pressure;
calculate the approximate volume and temperature resulting from mixing
airstreams;
sketch and explain the psychrometric chart parameters of temperature,
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moisture, relative humidity, and specific volume; and
explain duct frictional losses.
Instructions
Read the material in Chapter 1. Verify the examples presented in the chapter
with your own calculations. At the end of the chapter, complete the skill devel-
opment exercises without referring to the text. Review those sections of the
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chapter as needed to complete the exercises.
Static and Dynamic Compressible Fluid (Air) Laws

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Because this course is designed to address the needs of people with varying
backgrounds and experience, it is necessary to review the fundamental prin-
ciples of fluid mechanics. Your understanding of these principles is essential
to learning the applied system design concepts that follow in later chapters.
The concepts are presented in the context of heating, ventilating, and air-
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conditioning (HVAC) applications, and terms are defined as they are used in
that field.
This course makes use of three of the four basic principles of fluid mechanics:
• Fluid statics
• The Continuity Equation
• The Energy Equation
2 Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Airflow
Difference between Mass and Weight

A fundamental and often confused point must be addressed here: the difference
between mass and weight. Mass is a property of matter that is invariant with
location. For example, the mass of the astronauts remained essentially the same
during their trip to and landing on the moon. However, their weight changed
dramatically. The relationship of mass to weight is given by Newton’s Law of
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Motion:
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Force Mass Acceleration
In the context of this course, the force is the weight required to hold up the
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matter (that is, to keep it from falling), and the acceleration is the acceleration
due to gravity. This acceleration due to gravity, g, is virtually constant at sea
level on Earth at 9.81 m/s2. Note that the law is stated as a proportionality, so
we must insert a proportionality constant to make it an operationally useful
equation.
The symbol for the proportionality constant that has been in use for genera-
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tions is 1/gc. This is unfortunate because of its similarity with the symbol for
acceleration due to gravity, g. The proportionality constant gc is actually used
to convert the units of mass × acceleration to units of force. In the system cur-
rently used extensively in the HVAC industry, the value of gc is 9.81 kgm·m/
kgf ·s2. The reason for this choice is that the weight of a kilogram mass (kgm) is
numerically equal to a kilogram force (kgf) at sea level. A kilogram force is
equal to 9.81 newtons, the basic SI unit of force. A newton (N) is the force
required to give a mass of one kilogram an acceleration of one metre per sec-
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ond squared.
Two important rules result from this:
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• Mass and weight are inherently different but related, and kilogram-mass
(kgm) is completely different from kilogram-force (kgf).
• The symbol gc is a units conversion factor.
As a thermodynamic property, density is the ratio of mass to volume. It has

the units of kgm/m3 and is denoted by the symbol (lower case Greek letter
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rho). At times, it is convenient to express the density as weight density, , (the

lower case Greek letter gamma), and by this we mean the force of gravity on a
unit volume of mass. The conversion is accomplished by multiplying by g (the
acceleration due to gravity) and by taking into account the need for units con-
version with the constant gc.
Thus, = g/gc. The units of are
Fundamentals of Air System Design SI 3
kg m m
--------- g ----2
3 s
m kg f
--------------------------------- = -------
3
kg m m m
g c --------- ----
kg f s 2
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Also, numerically g/gc = 1, because both have the value 9.81.
Specific volume is the reciprocal of density and is defined as the volume of
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a unit mass of material. It is expressed in cubic meters per kilogram: v = m3/
kgm.
Fluid Statics
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Hydrostatic pressure is something we all experience in a swimming pool;
recall how the pressure on your eardrums increases as you dive deeper in the
pool. The pressure is due to two factors:
• Atmospheric air pressure on the surface of the water

• The weight of a column of water equal to the depth below the surface
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Imagine a column of water as shown in Figure 1-1. The weight is equal to
the volume times the weight density, W = hA. The force required to hold the
column of fluid plus oppose the pressure of the atmosphere is W + pa. The
force, F, is also the pressure at the point of application of force, F, times the
area. In equilibrium, we write
F = pA = paA + W = paA + hA
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Therefore, p = pa+ h.
The pressure difference between A and B in Figure 1-1 is
p = h (1-1)
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Note that the density is the weight density, = (g/gc) .
The Continuity Equation

The Continuity Equation expresses the idea that all mass is accounted for; none
is lost or created. Mass that enters a space also leaves the space, provided no
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change in the stored amount occurs. Filling a tank, or releasing gas from a
compressed gas bottle, obviously are cases where stored mass changes. How-
ever, when air flows through a duct, or into and out of a fan, the amount of air
flowing per unit time is the same at the inlet as at the outlet. Figure 1-2 depicts
such a situation.
The volume of air that passes through a cross section of the duct is given as
VA, where V is the velocity and A is the area. Rationalize this by imagining that
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Figure 1-1 Fluid static system.
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Figure 1-2 Continuity equation.
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the flow rate would double if the area doubles or if the velocity doubles. The
mass associated with a unit of volume is the density, . Therefore, the mass
flow rate is given by AV.
The conservation of mass idea states that no change in mass flow rate
occurs under steady conditions when there is no storage change. Considering
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two locations, 1 and 2, on the same duct, we can write
AV 1 = AV 2
Under normal conditions in a short length of duct with no heating or cool-

ing coils, the pressure and temperature changes are so small that the density is
virtually constant. The Continuity Equation can then be written as
AV 1 = AV 2 (1-2)
In the HVAC industry, flow rate almost invariably means volume flow rate,
not mass flow rate. The most common units are cubic meters per second, m3/s,
and liters per second, L/s.
Air behaves as a perfect gas, and the change in density is proportional to
the absolute temperature. Absolute temperature in kelvins (K) is the tempera-
ture above absolute zero, which is –273°C. To convert from degrees Celsius to
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kelvins, add 273°. Thus if outdoor air is heated from 2°C to 22°C as it comes in
through the air-conditioning system, the density, , changes from 2 to
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2 + 273-
2 -------------------- = 2 0.932
22 + 273
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which is a 6.7% decrease in density.
Similarly, on a hot day, cooling 40°C outdoor air down to 13°C will
increase the density by
40 + 273-
-------------------- = 1.094 or 9.4%
13 + 273
The difference is even more significant in a cold climate. For example, sup-
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pose it is January and the outside temperature is –35°C. The outdoor air is
brought in over a heating coil and supplied at 24°C. The drop in density as the
air is heated is from –35 to
– 35 + 273
– 35 ------------------------- = – 35 0.801
24 + 273
This means that the air will be approximately 20% less dense. Being 20%
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less dense, the air occupies 20% more space at our constant pressure. Thus
1000 L/s at –35°C when heated to 24°C becomes 1248 L/s at 24°C.
The mass of air stays the same. However, with rising temperature, the vol-
ume increases as density drops. Remember, this is in the normal commercial
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and institutional HVAC system with very small pressure changes.

A very common process in air conditioning is mixing airstreams. Suppose
we have a situation where 11,000 L/s of air at 24°C from a space is being
mixed with 3000 L/s of outdoor air at 5°C. We want to know what the resulting
mixed-air temperature and volume will be. The industry practice, which works
well for estimating and small temperature differences, is to assume that the vol-
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ume, L/s, is equivalent to mass and use Equation 1-3:
L1 s T1 + L2 s T2 = L1 s + L2 s Tm (1-3)
For example, based on Equation 1-3, the resulting volume is
11 000 + 3000 = 14 000 L/s

11 000 24 + 3000 5 = 11 000 + 3000 Tm
Tm = 19.9°C, which is very close to the correct answer of 19.7°C.

For wide temperature differences, the inaccuracy can be almost eliminated
by adjusting the incoming L/s values to be the L/s at the initially calculated
mixed temperature and recalculating the mixed temperature using the adjusted
flow values.
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The Energy Equation (First Law of Thermodynamics)
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The third principle we will use in this course is the Energy Equation, which is
based on the idea that energy, like mass, is neither created nor destroyed. A
major consequence of this idea is that the forms that energy takes are inter-
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changeable; that one form can be converted into another. There is one caveat to
this idea, based on the Second Law of Thermodynamics: heat cannot be com-
pletely converted into work in a cyclic process.
The units of the forms of energy are many and varied. Authors, industries,
and nations all seem to have a unique set of preferences and biases. However,
because most studies of energy begin with a definition of mechanical work
(force × distance), it is appropriate to say that the fundamental unit of energy is
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force × distance, or newton-metre, also called a joule (J).
The joule is the energy equivalent of one amp flowing through one ohm for
one second. One amp flowing through one ohm is a watt, so a watt per second
is a joule. This unit is too small to be useful, so we normally talk about kilowatt
hours. The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the same energy as 1000 for 60 seconds ×
60 minutes = 3,600,000 J, or 3.6 MJ.
It is common to write energy conversion in terms of a unit of mass flowing,
for example, kWh/kg, MJ/kg. Whatever the units used, all values must be
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expressed in the same units when comparing or adding. Conversion factors are
available in many texts and reference books, and you are expected to obtain
and use conversion tables competently.
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Following is a brief listing and discussion of the forms of energy:
• Work (W) results from a force applied through a distance in the direction of
the force. It is also the result of a torque applied through an angular dis-
placement. Work can be either internal or external. Machines such as
pumps, fans, and compressors do mechanical work, Wm, on the fluid.
Machines such as turbines produce mechanical work, Wm, performed by
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the fluid on an external machine, such as an electric generator. Fluid fric-

tion, Wf, can be considered to be work done by the fluid on the duct or
obstruction in much the same way as aircraft engines do work to overcome
air drag in a flying airplane. In the HVAC industry, frictional forces exist in
ductwork as the air passes down a straight section, as it makes a turn, or as
it passes through louvers or a heat exchanger. This work results in a loss of
pressure that must always be compensated for by the fan.
• Flow work (pv) is energy supplied to the system when fluid crosses the
boundary entering the system. It is also done by the system as fluid leaves.
Consider the situation where air discharges from a compressed air tank and
makes room for itself in the atmosphere. The air pushes away the atmo-
sphere. The air occupies space, and the atmosphere must make way for it
by becoming a little bit higher, therefore increasing its own potential
energy. Flow work is always present, even though the amount done on the
system at the inlet may be very nearly equal to the amount done by the sys-
t
tem at the outlet. Flow work is always given by the product of pressure and
specific volume, pv, for one kilogram of fluid.
e
• Heat (Q) is the result of energy transfer due to a temperature difference.
That heat can be transformed into work, and that work can be dissipated
into internal energy and transferred as heat, constitute the main business of
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thermodynamics. Note that heat is not stored and it is not “contained” by a
fluid. Heat is thermal energy in transit. It is defined only at the boundary of
a system.
• Internal energy (u) is often confused with heat, but they are different con-
cepts. Internal energy is associated with molecular motion, molecular
bonding, and other forms of molecular activity, such as spinning or rotation
of molecules. Internal energy can have units of kWh/kg or MJ/kg. In an
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ideal gas and a liquid, u is directly related to temperature. For example, a 1
kWh increase in internal energy is represented by a 86.1°C rise in tempera-
ture for 10 kg of water.
• Potential energy is energy that represents the work done on a mass in mov-
ing it in the Earth’s gravitational field. For example, if a 1 kgm book is ele-
vated 1 m above a desk, work in the amount of 1 m·kgf has been done on it.
This work can be recovered by lowering the book and raising a mass some-
place else through linkages or pulleys. Or the force of gravity will acceler-
u
ate the book if it is allowed to drop, and the potential energy will be
converted to kinetic energy associated with the velocity. Potential energy is
always measured relative to some datum of zero elevation: PE = (mg/gc)z,
where z is measured relative to some assigned datum in the system.
ro
• Kinetic energy results from motion. For example, an automobile traveling

at 100 km/h has kinetic energy, as does a baseball thrown at 140 km/h. The
kinetic energy is derived from a steady force applied through a distance
required to accelerate the body from rest to a velocity V:
Kinetic Energy = mV2/2 J (m in kg, V in m/s)

G
The Energy Equation is simply a balance of the forms of energy described

above. It is assumed that the system is in steady state. If another form was
found to be important (such as chemical energy in combustion), it could be
added to the list. If one or more of the forms is not present or important, it can
be dropped. If we include those discussed above, the Energy Equation is writ-
ten as follows:
g 2 g 2
V V
W m – W f + Q + m u + pv + ----- z + -------- = m u + pv + ----- z + --------
gc 2g c gc 2g c
in out
(1-4)
In air systems, the mass is that of flowing air; heat is added (or removed at
a specified rate) and work is done at a certain rate, such as in 10 kW motor
t
driving a fan. The Energy Equation can be turned into a Rate Equation by con-
sidering the following:
e
·
• Heat as a rate, kJ/h or kW; Q
·
• Work as a rate, kW; W
·
• Mass as a mass flow rate, kg/h; m
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A dot over the symbol commonly indicates a rate. In practice, always put
the time in seconds, minutes, or hours to ensure consistent units. Although var-
ious units for the energy terms have been suggested above, the units for all
terms in the equation must be the same:
g 2 g 2
· · · V V
W m – W f + Q + m· u + pv + ----- z + -------- = m· u + pv + ----- z + --------
pE
gc 2g c gc 2g c
in out
(1-5a)
If this form of the Energy Equation is divided through by the mass flow
rate, m· , the following form results, where heat and work are on a unit mass
flowing basis:
u
g 2 g 2
V- V-
----
-
W m – W f + q + u + pv + z + ------- ----
-
= u + pv + z + -------
gc 2g c gc 2g c
in out
(1-5b)
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The terms of the Energy Equation are depicted in Figure 1-3.
Static Pressure, Velocity Pressure, and Total Pressure

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Now let's discuss a run of ductwork with the following conditions:
• No machines exist, so all work terms are zero.

• No heat transfer exists, because the duct air is the same temperature as the
surrounding air.
• There are no significant changes in elevation, so z is constant.
• The internal energy, u, is essentially constant.
e t
Figure 1-3 The energy equation applied to a flow system.
gp
In this case, we have the simpler form of the Energy Equation:
2 2
V V
pv + -------- = pv + -------- (1-6a)
2g c 2g c
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in out
The above circumstances exist for a pitot tube, as shown in Figure 1-4,
where the flow comes to zero velocity (where the arrow indicates total pressure
in direction of flow). The Energy Equation becomes
2
V
pv + -------- = pv total (1-6b)
2g c
duct or static
u
Suppose further that the specific volume is constant because of the small
pressure changes involved and that we change the specific volume to the mass
density using v = 1/ , multiply through by gc/g, and replace (g/gc) by the
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weight density, . Equation 1-6b then becomes
2
p
--- + V
p
------- = --- (1-6c)
2g total
duct
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The location duct could be anyplace, and we can say that the total duct
pressure is constant in the absence of friction and significant heat transfer. The
following is known as Bernoulli’s Equation:
2
p
--- + V
------- = constant (1-6d)
2g duct
e t
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Figure 1-4 Static and total pressures.
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Among other things, Bernoulli’s Equation says that as the velocity goes up
or down (perhaps due to area changes or takeoff air), the static pressure
changes. Note that the units for Equation 1-6d as written are meters. These are
pressure equivalents to the weight of a column of the fluid on a unit area. Thus
the units are meters of air or meters of water, depending on the fluid actually
flowing and not the instrument that is used for measuring.
u
Returning to Equation 1-6c and multiplying through by the weight density,
g, we define the velocity pressure and obtain
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2
V
p + -------- = p total
2g duct
or
p static + p velocity = p total (1-6e)

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Examining the units of the velocity pressure term, we find that
V
2 kg f m sec
2 2 kg f
-------- = --------- --------------------- = --------- = Pa
2g 3 2 2
m m sec m
where Pa is the symbol for pascals, kilogram force per square metre. Here
again, the density is for the fluid flowing.
Note that the relationship between velocity and velocity pressure can be
used both ways, to find pressure or velocity. Two equations commonly used in
practice are as follows:
pv
V = 1.41 --------
- m/s (1-7)
t
air
e
2
P v = 0.602V Pa (1-8)
where the numbers 1.41 and 0.602 contain the conversion factors appropriate
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for pv in pascals; density, , in kg/m3 (standard air density is 1.204 kg/m3); and
velocity, V, in m/s.
Standard air, for the HVAC industry, is dry air at 20°C and 101.325 kPa,
with a mass density of 1.204 kg/m3. Sea level pressure is 101.325 kPa, so stan-
dard air can be considered typical dry air at sea level. For this reason, most air-
flow tables and charts are based on standard air. Note that defining an airflow
in terms of standard air also defines the weight and mass flow. Thus, 10 m3/s of
standard air is also 10 × 1.204 = 12.04 kg/s.
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As elevation increases, air density decreases, and above 1000 meters, den-
sity corrections should be considered. Because most projects are located at alti-
tudes from sea level to 1000 m, most designs can use standard air without
correction. Air expands as it is heated and density drops. For many air-condi-
tioning systems, this can be ignored, but be careful. As shown in the cold cli-
mate example, outdoor air at –35°C has a density about 20% lower than it does
at 24°C.
u
Standard air is dry air with no moisture vapor, but the air we experience is
never dry; atmospheric air always includes water in the form of moisture vapor.
Also, the quantity of moisture vapor varies. It is typically under 2% by weight,
and it influences the density and thermal properties of air. The addition and
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removal of moisture are common processes in air systems and can be conve-
niently shown on a chart called a psychrometric chart. The main axes on a psy-
chrometric chart are temperature along the bottom x-axis and moisture weight
compared to dry air weight, kg/kg or g/kg, on the y-axis.
There is a maximum proportion of moisture vapor with the air at any given
temperature, so the chart has the characteristic form shown in Figure 1-5.
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Shown are
• vertical temperature lines, °C.

• horizontal moisture content (humidity ratio) lines, kg of moisture/kg of dry air.
• sloping down left to right specific-volume lines, m3/kg. For example, air at
25°C and 25% relative humidity (RH) has a specific volume of 0.85 m3/kg.
At this specific volume, 1 kg of air occupies 0.85 m3.
12
G
ro
u
Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Airflow
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gp
Figure 1-5 Psychrometric chart.
et
e t
gp
Figure 1-6 Conversion of static pressure to velocity pressure.
• curved RH lines, %. The highest of these lines, labeled 100% RH, is the
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maximum moisture that can be in gaseous form at that temperature.
When the air is saturated with moisture, we say the humidity is 100%.
When the same volume of air holds only half the weight of water vapor that it
has the capacity to hold at that temperature, we call it 50% RH. The chart
shows the 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% RH lines. The saturation line is 100%
and the horizontal line along the x-axis is 0%. Note that on the chart, the RH
lines are not linearly related. Thus, at a particular temperature, the 50% RH
u
curve is not at half the height of the saturation (100% humidity) line.
Psychrometric charts are based on standard air, and humidity ratio may be
labeled kg/kg or g/kg. The advantage of using grams is that the scale is in
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whole numbers; for example, 8 rather than 0.008. For most above-ground ter-
restrial systems, the kgm and kgw issue can be ignored; but be careful with units
when dealing with substantial pressure changes as those that occur in mines,
submarines, planes, and space vehicles. We will return to the psychrometric
chart in future chapters.
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Air Handling—A Practical Application

How these basic principles apply to air system design is illustrated in Figure 1-6,
which shows a duct with the air coming in the left and going out the right. For this
example, we assume this to be a frictionless process. Notice that the duct reduces
in cross section, with area A1 greater than A2. There is one velocity at A1 and
another at A2. This process can be analyzed using the Continuity Equation.
The Continuity Equation says that for a given mass flow, and by the law of
conservation of matter or mass, air entered on the left side must come exit the
right side, because we can neither destroy nor create air in the duct between the
two points. The Continuity Equation says that the cubic meters in is equal to the
cubic meters out, ignoring any kind of compressibility or temperature change.
In other words, the quantity of air in (m31) is equal to the quantity of air out
(m32), giving m31 = m32. Because m3 = AV, then A1V1 = A2V2. If we measure the
duct, we know what A1 and A2 are. If we know V1, we can solve for V2, and we
t
know that because A1 is bigger than A2, V2 must be bigger than V1.
e
This relationship can be explained by the Continuity Equation:
A1
V 2 = V 1 -----
A2
- (1-9)
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So as the cross-sectional area is reduced, the velocity is increased, as pre-
dicted by the Continuity Equation.
Let’s return to the Energy Equation and the relationship in which the total
pressure is equal to the velocity pressure plus the static pressure (pt = pv + ps).
If the velocity increases, the velocity pressure has to increase, because velocity
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pressure is pv = V2/2g. As the air flows from left to right in Figure 1-6, both
velocity and kinetic energy increase.
The simple device shown in Figure 1-6 converts potential energy into
kinetic energy. But how does this happen? In this example, there are two forms
of energy: static pressure (the flow work) and velocity pressure (kinetic
energy). If the kinetic energy increases, then the static pressure must decrease
by the same amount.
If A2 is one-half as big as A1, then V2 is twice as big as V1. Because the
u
velocity pressure is proportional to the square of the velocity (V2/2g), pV2 is
four times pV1, and static pressure ps is smaller by an equal amount. This is not
too difficult to understand because it is expected that the static pressure will be
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less at A2 than at A1.

Figure 1-6 shows an accelerator. Velocity is increased by making the duct
area smaller. Suppose Figure 1-6 is reversed, as in Figure 1-7, which shows a
decelerator. Because the air comes in at a higher velocity through the smaller
section and goes out at a lower velocity through the larger section, the kinetic
energy is reduced. If the velocity is reduced by a factor of two, the kinetic
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energy level (and the velocity pressure) is reduced by four. Consequently, the
static pressure increases by an equal amount. Static-pressure probe manome-
ters placed at A1 and at A2 in Figure 1-7 would show that the static pressure at
A2 is greater than at A1.
This phenomenon is called static pressure regain, and it is a very important
principle of air system design. One method of designing ducts is called the
static pressure regain method, which is applied to a duct with a series of out-
e t
gp
Figure 1-7 A decelerator.
lets. After each outlet, the velocity is reduced and the duct size is reduced so
that the static pressure at the next outlet is approximately the same.
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Friction Effects
Until now, we have considered frictionless systems. But in the real world of air
system design, friction must be taken into account. Viscosity is the property
responsible for dissipation of the fluid’s kinetic energy into intrinsic internal
energy. In air ducts, the amount of energy transferred is small, but the effect on
pressure drop is major. The frictional pressure drop is commonly characterized
by the Darcy-Weisbach equation:
u
2
L V
p f = f ---- ------- Pa (1-10)
D 2g
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In terms of head as meters of fluid flowing, the Darcy-Weisbach equation

can be written
2
p L- V
G
--------f = f --- ------- m (1-11)

D 2g
For standard air, the Darcy-Weisbach equation can be written
2
1000fL V
p f = ----------------- ----------- Pa (1-12)
Dh 2
where
f = dimensionless friction factor
L = duct length, m
D = diameter, mm
Dh = hydraulic diameter, mm. Actual diameter for round ducts but a
calculated value for oval and rectangular ducts.
t
This is a purely empirical formula which states that the frictional pressure
drop is proportional to length, L, inversely proportional to the effective diame-
e
ter, Dh, and proportional to velocity pressure or velocity head. One would hope
that the proportionality constant, f (dimensionless), would be truly constant,
and that turns out to be partially true. When the flow is fast, f (called the fric-
tion factor) is fairly constant and depends only on the duct roughness. When
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the flow is slow, f is inversely proportional to velocity, but the wall roughness is
unimportant. The terms fast and slow must be explained.
Consider all of the properties and characteristics involved in fluid friction:
velocity, diameter, viscosity, and density. Consider also the variety of motions
that we observe: slow, such as the streamline flow of water out of a hose, or
fast, such as the turbulent flow of water out of the same hose when the faucet is
fully open.
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We are fortunate that these phenomena can all be related through a single
parameter known as the Reynolds number, which is defined as
V D
Re = ------------ (1-13)
where µ is the absolute viscosity in mPa·s, V is the velocity in m/s, D is the

diameter in m, and is the density in kg/m3.
u
The Reynolds number is the ratio of the momentum of the flow, V , to the
viscosity, µ. If the viscosity is high relative to the momentum, the flow is lami-
nar or streamline (like maple syrup). But if the viscosity is low (as for air), the
flow will be turbulent for any realistic duct size. Laminar airflow occurs in
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laminar flow filters where the pore size, D, is very small.

So there are two distinct regimes of flow (laminar and turbulent) that
depend on the Reynolds number. The effect of these distinctions is manifest in
the behavior of the friction factor, as shown on the Moody chart (Figure 1-8)
(Moody 1944). This chart shows the friction factor as a function of the Reyn-
olds number. Note that both axes have logarithmic scales.
G
Several interesting features are present on the Moody chart:
• The laminar flow region is shown for Reynolds numbers smaller than about
2000. The dashed extension of the solid line indicates that under some cir-
cumstances, the relationship can be extended up to 4000. This part of the
line is not to be trusted. In the laminar flow region, the friction factor is
inversely proportional to the Reynolds number:
e t
gp
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Figure 1-8 Moody chart (ASHRAE 2009).
u
ro
f = 64 Re (1-14)
• If this value is substituted into Equation 1-12, we get the following:

G
vLV-
p f = n ---------
2 Pa (1-15)
D
where n is a numeric constant and V, the kinematic viscosity, is with

units of m2/s. Note that the frictional pressure drop varies with the first
power of velocity.
• There is also a dashed line labeled “fully rough.” To the right of this line,
the friction factor is constant for a particular value of roughness, . The rel-
ative roughness values are shown. For example, the roughness of commer-
cial steel pipe is 152 µm. Relative to a 100 mm pipe, /D is about 0.00152.
In this fully rough region, a constant value of f can be used regardless of
flow rate or velocity, and the frictional pressure drop varies with the second
power of velocity.
• Between laminar and fully turbulent flow, the friction factor depends on the
t
Reynolds number and the relative roughness, and an iterative solution to a
problem may be necessary. In this region, pressure drop varies with a
e
power of velocity between 1 and 2. Unfortunately, many air duct flows
occur in this transition region and HVAC air velocities are neither known
accurately nor constant.
gp
Test work performed by ASHRAE and its predecessor organization
ASHVE (American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers) indicated
prior to Moody’s work (Moody 1944) that for galvanized sheet metal duct-
work was about 0.15 mm. This is based on transverse joints spaced at 750 mm
intervals. When joints are spaced at 1150 mm intervals, the value is reduced to
0.09 mm.
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The System Constant Form of the Darcy-Weisbach Equation
HVAC air and piping systems usually use a simplified form of the Darcy-
Weisbach equation, where it is assumed that the friction factor is constant and
that L and D do not change (although the system may be made up of various L
and D and fittings). Grouping all of the constants together, we can rewrite
Equation 1-15 in two forms. The first form includes the loss coefficient, K,
and the second for includes the system constant, Cs. Note that Cs2 equals the
reciprocal of K, Cs2 = 1/K.
u
2
3
m
p f = K ------- (1-16)
s
ro
or
3
m
------- = C s pf (1-17)
s
Equation 1-16 is the system constant form of the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
G
It is used extensively in HVAC systems work. A system curve, as shown in Fig-

ure 1-9, portrays the frictional pressure drop for a particular system. The curve
is a parabola that can be generated with one known experimental or calculated
value for a particular system. One pair of m3/s and pf is required to determine
K or Cs.
Consider a complex air-handling system where we want to move 10 m3/s
through the system. The pressure drop in the system is calculated to be 1 kPa.
e t
gp
Figure 1-9 Typical system curve.
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The system constant form of the Darcy-Weisbach equation can be used to find
the system constant:
10
C s = ---------------- = 0.316
1000
Similarly, we find that K = 10. Values of pf and m3/s can be plotted on a

u
graph. Other values can be determined by using
2
pf = K m3 s
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As long as the system is unchanged, it will operate on this curve.
The Friction Chart

In 1945, D.K. Wright published a paper titled, “A new friction chart for round
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ductwork” in the ASHVE Transactions (1945). A graph from this article has
become essentially the standard for HVAC work. This graph, often known as
the Wright Friction Factor Chart, takes the Darcy-Weisbach relationship and
the Moody chart (Moody 1944) and converts them into a graphical presenta-
tion that lets us determine frictional pressure drops at various diameters of
round ductwork and at various velocities based on an value for galvanized
sheet metal ductwork of 0.15 mm.
Since that time, ASHRAE, assisted by the Sheet Metal and Air Condition-
ing National Contractors' Association (SMACNA), has conducted a series of
tests and obtained slightly different numbers than those used by Wright. The
new data have been included in the ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals since
1993 (ASHRAE 2009) The friction factor chart (see Figure 1-10) was revised
based on standard galvanized sheet metal ductwork with an absolute rough-
ness of 0.09 mm instead of 0.15 mm.
Other factors, including the shape of the duct, the roughness of the material
t
of construction, and fittings used must be considered. These are discussed in
Chapter 7, “Duct System Design.”
e
Density and Altitude Effects
gp
Standard psychrometric charts and performance data published by manufactur-
ers generally assume equipment operation at sea level with standard air. How-
ever, when the project is located at a significantly higher altitude, allowances
must be made for lower pressure. Factors by which the usual data must be mul-
tiplied when operating at higher altitudes are summarized in Table 1-1. For
items not listed, consult appropriate sources, such as Carrier’s Altitude Effects
(1967).
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The Next Step
This chapter introduced the fundamentals of airflow theory and included dis-
cussion of air flowing in ducts. Chapter 2 introduces the other common compo-
nents of air systems that condition air and deliver it to the occupied space.
Included are the systems’ function and main operating characteristics. More
detail on choosing components and their detailed operation are explained in
later chapters.
u
Summary
The difference between mass and weight was explained. Mass is a property of
ro
matter that is invariant with location, but weight changes depending on the
local gravitation. Conveniently for designers of most buildings, gravity is con-
stant, with kg and kgw being numerically the same.
Hydrostatic pressure, commonly referred to as static pressure, is the pres-
sure at one place due to the column of fluid above. The pressure is the same in
all directions at any point. In a duct with air flowing under pressure, the static
G
pressure around the duct is the same on all sides.

The Continuity Equation states that mass is neither created nor destroyed.
Thus, under steady conditions with no storage, the mass flow into a system
must equal the mass flow out of the system. The volume of air at constant pres-
sure is proportional to the absolute temperature. Thus, while the mass into a
system equals the mass out, the volume in can be different from the volume out
if the temperature is changed.
G
ro
u pE
gp
Figure 1-10 Friction chart (ASHRAE 2009).

21
et
Table 1-1 Typical Altitude Correction Factors

Altitude, m (above sea level)
Item
750 1500 2000 3000
Compressors 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Condensers, air-cooled 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80
Condensers, evaporative 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03
t
Chillers 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
e
Induction room terminals (chilled water) 0.93 0.86 0.80 0.74
Fan-coil units
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Total capacity (*SHF = 0.40 – 0.95) 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.91
Sensible capacity (SHF = 0.40 – 0.95) 0.92 0.85 0.78 0.71
Total capacity (SHF = 0.95 – 1.00) 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.73
Packaged air-conditioning units, air-cooled condenser

Total capacity (*SHF = 0.40 – 0.95) 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92
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Sensible capacity (SHF = 0.40 – 0.95) 0.92 0.85 0.78 0.71
Total capacity (SHF = 0.95 – 1.00) 0.96 0.82 0.88 0.84
*SHF = Sensible Heat Factor
The useful but not absolutely correct formula for calculating the result of
mixing airstreams was introduced: (V1 × T1) + (V2 × T2) = [(V1 + V2) × T3].
Remember to keep the volume units consistent, m3/s or L/s.
u
Energy, like mass, is neither created nor destroyed. It can be converted
from one form to another and measured in different units. However, in consis-
tent units in any process
ro
energy in = energy out – energy stored in the system
Energy can be in a number of forms: work, done by a force over distance or

torque through an angle; heat, energy transfer due to a temperature difference;
internal energy, due to thermal energy relative to some datum; potential
energy, work done by movement in the Earth’s gravitational field; and kinetic
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energy from motion.

Static pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid at rest. Velocity pressure is
the pressure exerted by a fluid by virtue of its motion. Typically, measuring the
pressure at a tapping in the side of a duct provides the static pressure. The pres-
sure on the open end of a tube facing the flow of air measures both the static
and the velocity pressure, called total pressure. The difference between the
static pressure and total pressure is the velocity pressure.
Bernoulli’s Equation states that in a system without energy losses or gains,

the sum of static pressure and velocity pressure is constant:
p V2
--- + ------- = constant
2g
duct
The valuable concept in Bernoulli’s Equation is that if the velocity is
t
reduced due to a wider duct, the drop in velocity pressure (V2 reduces) is
exactly matched by an increase in static pressure with friction ignored. Veloc-
e
ity pressure in pascals for standard air = 0.602V 2 Pa.
Standard air and the psychrometric chart were introduced to raise the issue
of decreasing density with increasing temperature and the issue of moisture in
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the air.
Friction effects occur in ducts for several reasons, including surface rough-
ness, duct joints, fittings, equipment, and outlets. The theory behind duct fric-
tion was discussed, including Reynolds number, the Moody chart (Moody
1944), and the Darcy-Weisbach equation. The critical point to remember is that
in a fixed system, the pressure drop through the system is about proportional to
the square of the flow: p = K(m3/s)2. Thus, doubling the flow creates four
times the pressure drop.
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The pressure drops through ducts can be calculated, but the simplest method
is to use a friction chart, such as that shown in Figure 1-10 for standard air.
Standard psychrometric charts and performance data generally assume
equipment operation with standard air. The lower air density at high altitudes
significantly affects some equipment but not all. Reference tables can be used
and manufacturers contacted for assistance in these cases.
References
u
ASHRAE. 2009. ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals. Atlanta: American

Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Carrier. 1967. Altitude Effects. Syracuse, NY: Carrier Corp.
ro
Moody, L. 1944. Friction factors for pipe flow. ASME Transactions. New York:
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Wright, D. 1945. A new friction chart for round ductwork. ASHVE Transac-
tions. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Condi-
tioning Engineers, Inc.
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Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 1

Complete these questions by writing your answers on the worksheets at the back of this book.
1-1 In Figure 1-6, area A1 = 2 m2, area A2 = 1.25 m2, and velocity V1 = 10 m/s. Cal-
culate V2 (m/s).
t
a) 16 m/s b) 25.6 m/s c) 7.5 m/s d) 12.6 m/s
e
1-2 The total pressure at a certain point in a system is determined to be 1.25 kPa,
and the static pressure at that point is determined to be 500 Pa. What is the
velocity pressure (Pa) at that point?
a) 1.75 b) 1 c) 750 d) 250
gp
1-3 Which of the following is the most correct definition of static pressure regain?
a) as the velocity of an airstream decreases, the static pressure increases.
b) as the velocity of an enclosed airstream decreases due to friction, the
static pressure increases.
c) friction reduces static pressure, while velocity pressure increases with
reduction in duct size.
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1-4 An air-handling system is determined to have a 1500 Pa pressure drop through
the system at a flow of 4000 L/s. What is the system constant?
a) 2.7 b) 6000 c) 77.4 d) 103
1-5 The product of fluid pressure and specific volume is _______________?
a) internal energy b) Reynolds number (Re)
c) kinetic energy d) flow work
u
e) viscosity
1-6 A water manometer measures _______________.
a) velocity b) pressure c) temperature d) all of the above
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1-7 Fan pressures are typically indicated in what units?

a) Pa b) kg/m2 c) N/m d) none of the above
1-8 If the cross-sectional area of a duct decreases in size, the velocity of an air-
stream passing through the duct increases.
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a) True b) False
1-9 Air passes through a length of inaccessible duct with a constant cross-sectional
area. You suspect that there is a serious leak in the duct. The velocity pressure
drops from 200 to 160 Pa along the suspect section of duct. Approximately
what percentage of air is being lost through the leak?
a) 5% b) 10% c) 20% d) 41%
1-10 2000 L/s of outdoor air at 2°C is drawn in over a heater and delivered into the
building at 24°C. What volume of air is delivered?
a) 1851 L/s b) 2000 L/s c) 2079 L/s d) 2160 L/s
1-11 In an air-conditioning system, 15 m3/s of return air at 25°C is mixing with
2.3 m3/s of outdoor air at 35°C. What is the approximate resulting volume
and temperature?
a) 17.3 m3/s, 22.7°C b) 17.3 m3/s, 29.9°C
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c) 17.3 m3/s, 26.3°C d) 17.3 m3/s, 33.7°C
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Air Distribution System
Components
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Study Objectives
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The goal of this chapter is to give you an overview of air distribution system
components and their schematic symbols, which will serve as a foundation of
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knowledge as each component is discussed in detail in later chapters. After
completing this chapter, you should be able to
list and explain the functions of the components of an air distribution

system and
identify the schematic symbols of air distribution system components.
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Instructions
Air Distribution System Overview

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An air distribution system is used to maintain desired environmental conditions

within a space. In almost every application, many options are available to the
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designer to satisfy that goal. Air distribution systems are categorized in many
ways including by how they control the conditioned area, by special equipment
arrangement, and by duct configuration.
This chapter provides an overview of the basic components of an air distri-
bution system: air-handling units; fans, fan motors, and fan drives; coils; filters;
ducts; controls; air distribution devices; intake and exhaust louvers; and sound
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absorbers.
Air-Handling Units
An air-handling unit (AHU) combines fans, coils, filters, dampers, connec-
tions to supply and return ducts, and other components into a device used to
move air. It may also be used to clean, heat, cool, humidify, dehumidify, and
28 Chapter 2 Air Distribution System Components
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Figure 2-1 Large air-handling unit.

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mix the air. Figure 2-1 shows a large typical central AHU. Types of AHUs
include the following:
• A central-station unit is a factory-made encased assembly consisting of the

fan and other necessary equipment. It does not include a source of heating
or cooling, but it may include heating and/or cooling coils.
• A cooling unit that includes the means for cooling. It may also perform
other AHU functions.
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• A heating unit that includes the means for heating. It may also perform
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other AHU functions.
• A makeup air unit is a factory-assembled fan heater or cooler used to sup-
ply tempered fresh air to replace the air that is exhausted.
• A ventilating unit has the means to provide ventilation, and may also per-
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form other AHU functions.
Fans, Fan Motors, and Fan Drives

A fan is an air pump that creates a pressure difference and causes airflow. The
fan impeller performs work on the air, imparting to it both static and kinetic
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energy, which varies in proportion depending on the fan type.
Fans are generally classified as centrifugal fans or axial flow fans accord-
ing to the direction of airflow through the impeller. Figure 2-2 shows the gen-
eral configuration and schematic symbol for a centrifugal fan. Figure 2-3
shows the configuration and schematic symbol for an axial flow fan.
All fans must have some type of power source, usually an electric motor.
On packaged fans, the motor is furnished and mounted by the manufacturer.
On larger units, the motor is mounted separately and coupled directly to the fan
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or indirectly by a drive mechanism. The schematic symbol for a motor is also
shown in Figure 2–3.
Two standard fan drive arrangements are available:
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• Direct drive, where the fan is mounted directly on the motor shaft or an
extension of the motor shaft, offers a more compact assembly and ensures
constant fan speed. Fan speeds used to be limited to available motor speeds,
an economical solution when practical. Today, at additional cost, the motor
speed can be adjusted over a wide range by supplying the motor through a
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variable-frequency controller. Capacity is set during construction by varia-

tions in fan impeller geometry and motor speed.
• Belt drive offers flexibility in that the fan speed can be changed by altering
the drive ratio. This allows initial adjustment to match the fan output with
the system actually installed. In some applications, this flexibility allows
for changes in system capacity or pressure requirements due to changes in
process, hood design, equipment location, or air-cleaning equipment.
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Figure 2-2 Centrifugal fan configuration.
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Figure 2-3 Axial fan configuration.

Coils
A coil is a cooling or heating element made of pipe or tube. Coils are some-
times finned and are found in a number of shapes (serpentine, helical, etc.).
Some coils commonly encountered in air systems include the following:
• A cooling coil uses refrigerant or secondary coolant to provide cooling or

cooling with dehumidification.
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• A heating coil provides heat. Electric heating coils use a resistance element
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instead of a fluid to create a heating effect.
• A preheat coil is a heating coil installed upstream of a cooling coil or at the
front of an air-handling system to preheat air.
• A reheat coil is a heating coil installed downstream of a cooling coil.
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Cooling and heating coils are often seen as labeled boxes, as shown in
Figure 2-1.
Filters
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A filter is a device used to remove solids from an airstream. Filter performance
is based on the ability to collect a particular size or type of dust and is stated for
each filter as a rating. The rating may denote air cleaning efficiency as a per-
centage of dust removal or as the ability to remove dust particles of certain size
ranges. These efficiencies are defined by standardized ASHRAE test methods
that we discuss in Chapter 9.
A filter used to remove gases is correctly called an adsorber, as the gas is
chemically adsorbed onto the filter material rather than mechanically collected
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on the filter surface.
Filters encountered in air system design include the following:
• A disposable filter has elements that are discarded after use. Efficiencies
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range from very low to relatively high, depending on the construction.

• A pleated filter provides a high ratio of media area to face area, thus allow-
ing reasonable pressure drop. The filter media may be self supporting
because of inherent rigidity or because the airflow inflates it into an
extended form, such as with bag filters.
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• A roll filter (moving curtain filter) has a filter medium on a continuous belt
on movable rolls that brings clean filter area into the airstream, either auto-
matically or manually. Efficiencies are usually fairly low.
• A viscous impingement filter has a medium made from materials that have
been impregnated with a viscous oil to increase dust retention.
• An absolute filter has an efficiency of 99.9% or higher and can filter particles
down to 0.01 µm (microns) in size. It is also known as a high-efficiency par-
ticulate air (HEPA) filter and is tested and rated to an American Society for
Testing and Materials standard.
• An active electrostatic filter has the airstream passing through a high-
voltage ionizing field to impart a positive electrical charge to the parti-
cles, which are then collected on electrically negative plates.
• A static electrostatic filter consists of plastic media that generate an elec-
trostatic attraction by the airflow over the plastic.
• A carbon filter (adsorber) uses a mass of granulated activated carbon to
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adsorb certain gases.
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Labeled boxes are often used to indicate filters in diagrams (see Figure
2-1). Filters are discussed in more detail in Chapter 9 of this course.
Ducts
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A duct is a tube or conduit for conveying air. Ducts are classified in terms of
application and pressure. HVAC systems in public assembly, business, educa-
tional, general factory, and mercantile buildings are usually designed as com-
mercial systems. Air-pollution control systems, industrial exhaust systems, and
systems outside the pressure range of commercial system standards are classi-
fied as industrial systems.
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Ducts may be round, oval, or rectangular. They may be made of galvanized
steel, aluminum, fibrous glass, and other materials. They may be rigid or flexi-
ble. Schematic symbols for ducts are shown in Figure 2-4.
Controls
A control is a device that regulates a function such as the airstream. Controls
may be manual or automatic. If automatic, the implication is that the control is
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responsive to a change in pressure, temperature, or some other variable to be
regulated. Two common and important controls are dampers and thermostats.
A damper is a device used to vary the volume of air passing through an out-
let, inlet, or duct. A thermostat is an automatic device that is responsive to tem-
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perature. Thermostats are used to maintain a constant temperature in a

regulated space, to permit the passage of control air when the temperature of
the controlled air is within the limits at which the thermostat is set, and for
other temperature control purposes. Schematic symbols for these controls are
shown in Figure 2-5.
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Air Distribution Devices

Air distribution devices are devices or openings through which air is dis-
charged into a conditioned space. Included in this category of devices are regis-
ters, grilles, and diffusers. Registers and grilles are also used to withdraw air
from a conditioned space. Schematic symbols for these devices are shown in
Figure 2-6, and they are discussed fully in the next chapter.
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Figure 2-4 Duct symbols.
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Intake and Exhaust Louvers

A louver is a device consisting of multiple blades that, when mounted in an
opening, permits the flow of air but inhibits the entrance of other elements. An
intake louver is used at the entrance to an air system. An exhaust, or relief, lou-
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ver is used at an exit. Schematic symbols for louvers are shown in Figure 2-7.
Sound Absorbers
A proper acoustical environment can be as important for human comfort as are
other environmental factors controlled by air-conditioning systems. The objec-
tive of sound control is to achieve an appropriate sound level for all activities
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Figure 2-5 Controls symbols.
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and people involved. Sound absorbers diminish the intensity of sound energy
from fans, ducts, and other sources. Chapter 10 in this course provides addi-
tional information on acoustical environments.
Sound and vibration isolation are required for most central-system fan
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installations. Mountings of fiberglass, ribbed rubber, neoprene, and springs are

available for most fans and prefabricated units.
Noise transmitted through ductwork can be reduced by sound-absorbing
units, acoustical lining, and other means. The schematic symbol for a sound
absorber in ductwork is shown in Figure 2-8.
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The Next Step

The primary task of commercial and institutional HVAC systems is to keep
the building occupants comfortable. To achieve this, the system designer
requires knowledge of the factors affecting comfort and how air can be dis-
tributed in occupied spaces to achieve comfort conditions, which is the subject
of Chapter 3.
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Figure 2-6 Air distribution devices.

35
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Figure 2-7 Louvers.
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Figure 2-8 Sound absorber.
Summary
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This chapter briefly introduced the main components of an air-conditioning

system. More details of their construction and operation are included in later
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chapters.
Air-handling units (AHU) are a combination of fans, coils, filters, controls,
louvers, and dampers, which together provide a supply of conditioned air.
Depending on the particular requirements, the air may be filtered, mixed,
cooled, dehumidified, heated, or humidified, and fans provide the necessary
static pressure and velocity to the airflow.
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A fan is an air pump. The fan creates a pressure difference (static pressure)
and causes airflow (kinetic energy). The first main type is the centrifugal fan,
where the air enters the center of the drum-shaped impellor and is thrown radi-
ally into the fan outlet casing. The second main fan type is the axial fan, where
the air flows axially, or parallel, to the fan shaft.
Most fans are driven by an electric motor. The simplest arrangement is
mounting the impellor directly on an extended motor shaft. This arrangement
works for smaller sizes but is limited to the few available motor speeds. Belt
drives are a popular mechanical method of connecting the fan and impellor
shaft, and they can be adjusted to change speeds. In addition, electrical speed
controllers are available to provide variable-speed drive.
A coil is an array of finned pipes containing a flow of cooling or heating
fluid. The fins greatly extend the heat transfer area of the pipes. Coils used for
cooling are often cool enough for condensation to occur and thereby dehumid-
ify the air.
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Filters remove dirt from an airstream. Their performance is rated on the
basis of particle removal based on quantity or particle size. Filters are available
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in a large range of designs, each aimed at a specific market segment. Filters are
discussed in more detail in Chapter 9. Units that remove gases are called
adsorbers, although the most common type, made of activated carbon granules,
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is called a carbon filter.
A duct is a tube or conduit for conveying air. Ducts are most commonly
made of light galvanized steel with round or rectangular sections. They can be
made in many other materials for particular duties. The main criteria for choos-
ing ducts are pressure and contaminants.
Controls regulate the performance of a system. Manual controls are preset,
such as a damper preset to restrict flow through a duct. Automatic controls reg-
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ulate some functions continuously, such as a thermostat controlling a heater.
Some air distribution devices distribute air into occupied spaces, while oth-
ers allow air out of the spaces. A louver allows air into or out of the building
while restricting the entrance of unwanted rain, snow, animals, and birds.
A mechanical plant is inherently noisy. The noise can be distributed either
by direct transfer into the building structure or as airborne noise along the
ducts. A variety of materials are used to isolate the vibration and to attenuate
the noise distributed through the ductwork. Chapter 10 provides additional
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information on sound absorbtion.
Bibliography
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ASHRAE. 2008. ASHRAE Handbook—Systems and Equipment. Atlanta:

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engi-
neers, Inc.
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2-1 The symbol in the figure below represents a(n) _______________.
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a) centrifugal fan b) axial fan
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c) diffuser d) none of the above
2-2 In the figure below, this ductwork is _______________, and the dimension of
the side shown is _______________.
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a) dropping, 500 b) dropping, 300
c) rising, 500 d) none of the above
2-3 The symbol in the figure below is for a flexible duct.
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a) True b) False
2-4 The symbol in the figure below shows a(n) _______________.

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a) blanked-off duct, with a top dimension of 300

b) return air duct, with a side dimension of 450
c) supply air duct, with a side dimension of 450
d) none of the above
2-5 The dimension of the duct shown in the figure below is 600.
a) True b) False
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2-6 A filter that uses a liquid as an adhesive is a(n) _______________.
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a) carbon filter b) electrostatic filter
c) viscous filter d) all of the above
2-7 An air-handling unit may be used to _______________.
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a) move air b) mix air
c) heat air d) all of the above
2-8 The symbol in the figure below is for a(n) _______________.
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a) manually operated damper
b) electrically controlled damper
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c) manual damper
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a) pneumatically operated damper

b) inline psychrometric observation device
c) fire damper
d) all of the above
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a) temperature relay
b) test station
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c) remote bulb thermostat
d) all of the above
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Human Comfort and
Air Distribution
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Study Objectives
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After completing this chapter, you should be able to list and explain
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the main issues involved in thermal comfort;
principles of air distribution as they relate to human comfort;
principles of space air distribution; and
functions of the different types of air distribution devices.
Instructions
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Principles of Human Comfort

Human comfort is dependent on a variety of factors relating to the individual,
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the individual’s current activity, and the space the individual inhabits. The
space temperature, humidity, air quality, and acoustics are controlled or influ-
enced by air conditioning. However, other space factors, such as lighting, are
not controlled by air conditioning.
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Individuals vary. For example, one person may have a much higher meta-
bolic rate and be comfortable in a much cooler environment than someone else.
In contrast, the elderly are often more comfortable with a significantly higher
temperature than younger people. Finally, the activity level of the individual
and their clothing influence their comfort.
In this chapter, we begin with thermal comfort and continue on to air qual-
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ity before discussing air delivery and movement in the occupied space.
Thermal Interchange between People and Environment

One of the first steps in designing an air distribution system for human comfort
is to establish comfort criteria for the intended service. These criteria should
include space temperature and humidity, ventilation rate, indoor air quality, and
42 Chapter 3 Human Comfort and Air Distribution
sound level. The selection of these criteria is influenced by many conditions,

including the ages and activities of the occupants, the occupant density, and the
contaminants present in the space.
The human body can be thought of as a power plant. The body takes in raw
materials and uses them to generate energy for daily life and activities. One
major function of the body is the heat rejection that occurs in the thermal pro-
cesses that the body goes through to produce mechanical energy.
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As shown in Figure 3-1, the body uses three of the major heat transfer
mechanisms to reject this heat: radiation, convection, and evaporation. Radia-
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tion is important occasionally. We feel radiation when we sit next to a window
with the sun shining in or in the winter when we are too close to a cold window
or wall.
However, in general, the basic modes of heat transfer the body uses are
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convection and evaporation. They are similar in magnitude in most cases,
although when we begin adjusting dry-bulb temperature or humidity, a mecha-
nism in the body reacts to that change and shifts more of the heat transfer to
one mode or the other as needed. The problem is that both convection and
evaporation depend on the same phenomenon: air motion over the skin surface.
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Figure 3-1 Heat mechanisms.

Evaporation from the skin surface is based on two driving forces:
• The difference between the partial pressure of the water vapor at the skin
temperature and the partial pressure of the water vapor at the dewpoint tem-
perature in the room (how humid it is)
• The velocity of the air past the occupant
If there is no air velocity, the mechanism of moisture diffusion is not very
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good. Also, the more humid the room, the lower the mechanism to evaporate
water, and consequently, the lower the evaporative heat transfer.
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Similarly, convection is driven by the difference between the skin tempera-
ture and the space temperature. As the space temperature increases, the heat
transfer decreases. As the space temperature decreases, the heat transfer
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increases. Because the body tries to maintain the skin temperature at a rela-
tively constant level, room temperature is quite important.
Temperature and Humidity Comfort Zone

Comfort is a complex, subjective response to several interacting variables. Not
everyone perceives a given temperature and humidity level with the same
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degree of satisfaction. The perception of comfort relates to individual physical
conditions, body heat exchange with the surroundings, and physiological char-
acteristics. The heat exchange between the individual and the surroundings is
influenced by several factors, including the following:
• Dry-bulb temperature, °C
• Relative humidity, RH
• Thermal radiation
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• Air movement, m/s
• Insulation value of clothing, clo
• Activity level, met
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• Direct contact with surfaces not at body temperature
Two units—clo and met—are probably new for you. Clothing has an insu-
lating value and, in general, the greater the insulating value, the lower the
ambient temperature for the same comfort level. Typical indoor winter clothing
is 1 clo: a person with shoes, socks, pants or full-length skirt, underwear, shirt,
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and jacket. Typical light summer clothing, including shorts or knee-length skirt
and short-sleeved shirt, is 0.5 clo.
The met is a unit of metabolic activity resulting in a heat loss of about
58.2 W/m2. A resting adult typically produces 1 met; light office work pro-
duces 1 to 1.3 met; and walking at 3.2 km/h produces 2 met.
Figure 3-2, which is adapted from ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55–2004,
Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy (ASHRAE 2004),
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Figure 3-2 Acceptable range of temperature and humidity.
specifies conditions likely to be thermally acceptable to at least 80% of the

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adult occupants in a mechanically conditioned space where
• activity levels are between 1 and 1.3 met

• clothing is near 0.5 or 1 clo
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• air speeds are below 0.2 m/s
The design space temperature and humidity for both heating and cooling
seasons should be based on Figure 3-2 for most applications. The comfort zone
is defined for people in winter clothing (1 clo) and summer clothing (0.5 clo),
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primarily engaged in sedentary activities.

As a practical matter, the higher the conditioned-space relative humidity
(RH), the cooler the space needs to be to provide the same thermal comfort for
the occupants.
This has been given as a reason for increasing the humidity indoors in cold
dry climates in winter. The sales pitch is that not having to keep the indoor
temperature so high saves on the heating bill. Unfortunately, the proponents
conveniently do not assess the real cost of humidification, which is higher than
the heating saving.
In a hot humid climate, dehumidification is costly in plant and operating
costs. So allowing the humidity to rise saves in air-conditioning operating
costs. However, allowing the humidity to rise enough to allow mold growth can
make the building uninhabitable until very expensive remedial work has been
completed.
The comfort chart indicates that RH does not have a very significant bear-
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ing on comfort as long as the space dry-bulb temperature is in the comfort
range. The upper moisture level shown as humidity ratio of 0.012 kgmoisture/
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kgdry air is far higher than acceptable in a building in a moist climate.
Because mold can grow above 60% RH, it is prudent to maintain buildings
in hot, humid climates with a humidity ratio significantly lower, at about 0.010
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kgmoisture/kgdry air. In addition, RH affects odor perceptibility and respiratory
health. Because of these considerations, 40% to 50% RH is the preferred
design range.
However, maintaining humidity within this range during winter is compli-
cated by the following:
• Energy costs for humidification

• The risk of condensation on windows and window frames during cold
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weather
• The need to provide and maintain humidifying equipment incorporated into
the air-conditioning system
Where winter humidification is provided for comfort, a minimum of 20%

RH is generally acceptable in cold climates.
If a higher level of humidity is acceptable under summer conditions, con-
siderable energy savings can be realized, as shown in Figure 3-3. To determine
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an approximate value of the energy used for dehumidification at a constant
25°C dry-bulb temperature, enter the annual wet-bulb degree hours above 19°C
in the occupied space at the bottom left, intersect this value with the indoor RH
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chosen, then draw a vertical line to the weekly hours of cooling system opera-
tion and read the energy used (in 1000 mJ per 1000 L/s) on the upper-left scale.
Repeating this procedure for a different value of RH yields the energy sav-
ings obtainable by raising RH. However, be cautious about choosing an exces-
sively high humidity. Computer rooms (particularly computer printers and
drafting rooms) are two applications for which more than 50% to 55% RH is
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undesirable or unacceptable due to effects of moisture on the paper products.
Indoor Air Quality

Air Contaminants
Indoor air contaminants can be solid or liquid particles, gases, or vapors.
Some can be irritants or odorous, thus affecting occupant comfort. The same
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Figure 3-3 Summer dehumidification energy requirements.

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contaminants at higher concentrations, as well as others of which occupants

may be unaware, can be health risks. People vary in their sensitivity to con-
taminants. Even very small concentrations of certain fungi and other impuri-
ties can cause serious discomfort and impairment of sensitive individuals
while not affecting most occupants.
Standards for vapors and gases specify a quantity of pollutant per unit
volume in parts per million (ppm) of air. Standards for particles often specify
the mass concentration of particles expressed as micrograms per cubic metre
(µg/m3). They include all particle sizes, or the total suspended particulate
concentration.
Large particles are filtered by the nasal passages and cause no adverse
physiological response unless they are allergenic or pathogenic. Smaller respi-
rable suspended particles are important because they can lodge in the lungs.
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Respirable particles range in size up to 5 µm. Particles of specific interest
include
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• respirable particulates as a group;
• tobacco smoke (solid and liquid droplets), which also contains many gases,
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• asbestos fibers;
• allergens (pollen, fungi, mold spores, and insect feces and parts); and
• pathogens (bacteria and viruses), which are almost always contained in or
on other particulate matter.
Vapors and gases of interest include
• carbon dioxide (CO2),

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• carbon monoxide (CO),
• radon (decay products become attached to solids),
• formaldehyde (HCHO), and
• other volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Although some contaminants (such as sulfur dioxide) are brought in with

outside air by mechanical ventilation or uncontrolled infiltration, most indoor
contaminants come from inside sources. People are sources of carbon dioxide,
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biomatter, and other contaminants characterized as body odors. People’s activ-
ities (such as smoking, cleaning, cooking, gluing, and refinishing furniture)
also cause pollution, and building materials and finishes can outgas pollutants.
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Furnishings, business machines, and appliances (particularly unvented or

poorly vented wood- and fossil-fueled heaters and ranges) can be contaminant
sources. The soil surrounding a building can be a source of radon and pesti-
cides that enter the building through cracks or drains or by diffusion. HVAC
systems, drains, plumbing systems, and poor construction or maintenance
practices can have environmental niches where pathogenic or allergenic organ-
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isms collect and multiply to be reintroduced into the air. Many microorganisms
(such as molds) have accelerated growth rates at RH levels above 60%.
An additional complicating factor in the buildup of contaminants is the
variation in dilution rates and effectiveness of the ventilation delivery systems
often found within buildings. Concentrations vary spatially as well as over
time. These variations add further nonuniformity to the pollutant concentra-
tion. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2010, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor
Air Quality tabulates enforceable and guideline maximum concentration levels

of common indoor contaminants (ASHRAE 2010). It also includes the
National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards (EPA 1987)
used for building ventilation. If the outdoor-air source exceeds the contaminant
parameters, it may be cleaned or purified prior to introduction into occupied
spaces.
Outdoor-Air Requirements
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AHRAE Standard 62.1 provides HVAC designers a means of determining ven-
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tilation rates necessary to achieve acceptable indoor air quality, which is
defined as
air in which there are no known contaminants at harmful concentra-
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tions as determined by cognizant authorities and with which a sub-
stantial majority (80% or more) of the people exposed do not express
dissatisfaction.
Two procedures for determining the required ventilation rate are offered to
the designer: the Ventilation Rate Procedure and the Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
Procedure.
The Ventilation Rate Procedure sets forth prescriptive rates for a variety of
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applications. Unless unusual pollutants are present, these rates are intended to
produce acceptable IAQ. The basis for most of the rates specified is an underly-
ing minimum of 2.5 L/s per sedentary occupant plus a minimum of 0.3 L/s·m2
to deal with pollutants from the space. These minimums are increased for more
active occupants, for example 10 L/s per person in a health club aerobics room.
Similarly, the space ventilation rate is increased where there are anticipated con-
taminants, for example 0.6 L/s·m2 in a library.
The IAQ Procedure offers an analytical alternative, allowing the designer to
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determine the ventilation rate based on knowledge of the contaminants being
generated within the space and the capability of the ventilation air supply to
limit these contaminants to acceptable levels.
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Exhaust Requirements
Exhaust air systems are either general systems that remove air from large
spaces, or local systems that capture aerosols, heat, or gases at specific loca-
tions within a space and transport them to where they can be collected, filtered,
made inactive, or safely discharged to the atmosphere. The air in local exhaust
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systems can sometimes be dispersed safely to the atmosphere, but sometimes

contaminants must be removed so the emitted air meets air quality standards.
ASHRAE Standard 62.1 specifies the exhaust rate for many spaces in terms
of L/s·m2. Examples are 2.5. L/s m2 for barber shops, arenas, locker rooms,
and copy/print rooms. Twice the exhaust, 5 L/s m2, is required for darkrooms,
janitor, trash, recycling, and science classrooms due to the higher anticipated
pollution to be removed.
Air-Movement Effect
ASHRAE Standard 55-2004 includes no minimum air velocity past the occu-
pant for comfort. In the private residential environment, comfort and negligible
air movement are the norm. However, the experiences of many commercial
building operators have shown air motion is a significant benefit to comfort in
mechanically ventilated spaces. The standard further prescribes a maximum rate
of air movement of 0.2 m/s to avoid drafts. Higher air speeds (up to 0.8 m/s)
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may be used to enhance cooling if the air speed is under the occupant’s control.
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Minimum Air Changes
Low air velocity may affect the ability to maintain uniformity of a comfortable
temperature throughout the occupied zone and the dilution of contaminants
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generated within that zone. Occupant comfort has been reported to suffer as a
consequence of low total supply airflow in the space, even when the space tem-
perature is within the comfort envelope. Often, this dissatisfaction is not due to
air change but due to a source of warm or cool radiation, poor temperature/
humidity control, or occupant expectations.
However, to ensure adequate air changes, many designers have adopted a
minimum total supply airflow of 3 to 4 L/s·m2 for office applications. These
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values are based on an all-air system with conventional mixing supply outlets.
They can be reduced when outlets with high induction ratios are employed,
because they increase the average room air motion.
Terminal Air Velocity

Terminal air velocity is the airstream velocity at the end of the throw (the hori-
zontal or vertical axial distance an airstream travels before the stream velocity
is reduced to a specified terminal velocity). The specified terminal velocity
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must be high enough to maintain the desired level of comfort.
Drafts
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A draft is a localized effect caused by one or more factors of high air velocity,
low ambient temperature, or direction of airflow, where more heat is with-
drawn from a person’s skin than is normally dissipated. It can be thought of as
any air motion that causes discomfort. Air movement in excess of 0.2 m/s may
well be considered a draft. The location of the draft has considerable effect.
The back of the neck and the ankle are the most sensitive exposed locations.
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Stratification
Stratification in a space (such as an atrium or other high-ceiling room) is the
division of air into a series of temperature layers. If conditioned air is intro-
duced at about the 3 m level or below, the space close to the floor is condi-
tioned. The cooling requirements of the elements above the 3 m level may be
reduced.
Principles of Space Air Distribution

Room air distribution systems can be classified as mixing, displacement, and
local systems.
Mixing Systems
Conditioned air is normally supplied to air outlets at velocities much greater
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than those acceptable in the occupied zone. This relatively high velocity jet of
air stimulates mixing and air movement to create relatively uniform air condi-
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tions in the occupied zone. The exception is underfloor systems, which supply
air from below the floor. Underfloor systems are considered in additional detail
in the next section.
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Mixing air outlets (underfloor excepted) are classified into five groups:
• Group A outlets are mounted in or near the ceiling and discharge air hori-
zontally (see Figure 3-4). Because these outlets discharge horizontally near
the ceiling, the warmest air in the room is mixed immediately with the cool
primary supply air above the occupied zone. Consequently, these outlets
are capable of handling relatively large quantities of air at large temperature
differentials when cooling.
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During heating, warm supply air introduced at the ceiling can cause
stratification in the space if there is insufficient induction of room air at the
outlet. Selecting diffusers properly, limiting the room supply temperature
differential, and maintaining air supply rates at a level high enough to
ensure air mixing by induction can provide adequate air diffusion and min-
imize stratification.
• Group B outlets are mounted in or near the floor and discharge air vertically
in a nonspreading jet. Figure 3-5 shows that a stagnant zone forms outside
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the conditioned-air region above its terminal point. Judgment is needed to
determine the acceptable size of the space outside the conditioned-air zone.
A distance of 4.5 to 6 m between the drop region and the exposed wall is a
conservative design value.
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A comparison of Figures 3-4 and 3-5 for heating shows that the stag-
nant region is smaller for Group B than for Group A outlets because the air
entrained in the immediate vicinity of the outlet is taken mainly from the
stagnant region, which is the coolest air in the room. This results in greater
temperature equalization and less buoyancy in the total air than occurs with
Group A outlets. Cooling effectiveness of Group B is inferior to Group A
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for the same reasons.

• Group C outlets are mounted in or near the floor and discharge air in a ver-
tical spreading jet (Figure 3-6). Although outlets of this group are related to
Group B, they are characterized by wide-spreading jets and diffusing
action. Conditioned air and room air characteristics are similar to those of
Group B, but the stagnant zone formed is larger during cooling and smaller
during heating.
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Figure 3-4 Air motion characteristics of Group A outlets.

51
et
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Figure 3-5 Air motion characteristics of Group B outlets.
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Diffusion of the primary air usually causes the conditioned air space to
fold back on the primary air during cooling, instead of following the ceil-
ing. This diffusing action of the outlets makes it more difficult to project
the cool air, but it also provides a greater area for induction of room air.
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This action is beneficial during heating, because the induced air comes
from the lower regions of the room.
• Group D outlets are mounted in or near the floor and discharge air hori-
zontally (see Figure 3-7). This group includes baseboard and low side-
wall registers and similar outlets that discharge the primary air in single
or multiple jets. However, because the air is discharged horizontally
across the floor, the total air during cooling remains near the floor, and a
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Figure 3-6 Air motion characteristics of Group C outlets.
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large stagnant zone forms in the entire upper region of the room. During
heating, the conditioned air rises toward the ceiling because of the buoy-
ant effect of warm air. The temperature variations are uniform except in
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the conditioned-air region.

• Group E outlets are mounted in or near the ceiling and project primary air
vertically (see Figure 3-8). During cooling, the conditioned air projects
toward and follows the floor, producing a stagnant region near the ceiling.
During heating, the conditioned airflow reaches the floor and folds back
toward the ceiling. If projected air does not reach the floor, a stagnant zone
results.
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Figure 3-7 Air motion characteristics of Group D outlets.
The principles of air diffusion found in these five groups are as follows:
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• The primary air from the outlet down to a velocity of about 0.75 m/s can be
treated analytically. The heating or cooling load has a strong effect on the
characteristics of the primary air.
• The conditioned air (shown by lightly shaded envelopes in Figures 3-4
through 3-8) is influenced by the primary air and is of relatively high veloc-
ity (but less than 0.75 m/s), with air temperatures generally within 0.5°C of
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Figure 3-8 Air motion characteristics of Group E outlets.
room temperature. The conditioned air is also influenced by the environ-

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ment and drops during cooling or rises during heating; it is not subject to
precise analytical treatment.
• Natural convection currents form stagnant zones from the ceiling down
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during cooling and from the floor up during heating. This zone forms
below the terminal point of the conditioned air during heating and above
the terminal point during cooling. Because this zone results from natural
convection currents, the air velocities within it are usually low (approxi-
mately 0.1 m/s), and the air stratifies in layers of increasing temperatures.
The concept of a stagnant zone is important in properly applying and
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selecting outlets, because it considers the natural convection currents from

warm and cold surfaces and internal loads.
• A return inlet affects the room air motion only within its immediate vicin-
ity. The intake should be located in the stagnant zone to return the warmest
room air during cooling or the coolest room air during heating. The impor-
tance of the location depends on the relative size of the stagnant zone that
results from various types of outlets.
• The general room air motion (shown by clear areas in Figures 3-4 through
3-8) is a gentle drifting of air. Room conditions are maintained by the
entrainment of the room air into the conditioned airstream. The room air
motion between the stagnant zone and the conditioned air is relatively slow
and uniform. The highest air motion occurs in and near the conditioned air-
streams.
This review of outlets and their resulting airflows indicates that the air
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velocity and temperature vary substantially through the occupied space. The air-
flows are also different in cooling and heating modes. For cooling mode, a stan-
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dard method for rating diffusers has been developed called the Air Diffusion
Performance Index (ADPI). The ADPI for an outlet is the percentage of points
within the occupied space where the draft temperature, , is between –1.5°C
and +1°C and the air velocity is below 0.35 m/s.
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The draft temperature is a measure of perceived temperature difference at
one location compared to the average temperature and air velocity of 0.15 m/s.
The draft temperature is calculated as
Draft temperature = = (tactual – taverage) – 8(local air velocity – 0.15)
For example, a location temperature 1°C cooler than room average with air
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velocity of 0.2 m/s has a draft temperature of
= – 1 – 8 0.2 – 0.15 = – 1 – 0.4 = – 1.4°C
This reduction in perceived temperature due to the draft helps reduce the
effect of the space being too warm. It also makes the space feel even colder
when the air temperature is cool. Thus, people may complain about drafts
when the space is cool, although the air velocity is the same as when the space
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was warm.
To calculate the ADPI, a test room with air supplied 11°C cooler than room
average is checked at an array of points within the occupied zone, and the per-
centage within the draft temperature range is the ADPI. Full details of the
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ADPI methodology are given in ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 113-2009, Method of

Testing for Room Air Diffusion (ASHRAE 2009). Outlet performance selection
data from numerous tests is shown for high sidewall outlets in Table 3-1.
Now consider a 6 × 6 m office with a cooling load of 70 W/m2 that is cooled
by a sidewall diffuser. We see for a room load of 65 W/m2, the maximum ADPI
of 85 is obtained with a T0.25/L of 1.5 and the ADPI range is 1.0–1.9 for over
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80%. Aiming for the maximum, we would choose a grille with a 0.25 m/s termi-
nal velocity throw of 1.5 times the room length: T0.25/6 = 1.5, so T0.25 = 9 m.
Underfloor Air Distribution Systems

Underfloor air distribution (UFAD) is supplied from a raised floor through
numerous small floor grilles. The floor typically consists of 600 mm2 metal
Table 3-1 Air Diffusion Performance Index (ADPI) Selection Guide

T0.25/L
Terminal Room Load, Maximum For ADPI
for Maximum Range of T0.25/L
Device W/m2 ADPI Greater Than
ADPI
250 1.8 68 — —
High sidewall
190 1.8 72 70 1.5–2.2
grilles
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125 1.6 78 70 1.2–2.3
65 1.5 85 80 1.0–1.9
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plates, or tiles, supported by a 250 500 mm high supporting leg, or column, at
each corner. Some of the tiles have outlet grilles installed in them. The tiles can
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be lifted and moved around, making grille relocation, addition, or removal a
simple task (see Figure 3-9). Typically, the floor is covered with carpet tiles,
and laying these with their joints not aligned with the tile joints substantially
reduces uncontrolled leakage from the floor plenum.
Air at 14°C to 18°C is supplied to the cavity and discharges through the
floor grilles. The floor grilles are designed to create mixing so that the velocity
is below 0.3 m/s within 1.2 m of the floor. You can think of the air as turbulent
columns spreading out as they flow toward the ceiling. Return air is taken from
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the ceiling or high on the wall. The rising column of air takes contaminants
with it up and out of the breathing zone. This sweep-away action is considered
more effective rather than mix-and-dilute. As a result, the ventilation require-
ments of ASHRAE Standard 62.1 can be satisfied with 10% less outside air.
There are numerous outlets because the individual outlet volume is typi-
cally limited to 50 L/s. The entering air does not sweep past the occupants as
occurs in displacement ventilation, so there is no restriction on cooling capac-
ity. However, there is a limit on how well the system works with rapidly chang-
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ing loads. For spaces with high solar cooling loads or high winter perimeter
heating loads, thermostatically controlled fan coils or other methods are
required to modulate the capacity to match the changing load.
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Because the air rises toward the ceiling, the convection heat loads above the
occupied zone do not influence the occupied zone temperature. Therefore, the
return air temperature can be warmer than the occupied zone and a return air
temperature sensor is a poor indicator of occupied zone temperature.
The cool plenum air flows continuously over the structural floor that acts
somewhat as a passive thermal storage unit. This storage can be used to reduce
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peak loads and means that the system is slow to respond to change. Night set-
back of temperature is not advisable, and many systems are run continuously
but without outside air during unoccupied hours.
For perimeter heating, small fan-coil units can be installed under the floor
using finned hot-water pipes or electric coils. The tempering of the plenum air
as it flows over the structure often makes it necessary to duct the plenum air
some 3 4 m to the perimeter fan coils to maintain an adequately low supply
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Figure 3-9 Underfloor air distribution.
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temperature. Similarly, conference rooms that have a highly variable load can
have a thermostatically controlled fan to boost the flow into the room when it is
occupied.
A modification of the underfloor system with individual grilles is the use of
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a porous floor. The floor tiles are perforated with an array of small holes, and a
porous carpet tile allows air to flow upwards over the entire tile area. This is a
modification of the standard grill and has yet to gain popularity.
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The underfloor air delivery system has the following advantages:
• Changing the layouts of partitions and electrical and communications

cables is easy. For buildings with high churn (frequent layout changes), this
flexibility may in itself make the added cost of the floor economically justi-
fied.
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• The flow of air across the concrete structural floor provides passive thermal
storage.
• When the main supply duct and branches to the floor plenums are part of a
well-integrated architectural design, the air-supply pressure drop can be
very low, resulting in fan power savings.
• Less ventilation outside air can potentially be used.
Disadvantages include
• a significant cost per square metre for the floor system supply, installation,
and maintenance;
• a tendency to require a greater floor-to-floor height, because space for
lights and return air ducts is still required at the ceiling level; and
• a need for specific and detailed knowledge and skills on the part of the
designer and installers. Examples include coordination between floor lay-
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out and duct layout to avoid floor pedestals through the duct, and sealing
the structure and other service penetrations into the plenum to minimize
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uncontrolled leakage.
Displacement Systems
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In displacement systems, conditioned air with a temperature slightly lower than
the desired room air temperature in the occupied zone is supplied from air out-
lets at low air velocities of 0.5 m/s or less. The outlets are at or near the floor
level for comfort conditioning, and the supply air is directly introduced to the
occupied zone. Returns are located at or close to the ceiling through which the
warm room air is exhausted from the room.
The supply air is spread over the floor and then rises as it is heated by the
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heat sources in the occupied zone. Heat sources (such as people, computers,
etc.) in the occupied zone create upward convective flows in the form of ther-
mal plumes. These plumes remove heat and contaminants, as they are less
dense than the surrounding air (see Figure 3-10). In contrast to mixing ventila-
tion, displacement ventilation is designed to minimize mixing of air within the
occupied zone.
Unidirectional Airflow Systems

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In a unidirectional airflow system, air is either supplied from the ceiling and
exhausted through the floor, typical of many hospital operating theatre systems
(or vice versa), or supplied through the wall and exhausted through returns at
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the opposite wall, typical of many industrial cleanroom systems. The outlets
are uniformly distributed to provide a low turbulent airflow across the entire
room. This type of system is mainly used for ventilating cleanrooms or high
air-change areas in which the main objective is to remove contaminant parti-
cles within the room. It is also used in areas where a unidirectional airflow is
desired (such as computer rooms, paint booths, etc.).
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Local Systems
Air is supplied locally for occupied regions, such as desks in offices or working
places in industrial buildings. Conditioned air is supplied toward the breathing
zone of the occupants to create comfortable conditions and/or to reduce the con-
centration of pollutants. Several special air diffusers are available. Figure 3-11
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Figure 3-10 Schematic of displacement ventilation.
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Figure 3-11 Localized ventilation.

shows one such arrangement, with diffusers placed on the desks in front of the
occupants and the supply air coming from a raised floor plenum.
Exhaust and Return Air Pickup

Return and exhaust air openings should be located to minimize short circuiting
of supply air into the return air opening. If air is supplied by the jets attached to
the ceiling, exhaust openings should be located between the jets or at the other
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side of the room away from the supply air jets. In a room with temperature
stratification along its height, exhaust openings should be located near the ceil-
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ing to collect warm air, odors, and fumes.
For industrial rooms with gas release, selection of exhaust opening loca-
tions depends on the specific weight of the released gases and their tempera-
tures. The locations should be specified for each application.
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Exhaust outlets located in walls, depending on their elevation, have the
characteristics of either floor or ceiling returns. In large buildings with many
small rooms, return air should not be brought through door grilles or undercuts
into the corridors and then to a common return or exhaust, because smoke
would accumulate in the main egress pathway in the case of a fire. Most build-
ing codes restrict the application.
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Room System Balancing
Room system balancing is adjusting the airflows within the room so they are
in accordance with specified design quantities. In designing a system, ducts
and diffusers should be sized so that the supply of air is distributed properly.
However, for flexibility and cost considerations, standard sizes are typically
used. Consequently, the room as designed may not be self balancing. The
results of an unbalanced room system can be drafts, doors slamming shut or
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open, and other undesirable effects. Air system balancing is discussed in
Chapter 11.
Types of Air Distribution Devices

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Supply air outlets and diffusing equipment introduce air into a conditioned
space to obtain a desired environment. Return and exhaust air are removed
from a space through return and exhaust inlets. This section discusses some
common types of diffusing equipment.
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Supply Air Outlets

The following basic supply outlet types are commonly available: grille outlets,
slot diffuser outlets, ceiling diffuser outlets, and perforated ceiling panels.
These differ in their construction features, physical configurations, and the way
they diffuse or disperse supply air and induce or entrain room air into a primary
airstream.
Grille Outlets
A grille outlet may be louvered or perforated and located in a sidewall, ceiling,
or floor. Several types of grilles are available:
• Adjustable bar grille. This is the most common type of grille, used as a
supply outlet. It is available as either a single-deflection grille (with a single
set of vanes) or double-deflection grille (with two sets of vanes, one in front
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of the other at right angles to each other). Vertical vanes deflect the air-
stream in the horizontal plane; horizontal vanes deflect the airstream in the
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vertical plane.
• Fixed bar grille. This type of grille is similar to the adjustable single-
deflection grille except that the vanes are not adjustable. The vanes may be
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straight or set at an angle. The angle at which the air is discharged from this
grille depends on the type of deflection vanes.
• Stamped grille. This grille is stamped from a single sheet of metal to form
openings through which air can pass.
• Variable area grille. This type of grille is similar to the adjustable double-
deflection grille but can vary the discharge area to achieve an air volume
change (variable volume outlet) at constant pressure, so that the variation in
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throw is minimized for a given change in supply air volume.
Properly selected grilles operate satisfactorily from high side wall and
perimeter locations in the sill, curb, or floor. Ceiling-mounted grilles, which
discharge the airstream down, are generally unacceptable in comfort air-
conditioning installations in interior zones and may cause drafts in perime-
ter applications.
Accessories available for grille outlets include the following:
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• Opposed-blade dampers. These can be attached to the backs of grilles (the
combination of a grille and a damper is called a register) or installed as sep-
arate units in the duct (see Figure 3–12a). Adjacent blades of this damper
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rotate in opposite directions and may receive air from any direction, dis-
charging it in a series of jets without adversely deflecting the airstream to
one side of the duct.
• Parallel-blade dampers. These have a series of gang-operated blades that
rotate in the same direction (see Figure 3–12b). This uniform rotation
deflects the airstream when the damper is partially open.
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• Gang-operated turning vanes (extractors). These are sometimes installed

in collar connections to grilles near the main ducts. The device shown in
Figure 3-12c has vanes that pivot and remain parallel to the duct airflow,
regardless of the setting. This allows for field adjustment, which the fixed
set of vanes shown in Figure 3-12d do not allow.
• Dual blade collector. Figure 3-12e shows a dual blade collector and turning
vane allowing directional control of the air as it enters the outlet.
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Figure 3-12
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Grille and register outlet accessory controls.
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Slot Diffuser Outlets
A slot diffuser is an elongated outlet consisting of single or multiple slots. It is
usually installed in long, continuous lengths. Outlets with dimensional aspect
ratios of 25:1 or greater and a maximum opening of approximately 75 mm gen-
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erally meet the performance criteria for slot diffusers.
Slot diffusers are usually equipped with accessory devices for uniform
supply air discharge along the entire length of the slot. While accessory
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devices help correct the airflow pattern, proper approach conditions for the
airstream are also important for satisfactory performance. When the plenum
supplying a slot diffuser is designed, the transverse velocity in the plenum
should be less than the discharge velocity of the jet, as recommended by the
manufacturer and as shown by experience.
If tapered ducts are used for introducing supply air into the diffuser, they
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should be sized to maintain a velocity of about 2.5 m/s and tapered to maintain
constant static pressure.
Slot diffusers that have a single-slot discharge are available for use in con-
junction with recessed fluorescent light troffers. A plenum mates with a light
fixture and is concealed from the room. It discharges air through openings in
the fixture and is available with fixed or adjustable air discharge patterns, air
distribution plenum, inlet dampers for balancing, and inlet collars suitable for
flexible duct connections. Accessories available for slot diffuser outlets include
dampers and flow equalizing vanes.
Ceiling Diffuser Outlets

A ceiling diffuser is a supply air diffuser designed for ceiling mounting. A
number of designs are available:
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• Multipassage ceiling diffusers. These diffusers consist of a series of flaring
rings or louvers that form a series of concentric air passages. They may be
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round, square, or rectangular. For easy installation, these diffusers are often
made in two parts: an outer shell with a duct collar, and a removable inner
assembly.
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• Flush and stepped-down diffusers. In the flush unit, all rings or louvers
project to a plane surface. In the stepped-down unit, the rings project
beyond the surface of the outer shell.
• Perforated diffusers. These meet architectural demands for air outlets that
blend into ceilings. Each has a perforated metal face with an open area of
10% to 50% that determines its capacity. Units are usually equipped with
deflection devices to obtain multipattern horizontal air discharge. Large
perforated diffusers are used to provide laminar flow in laboratories, hos-
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pital operating rooms, and other spaces having high air-change rates.
Designers are cautioned to thoroughly investigate the airflow and induc-
tion characteristics under both cooling and heating conditions for this
type of diffuser, particularly in applications with varying airflows, such
as variable-air-volume systems.
• Variable-area diffusers. These feature a means of varying the discharge
area to achieve an air volume change (variable volume outlet) at a constant
pressure so that the variation in throw is minimized for a given change in
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supply air volume.
• Antismudge rings. These are round or square metal frames attached to and
extending approximately 100 to 300 mm beyond the outer edge of the dif-
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fuser. Their purpose is to minimize ceiling smudging.
Dampering and accessories of various types are available for ceiling

diffusers:
• Multilouver dampers. Consisting of a series of parallel blades mounted

inside a frame, multilouver dampers are installed in the diffuser collar or
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the duct system branch. The blades are usually arranged in two groups
rotating in opposite directions and are key operated from the face of the dif-
fuser (see Figure 3-13a).
• Opposed-blade dampers. These usually consist of a series of pie-shaped
vanes mounted inside a round frame installed in the diffuser collar or the
duct system branch. The vanes pivot about a horizontal axis and are
arranged in two groups, with adjacent vanes rotating counter to each other
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Figure 3-13 Ceiling diffuser outlet accessory controls.
(see Figure 3-13b). The vanes are key operated from the diffuser face.
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Another opposed-blade design is similar in construction to the damper
shown in Figure 3-12a and has either a round or square frame. Designers
should note that volume-control devices near outlets can generate objec-
tionable noise.
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• Blank-off baffles. These baffles are used for minor adjustments of the air-
flow from a diffuser. They blank off a section of the diffuser and prevent the
supply air from striking an obstruction such as a column, partition or the
wall of the conditioned space by reducing flow in a given direction. Blank-
off baffles generally reduce the area and increase supply air velocity, which
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must be considered when selecting diffuser size. Pattern control in diffusers

having removable directional cores may be accomplished by rearranging the
cores, generally without a change in area or increase in velocity.
Due to noise considerations, dampening in the branch duct to the diffuser is

preferable to a damper in the diffuser, as long as there is easy access to the
damper.
Procedure for Outlet Selection

The following procedure is generally used in selecting outlet locations and
types:
• Based on system design and heating and cooling load calculations, deter-
mine the amount of air to be supplied to each room.
• Select the type and quantity of outlets for each room, considering such fac-
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tors as air quantity required, distance available for throw or radius of diffu-
sion, structural characteristics, and architectural concepts. Table 3-2 is
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based on experience and typical ratings of various outlets. It may be used
as a guide for the outlets applicable for use with various room air loadings.
Manufacturers’ ratings should be consulted to determine the suitability of
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the outlets used.
• Locate outlets in the room to distribute the air as uniformly as possible.
Outlets may be sized and located to distribute air in proportion to the heat
gain or loss in various parts of the room.
• Select proper outlet size from manufacturers’ ratings according to air quan-
tities, discharge velocities, distribution patterns and sound levels. Obstruc-
tions to the primary air distribution pattern require special consideration.
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Other Supply Air Outlet Considerations
Other supply air outlet considerations include the surface effect, smudging, and
sound level.
The induction or entrainment characteristics of a moving airstream cause a
surface effect. An airstream moving adjacent to or in contact with a wall or
ceiling surface creates a low-pressure area immediately adjacent to that sur-
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face, causing the air to remain in contact with the surface substantially
throughout the length of throw. The surface effect counteracts the drop of hori-
zontally projected cool airstreams.
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Smudging occurs with the use of ceiling and slot diffusers. Dirt particles
held in suspension in the room air are subjected to turbulence at the outlet face.
Table 3-2 Outlet Usage Guide

Air Loading of Floor Space, Approximate Maximum ach
Type of Outlet
L/s·m2 for a Three-Meter Ceiling
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Grille 3–6 7
Slot 4–10 12
Perforated panel 4.5–15 18
Ceiling diffuser 4–25 30
Perforated ceiling 5–50 60
This turbulence is primarily responsible for smudging. The cleanliness of the

room affects when the smudging becomes visible.
An outlet’s sound level is a function of the damper arrangement, discharge
velocity, and transmission of systemic noise, all of which are influenced by the
size of the outlet and the duct velocity. Higher-frequency sounds can be the
result of excessive outlet velocity but may also be generated in the duct by the
moving airstream. Lower-pitched sounds are generally the result of mechanical
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equipment noise transmitted through the duct system and outlet. The cause of
higher-frequency sounds can be pinpointed as outlet or systemic sounds by
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removing the outlet during operation. A reduction in sound level with the outlet
removed indicates the portion of the noise caused by the outlet. If the sound
level remains essentially unchanged, the system is at fault. Sound is covered in
greater detail in Chapter 10.
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Suggested duct velocities, where takeoffs to grilles or diffusers are close to
the outlet are as follows:
• Acceptable high noise levels: 7.5 m/s maximum

• General office of classroom: 5 m/s maximum
• Noise-sensitive areas: 4 m/s maximum
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Return inlets may either be connected to a duct or be simple vents that
transfer air from one area to another. Exhaust inlets remove air directly from a
building and are always connected to a duct or directly to outside. Whatever
the arrangement, inlet size and configuration determine velocity and pressure
requirements for the required airflow.
In general, the same types of equipment (for example, grilles, slot diffusers,
and ceiling diffusers) used for supplying air may also be used for air return and
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exhaust. Return and exhaust inlets do not require the accessory devices used in
supply outlets. However, dampers are necessary when it is desirable to balance
the airflow in the return duct system.
Return and exhaust inlets may be mounted in almost any location, includ-
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ing ceilings, high or low side walls, and floors, when using mixing systems for
supply. When using displacement and underfloor supply, distributed ceiling
exhaust is required. The opposed-blade dampers shown in Figure 3-12a are
used in conjunction with grille return and exhaust inlets. The type of damper
does not affect the performance of the inlet. Usually, no other accessory
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devices are required.
The Next Step

This chapter discussed human comfort and air distribution within the occupied
space. This air is supplied by a distribution system. Chapter 4 introduces the
various air systems that provide the conditioned air.
Summary
The space, the individual, and the individual’s current activity affect human
comfort. Thermal comfort depends on individual characteristics and the ability
of the body to reject heat primarily by convection and evaporation. Radiation is
usually less important.
The main thermal factors affecting comfort are: dry-bulb temperature, rela-
tive humidity, thermal radiation, air movement, insulation value of clothing,
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activity level, and direct contact with warmer or cooler surfaces. ASHRAE
Standard 55 details requirements for thermal comfort.
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ASHRAE Standard 62.1 prescribes supply ventilation rates, requirements for
contaminant removal, and exhaust rates for human satisfaction with air quality.
Room air distribution systems are classified as mixing, underfloor, dis-
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placement, and local systems. In mixing systems, the air enters the occupied
zone at a fairly high velocity and mixes with zone air to be at an acceptable
velocity and average temperature in the occupied space. Inlets are divided into
five groups for air movement classification.
With mixing systems, the profile of the primary air jet can be forecast with
some certainty. But as the primary jet mixes with room air, its behavior is mod-
ified by the temperature difference between primary air and room air and the
shape of the space. When the primary air is cooler, there is a tendency for the
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air to drop and for stagnant areas to occur near the floor. In most comfort situa-
tions, a general drift of air occurs through the space. This general drift is not
influenced significantly by the location of the return air outlet.
The performances of various types of mixing outlets were analyzed for
their relative ability to maintain comfort conditions throughout a space. This
data is presented as the Air Diffusion Performance Index and can be used to
make choices about outlets.
Underfloor air distribution (UFAD) uses a plenum created above the struc-
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tural floor using 600 mm2 metal panels on support columns. The air at 14°C to
18°C is supplied up through diffusers distributed among the floor panels. The
system uses the vertical supply and convection to lift the air toward ceiling out-
lets. As the air flows across the structure, the structure acts as a thermal buffer,
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and the system is slow to change.

In UFAD systems, perimeter heating and cooling can be challenging. The
use of perimeter fan coils and some ducting may be required to provide ade-
quate capacity.
The UFAD system has advantages in layout flexibility, structural thermal
storage, lower fan power in some cases, and a 10% lower requirement for out-
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side ventilation air. However, these advantages must be balanced with the cost
of the floor, possibly greater floor-to-floor height, and a need for competent
design and construction.
Displacement systems, for comfort, supply a large volume of low-velocity
air near room temperature. Outlets are close to or at floor level, so the air
sweeps across the space and convection lifts the contaminated air to high-level
return outlets. The system minimizes mixing.
A wide range of grille outlets with fixed or/and adjustable vanes provides a
supply of air shaped from a narrow jet perpendicular to the room surface for a
long throw to a wide spreading, short-throw jet. The flow and throw may be
adjusted by using the grille blades or adjustable damper and turning vane
accessories.
Slot diffuser outlets are long, narrow (75 mm or less), grille-like outlets
designed for ceiling installation on their own or as part of the long side of fluo-
rescent light fixtures. Their long, narrow supply of air mixes quickly with room
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air to avoid primary air drafts in the occupied zone. Due to their length, the air
supply must be carefully designed to obtain consistent performance.
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Supply air ceiling diffusers have flaring vanes with an open or perforated
face. They spread the air across the ceiling, entraining room air to produce a
large volume of well-mixed circulating air.
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Having established the quantity of supply air, a preliminary choice of outlet
style and layout can be made. Using manufacturers’ data on airflow and sound
generation, the final airflows and layout are determined. The diffuser choice is
often significantly influenced by the available duct space for bringing air to the
space and the room aesthetics.
Return air outlets can use the same grilles or diffusers but no direction con-
trol is needed, although a damper for balancing may be required. The location
is not critical for mixing systems but must be high in the room for floor supply
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and displacement systems.
References and Bibliography

ASHRAE. 2004. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2004, Thermal Environmental
Conditions for Human Occupancy. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2007. Air-Conditioning Systems Design Manual, Second edition.
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Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2007. ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications. Atlanta: Ameri-
can Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
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neers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2009. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 113-2009, Method of Testing for
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Room Air Diffusion. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating

and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2010. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2010, Ventilation for Accept-
able Indoor Air Quality. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerat-
ing and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
EPA. 1987. National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards.
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40 Part 50 (40 CFR 50). United States
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

3-1 The human body uses which of the following heat transfer mechanisms?
a) radiation b) convection c) evaporation d) all of the above
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3-2 The perception of comfort relates to which of the following?
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a) individual physical condition
b) body heat exchange with the surroundings
c) physiological characteristics
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d) all of the above
3-3 Based on the comfort chart from ASHRAE Standard 55 (Figure 3-2), which of
the following would be within the acceptable range of temperature and humid-
ity for human comfort when wearing light summer clothing?
a) 27°C, 30% RH b) 25°C, 50% RH
c) 23°C, 40% RH d) both a and b
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3-4 In a system with 7000 annual wet-bulb degree hours above 19°C, with a maxi-
mum 55% RH indoor desired, and 72 h of cooling system operation per week,
the energy used will be _______________ × 1000 mJ per year per 1000 L/s.
a) 87 b) 130 c) 155 d) none of the above
3-5 The __________________ procedure for determining the required ventilation
rate is based on knowledge of the contaminants being generated within the
space and the capability of the ventilation air supply to limit them to acceptable
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levels.
a) indoor air quality b) ventilation rate
c) contaminant mitigation d) all of the above
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3-6 Many designers have adopted a minimum total supply airflow of ___________
for office applications.
a) 0.6 to 1.8 L/s·m2 b) 3.6 to 4.8 L/s·m2
c) 1.2 to 12.0 L/s·m2 d) all of the above
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3-7 The airstream velocity at the end of the throw is called _______________.
a) terminal velocity b) primary velocity
c) airstream velocity d) all of the above
3-8 _________________ air distribution systems create relatively uniform air con-
ditions in the occupied zone.
a) Unidirectional b) Local c) Mixing d) All of the above
3-9 The stagnant region of a Group B mixing outlet in a heating-only system is

_______________ the stagnant region of a Group A mixing outlet.
a) larger than b) the same as
c) smaller than d) all of the above
3-10 In displacement systems, the outlets are frequently located _______________.
a) at or near the floor level b) in the walls
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c) in the ceiling d) all of the above
3-11 Smudging is most likely to occur from dirt particles held in suspension in
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_______________
a) room air b) supply air c) return air d) all of the above
3-12
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The fan power for underfloor supply systems can often be less than required
for a ceiling supply mixing system due to which of the following?
a) much cooler supply air
b) the low resistance to airflow in the plenum
c) the insulating value of the floor and carpet
3-13 Underfloor supply systems work well for large open areas and the most effec-
tive control is a thermostat in the return duct.
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a) True b) False
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et
Relationship of Air Systems to
Load and Occupancy Demands
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Study Objectives
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After completing this chapter, you should be able to describe
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operating system criteria;
air systems by heating/cooling equipment type;
air systems by duct configurations; and
considerations for outdoor-air intake.
Instructions
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Operating System Selection Criteria

To select an operating system, detailed building design and use information
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and weather data at selected design conditions are required. Although a
detailed discussion of load calculations is outside the scope of this course, the
air system designer should be aware that generally all of the following are con-
sidered when performing load calculations:
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• Building characteristics. Determine building materials, areas, external sur-

face colors, and shapes from building plans and specifications.
• Building configuration. Determine building location, orientation, and
external shading from building plans and specifications. Shading from
adjacent buildings should be carefully evaluated to assess its probable per-
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manence before including it in the calculation. The possibility of abnor-

mally high ground-reflected solar radiation (for example from adjacent
water, sand, or parking lots) or solar load from adjacent reflective buildings
should be considered.
The thermal zones within the building should be identified. For exam-
ple, external offices with windows have different thermal characteristics
than windowless rooms in the interior of the building. Additionally, some
74 Chapter 4 Relationship of Air Systems to Load and Occupancy Demands
areas of the building may have to be kept at different temperatures than

others.
Room pressure relationships should be considered. For example, in a
building with a natatorium (swimming pool), the air-pressure gradients
within the building should draw air into the natatorium from the rest of the
building rather than vice versa. This prevents the rest of the building from
smelling like a swimming pool. The same concept applies in buildings with
laboratories or areas where noxious smells may be generated.
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The uses to which the building will be put affect the levels of noise per-
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missible in the building. For example, an office environment is typically
less tolerant of noise from the HVAC system than a warehouse.
• Outdoor design conditions. Obtain appropriate weather data (wet- and dry-
bulb temperatures, daily range, heating and cooling degree days, elevation,
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etc.) and select outdoor design conditions from local weather stations. The
2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals also lists outdoor design condi-
tions for a large number of weather stations across the world. The National
Climatic Center in Asheville, North Carolina, has additional data.
• Space psychrometric requirements. Select indoor design conditions, such
as indoor dry-bulb temperature range and indoor wet-bulb temperature (or
relative humidity) range. Note that ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2004,Ther-
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mal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy (ASHRAE 2004)
deals only with comfort. The maximum and minimum levels specified for
comfort are often excessively wide for ensuring no mold growth in the
building fabric or occupant complaints about low humidity in cold cli-
mates. Include permissible variations and control limits. Different areas
within a building may have different psychrometric requirements (for
example a facility having a cleanroom, temperature controlled laboratory,
and general office space).
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• Outdoor-air ventilation requirements for each space. ASHRAE Standard
62.1 specifies the methods of calculating the required supply ventilation
rates and exhaust rates for polluted areas, such as toilets.
The proper design and sizing of central heating and air-conditioning
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systems requires more than calculation of the cooling load in the space to
be conditioned. The type of heating and air-conditioning system, fan
energy, fan location, duct heat loss and gain, duct leakage, heat extraction
lighting systems, and type of return air system all affect system load and
component sizing. Adequate system design and component sizing require
system performance be analyzed as a series of psychrometric processes.
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The 2008 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment (ASHRAE

2008) and the 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (ASHRAE 2009)
describe elements of this technique in detail.
• Operating schedule. Obtain a proposed schedule of lighting, occupants,
internal equipment, appliances, and processes that contribute to the internal
thermal load. Determine the probability that the cooling equipment will be
operated continuously or shut OFF during unoccupied periods (such as
nights and weekends). Performance of the system at part-load conditions

must be considered.
• Date and time. Frequently, several different times of day and several differ-
ent months must be analyzed to determine the peak load time. For example,
Table 4-1 shows peak loads in buildings having a large amount of glass
located at 32°N latitude.
• Owning and operating costs. The total cost of a facility includes the cost of
the HVAC system. The cost of an HVAC system is customarily broken
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down into owning costs and operating costs.
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Owning costs include the initial cost of the system and annual fixed
charges that are present whether the system is used at all (taxes, insurance,
etc.). Operating costs are what it costs to run the system, including energy
and maintenance costs. The 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applica-
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tions (ASHRAE 2007b) provides a detailed discussion of this subject.
System Types by Heating/Cooling Equipment Type

Unitary Equipment Systems
Unitary equipment systems are factory-assembled into an integrated package,
including fans, filters, heating coil, cooling coil, refrigerant compressors,
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refrigerant-side controls, air-side controls, and condenser.
This equipment is manufactured in various configurations to meet a wide
range of applications. Window air conditioners, through-the-wall room air con-
ditioners, rooftop packaged units, air source heat pumps, and water source heat
pumps are examples. This equipment can be applied in single units and as mul-
tiple units to form a complete air-conditioning system for a building.
Single-space applications. Window-mounted and through-the-wall mounted
air conditioners and heat pumps are designed to cool or heat individual room
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spaces. They include a complete system in an individual package. Each room is
an individually controlled zone. Air conditioners and heat pumps are installed in
buildings that require many temperature control zones (such as motels, apart-
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ments, and dormitories). These systems are applicable for renovation of existing
Table 4-1 Peak Load Times

Perimeter Zone Peak Load Time Month
East 8:00 a.m. August
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West 4:00 p.m. August

South 12:00 noon December
North 12:00 noon June
Northeast and Southeast 10:00 a.m. March and October
Northwest and Southwest 2:00 p.m. March and October
Note: Interior zones at times of peak occupancy.
buildings because existing systems can still be used. However, the user should
be cautioned that these systems do not dehumidify and tend to be noisy and
cause drafts.
Entire-building applications. Unitary equipment is used in both outdoor
and indoor locations to cool and heat entire buildings. The complete system
consists of a unit with a condenser, air distribution system, and temperature
controls. The equipment may be single or multizone, installed outdoors on the
roof or at grade level, or indoors in service areas adjacent to the conditioned
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space. Totally indoor condenser installations require the unit be water cooled.
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Multiple-unit systems generally use single-zone units with a unit for each
zone (see Figure 4-1). Zoning is determined by cooling and heating loads,
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Figure 4-1 Multiple packaged units.

occupancy considerations, flexibility requirements, and thermal zones.

Appearance considerations, costs, and equipment and duct space availability
may dictate compromises in selecting the ideal zoning. Designers are also
cautioned to evaluate carefully the use of unitary equipment in cases of more
than 25% outside air. Many unitary systems do not remove sufficient mois-
ture at high outdoor-air quantities. For adequate part-load performance at
high outdoor-air quantities, direct expansion systems may require a hot-gas
bypass to prevent coil freezing.
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In both all-air systems and air-and-water systems, air is used to perform the
heating and cooling function within the occupied space.
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Unitary systems are discussed in detail in the 2008 ASHRAE Handbook—
HVAC Systems and Equipment (ASHRAE 2008).
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All-Air Systems
An all-air system provides complete sensible and latent cooling, preheating,
and humidification capacity in the air supplied by the system. No additional
cooling or humidification is required at the zone, except in special cases. Heat-
ing may be accomplished by the same airstream, either in the central system or
at a particular zone.
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All-air systems may be adapted to many applications for comfort or pro-
cess work. They are used in buildings that require individual control of multi-
ple zones (such as office buildings, schools and universities, laboratories,
hospitals, stores, hotels, and ships).
All-air systems are also commonly used in special applications for close
control of temperature and humidity (including clean rooms, computer rooms,
hospital operating rooms, and research and development facilities) as well as in
many industrial/manufacturing facilities.
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All-air systems have the following advantages:
• The central mechanical equipment room location for major equipment

allows operation and maintenance to be performed in unoccupied areas and
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permits the maximum range of choices of filtration equipment and vibra-

tion and noise control.
• The complete absence within the conditioned area of piping, electrical
equipment, wiring, filters, and vibration- and noise-producing equipment
reduces potential harm to occupants, furnishings, and processes, thereby
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minimizing service needs.

• Systems have the greatest potential for the use of outside air and “free”
cooling systems to augment the use of mechanical refrigeration for cooling.
• Seasonal changeover is simple and readily adaptable to automatic control.
• A wide choice of zoning, flexibility, and humidity control under all operat-
ing conditions is available with the option of simultaneous heating and
cooling, even during off-season periods.
• Air-to-air and other heat recovery systems may be readily incorporated.

• Systems permit good design flexibility for optimum air distribution, draft
control, and adaptability to varying load requirements.
• Systems are well suited to applications requiring unusual exhaust or
makeup air quantities (negative or positive pressurization, etc.).
• Systems adapt well to winter humidification.
• The primary system may be used to introduce outside air required for ven-
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tilation without the need for supplemental systems.
• By increasing the air change rate, these systems are able to maintain oper-
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ating conditions of ±0.5°C dry-bulb and ±5% relative humidity fairly sim-
ply. There are systems that can essentially maintain constant space
conditions.
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All-air systems have the following disadvantages:
• They require additional duct clearance, which reduces usable floor space
and increases the height of the building.
• Depending on layout, vertical shaft space may be needed for distribution,
thereby requiring larger floor planes.
• The accessibility of terminal devices requires close cooperation between
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architectural, mechanical, and structural designers.
• Air balancing, particularly in large systems, can be more difficult.
• Heating systems are not always available for use in providing temporary
heat during construction.
Heating and Cooling Calculations

Basic calculations for airflow, temperatures, relative humidity, loads, and psy-
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chrometrics are covered in the 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals
(ASHRAE 2009). It is important that the designer understand the operation of
the various components of a system, their relationship to the psychrometric
chart, and their interaction under various operating conditions and system con-
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figurations.
Categories of All-Air Systems

All-air systems are classified in two basic categories: single-duct and dual-
duct. These classifications may be further divided as follows:
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• Constant volume: single zone, multiple zoned reheat, bypass

• Variable air volume (VAV): reheat, induction, fan powered, dual conduit,
variable diffusers
• Dual-duct: constant volume, variable volume.
• Multizone: constant volume, variable volume, three deck, Texas multizone
• Combinations of the above systems
Constant-Volume Single-Duct Systems

Single-duct systems contain the main heating and cooling coils in a series flow
air path. A common duct distribution system at a common air temperature feeds
all terminal apparatus. These systems change the supply air temperature in
response to the space load. Variations of the constant-volume single-duct sys-
tem include: single-zone systems, zoned reheat systems, and bypass systems.
The single-zone system is the simplest all-air system using a supply unit to
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serve a single temperature control zone (see Figure 4-2). The unit may be
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installed within or outside of the space it serves, and it may operate with or
without distributing ductwork. In Figure 4-2, heatflows and airflows are indi-
cated by arrows, and temperatures are indicated by t. The subscripts in the
sequence of the airflow are:
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R = room
rp = return plenum
o = outside air
m = mixed air
r = return air
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cc = cooling coil
hc = heating coil
sf = supply fan
s = supply
In the psychrometric chart in Figure 4-2, all pertinent points are identified
by the same subscripts. The room sensible and latent loads are denoted by qSR
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and qLR, respectively, and the outdoor-air sensible and latent loads are denoted
by qSo and qLo, respectively. The cooling load qcc is the difference in enthalpies
between states m and cc.
Note that the cooling coil discharge air draws heat from the supply air fan
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and the supply air ducts, accounting for the difference in dry-bulb temperatures
between points cc and s in Figure 4-2 before entering the room. Room sensible
and latent loads (due to occupants, lights, machinery, solar radiation, transmis-
sion, etc.) are picked up and carried to the return air plenum. Additional heat
may be picked up from recessed ceiling lights, floors above, the roof, and the
return air fan, accounting for the increase in temperature between points R and
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r. Some of the air is exhausted, while outside (ventilation) air o is taken in,
resulting in a mixed airstream m, which is cooled and dehumidified by the
cooling coils, producing the state of air at cc. A heating coil is provided imme-
diately downstream of the cooling coil to raise the air temperature in winter
when required.
Properly designed systems can maintain temperature and humidity
closely and efficiently and can be shut down when desired without affecting
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Figure 4-2 Single-zone schematic and psychrometric chart.

the operation of adjacent areas. They are energy efficient, easy to control,
and easily adaptable to economizers.
The disadvantage of these systems is that they respond to only one set of
space conditions. Therefore, their use is limited to situations where variations
occur approximately uniformly throughout the zone served or where the load is
stable.
Single-zone systems are applicable to small department stores, small indi-
vidual stores in a shopping center, individual classrooms in a school, computer
t
rooms, hospital operating rooms, and large open areas, such as gymnasiums.
For example, a rooftop unit complete with refrigeration system and serving an
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individual space is considered a single-zone system.
However, the refrigeration system may be remote and may serve several
single-zone units in a larger installation. A return fan may be necessary to
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maintain proper space pressure in relation to the outdoor-air inlet pressure and
other adjacent spaces. The designer should consider relief-air fans in place of
return air fans if the relief path has high pressure losses. A system using multi-
ple fan-coil units is a collection of single-zone systems put together to control
different zones.
A single-zone system can be controlled by varying the quantity and/or the
temperature of the supply air, by providing reheat, by face and bypass dampers,
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or by a combination of these.
The multiple-zoned reheat system is a modification of the single-zone sys-
tem. It provides zone or space control for areas of unequal load, simultaneous
heating or cooling of perimeter areas with different exposures, and close toler-
ance of control for process or comfort applications and better performance for
dehumidification. As the word reheat implies, heat is added as a secondary
simultaneous process to preconditioned primary air. Single-duct systems with-
out reheat offer cooling flexibility but cannot control summer humidity inde-
pendent of temperature requirements.
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Single-duct systems with reheat provide flexibility for both temperature
and humidity control; the cooling coil cools the air to the desired humidity
level, and the reheat coil raises the dry-bulb temperature to the desired value.
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However, ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007, Energy Efficient Design

of New Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings (ASHRAE 2007a)
severely restricts the application of reheat, limiting this option to special cases
because of the high energy consumption of the system. If high humidity and
low dry-bulb temperatures are desired, a humidifier may have to be included in
the system.
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The bypass system is a variation of the constant-volume reheat system

using face and bypass dampers in place of reheat. This system is essentially a
constant-volume primary system and may have a VAV secondary system.
Variable-Air-Volume Single-Duct Systems

A VAV system (as shown in Figure 4-3) controls temperature within a space by
varying the quantity of supply air rather than varying the supply air temperature.
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Figure 4-3 Variable-air-volume system schematic and psychrometric chart.

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A VAV terminal device is used at the zone to vary the quantity of supply air to the
space. The supply air temperature is held relatively constant, depending on the
season.
VAV systems are easy to control, are highly energy efficient, allow fairly
good room control, and are easily adaptable to economizers. A potential
drawback includes the possibility of poor ventilation, particularly under low

zone loads. They are suitable for offices, classrooms, and many other appli-
cations, and are currently widely used for commercial and institutional build-
ings despite the fact that humidity control under widely varying latent loads
is difficult.
With the current concern for indoor air quality, care should be exercised to
provide minimum ventilation in any occupied space and required outdoor-air
quantities under all operating conditions. The pressure relationships of the sys-
t
tem change when the supply fan is throttled. Means such as outdoor-air injec-
tion fans with capacity control may be required. The typical return air fan
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generally should not be used because it is difficult to control supply and return
fans in tandem. If relief is necessary, a relief fan with capacity control may be
used.
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VAV systems are available in a number of configurations, includ-
ing the following:
• Simple VAV. This system applies to cooling-only service with no require-

ment for simultaneous heating and cooling in different zones; a typical
application is the interior of an office building. To permit system volume
variations without fan volume control, on chilled-water systems the air sup-
ply can ride the fan curve down to the lowest acceptable airflow, usually at
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least 50% of the full airflow. Care must be exercised in the selection of air
outlets to maintain the desired mixing and throw conditions. Avoid varying
zone air volume while keeping fan and system volume substantially con-
stant by dumping excess air into a return air ceiling plenum or directly into
the return air duct system. Dumping cold air into the return air plenum
wastes energy and can cause overcooling under low load conditions due to
radiation from the cool ceiling surface to the zone below. Dumping can also
cause a shortage of system volume if it is used for system balancing as well
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as temperature control. Dumping and bypassing are generally undesirable.
Fan speed control is preferred.
Figure 4-4a shows the simplest of three VAV box arrangements. It is a
pressure-independent box, which means that it adjusts to allow for varia-
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tions in supply duct pressure. The unit has a velocity sensor that is used to
control for constant velocity and, hence, volume. The room thermostat
requests more or less flow to maintain the room temperature. The box is
lined with acoustically absorbent material, typically protected fiberglass, to
reduce any noise from the higher-pressure air going over the control
damper. Figure 4-4b shows the VAV box with a reheat coil. Typically, the
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supply volume is throttled to minimum flow before the coil is operated to

provide heating.
The final diagram shows a series fan box. This type of box can be
used to maintain the air distribution within the space by keeping a con-
stant volume flowing into the space. The fan capacity meets, or exceeds,
the maximum primary supply airflow. When the primary airflow is
reduced, the fan draws more air from the ceiling plenum, maintaining the
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Figure 4-4 Variable-air-volume box arrangements.
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constant flow. A heating coil may also be included so that the fan and coil
can run as a fan-coil heater unit with the primary air system OFF during
unoccupied hours.
• VAV reheat or VAV dual duct. Full heating/cooling flexibility can be achieved
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more energy efficiently after throttling the cold air supply to the zone.
• VAV perimeter system. All-air cooling and heating can be accomplished by
a constant-volume system serving interior spaces in connection with a VAV
perimeter system. The constant-volume system provides cooling year-
round, taking care of all variations in all zone internal heat gains. The
perimeter system can use an outdoor/indoor temperature schedule VAV air
supply, which simply offsets the skin transmission gains or losses. The
perimeter system requires individual zone control based on solar exposure.

If a hydronic perimeter heating system is provided, the air system accom-
plishes all cooling in all zones year round, while the perimeter heating sys-
tem offsets the winter transmission heat losses, but not the summer
transmission heat gains.
• VAV with constant zone volume. Individual zone fans may be used to main-
tain minimum or constant supply air to the zone while the system primary
air fed to the zone is throttled. Terminals in these systems are commonly
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referred to as fan-powered terminals. The load is satisfied by recirculating
return air, thus keeping the sum of the throttled system air and the recircu-
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lated return air substantially constant. This technique is particularly useful
for zones with large variations of internal loads (such as conference
rooms), and it may be combined with terminal reheat. Fan-powered termi-
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nals can be used to ensure good air circulation in occupied spaces during
periods of reduced cooling load. Care should be taken to ensure that proper
outside air is still delivered to the occupied zone when the primary air is
throttled. A distributed outdoor-air duct system may be required.
• VAV with economizer. When the enthalpy of the outside air is lower than that
of the return air, chiller power can be reduced by taking in more outside air
than is required for ventilation and relieving the excess return air. Under
favorable conditions, all of the return air can be relieved and replaced by out-
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side air. This mode of operation is called an economizer cycle. While this
cycle requires large outdoor-air intakes and exhausts, it improves the econ-
omy of operation except in areas such as the southeastern United States,
where these favorable conditions occur so rarely that the additional first cost
of providing for economizer operation is not justified. Even so, some South-
ern states have adopted energy codes that require the use of an economizer.
• VAV with induction terminal. The VAV induction system uses a terminal
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unit to reduce cooling capacity by simultaneously reducing primary air and
inducing room air or air from the ceiling return plenum to maintain a rela-
tively constant room supply volume.
• Dual-conduit VAV. The dual-conduit system is designed to provide two air
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supply paths: one to offset exterior transmission cooling or heating loads

and the other where cooling is required throughout the year. The typical
terminal device (box) has two inlets, one for cold air and one for hot air or
bypass air. Each inlet has a throttling damper and actuator. Typically, the
cold damper is throttled to a preset minimum condition before the hot
damper is opened.
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• VAV with variable diffusers. These devices reduce the discharge aperture of
the diffuser. This keeps the discharge velocity relatively constant while
reducing the conditioned supply airflow. Under these conditions, the induc-
tion effect of the diffuser is kept high, and cold air mixes in the space.
One of the important and difficult issues with VAV systems is providing
enough ventilation air to each space all the time. Consider a simplified example
where 20% outside air is required at full system flow. If the system, as a whole,
throttles back to 80% capacity, the proportion of outside air will rise to 25%
(20 out of 80). However, if one of the zones is throttled back to 60% flow, it
will only receive 0.6× 0.25 = 0.15, or 15% outside air. ASHRAE Standard 62.1
provides rules for dealing with this issue.
A second issue is ensuring adequate air distribution in the space when the
volume is throttled back. Diffusers that maintain their performance at reduced
flows must be chosen to ensure the ventilation effectiveness is maintained even
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at times of low airflow.
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Constant-Volume Dual-Duct Systems
Dual-duct systems contain the main heating and cooling coils in parallel flow
or series-parallel flow air paths with either a separate cold and warm-air duct
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distribution system that blends the air at the terminal apparatus (dual duct sys-
tems) or a separate supply air duct to each zone, with the supply air blended to
the required temperature at the main unit mixing dampers (multizone). There
are two types of constant-volume dual-duct systems:
• Single fan, no reheat. This is similar to a single-duct system except that it

contains a face-and-bypass damper at the cooling coil arranged to bypass a
mixture of outdoor and recirculated air as the latent heat load fluctuates in
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response to a zone thermostat.
• Single fan, reheat. This is similar to a conventional reheat system. The dif-
ference is that reheat is applied at a central point instead of at individual
zones (see Figure 4-5).
Variable-Air-Volume Dual-Duct Systems

Dual-duct VAV systems blend cold and warm air in various volume combina-
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tions. These systems include:
• Single fan. A single supply fan is sized for the coincident peak of the hot
and cold decks. Control of the fan is by two static pressure controllers: one
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located in the hot deck and the other in the cold deck. The duct requiring
the highest pressure governs the fan airflow.
• Dual fan. The volume of each supply fan is controlled independently by the
static pressure in its respective duct. The return fan is controlled based on
the sum of the hot and cold fan volumes using flow-measuring stations (see
Figure 4-6).
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Multizone Dual-Duct Systems

Multizone systems supply several zones from a single centrally located air-han-
dling unit. Different zone requirements are met by mixing cold and warm air
through zone dampers at the central air handler in response to zone thermostats.
The mixed, conditioned air is distributed throughout the building by a system of
single-zone ducts. The return air is handled in a conventional manner. A Texas
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Figure 4-5 Dual-duct system.
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Figure 4-6 Dual-duct dual-fan system.

multizone system has a heating coil in each mixed-air zone, which is energized
only when the cooling damper is closed.
Air-and-Water Systems
Air-and-water systems condition spaces by distributing air and water sources
to terminal units installed in habitable space throughout the building. The air
and water are cooled or heated in central mechanical rooms. Sometimes a sep-
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arate electric heating coil is included instead of a hot-water coil.
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The room terminal may be an induction unit, a fan-coil unit, or a conven-
tional supply air outlet combined with a radiant panel. Generally, the air supply
has a constant volume and is called primary air to distinguish it from room air
or secondary air that has been induced.
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Induction System
Figure 4-7 shows a basic arrangement for an air-water induction terminal.
Centrally conditioned primary air is supplied to the unit plenum at medium-
to-high pressure. The acoustically treated plenum attenuates part of the noise
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Figure 4-7 Air-water induction terminal.

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Figure 4-8 Fan-coil unit.
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Figure 4-9 Ceiling panel example.

generated in the unit and duct system. A balancing damper adjusts the pri-
mary air quantity within design limits. These systems are not used very often
anymore.
Fan-Coil Systems
Figure 4-8 shows a typical fan-coil unit. The basic elements of fan-coil units
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are a finned-tube coil, filter, and fan section. The fan recirculates air continu-
ously from the space through the coil or coils. The unit may contain an addi-
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tional electric resistance, steam, or hot-water heating coil.
Panel Heating and Cooling Systems
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The sensible heating and cooling loads in a zone can be met by using ceil-
ing panels. An example of one type is shown in Figure 4-9. If the panels are
used for cooling, the panel temperature must not go below the air dewpoint to
avoid any possibility of condensation. The proportion of load is thus limited in
cooling applications, less so in heating applications. One very effective system
is to use ceiling panels with a dedicated outdoor-air system (DOAS). The
DOAS provides a constant volume of conditioned outdoor air for ventilation,
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humidity control, and some cooling. The balance of the cooling load is
absorbed by the ceiling panels. This DOAS with panel cooling
For heating, the floor may also be used as the heating panel. Pipes cast
into a concrete floor with warm water pumped through provide a large area
for low-temperature heating of the space. For wooden floors, the pipes can be
run on the underside of the floor with insulation below to maximize the
upward heat flow.
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Evaporative Cooling
Evaporative coolers exchange sensible heat for latent heat. Evaporative air
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cooling evaporates water into an airstream. Figure 4-10 illustrates thermody-

namic changes that occur between the air and water in direct contact in a
moving airstream. The continuously recirculated water reaches an equilib-
rium temperature equal to the wet-bulb temperature of the entering air. The
heat and mass transfer between the air and water lowers the air dry-bulb tem-
perature and increases the humidity ratio at a constant wet-bulb temperature.
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The extent to which the leaving air temperature approaches the thermody-
namic wet-bulb temperature of the entering air is expressed as a percentage of
evaporative cooling (or saturation effectiveness) and is defined as
t1 – t2
e c = 100 ------------------- (4-1)
t1 – t
e t
Figure 4-10
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Thermodynamic interaction of water and air.
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where
ec = evaporative cooling or saturation effectiveness, %
t1 = dry-bulb temperature of the entering air
t2 = dry-bulb temperature of the leaving air
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t = thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature of the entering air
Evaporative air-cooling equipment can be classified as either direct or indi-
rect. Direct evaporative equipment cools air by direct contact with the water,
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either by an extended wetted-surface material (as in packaged air coolers) or

with a series of sprays (as in an air washer). Indirect systems cool air in a heat
exchanger, which transfers heat to either a secondary airstream that has been
evaporatively cooled (air-to-air) or to water that has been evaporatively cooled
(by a cooling tower).
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System Type by Duct Configuration

Duct construction is classified in terms of application and pressure. HVAC sys-
tems in public assembly, business, educational, general factory, and mercantile
buildings are usually designed as commercial systems. Air-pollution control
systems, industrial exhaust systems and systems outside the pressure range of
commercial system standards are classified as industrial systems.
The designer must select a numerical static pressure class or classes that
satisfy the requirements of the particular system. Duct pressure classification
and duct construction are discussed in Chapter 7.
Air-Side Economizers
Air-handling systems that have access to 100% outside air can provide full
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cooling without the assistance of mechanical refrigeration whenever the out-
side temperature is lower than the required supply air temperature. This so-
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called air-side economizer (see Figure 4-11) is progressively more effective in
northern latitudes, saving up to 70% of mechanical refrigeration energy. In
southern areas (such as Florida), the air-side economizer is seldom used. This
is because the number of hours during which the outside enthalpy falls below
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the controlled space temperature is insufficient to justify the investment in the
return air fan, air-mixing chambers, and louvers necessary to dissipate the air
pressure caused by supplying 100% outside air.
More energy savings are achieved with an economizer when
• the outdoor-air enthalpy is lower than the supply air enthalpy required to
meet the space-cooling load; compressors and chilled water pumps are
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turned OFF; and outdoor-air, return air, and exhaust air dampers are posi-
tioned to attain the required space temperature.
• the outdoor-air enthalpy is higher than the supply air enthalpy but is lower
than the return air enthalpy, compressor and chilled-water pumps are ener-
gized, and the dampers are positioned for 100% outside air.
• the outdoor-air enthalpy exceeds the return air enthalpy and the dampers
are positioned to bring in the minimum outdoor air required for ventilation.
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As a simple rule of thumb, air-side economizers can be based on dry-bulb
temperature (Figure 4-12). But to be truly effective, economizer operation
should be based on enthalpy, as shown in Figure 4-13.
Compartmented air-handling systems that lack the potential for 100% out-
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side air may adopt a winter “free cooling” concept by adding a heat exchanger
in the supply airstream to circulate the cooling tower water for cooling rather
than the chilled water. This adds capital cost for the heat exchanger. Waterside
free cooling is less energy conserving than air-side free cooling, depending on
climate.
Another form of free cooling involves purging the conditioned areas with
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cool night air. Cool night air is passed through the building to cool the entire
structure. Specifically, lights and the structure above them become warm
throughout the day. The cool night purge removes this stored energy, which
reduces the air-conditioning load the following day. This purging cycle is
highly effective in dry climates with low nighttime temperatures, such as in the
southwestern United States, but should not be used in humid climates because
of the potential moisture buildup.
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Figure 4-11 Airside economizer.
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Figure 4-12 Airside temperature economizer cycle.

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Figure 4-13 Enthalpy economizer cycle.
Outdoor-Air Intake
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Outdoor air is air outside a building or air taken from outdoors and not previ-
ously circulated through the system. Outdoor air that flows through a building,
either intentionally as ventilation air or unintentionally as infiltration, is impor-
tant for two reasons:
• Outdoor air is used to dilute indoor air contaminants.

• The energy associated with heating or cooling outdoor air is a significant
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space-conditioning load.
In large buildings, the effect of infiltration and ventilation on distribution

and interzone airflow patterns, which include smoke circulation patterns in the
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event of fire, should be determined; for more information, see “Fire and Smoke
Management” in the ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications. Outside air
can be used to pressurize the building and minimize infiltration.
Outdoor-air intakes should be located so that cross-contamination from
exhaust fans to the intake louver does not occur. Outdoor air is typically
drawn in through louvers designed to minimize the entry of snow, water,
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birds, trash, and other foreign matter into the equipment. Figure 4-14 depicts a
typical outdoor-air louver design. The screen and louver are located suffi-
ciently above the roof to minimize the pickup of roof dust and the probability
of snow accumulating. This height is determined by the annual snowfall.
However, a minimum of 0.75 m is recommended for most areas. In some loca-
tions, doors are added outside the louver for closure during very bad weather
(such as hurricanes and blizzards).
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Figure 4-14 Outdoor-air louver and screen.
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When outdoor air must be drawn in through the roof, a gooseneck outdoor-
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air intake as shown in Figure 4-15 may be used. Codes also restrict the location
of inlets to minimize drawing in contaminated air. ASHRAE Standard 62.1
requires the following to minimize rain entrainment:
Use rain hoods sized for no more than 2.5 m/s face velocity with a
downward-facing intake so that all intake air passes upward through a
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horizontal plane that intersects the solid surfaces of the hood before
entering the system.
The Next Step

This chapter considered supply air systems. Chapter 5 considers exhaust sys-
tems to remove excess air and contaminants from a building.
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Gooseneck outdoor-air intake.
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Figure 4-15
Summary
System selection depends on many factors, including the following:
• Building construction
• Building layout
• Schedule of operation and use of spaces
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• Summer and winter external design conditions
• Internal design requirements and limits for ventilation, filtration, tempera-
e
ture, humidity, and pressure
• Owning and operating cost requirements
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Once the requirements are known, the most appropriate system can be
selected.
Complete, factory assembled units range from the small window air-
conditioner serving a single room to large packages serving a whole build-
ing. Larger units may be supplied as a set of bolt-together parts. These range
from the economical mass-produced window unit up to the best one-off
designed unit.
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An all-air system provides complete sensible and latent cooling, heating,
humidification, ventilation, and filtration through the air supplied to each
space. Their main advantage is that the equipment is located outside the occu-
pied space, which is particularly important in many clean spaces in manufac-
turing and medical facilities. These systems allow for free cooling with outside
air and heat recovery from the exhaust; they provide air for processes with high
exhaust needs as well as flexibility in zoning and control performance.
Disadvantages of all-air systems include requiring space for ducting to
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each zone from the mechanical room, careful integration with the architectural
layout, and other services.
Systems provide temperature control by varying the air volume and/or tem-
perature to each zone. For a system serving a single zone, this can be achieved
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at the main unit. For multiple zones, the varying loads in each zone can be
served by one of the following main system types or a modification of such:
• Multizone: Mixing of warm and cool air at the main unit to provide a sepa-
rately ducted supply to each zone.
• VAV: Single supply duct supplying cool air to a variable-air-volume damper
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on the branch to each zone (with a reheat coil if required).

• Reheat: Single supply duct supplying a constant volume of cool air with a
reheat at each zone branch.
• Dual duct: Two ducts, one with warm air and one with cold air, run through
the building. At each zone, air from each duct is connected to a dual-duct
box, which chooses the proportion of warm and cool air to deliver to the
zone to maintain temperature control.
Air-and-water systems provide ventilation and humidity control by supply-

ing air to each zone, while the majority of the cooling and heating loads are
dealt with by water coils in the zone. The ventilation air may be used as a
power source for inducing room air over the coil, as in induction system, or
fan-coil units may be used.
Evaporative coolers evaporate water into the air. The water absorbs latent
heat to evaporate. This heat comes from the air, which lowers the air tempera-
t
ture. In direct evaporative coolers, cooler, wetter air is produced. In indirect
evaporative coolers, water is cooled by evaporation and used in coils to cool
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the air with no increase in air moisture content.
Duct construction is classified in terms of application and pressure and is
discussed in detail in Chapter 7.
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Mechanical cooling can be minimized by using outside air whenever the
outdoor-air enthalpy is lower than the return air enthalpy. Depending on the cli-
mate, this may occur most of the year or almost never. The saving in mechani-
cal cooling operating cost is somewhat offset by the additional first cost of
larger intake, exhaust, and control dampers.
Outdoor air is normally drawn in through louvers designed to minimize the
entry of rain, snow, water, birds, trash, and other foreign matter into the equip-
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ment. The intake should be located to minimize drawing in pollutants.

ASHRAE. 2004. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2004, Thermal Environmental
Conditions for Human Occupancy. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
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ASHRAE. 2007a. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007, Energy Efficient
Design of New Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings. Atlanta:
neers, Inc
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ASHRAE. 2007b. ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications. Atlanta: Ameri-

neers, Inc.
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Carrier. 1967. Altitude Effects. Syracuse, NY: Carrier Corp.

4-1 External offices with windows will have different thermal characteristics than
windowless rooms in the interior of the building.
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a) True b) False
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4-2 In a building with a natatorium, the air pressure gradients within the building
should _______________.
a) draw air from the natatorium into the rest of the building
b) draw air into the natatorium from the rest of the building
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c) relieve the natatorium air intake
d) all of the above
4-3 Which of the following is an advantage of an all-air system?
a) additional duct clearance is not required
b) air balancing in large systems is less difficult
c) vertical shaft space is not required
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4-4 Single-duct, single-zone systems can respond simultaneously to more than one
set of space conditions, in more than one area at a time.
a) True b) False
4-5 In air-and-water systems, the air supply generally has a constant volume.
a) True b) False
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4-6 Evaporative coolers _______________.
a) evaporate water into an airstream
b) exchange sensible heat for latent heat
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c) can be either direct or indirect

d) all of the above
4-7 An economizer can achieve energy savings when _______________.
a) the outdoor-air enthalpy is lower than the supply air enthalpy
b) the outdoor-air enthalpy is higher than the supply air enthalpy, but
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lower than the return air enthalpy

c) both of the above
4-8 A minimum height of _______________ above the roof surface is recom-
mended for locating outdoor-air louvers where light snowfall is expected.
a) 0.25 m b) 0.50 m c) 0.75 m d) 1.00 m
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Exhaust and
Ventilation Systems
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Study Objectives
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After completing this chapter, you should be able to describe design consider-
ations for exhaust and ventilation systems and some energy recovery systems.
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Instructions
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Design Considerations
Ventilation and exhaust systems control heat, odors, and contaminants. The
two types of exhaust systems are
• general exhaust, in which an entire workspace is exhausted without consid-

ering specific operations, and
• local exhaust, which is applied to specific areas. Local exhaust offers better
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control with minimum air volumes, thereby lowering the cost of air clean-
ing and replacement air equipment. Local exhaust is required for hazardous
contaminant exhaust.
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Ventilation may be provided by natural draft, by a combination of general

supply and exhaust air fan and duct systems, by exhaust fans only (with
makeup air through inlet louvers and doors), or by supply fans only (exhaust
through relief louvers and doors).
Ventilation System Selection and Design

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Some factors to consider in ventilation system selection and design include the
following:
• Local exhaust systems provide general ventilation for the work area.
• A balance of the supply and exhaust systems is required for either system
to function as designed.
102 Chapter 5 Exhaust and Ventilation Systems
• Natural ventilation systems are most applicable when internal heat loads
are high and the building is tall enough to produce a significant stack effect
(such as steelmaking plants and glass-melting furnaces).
• To provide effective general ventilation for heat relief by either natural or
mechanical supply, the air must be delivered low in the work zones. A suf-
ficient exhaust volume is necessary to remove the heat liberated in the
space. Local relief systems may require supplemental supply air for heat
removal.
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• Supply and exhaust air cannot be used interchangeably. Supply air can be
delivered where it is wanted at controlled velocities, temperature, and humid-
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ity. Exhaust systems should be used to capture heat and fumes at the source.
• General building exhaust may be required in addition to local exhaust
systems.
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• The exhaust discharge should not be located where it will be recirculated
into the outdoor-air intake.
• The inlet air quantity of the exhaust is established by the volume and veloc-
ity required to contain and remove heat and contaminants. For human occu-
pancy, ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2010, Ventilation for Acceptable
Indoor Air Quality (ASHRAE 2010) has requirements for ventilation air
and exhaust, as described in Chapter 3. For industrial applications, mini-
mum values are prescribed for local exhaust systems in Industrial Ventila-
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tion: A Manual of Recommended Practice (ACGIH 2010) and sometimes
by code.
• Properly sized ductwork keeps contaminants flowing. This requires high
velocities for heavy materials. The selection of materials and the construc-
tion of exhaust ductwork and fans depend on the nature of the contaminant,
the ambient temperature, the lengths and arrangement of duct runs, the
method of fan operation, and the flame and smoke spread rating.
• Care must be taken to minimize the following:
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° Corrosion, or destruction by chemical or electrochemical action
° Dissolution, a dissolving action; coatings and plastics are subject to dis-
solution, particularly by solvent fumes
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° Melting, which can occur in certain plastics and coatings at such ele-
vated temperatures as may be found in an exhaust system
° Abrasion from conveyed particles impacting the duct, particularly at
fittings
• Low temperatures that cause condensation in ferrous metal ducts may
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increase corrosive attack. Ductwork is less subject to attack when the runs are
short and direct to the terminal discharge point. The longer the runs are, the
longer are the period of exposure to fumes and the greater the degree of con-
densation. Horizontal runs allow moisture to remain longer than it can on
vertical surfaces. Intermittent fan operation can contribute to longer periods
of wetness (because of condensation) than can continuous operation. Exhaust
ducts from high-moisture areas (such as shower rooms) must have drains and
watertight bottoms. Corrosion-resistant material should be considered.
• National and local Clean Air Acts have requirements for controlling the
discharge of contaminants to the atmosphere.
Makeup Air
For safe, effective operation, most industrial plants require makeup air to
replace the large volumes of air exhausted. If makeup air is provided consis-
tently with good air distribution, more effective cooling can be provided in the
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summer and more efficient and effective heating will result in the winter. Using
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windows or other inlets that cannot be used in stormy weather should be dis-
couraged. The needs for makeup air include
• replacing air exhausted from combustion processes, local exhausts, and
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general exhaust systems.
• eliminating cross drafts through proper arrangement of supply air and
exhausts.
• preventing infiltration through doors, windows, and similar openings that
may cause discomfort or adversely affect processes through cross drafts or
uncontrolled temperature variations.
• obtaining clean air. Supply air can be filtered; infiltration air cannot.
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• controlling building pressure and airflow from space to space. Such control
is necessary
° to avoid positive or negative pressures that make it difficult or unsafe to

open doors and to avoid the conditions that are detailed in Table 5-1.
° to confine contaminants, reduce their concentration, and to control tem-
perature, humidity and air movement positively.
° to recover heat and conserve energy.
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Table 5-1 Negative Pressures That May Cause Unsatisfactory Building Conditions
Negative Pressure,
Adverse Conditions
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Pa
2.5 to 5 Worker Draft Complaints: High-velocity drafts through doors and windows
Natural Draft Stacks Ineffective: Ventilation through roof exhaust ventilators, flow
2.5 to 12
through stacks with natural draft greatly reduced
Carbon Monoxide Hazard: Backdrafting takes place in hot water heaters, unit heat-
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5 to 12
ers, furnaces, and other combustion equipment not provided with induced draft
General Mechanical Ventilation Reduced: Airflows reduced in propeller fans and
7 to 25
low pressure supply and exhaust systems
Doors Difficult to Open: Serious injury may result from nonchecked, slamming
12 to 25
doors
25 to 50 Local Exhaust Ventilation Impaired: Centrifugal fan exhaust flow reduced
Stack Effect
Temperature differences between indoors and outdoors cause density differ-
ences and, therefore, pressure differences that drive infiltration. During the
heating season, warmer air rises and flows out of the building near its top. It is
replaced by colder outdoor air that enters the building near its base. During the
cooling season, the neutral level is elevated, because the indoor-outdoor tem-
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perature differences are smaller or reversed. Qualitatively, the pressure distri-
bution over the building in the heating season due to the stack effect takes the
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form shown in Figure 5-1.
The height at which the interior and exterior pressures are equal is called
the neutral pressure level. Above this point (during the heating season), the
interior pressure is greater than the exterior pressure; below this point, the
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greater exterior pressure causes airflow into the building.
The pressure difference due to the stack effect at height h is
To – Ti
ps = o – i g H NPL – H = o ---------------- g H NPL – H (5-1)
Ti
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Figure 5-1 Pressure differences due to stack effect (heating season).

where
ps = pressure difference due to stack effect, Pa
= air density, kg/m3 (about 1.2 kg/m3 for indoor conditions)
g = gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2
H = height of observation, m
HNPL = height of neutral pressure level above reference plane with no other
driving forces, m
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To, Ti = outside and inside absolute temperature (°C + 273), K
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Ventilation and Exhaust Systems
This section describes some of the more common ventilation and exhaust
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systems.
Ventilation for Heat Relief

Many situations involve processes that release heat and moisture to the envi-
ronment. Ventilation is one of many controls that may be used to mitigate heat
stress conditions.
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The HVAC designer must distinguish between the control needs for hot-dry
and warm-moist conditions. In the first case, the process gives off only sensible
and radiant heat without adding moisture to the air. The heat load on exposed
workers is increased, and the rate of cooling by evaporation of sweat is
increased. Heat balance may be maintained, although possibly at the expense
of excessive sweating.
In the warm-moist situation, the wet process gives off mainly latent heat.
The rise in the heat load on workers may be small, but the increase in moisture
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content of the air reduces heat loss by evaporation of sweat by the workers.
Hot-dry work situations occur around hot furnaces, forges, metal-extruding
and rolling mills, glass-forming machines, and so forth. Typical warm-moist
operations are found in many textile mills, laundries, dye houses, and deep
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mines where water is used extensively for dust control. However, these indus-
trial applications are outside the scope of this course.
Where appropriate, local exhaust ventilation can remove the natural con-
vection column of heated air rising from a hot process with a minimum of air
from the surrounding space.
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Toilet Exhaust
The ventilation of locker rooms, toilets, and shower spaces is important to
remove odor and reduce humidity. Supply air may be introduced through
door or wall grilles. In some cases, plant air may be so contaminated that fil-
tration or mechanical ventilation may be required. When mechanical venti-
lation is used, the supply system should have supply fixtures, such as wall
grilles, ceiling diffusers, or supply plenums, to distribute the air adequately

throughout the area. Pressure relationships must be carefully considered to
prevent airflow from locker rooms, toilets, and shower spaces to other occu-
pied spaces.
In the absence of specific codes, Table 5-2 provides a guide for ventilation
of these spaces. Remember that some codes prohibit combining toilet exhaust
with other exhaust systems.
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Kitchen Exhaust
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Kitchens typically have a great concentration of noise, sensible and latent heat
load, smoke, and odors. Ventilation is the chief means of removing and pre-
venting these elements from entering other occupied spaces. Kitchen air pres-
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sure should be kept negative relative to other areas to ensure odor control.
Maintenance of reasonably comfortable working conditions is important.
Kitchens present common load problems encountered in other occupied
spaces, with additional factors that include
• extremely variable loads with high peaks, in many cases occurring twice
daily;
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• high sensible and latent heat gains because of appliances, people, and food;
• heavy infiltration of outdoor air through doors during rush hours in com-
mercial establishments; and
• grease in the ductwork.
Codes require exhaust hoods with grease filters for cooking equipment
where grease is generated, and hoods over all gas-fired appliances. Other equip-
ment that generates a lot of heat or moisture should be located under hoods.
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Whether through the use of hoods or otherwise, ASHRAE Standard 62 requires
a minimum exhaust rate from commercial kitchens of 3.5 L/s m2.
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Table 5-2 Ventilation for Locker Rooms, Ancillary and Toilet Spaces
Description Units
Coat hanging or clean change room for nonlaboring shift employees with clean work
clothes 1.25 L/s·m2
Change room for laboring employees with wet or sweaty clothes* 2.5 and 3.5 L/s·m2
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Change room for laborers or workers assigned to heavy work and where clothes will
be wet or pick up odors* 4 and 5 L/s·m2
Toilets, public (per ASHRAE Standard 62-2007) 23/35 L/s·unit

Toilets, private (per ASHRAE Standard 62-2007) 12.5/25 L/s·unit
Shower spaces (at least 25 L/s per shower head) 10 L/s·m2
*This ventilation rate is to be exhausted from each locker.
Smoke Control
When a fire occurs in a building, smoke often flows to locations remote from
the fire, threatening life and damaging property. Stairwells and elevators fre-
quently become smoke filled, blocking or inhibiting evacuation. Smoke causes
the most deaths in fires. Smoke control describes systems that use pressuriza-
tion produced by mechanical fans to limit smoke movement in fire situations.
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A smoke-control system must be designed so that it is not overpowered by
the driving forces that cause smoke movement, including the following:
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• Stack effect. As discussed earlier, when the air outside a building is colder
than the air inside a building, the building air moves upward within build-
ing shafts (such as stairwells, mechanical shafts, and elevator shafts). This
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is the normal stack effect. When the outside air is warmer than the building
air, a downward, or reverse stack effect occurs. Smoke movement from a
building fire can be dominated by stack effect. In a building with normal
stack effect, the existing air currents can move smoke considerable dis-
tances from the fire origin.
• Buoyancy. High-temperature smoke from a fire has a buoyancy force due to
its reduced density. As smoke travels away from the fire, its temperature
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drops due to heat transfer and dilution. Therefore, the effect of buoyancy
generally decreases with distance from the fire.
• Expansion. In addition to buoyancy, the energy released by a fire can move
smoke by expansion. The ratio of volumetric flows can be expressed as a
ratio of absolute temperatures:
Q out T out
---------- = --------- (5-2)
Q in T in
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where
Qout = volumetric flow rate of smoke out of the fire
compartment, m3/s or L/s
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Qin = volumetric flow rate of smoke into the fire compartment,

m3/s or L/s, consistent with Qout
Tout = absolute temperature of smoke leaving the fire
compartment, K (°C + 273)
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Tin = absolute temperature of smoke entering the fire

compartment, K (°C + 273)
• Wind. Frequently in fire situations, a window breaks in the fire compart-
ment. If the window is on the leeward side of the building, the negative
pressure caused by the wind vents the smoke from the fire compartment.
This reduces smoke movement throughout the building. However, if the
broken window is on the windward side, the wind forces the smoke
throughout the fire floor and to other floors, which endangers the lives of
building occupants and hampers firefighting. Pressures induced by the
wind in this situation can be large and can dominate air movement through-
out the building.
• HVAC system. The HVAC system frequently transports smoke during fires.
Before the concept of using the HVAC system for smoke control, systems
were shut down when fires were discovered. Although shutting the system
down prevents it from supplying air to the fire, it does not prevent smoke
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movement through the supply and return air ducts, air shafts, and other
building openings due to stack effect, buoyancy, or wind.
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Additional information on smoke control can be found in the 2007
ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications (ASHRAE 2007b).
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Stair Pressurization Systems
Many pressurized stairwells have been designed and built to provide a tenable
escape route in the event of a building fire. They also provide a tenable staging
area for firefighters. On the fire floor, a pressurized stairwell must maintain a
positive pressure difference across a closed stairwell door so that smoke does
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not enter the stairwell.
During building fire situations, some stairwell doors are opened intermit-
tently during evacuation and firefighting, and some doors may even be blocked
open. Ideally, when the stairwell door is opened on the fire floor, airflow
through the door should be sufficient to prevent smoke backflow. Designing
such a system is difficult because of the many combinations of open stairwell
doors and weather conditions affecting airflow.
The stairwell pressurization fan must be sized to allow for doors to be open
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to floors and often to the outside during the fire. If no doors are open, the static
pressure could easily rise high enough to make opening doors very difficult. To
avoid this overpressurization, some form of pressure control is often provided.
A simple barometric relief damper with wind shield can be used to relieve any
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excess pressure to the atmosphere. Alternatively, pressure sensors measuring

the pressure between a floor and the stairwell can control a damper on a short-
circuit duct around the fan. When the pressure rises above the setpoint pres-
sure, the damper opens to let air short circuit around the fan, thereby lowering
its capacity.
The maximum allowed design pressure difference across a door is typically
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50–75 Pa so that it can be opened. The minimum pressure to hold back smoke
is about 20 Pa, so the pressure control should be designed to hold the pressure
from floor to stairwell in that range. Controls to limit differential pressures at
the doors are very complicated and difficult to maintain.
Stairwell pressurization systems may be single and multiple injection sys-
tems. A single injection system has pressurized air supplied to the stairwell at
one location, usually at the top. Associated with this system is the potential of
smoke entering the stairwell through the pressurization fan intake. Therefore,
automatic shutdown during such an event should be considered. For tall stair-
wells, single-injection systems can fail when a few doors are open near the air-
supply injection point. Such a failure is especially likely when a ground-level
stairwell door is open in bottom-injection systems.
Multiple injection points are recommended no more than 14 m apart (see Fig-
ures 5-2a and 5-2b). Compartmentation of a stairwell is depicted in Figure 5-3.
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Additional information on stair pressurization can be found in the 2007
ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications.
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Healthcare Facilities
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The application of air conditioning to healthcare facilities presents many prob-
lems not encountered in the usual comfort conditioning system. The basic dif-
ferences between air conditioning for medical facilities and other types of
facilities stem from
• the need to restrict air movement in and between the various departments;
• specific requirements for ventilation and filtration to dilute and remove
contamination in the form of odor, airborne microorganisms and viruses,
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and hazardous chemical and radioactive substances;
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(a) (b)
Figure 5-2 (a) Stairwell pressurization, ground-level fan and (b) stairwell pressurization,
roof-mounted fan.
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Figure 5-3 Compartmentation of pressurized stairwell.
• the need for different temperature and humidity requirements for various
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areas; and
• the need for sophistication in design to permit accurate control of environ-
mental conditions.
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The specific environmental conditions required by a particular medical

facility can be complex and vary depending on the planned use of the facility
and the agency responsible for the facility environmental standard. Healthcare
facilities are discussed in greater detail in the 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—
HVAC Applications.
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Energy Recovery
Much of this chapter focuses on exhaust. Air that has been cooled or heated
before exhausting takes energy from the building. In many situations, it is both
possible and practical to recover some of that energy. Energy recovery may be
of sensible heat or sensible and latent heat.
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Figure 5-4 Runaround energy recovery coils.
Energy Recovery Coils

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Runaround Coils
One way to achieve energy recovery is with runaround energy recovery coils.
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A typical runaround coil arrangement is shown in Figure 5-4.

In summer, the conditioned exhaust air cools the fluid in the exhaust air
coil. This fluid is then pumped over to the supply air coil to precool the incom-
ing outside air.
In winter, the heat transfer works the other way; the warm exhaust air heats
the fluid in the exhaust air coil, which is then pumped over to the supply air
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coil to heat the cold incoming air. At intermediate temperatures, the system is
shut OFF, because it is not useful.
When outside temperatures are below freezing, the three-way valve is used
with a glycol antifreeze mixture in the coils. In cold weather, some of the fluid
bypasses the supply air coil to avoid overcooling. The combination of very
cold fluid from the supply air coil and diverted fluid mix to a temperature that
is high enough to avoid causing frost on the exhaust air coil. The maximum
amount of cooling that can be achieved with the exhaust air coil is limited by
the temperature at which frost starts to form in the coil. This frosting of the
exhaust coil effectively sets a limit to the transfer possible at low temperatures.
The runaround coil system has three particular advantages:
• There is no possibility of cross contamination between the two airstreams.
This factor makes it suitable for hospital or fume hood exhaust heat recov-
ery. The exhaust coil must be resistant to corrosion from any chemicals in
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the exhaust.
• The two coils do not have to be adjacent to one another. A laboratory build-
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ing could have the outdoor-air intake low in the building and the fume hood
exhaust on the roof, with the runaround pipes connecting the two coils.
• The runaround coils transfer sensible heat and, under favorable conditions,
condense the water in the exhaust to recover latent heat. This makes them
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particularly suitable for natatoriums in some climates.
Heat Pipes
A heat pipe is a length of pipe with an interior wick that contains a charge of
refrigerant, as shown in Figure 5-5.
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The type and quantity of refrigerant installed is chosen for the particular
temperature requirements. In operation, the pipe is approximately horizontal,
and one end is warmed, which evaporates refrigerant. The refrigerant vapor
fills the tube. If the other half of the tube is cooled, the refrigerant will con-
dense and flow along the wick to the heated end to be evaporated once more.
This heat-driven refrigeration cycle is surprisingly efficient.
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Figure 5-5 Cutaway section of a heat pipe.

The normal heat pipe unit consists of a bundle of pipes with external fins
and a central divider plate. Figure 5-6 shows a view down onto a unit that is
mounted in the relief and intake airstreams to an air-handling unit. Flexible
connections are shown that facilitate the tipping. To adjust the heat transfer,
one or the other end of the tubes would be lifted.
The outside air is cold as it comes in over the warm coil. This warms the
air, and the tube is cooled. The cooled refrigerant inside condenses and gives
up its latent heat, which heats the air. The recondensed refrigerant wicks across
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to the exhaust side and then absorbs heat from the exhaust air. This heat evapo-
rates the refrigerant back into a vapor that fills the pipe and is again available to
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warm the cold outside air.
The usual heat pipe unit must be approximately horizontal to work well. A
standard way to reduce the heat transfer is to tilt the evaporator (cold) end up a
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few degrees. This tilt control first reduces and then halts the flow of refrigerant
to the evaporator end, and the process stops.
Figure 5-6 was based on winter operation. In summer, the unit only has to
be tilted to work the other way and cool the incoming outside air as it heats the
outgoing exhaust air.
The unit is designed as a sensible heat-transfer device, although allowing
condensation to occur on the cold end can transfer worthwhile latent heat.
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Effectiveness ratings range up to 80% with 14 rows of tubes. However, each
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Figure 5-6 Heat pipe assembly in exhaust and outdoor-air entry.

additional row contributes proportionally less to the overall performance. As a

result, the economic choice is ten or fewer rows. A major advantage of the unit
is very low cross contamination.
Desiccant Wheels
Desiccants are chemicals that are quick to pick up heat and moisture and quick
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to give them up again if exposed to a cooler, drier atmosphere. A matrix, as
shown on the left of Figure 5-7, may be coated with such a chemical and made
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up into a wheel several centimeters thick. In use, the supply air is ducted
through one half of the wheel and the exhaust air is ducted through the other
half.
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On a hot summer day the exhaust is cooler and drier than the supply of out-
side air. The chemical coating in the coil section that’s in the exhaust stream
becomes relatively cool and dry. Now the wheel is slowly rotated, and the cool,
dry section moves into the incoming hot, humid air, drying and cooling the air.
Similarly, another section moves from hot and humid into cool and dry, where
it gives up moisture and becomes cooler.
The wheel speed—a few revolutions per minute—is adjusted to maximize
the transfer of heat and moisture. Control of wheel speed to truly maximize
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savings is a complex issue, because the transfers of sensible and latent heat do
not vary in direct relation to each other.
The depth of the wheel is filled with exhaust air as it passes into the supply
airstream, so there is some cross contamination. There are ways of minimizing
this cross contamination, but it cannot be eliminated. In most comfort situa-
tions, the cross contamination in a well-made unit is quite acceptable.
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Figure 5-7 Desiccant-wheel matrix and operation.

The use of heat recovery is required in many energy codes, particularly for
larger systems and systems with a high proportion of outside air. ANSI/
ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007, Energy Standard for Buildings Except
Low-Rise Residential Buildings (ASHRAE 2007a) has several mandatory
requirements for the use of heat recovery equipment.
The Next Step
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This chapter covered ventilation and exhaust. Chapter 6 covers fans and the
movement of air through systems.
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Summary
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Ventilation and exhaust systems control heat, odors, and contaminants.
Exhaust can be local, removing the contaminant before it mixes with the air in
the space or general, changing the air in the space on a regular basis to keep the
concentration of contaminants down to an acceptable level
All the air exhausted must enter the building so that there is a continuous
balance. Failure to provide adequate supply air makeup can create problems of
pressure difference. Therefore, the supply and exhaust systems, though physi-
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cally separate, must be designed as a total system. Usually human comfort dic-
tates supply quantities, but for commercial and industrial processes exhaust is
usually the criteria. Temperature, corrosion, and erosion may all dictate the
design and construction of the exhaust system.
In natural exhausts, stack effect can be used as the motive power where
there are sufficient and reliable temperature differences.
Ventilation for heat relief under hot working conditions is used in many
industries. It is less effective in moist conditions because sweating is less
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effective.
Locker rooms and toilets should be kept at a slightly negative pressure rela-
tive to surrounding areas to contain smells. Building codes usually dictate the
minimum exhaust per fixture.
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Kitchen exhaust fumes are typically warm, aromatic, and grease laden.
Most codes require the use of grease filters to reduce the quantity of grease
(which deposits in the ducts) and to reduce the likelihood of fire entering the
ducts. The large quantity of exhaust makes kitchens a challenge for supplying
adequate makeup air at a reasonable operating cost.
Smoke-control systems are designed to provide a small pressure differ-
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ence between the fire zone and other zones. Maintaining this difference (less
than 25 Pa) can be very difficult due to
• stack effect where the difference between inside and outside temperatures
causes pressure differences,
• buoyancy of the hot gases from a fire,
• expansion of the air due to temperature around the fire,
• wind blowing past the building, creating a higher pressure on the windward
side and a lower pressure on the leeward side, and
• the HVAC system if it is left running.
Stairwell pressurization is provided to keep smoke out of the means of

escape and firefighter access routes. Design is a challenge because the pressure
must be maintained even with doors open but be limited to prevent doors being
held shut by the pressure. Barometric dampers and short-circuit dusts on fans
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are used to regulate the effective supply fan capacity.
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Energy recovery from large exhausts is often economically very attractive
and is mandated in energy codes.
With energy recovery coils, one coil in the exhaust piped to another coil in
the makeup air system allows the energy to literally be pumped from exhaust to
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intake. In freezing climates, an antifreeze mixture is used. The system has the
advantages of enabling the intake and exhaust to be separated, and there is zero
cross contamination.
Heat pipes use the boiling and condensation of refrigerant in sealed lengths
of pipe to transfer heat from one end of the tube to the other. Capacity is con-
trolled by tilting the pipes. Some cross contamination may occur.
Desiccant wheels are deep porous wheels coated in a chemical to collect
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heat and moisture. The wheel slowly rotates in the two airstreams, collecting
moisture and energy from one airstream and giving up energy and moisture to
the other airstream. Their value is in very high recovery rates. However, there
is some cross contamination, which is an issue in processes with toxic exhaust
contaminants.
Bibliography
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ACGIH. 2010. Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice, 27th
ed. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists.
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ASHRAE. 2007a. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007, Energy Stan-

dard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings. American Soci-
ety of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2007b. ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications. Atlanta: Ameri-
G

neers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2010. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2010, Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,

5-1 Natural ventilation systems are most applicable when the building produces a
significant stack effect.
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a) True b) False
5-2 Care must be taken in exhaust systems to minimize _______________.
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a) corrosion b) dissolution c) melting d) all of the above
5-3 All other things being equal, ductwork is least subject to condensation corro-
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sion when the runs are _______________.
a) long and horizontal b) short and vertical
c) direct to the terminal discharge d) all of the above
5-4 Kitchen air pressure should be kept _______________ relative to other areas.
a) positive b) neutral c) negative d) all of the above
5-5
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Smoke movement is driven by _______________.
a) stack effect b) buoyancy c) expansion d) all of the above
5-6 To prevent smoke infiltration on a fire floor, a pressurized stairwell must main-
tain a _______________ pressure difference across a closed stairwell door.
5-7 Health facility ventilation requires _______________.
a) little need for accurate control of temperature and humidity
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b) free movement of air between departments
c) removal of airborne microorganisms
d) all of the above
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Air Movers and
Fan Technology
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Study Objectives
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list and explain fan principles;
list and describe the main types of HVAC fans, fan drives, and fan controls;
explain factors to be considered when selecting an appropriate fan for a
given set of conditions; and
explain factors to be considered when installing a fan once it has been
selected.
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Instructions
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Fan Principles
A fan is an air pump that creates a pressure difference and causes airflow. The
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impeller performs work on the air, imparting both static and kinetic energy,
which varies in proportion depending on the fan type. Symbols and definitions
commonly encountered when working with fans include the following:
A = fan outlet area, m2
D = fan size or impeller diameter
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N = rotational speed, rpm (sometimes revolutions per second)

Q = volume flow rate moved by fan at fan inlet conditions, m3/s or L/s
ptf = fan total pressure rise, or the fan total pressure at outlet minus fan
total pressure at inlet, Pa
pvf = fan velocity pressure, or the pressure corresponding to average
velocity determined from the volume flow rate and fan outlet area, Pa
120 Chapter 6 Air Movers and Fan Technology
psf = fan static pressure rise, or fan total pressure rise diminished by fan
velocity pressure, Pa (The fan inlet velocity head is assumed equal
to zero because the inlet is not connected to ductwork and is
unobstructed for fan rating purposes.)
V = fan inlet or outlet velocity, m/s
Wo = power output of fan based on fan volume flow rate and fan total
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pressure, kW
Wi = power input to fan measured by power delivered to fan shaft, kW
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ht = mechanical efficiency of fan (or fan total efficiency), or the ratio of
power output to power input (ht = Wo /Wi)
hs = static efficiency of fan, or mechanical efficiency multiplied by the
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ratio of static pressure to fan total pressure, hs = (ps /pt)ht
= gas density, kg/m3
Principles of Fan Operation

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Fans produce pressure by altering the velocity vector of the flow. Fans pro-
duce pressure and/or flow because the rotating blades of the impeller impart
kinetic energy to the air by changing its velocity. This velocity change is the
result of tangential and radial velocity components in the case of centrifugal
fans and of axial and tangential velocity components in the case of axial flow
fans.
Axial flow fans produce pressure from the change in velocity passing
through the impeller, with no pressure being produced by centrifugal force.
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The basic fan types can be further subdivided and characterized as follows:
• Centrifugal fans: airfoil, backward inclined/backward curved, forward

curved, and radial
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• Axial fans: propeller, tubeaxial, and vaneaxial

• Special designs: tubular centrifugal, centrifugal power roof ventilator, and
axial power roof ventilator
• Plug fans
Figure 6-1 depicts most of these fan types and provides details of the
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impeller design, housing design, performance characteristics, and typical

applications.
The plug, or plenum, fan is not shown. A single inlet impeller, similar to
one for a centrifugal fan is mounted on the end of the drive shaft. The impeller
is mounted between two walls. It draws the air into the center of the impeller
and blows it out evenly in all directions. This fan design can be particularly
useful in compact air-handling units and in industrial situations, such as ovens,
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Figure 6-1 Types of fans.

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Figure 6-1 Types of fans (continued).

when the only components subjected to the high temperature are the impeller
and drive shaft.
Fan Laws
The fan laws (see Table 6-1) relate the performance variables for any dynami-
cally similar series of fans. Fan Law 1 shows the effect on volume flow, pres-
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sure, and power of changing size, speed, or density. Fan Law 2 shows the effect
on volume flow rate, speed, and power of changing size, pressure, or density.
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Fan Law 3 shows the effect on speed, pressure, and power of changing size,
volume flow, or density.
The fan laws simplify analyzing a given fan because there is no change in
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fan size (D) or density ( ). Another way to remember these relationships is that
the air quantity is directly proportional to fan speed. Static pressure varies as
the square of the speed change. Power input to the fan varies as the cube of the
speed.
Table 6-1 Fan Laws

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Fan Law 1
1a Q1 = Q2 (D1/D2)3 (N1/N2)
1b p1 = p2 (D1/D2)2 (N1/N2)2 1/ 2
1c W1 = W2 (D1/D2)5 (N1/N2)3 1/ 2
Fan Law 2
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2a Q1 = Q2 (D1/D2)2 (p1/p2)1/2 ( 1/ 2)1/2
2b N1 = N2 (D2/D1) (p1/p2)1/2 ( 1/ 2)1/2

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2c W1 = W2 (D1/D2)2 (p1/p2)3/2 ( 1/ 2)1/2
Fan Law 3
3a N1 = N2 (D2/D1)3 (Q1/Q2)
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3b p1 = p2 (D2/D1)4 (Q1/Q2)2 1/ 2
3c W1 = W2 (D2/D1)4 (Q1/Q2)3 1/ 2
Notes:
1. Subscript 1 denotes the variable for the fan under consideration. Subscript 2 is the variable for the tested fan.
2. For all fan laws
3. p equals either ptf or psf.
Figure 6-2 illustrates the application of the fan laws for a change in fan
speed N for a specific size fan. The computed ptf curve is derived from the
base ptf curve. For example, Point E (N1 = 650) is computed from Point D (N2
= 600) as follows:
At Point D,
Q2 = 6000 L/s and ptf2 = 280 Pa
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Using Fan Law 1a at Point E,
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Q1 = 6000 × 650/600 = 6500 L/s
Using Fan Law 1b,
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ptf1 = 280 (650/600)2 = 329 Pa
The completed total pressure curve, the ptf1 at N = 650 curve, may be gen-
erated by computing additional points from data on the base curve, such as
Point G from Point F.
If equivalent points of rating are joined (as shown by the dotted lines in
Figure 6-2), these points form parabolas that are defined by the relationship
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expressed in the following equation:
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Figure 6-2 Sample application of the fan laws.

2
p2 Q
- = ------2
------------- (6-1)
p1 Q1
Each point on the base curve ptf determines only one point on the com-
puted curve. For example, Point H cannot be calculated from either Point D or
Point F. However, Point H is related to some point between these two points
on the base curve, and only that point can be used to locate Point H. Further-
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more, Point D cannot be used to calculate Point F on the base curve. The
entire base curve must be defined by testing.
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Finally, the power required by a fan is related to both the volume flow rate
and the pressure. The relationship can be expressed in several ways:
kW ~ Q3
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or
kW ~ N3
This is an important observation because when dealing with an existing sys-

tem where all of the components are fixed in place, if the amount of air moving
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can be reduced by changing the speed, the power requirement is reduced by the
cube of the reduction in volume flow. For example, if the airflow rate is reduced
by 20% to 80% of the previous rate, Q2/Q1 = 0.80. Therefore,
3
kW 2 Q 3
- = ------2
-------------- = 0.8 = 0.512 (6-2)
kW 1( ) Q1
The fan power is reduced to 51% of the original amount. Another way to
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express this is that a 20% reduction in airflow results in a 49% reduction in
power.
Fan and System Pressure Relationships

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As previously stated, a fan impeller imparts static and kinetic energy to the air.
This energy is represented in the increase in total pressure and can be converted
to static or velocity pressure. These two quantities are interdependent; fan per-
formance cannot be evaluated by considering one or the other alone. The con-
version of energy, indicated by changes in velocity pressure to static pressure
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and vice versa, depends on the efficiency of conversion. Energy conversion

occurs in the discharge duct connected to a fan being tested in accordance with
the joint standards ANSI/AMCA Standard 210, Laboratory Methods of Testing
Fans for Certified Aerodynamic Performance Rating (AMCA 2007) and ANSI/
ASHRAE Standard 51-2007, Laboratory Methods of Testing Fans for Certified
Aerodynamic Performance Rating (ASHRAE 2007), and the efficiency is
reflected in the rating.
Fan total pressure (ptf) is a true indication of the energy imparted to the air-
stream by the fan. System pressure loss ( p) is the sum of all individual total
pressure losses plus system effects imposed by the arrangement of duct ele-
ments on both the inlet and outlet sides of the fan. An energy loss in a duct sys-
tem can be defined only as a total pressure loss. The measured static pressure
loss in a duct element equals the total pressure loss only in the special case
where air velocities are the same at both the entrance and exit of the duct ele-
ment. By using total pressure for both fan selection and air distribution system
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design, the design engineer is assured of proper design. These fundamental
principles apply to both high- and low-velocity systems. For additional infor-
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mation refer to the 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (ASHRAE
2009).
A very important relationship is
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2
p v = 0.602V (6-3)
where pv is in Pa, and V is in m/s.

To specify the pressure performance of a fan, the relationship of total
pressure ptf , static pressure psf , and velocity pressure pvf must be understood,
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especially when negative pressures are involved. Most importantly, psf is a
term defined in AMCA Standard 210 and ASHRAE Standard 51 as psf = ptf –
pvf . Except in special cases, psf is not necessarily the measured difference
between static pressure on the inlet side and static pressure on the outlet side
of the fan.
Figures 6-3 through 6-6 depict the relationships among these various pres-
sures. Note that, as defined, ptf = pt2 – pt1. Figure 6-3 depicts a fan with an outlet
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Figure 6-3 Pressure relationships of fan with outlet system only.

system but no connected inlet system. In this case, the fan static pressure
psf equals the static pressure rise across the fan.
Figure 6-4 shows a fan with an inlet system but no outlet system. Figure 6-5
shows a fan with both an inlet system and an outlet system. In both cases, the
measured difference in static pressure across the fan (ps2 – ps1) is not equal to
the fan static pressure.
All of the systems depicted in Figures 6-3 to 6-5 have inlet or outlet ducts
that match the fan connections in size. Usually the duct size desired is not iden-
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tical to the fan outlet or the fan inlet, so a further complication is introduced. To
illustrate the pressure relationships in this case, Figure 6-6 shows a diverging
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outlet cone, which is a commonly used type of fan connection. In this case, the
pressure relationships at the fan outlet do not match the pressure relationships
in the flow section. Furthermore, the static pressure in the cone increases in the
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Figure 6-4 Pressure relationships of fan with inlet system only.
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Figure 6-5 Pressure relationships of fan with equal-sized inlet and outlet systems.
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Figure 6-6 Pressure relationships of fan with diverging cone outlet.
direction of flow because the velocity pressure is decreased. The static pressure
changes throughout the system, depending on velocity.
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The total pressure (which, as noted in Figure 6-6, decreases in the direction
of flow) more truly represents the loss introduced by the cone or by flow in the
duct. Only the fan changes this trend (that is, the decrease of total pressure in the
direction of flow). Therefore, total pressure is a better indication of fan and duct
system performance. In the rather normal fan situation depicted in Figure 6-6,
the static pressure across the fan (ps2 – ps1) does not equal the fan static pressure
(psf). This phenomenon is known as system effect, which is discussed later in
this chapter.
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Fan Testing and Rating
Fan efficiency ratings are based on ideal conditions. Some fans are rated at
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more than 90% total efficiency. However, necessary inlet and outlet arrange-
ments often make it impossible to achieve ideal efficiencies in the field.
Fans are tested in accordance with the strict requirements of ASHRAE Stan-
dard 51 and AMCA Standard 210. These joint standards specify the procedures
and test setups to be used in testing the various types of fans and other air-mov-
ing devices.
G
Figure 6-7 depicts one of the most common procedures for developing the
characteristics of a fan. The fan is tested from shutoff conditions to nearly free
delivery conditions. At shutoff, the duct is completely blanked off; at free
delivery, the outlet resistance is reduced to zero. Between these two conditions,
various flow restrictions are placed on the end of the duct to simulate various
conditions on the fan. Sufficient points are obtained to define the curve
between shutoff point and free delivery conditions. A nozzle chamber is often
e t
Figure 6-7
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Pressure relationships of fan with diverging cone outlet.
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used to determine the airflow rate. The point of rating may be any point on the
fan performance curve. For each case, the specific point on the curve must be
defined by referring to the flow rate and the corresponding total pressure.
Other test setups, also described in AMCA Standard 210 and ASHRAE
u
Standard 51, should produce the same performance curve.
Fans designed for use with duct systems are tested with a length of straight
duct between the fan discharge and the measuring station on a flow-through
test setup. This length of duct smooths the flow from the fan and provides sta-
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ble, uniform flow conditions at the plane of measurement. This allows the
eddying around a centrifugal fan outlet with a cutoff, and allows the radially
unequal air velocities from vaneaxial and propeller fans to become uniform
along this length of straight duct. The equalization of velocity is usually
reflected in an increase in static pressure. In the case of free discharge or duct
fittings near the fan outlet or inlet, some of the pressure conversion is not real-
G
ized. The measured pressures are corrected back to the fan outlet. Fans
designed for use without ducts (including almost all propeller fans and power
roof ventilators) are tested without ductwork.
Not all sizes are tested for rating. Test information may be used to calculate
the performance of larger fans that are geometrically similar, but such informa-
tion should not be extrapolated to smaller fans. For the performance of one fan
to be determined from the known performance of another, the two fans must be
dynamically similar. Strict dynamic similarity requires that the important non-
dimensional parameters vary in only insignificant ways. These nondimensional
parameters include those that affect aerodynamic characteristics, such as Mach
number, Reynolds number, surface roughness, and gap size. (For more specific
information, consult the manufacturer.)
Fan Drives
t
A proper motor and drive selection aids in long life and minimum service
e
requirements. Direct-drive fans are normally used in applications where exact
air quantities are not required (such as with small fan-coil units), because
ample heat transfer surface is available at more than enough temperature differ-
ence to compensate for any lack of air quantity that may exist. For example,
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this could apply to a unit heater application. Direct-drive fans are also used on
applications where system resistance can be accurately determined. However,
most air-conditioning applications use belt drives.
V-belts must be applied in matched sets and used on balanced sheaves to
minimize vibration problems and to ensure long life. They are particularly use-
ful on applications where adjustments may be required to obtain more exact air
quantities. These adjustments can be accomplished by varying the pitch diame-
ter on adjustable sheaves or by changing one or both sheaves on a fixed-sheave
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drive system.
Belt guards are required for safety on all V-belt drives, and coupling guards
are required for direct-drive coupling equipment.
The fan motor must be selected for the maximum anticipated power
requirements of the fan plus drive losses. The motor must be large enough to
operate within its rated power capacity, including drive losses and reductions in
line voltages and short-term conditions. Normal torque motors are generally
u
used for fan duty.
Fan Selection
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Figure 6-8 shows two fan characteristic curves for the same fan. They are
constant-speed curves. Curve 1 is run at one speed and curve 2 at a lower
speed. In terms of fan selection, the objective is always to keep the operating
point somewhere in the optimum selection zone as illustrated in Figure 6-8.
If the fan is to operate in zone A, a larger fan is more efficient. Conversely, if
the fan is to operate in zone B, a smaller fan is more efficient. Keep in mind
G
that a fan is a constant-volume device.

There is no magic number to defining the optimum zone, although it should
include maximum efficiency. The application also dictates the appropriate
width of the optimum zone. Some HVAC applications allow a fairly wide opti-
mum zone. In areas where big fans requiring a lot of energy are needed (such
as mills or power plants), the optimum zone is much narrower because it is
more important to operate near peak efficiency.
e t
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Figure 6-8 Optimum fan selection zone.
Figure 6-9 shows a series of maximum efficiency curves for various fan
u
sizes. It is plotted on log-log paper to show the exponential curve as a straight
line. The fan sizes shown are a standard range, where 365 is a fan with a
927 mm diameter impeller or wheel.
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The value of a chart like that shown in Figure 6-9 is that, once it is prepared
for a given type of fan, you can enter the x-axis with the flow in L/s 2.12 and
the y-axis with total pressure, defining a point in the graph. The fan represented
by the curve closest to that point is the most efficient fan on the chart for that
volume/pressure combination.
G
In theory, the chart indicates the best fan. However, both the next smaller
and the next larger fans should be evaluated for the particular application, even
though they are both less efficient and possibly noisier.
In practice, the AMCA sizes are so close together that it is quite likely that
the next larger or smaller size will probably be acceptable. For example, sup-
pose the chart suggests a 927 mm fan. It is quite likely that you can go down to
838 mm fan. While it is less efficient, it is down only a few points, it will not be
132
G
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u
Chapter 6 Air Movers and Fan Technology
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Figure 6-9 Maximum efficiency lines for various fan sizes.
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et
that much noisier, and the first costs will be lower. For variable volume appli-
cations, the next smaller size fan should always be evaluated.
Note that the curves in Figure 6-9 are for one type of fan. If you have
another type, a series of curves must be obtained from the manufacturer for
that type.
Another important point is that you cannot satisfy all applications simply
by speeding up the fan. Recall from the fan laws earlier in this chapter that the
t
input power goes up as the cube of the speed ratio [kW = (L/s)3]. Suppose you
have 100% of design air in a system and it is determined that an additional 10%
e
is required. If the fan is sped up by 10%, the pressure goes up by the square of
the speed increase, to about 1.12 = 1.21, or 121%. However, the power require-
ments go up from 100% to 133% (1.13 = 1.33), and few systems can easily tol-
erate that large an increase.
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Happily, this works in reverse. That is, if the flow can be reduced, the
whole process is reversed. Instead of being worried about overloading the sys-
tem and requiring new equipment, the power bill is reduced appreciably
because of the cube ratio.
Density, Temperature, and Altitude

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Unless otherwise identified, fan performance data are based on dry air at stan-
dard conditions: 101.325 kPa and 20°C, with a mass density of 0.204 kg/m3. In
actual applications, the fan may be required to handle air or gas at some other
density. The change in density may be a result of temperature, composition of
the gas, or altitude. As indicated by the fan laws, fan performance is affected
by gas density. With constant size and speed, the power and pressure vary in
accordance with the ratio of gas density to the standard air density.
u
Most of the time, air-handling systems are operated at or near sea level, so
altitude is not a consideration. However, at higher altitudes, atmospheric density
becomes a factor. At higher altitudes, or when handling gases lighter than stan-
ro
dard air, the pressure is lowered. When working with a gas of lower density than
air at sea level, the air cannot build up the pressure that the original standard air
could.
However, flow rate does not change. If a fan produces 5000 L/s at sea
level, it will produce 5000 L/s at 3000 m above sea level but not at the same
pressure. The flow rate remains the same no matter what the density. The
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change is strictly in pressure. Happily, a reduction in power also occurs with

the reduction in density. The point to remember is that catalog information is
developed at standard density, it has to be converted to lower density, and
lower-density air will not transfer as much heat at higher altitudes as it will at
sea level. Consequently, the required airflow for a given energy delivered
may need to be increased, which results in higher pressures and higher power
requirements.
Static Pressure Versus Total Pressure

Fan data in catalogs for unitary equipment are usually specified in static pres-
sure not total pressure. This can cause errors in selection. The objective of this
section is to show the problem and alert you to the prospective difficulties you
may encounter.
For example, assume the duct system for two systems has a static pres-
t
sure loss of 250 Pa, and assume a fan delivers 4000 L/s across an outlet area
of 0.2 m2, giving a velocity of (4000/1000)/0.2 = 20 m/s. From the equation
e
for velocity pressure we have
3
kW 2 Q 3
----------- = ------2
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= 0.8 = 0.512 (6-4)
kW 1 Q1
With a static pressure of 250 Pa at the fan outlet, the total pressure becomes
250 + 241 = 491 Pa.
Now consider another fan. Here is the same 4000 L/s, but this fan has 0.4 m2
of output area. Therefore, the velocity is 10 m/s. Again using Equation 6-1, the
velocity pressure equals 0.602 × 102, or 60 Pa. To make things equal, we want
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491 Pa total pressure just as before. Subtracting the 60 Pa velocity pressure from
the total pressure leaves 431 Pa of static pressure.
The trouble starts when we consider efficiency. The equation for efficiency,
, is
L/s kPa
= ------------------------------ (6-5)
1007 kW
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If we use static pressure in this equation, we get static efficiency. If we use
total pressure, we get total efficiency.
Some computations demonstrate the effect of output area on static effi-
ciency. Assume from tests it has been determined that input kW = 2.48:
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L/s kPa
= ------------------------------ 100% (6-6)
1007 kW
Multiply total efficiency in both cases by 100 to convert to percent:

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4000 0.5
t = -------------------------------- 100 = 80%
1007 2.48
Static efficiency in Case 1 is
4000 0.25
s = -------------------------------- 100 = 40% (6-7)
1007 2.48
Static efficiency in Case 2 is
4000 0.431
s = ----------------------------------- 100 = 69% (6-8)
1007 2.48
So here are two fans with the same input power (2.48 kW), the same total
pressure (0.491 kPa), the same 4000 L/s flow, and the same total efficiency
(80%). However, by doubling the outlet area, the static efficiency is increased
t
from 40% to 69%—all because the outlet areas and, consequently, the outlet
velocities of the two fans are different. By using total efficiency, you can avoid
e
costly mistakes that can occur by looking at static efficiencies.
The reason that fans are sometimes specified in terms of static pressure is
that, particularly in older systems, when velocities are low, the difference
between static pressure and total pressure is relatively small. However, particu-
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larly in systems with higher velocities (>7.5 m/s), it is important to deal with
total pressure, not static pressure.
A fan introducing unheated outside air discharges a larger volume of air
after the air is heated. The fan motor should be selected for this added power
requirement.
The density of air varies as the absolute temperature difference. The
absolute temperature in K is °C + 273. So a temperature of 20°C is 20 + 273
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= 293 K. Therefore, a 4000 L/s rated fan whose discharge air is then heated
to 75°C (75 + 273 = 348 K) introduces 4750 L/s (4000 348/293) into the
duct system.
Fan Performance Under Installed Conditions

It is not unusual for a fan and system combination to operate at a volume flow
rate and pressure different from those for which the system was designed.
u
There are two basic reasons why this may occur. First, if a system is not the
same as specified in the design, the point of operation will not be at the design
point on the fan curve. Referring to Figure 6-10, Point B is the specified point
of operation, but the system actually operates at Point A.
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The different point of operation produces a different combination of capac-

ity and pressure; in the case shown, it produces a higher pressure and a lower
flow rate. If the original design volume flow rate must be retained, the situation
can be corrected by changing the fan speed until the fan curve and the system
curve pass through the required capacity point. Another way of correcting this
situation is to reduce the pressure loss in the system so that the point of rating
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moves out on the curve to point B, as shown in Figure 6-10. This change in the
system characteristics may be accomplished by a change in damper setting, a
change in outlet grille setting, or an actual change in the duct design to achieve
the lower pressure characteristic.
The important note in this case is that the difference between the specified
point of rating and the actual point of rating is due to a change in the system char-
acteristic curve and not a difference in the fan. The fan curve is in its original
e t
gp
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Figure 6-10 Operating points.
position; the challenge is simply to get the system characteristic curve to cross
the fan curve at the desired point.
Second, an entirely different change in the operation between the fan and
u
the fan system can occur by an actual change in the fan performance curve.
Remember, all fans impart energy to the air by some form of rotational motion.
Fans are designed so they depend on uniform, straight airflow into the fan inlet.
If this flow is upset in any way, the fan will not perform on the original perfor-
ro
mance curve but rather will work on a new one. Why this happens is a system
effect.
System Effect Factors

Figure 6-11 illustrates deficient fan/system performance resulting from one or
G
more undesirable flow conditions (improper outlet connections, nonuniform

inlet flow and/or swirl at the fan inlet). It is assumed that the system pressure
losses have been accurately determined (Point 1, Curve A) and a suitable fan
selected for operation at that point. However, no allowance has been made for
the effect of the system connections on the fan’s performance. To compensate
for this system effect, a system effect factor must be added to the calculated
system pressure losses to determine the actual system curve. The system effect
e t
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Figure 6-11 Deficient duct system performance.
u
is treated as a pressure loss even though it cannot be accurately measured as
such in the field. The system effect factor for any given configuration is veloc-
ity dependent and, therefore, varies across the range of flow volumes of the fan
(see Figure 6-12).
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In Figure 6-11, the point of intersection between the fan performance curve
and the actual system curve is Point 4. Therefore, the actual flow volume will
be deficient by the difference from 1– 4. To achieve design flow volume, a sys-
tem effect factor equal to the pressure difference between Points 1 and 2 should
have been added to calculate system pressure losses, and the fan selected to
operate at Point 2. Note that because the system effect is velocity related, the
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difference represented between Points 1 and 2 is greater than the difference

between Points 3 and 4.
Figure 6-12 shows a series of 24 system effect curves (labeled A through X);
determination of which curve to use is discussed later in the section, “Computing
the Effect of Inlet Obstructions.” By entering the chart at the appropriate air
velocity (on the abscissa), it is possible to read across from any curve (to the ordi-
nate) to find the system effect factor for a particular configuration. The system
e t
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u pE
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Figure 6-12 System effect curves.

effect factor is given in Pa and must be added to the total system pressure losses,
as shown in Figure 6-11.
The velocity figure used in entering the chart is either the inlet or the outlet
velocity of the fan. This depends on whether the configuration in question is
related to the fan inlet or the outlet. Most catalog ratings include outlet velocity
figures, but for centrifugal fans it may be necessary to calculate the inlet veloc-
ity. A more detailed discussion of system effects and tables detailing system
effects for a wide range of equipment and configurations can be found in
t
AMCA 201-90, Fans and Systems (AMCA 1990).
e
Fan Installation Design
Computing the Effect of Fan Outlet Conditions
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Imagine an ideal uniform flow downstream from the fan. The reality is, in fact,
quite different than the ideal. Figure 6-13 shows the flow patterns of a centrifugal
fan and an axial fan. In either case, the flow is nonuniform at the fan discharge.
Ideally, the outlet duct should be the same size as the fan outlet. To best use
the energy developed by the fan, the length of duct known as the 100% effec-
tive duct length should be provided at the fan outlet. Acceptable flow can be
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obtained if the duct is not greater in area than 110% nor less in area than 85%
of the fan outlet, and system effects can usually be tolerated at fan outlet veloc-
ities below 10 m/s. The slope of transition elements should not be greater than
15° for the converging elements nor greater than 7° for the diverging elements.
There is a system effect for most fans at effective duct lengths of less than
100% of straight duct. Any closer and there is an effect such as that illustrated
in Table 6-2, and the losses at other duct components (elbows, tees, etc.) will
be higher than the standard fitting losses.
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One way to calculate effective duct length for round duct is as follows:
• If the duct velocity is greater than 13 m/s

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V o Ao
L e = ----------------------- (6-9)
4500
• If the duct velocity is less than 13 m/s

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A
L e = ---------o-
350
where
Vo = duct velocity, m/s
Le = effective duct length, m
Ao = duct area, mm2
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Figure 6-13 Blast areas for centrifugal and axial fans.
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If the duct is rectangular, the equivalent duct diameter is calculated by

G
4HW
D h = ------------------------- (6-10)
2 H +W
where
Dh = equivalent duct diameter, mm
H = rectangular duct height, mm
W = rectangular duct width, mm
Table 6-2 Blast Area Ratios for Various Fan Types

Fan Type Blast Area Ratio
Centrifugal
Airfoil 0.70
Backward curved 0.70
Backward inclined 0.70
t
Modified radial 0.60
Radial 0.80
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Forward curved 0.50
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Propeller 0.90
Axial
Hub ratio:
0.3 0.90
0.4 0.85
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0.5 0.75
0.6 0.65
0.7 0.50
Note: Use actual manufacturer’s data when available.
In cases where you use a shorter discharge length than one effective duct
length, an additional pressure loss results. This additional pressure must be
u
added to the fan total pressure requirements. The additional pressure loss may
be calculated by Equation 6-11, which is also used to calculate additional pres-
sure losses for other inlet and outlet configurations:
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2
p = 0.502K 1 V (6-11)
where
p = pressure loss, Pa
V = velocity at outlet plane, m/s
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K1 = factor from Table 6-3

= density, kg/m3 (about 1.2 kg/m3 for indoor conditions)
The blast area ratio is calculated by
Blast area
Blast area ratio = --------------------------
Outlet area
Table 6-3 K1 Factors*
Blast Area Effective Duct Length

No Duct
Ratio 12% 25% 50%
0.5 2.0 1.0 0.40 0.18
0.6 1.0 0.66 0.33 0.18
0.7 0.8 0.40 0.14 0.14
t
0.8 0.47 0.22 0.01
e
0.9 0.22 0.14
*For calculating added pressure requirements due to short discharge length.
gp
Typical blast areas for centrifugal and axial fans are identified in Figure 6-13.
The blast area for centrifugal fans is the outlet area minus the area of the cutoff
plate. The blast area for axial fans is the area of the annular space between the
hub and the fan housing. The blast area should be obtained from the fan manu-
facturer for the particular fan being considered. For estimating purposes, the val-
ues of blast area ratio shown in Table 6-2 may be used if actual areas cannot be
determined.
Elbows can contribute to additional pressure loss. To obtain the rated per-
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formance from a fan, the first elbow fitting should be at least one effective duct
length from the fan outlet (see Figure 6-14). If this length cannot be provided,
an additional pressure loss results, and this additional pressure must be added
to the fan total pressure requirements using the curve letter designation shown
in Figure 6-12 and Table 6-4. The additional pressure loss may also be deter-
mined by using Equation 6-11.
Computing the Effect of Fan Inlet Conditions

u
If an elbow must be installed on the fan inlet, a straight run of duct should be
put between the elbow and the fan, and a long radius elbow should be used.
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Inlet elbows without the straight duct run create an additional loss that must be
added to the fan total pressure requirements. The additional loss may also be
calculated by using Equation 6-11.
Computing the Effect of Inlet Obstructions

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For obvious reasons, every effort should be made to keep the fan inlet free of
obstructions. The fan inlet should be located so it is not obstructed (by other
equipment, walls, pipes, beams, columns, etc.), because such obstructions will
degrade the fan’s performance.
Where obstructions are unavoidable, the resulting pressure losses can be
estimated using Equation 6-11. The K factors for inlet area obstructions are
shown in Table 6-5.
e t
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u pE
Figure 6-14 Outlet duct elbows.
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When you estimate the percentage of inlet area remaining obstructed, use
that part of the projected area of the obstruction perpendicular to the airflow
and subtract this area from the area of the inlet plane to obtain the net area.
G
Divide the flow rate by this net area to determine the flow for V in the above
equation.
Inlet Spin
Figure 6-15a shows top and front views of two inlet duct combinations. Fans
are normally tested with open inlets and uniform flow to the wheel. When
Table 6-4 System Effect Curves for Outlet Elbows

12% 25% 50% 100%
Blast Area Outlet Elbow No Outlet
Effective Effective Effective Effective
Outlet Area Position Duct
Duct Duct Duct Duct
A N O P–Q S
B M M–N O R
0.4
t
C L–M M N Q
e
D L–M M N Q
A P Q R T
gp
B N–O O–P P–Q S
0.5
C M–N N–O O–P R–S
D M–N N–O O–P R–S
A Q Q–R R–S U
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B B Q R T
0.6
C N–O O–P P–Q S
D O P Q–R S–T
A S–T T U W
u
B R–S S T V No System
0.7
C Q–R R S U–V Effect Factor
D R R–S S–T U–V

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A S S–T T–U V–W

B R R–S S–T U–V
0.8
C Q Q-R R-S U
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D Q–R R S U–V
These factors are for single-width single-inlet (SWSI) fans. For double-width double-inlet (DWDI) fans, apply the following mul-
tipliers:
Elbow position B = P × 1.25
Elbow position D = P × 0.85
Positions A & C = P × 1.00
Table 6-4 System Effect Curves for Outlet Elbows (Continued)

12% 25% 50% 100%
Blast Area Outlet Elbow No Outlet
Effective Effective Effective Effective
Outlet Area Position Duct
Duct Duct Duct Duct
A S–T T U W
t
B R–S S T V
0.9
e
C R R–S S–T U–V
D R–S S T V
gp
A R–S S T V
B S–T T U W
1.0
C R–S S T V
D R–S S T V
These factors are for single-width single-inlet (SWSI) fans. For double-width double-inlet (DWDI) fans, apply the following mul-
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tipliers:
Elbow position B = P × 1.25
Elbow position D = P × 0.85
Positions A & C = P × 1.00
Table 6-5 K Factor for Inlet Area Obstructions

% Inlet Area Obstructed 5 10 15 25 50 75
K Factor 0.22 0.40 0.53 0.80 1.20 1.60
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angled ductwork is too close to the fan inlet (as shown in the figure), a spin
component is imparted to the air. The flow is no longer uniform and nonstan-
dard fan performance results. This means that the fan is no longer operating
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along the expected curve, and the fan performance is different than specified. It
does not matter if it is spun in the direction of wheel rotation or against the
direction of wheel rotation.
If there is uncontrolled spin in the direction of the wheel, pressure is lost
and the flow rate is reduced. A good indication of this is that the motor load
goes down. If you are getting lower motor load than the manufacturer’s data
G
indicates, this may be the cause.

If there is uncontrolled spin against the direction of the wheel, the results
are slightly higher pressure, lower flow, and higher than expected power draw.
If there is enough spin, enough power is drawn to blow the circuit breakers or
heaters on your system. If you know your fan is overloaded, but you cannot fig-
ure out why because the system appears in good order otherwise, look for
uncontrolled spin. The best remedy is to enlarge the duct approaching the fan
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gp
pE
(a)
u
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G
(b)
Figure 6-15 (a) Inlet duct connections causing inlet spin and (b) corrections for inlet spin.
to reduce the velocity and, therefore, the loss. Another remedy for this condi-
tion may be turning vanes, as shown in Figure 6-15b.
Computing the Effect of Enclosure Restrictions

In cases where a fan (or several fans) is built into a fan cabinet construction or
installed in a plenum, the walls should be at least one inlet diameter from the
fan housing, and a space of at least two inlet diameters should be provided
t
between fan inlets. If these recommendations cannot be met, additional pres-
e
sure losses will result. These additional losses must be added to the fan total
pressure requirements, as shown in Table 6-6. The additional pressure losses
may also be calculated using Equation 6-11.
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Computing the Effect of Inlet and Outlet Restrictions
Normally, fan performance data do not include the effects of any accessories
supplied with the fan. The loss caused by fan accessories (such as bearings,
bearing pedestals, inlet vanes, inlet dampers, belt guards and motors) should be
determined from tests by the fan manufacturer. The losses should be subtracted
from the original fan performance and the resulting fan curve presented as the
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installed performance curve. If such data are not available, the losses due to
accessories may be estimated as explained above in the section, “Computing
the Effect of Inlet Obstructions.”
Parallel Fan Operation

The combined performance curve for two fans operating in parallel may be
plotted by using the appropriate pressure for the ordinates and the sum of the
u
volumes for the abscissas. When two fans having a pressure reduction to the
left of the peak pressure point are operated in parallel, a fluctuating load condi-
tion may result if one fan operates to the left of the peak static point on its per-
formance curve. This problem may be reduced using two fans on a single shaft.
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The pressure curves (pt) of a single fan and two identical fans operating in
parallel are shown in Figure 6-16. Curve A-A shows the pressure characteris-
tics of a single fan. Curve C-C is the combined performance of the two fans.
The unique figure-eight shape is a plot of all possible combinations of volume
flow at each pressure value for the individual fans. All points to the right of CD
are the result of each fan operating at the right of its peak point of rating. Stable
G
performance results for all systems with less obstruction to airflow than is
shown on the p curve D-D.
At points of operation to the left of CD, system requirements may be satis-
fied with one fan operating at one rating point, while the other fan is at a differ-
ent rating point. For example, consider p curve E-E, which requires a pressure
of 200 Pa and a volume of 2.5 m3/s. The requirements of this system can be
satisfied with each fan delivering 1.25 m3/s at 200 Pa at Point CE. The system
e t
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Figure 6-16 Two forward curve centrifugal fans in parallel operation.
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Table 6-6 K Factor for Enclosure Restrictions
Length (L) System Effect Curves*
0.75 × inlet diameter V–W
0.50 × inlet diameter U
0.40 × inlet diameter T
0.30 × inlet diameter S
where D1 = diameter of the fan inlet
u
*See Table 6-3
can also be satisfied at Point CE, with one fan operating at 0.66 m3/s at 180 Pa,
while the second fan delivers 1.63 m3/s at the same 180 Pa.
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Note that system curve E-E passes through the combined performance
curve at two points. Under such conditions, unstable operation can result.
Under conditions of CE, one fan is underloaded and operating at poor effi-
ciency. The other fan delivers most of the system requirements and uses sub-
stantially more power than the underloaded fan. This imbalance may reverse
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and shift the load from one fan to the other.
Fan Controls
In many heating and ventilating systems, the volume of air handled by the fan
varies. The choice of the proper method for varying flow for any particular
case is influenced by two basic considerations: the frequency with which
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Figure 6-17 System total pressure loss curves.
u
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changes must be made and the balancing of reduced power consumption

against increases in first cost.
To control flow, the characteristic of either the system or the fan must be
changed. The system characteristic curve may be altered by installing dampers
or orifice plates. This technique reduces flow by increasing the system pressure
required and, therefore, increasing power consumption. Figure 6-17 shows
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three different system curves (A, B, and C), such as would be obtained by
changing the damper setting or orifice diameter. Dampers are usually the low-
est first-cost method of achieving flow control; they can be used even in cases
where essentially continuous control is needed. However, there is a system
effect loss created even at the full-open position.
Changing the fan characteristic (pt curve) for control can reduce power
consumption. From the standpoint of power consumption, the most desirable
control method is to vary the fan speed to produce the desired performance. If
the change is infrequent, belt-driven units may be adjusted by changing the
pulley on the fan’s drive motor. Variable-speed motors or variable-speed drives
(whether electrical or hydraulic) may be used when frequent or essentially con-
tinuous variations are desired. When speed control is used, the revised pt curve
can be calculated by the fan laws.
Inlet vane control is frequently used. Figure 6-18 illustrates the change in
fan performance with inlet vane control. Curves A, B, C, D, and E are the pres-
t
sure and power curves for various vane settings between wide open (A) and
nearly closed (E).
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Tubeaxial and vaneaxial fans offer adjustable pitch blades to permit balanc-
ing of the fan against the system or to make infrequent adjustments. Vaneaxial
fans are also produced with controllable pitch blades (pitch that can be varied
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while the fan is in operation) for frequent or continuous adjustment. Varying
pitch angle retains high efficiencies over a wide range of conditions. Figure 6-19
shows the performance of a typical fan with variable pitch blades. From the
standpoint of noise, variable speed is somewhat better than variable blade pitch.
However, both control methods give high operating efficiency control and gener-
ate much less noise than inlet vane or damper control.
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Figure 6-18 Effect of inlet vane control on backward curve centrifugal fan performance.
Effect of Variable-Resistance Devices

Variable-resistance devices (such as dampers and louvers) can have significant
effects on a system. As discussed earlier, the system curve is a composite of
several components in series with each other. If one component varies, the sys-
tem curve also changes. Some system components are truly fixed, such as the
ductwork. Others are variable, either by design or operationally over time.
Components that vary by design are referred to as varying with a purpose, and
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the others are referred to as varying without a purpose.
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Examples of components that vary without a purpose are filters and coils.
As shown in Figure 6-20, dirty filters push the system curve to the left, while
dry coils push it to the right. If a coil is not dehumidifying and becomes dry,
the pressure drop is less, the system curve slides to the right, and more air is
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delivered. As the coil begins to dehumidify, or remove moisture, the pressure
drop is greater and the system curve slides back up to its original range.
Figure 6-21 shows two system curves for a variable-volume system. In this
case, the volume is varied with dampers at the terminal devices. The original
operating point was Point X on system Curve A. The thermostat in this system
is activated and causes the damper to close down. The operating point now
shifts to Point Y on system Curve B, which gives 75% of the previous volume
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flow and a higher operating pressure. Therefore, the damper has to function to
reduce the pressure to Point Z on the original system curve.
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Figure 6-19 Effect of blade pitch on controllable pitch vaneaxial fan performance.
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Figure 6-20 Fan curve and system curve.
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Figure 6-21 Variable-volume system at three-quarters flow.

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Figure 6-22
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Variable-volume system at one-half flow.
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If the flow rate is halved, as shown in Figure 6-22, these dampers continue
to close down. The damper pressure differential is now quite large and can con-
tribute to both noise and operating flow instabilities. Consequently, it is usually
necessary to provide some type of capacity control at the fan. This reduces the
effective pressure available at the fan, and keeps the available system pressure
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at or near the original system curve. On systems with a minor variation
between maximum and minimum flow, designs may be based on riding the fan
curve. Note that duct leakage is based on the pressure of the system operating
at Point Y.
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The Next Step

Chapter 6 discussed how fans work and produce airstreams with static and
dynamic pressure. Chapter 7 discusses ducts that distribute air around a facility.
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Summary
A fan is an air pump with rotating blades that creates an increase in static and
velocity pressure. The two main types are centrifugal fans, where the air enters
the eye of a barrel and is thrown out radially into the spiral scroll, and axial
fans.
For a specific fan connected to a system, the volume is proportional to the

rpm, the static pressure is proportional to rpm squared, and power input is pro-
portional to rpm cubed.
A fan creates a velocity pressure and a rise in static pressure in a system.
Because the system can and usually does influence fan performance, both
velocity pressure and static pressure must be addressed. The easy estimation of
system static pressure loss and choosing a fan with that static pressure rise may
produce acceptable results in a low-velocity system but probably will not in a
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higher-velocity system. The reason for this is that the inlet and outlet condi-
tions can significantly influence fan performance—a phenomenon known as
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system effect.
Fan efficiency ratings are based on ideal conditions, a new fan, unob-
structed inlet, and same-size duct outlet. However, in real installations, the
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designed inlet and outlet conditions are often not ideal. The reduction in fan
performance due to inlet and outlet conditions can greatly reduce effective fan
performance. To minimize risk of error, designs should be based on total fan
pressure and not just on fan static pressure.
Direct drives are used in smaller systems where oversizing the fan is easier
than matching the fan to the load. In larger systems, belt drives are commonly
used to adjust from the motor speed to the required fan speed. Motors and
drives must be sized for the maximum anticipated load.
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Selecting a fan involves finding one that provides the required flow and
total pressure at a good efficiency and noise level. The type of fan may be
influenced by system operation, so a very flat characteristic might be sought in
a system where variations in flow are required without any fan adjustment. The
motor power rises as the cube of the flow (fan law), so the fan must not be sig-
nificantly undersized. Equally, if a fan is significantly oversized, changing pul-
leys to reduce capacity to what is actually required will save substantial motor
power and operating costs.
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Fan performance data are normally given for standard air. At constant
speed, the power and pressure vary with gas density, proportional to absolute
temperature, K, or °C + 273.
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At altitudes significantly above sea level, the air density drops. A fan pro-
vides the same volume flow, but the same volume transfers less thermal energy
due to the lower air density. The design volume is typically higher at higher
altitudes, so a design for sea level operation should be reevaluated before being
built at higher altitude.
Fan data are usually specified in terms of static pressure not total pressure.
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However, due to velocity changes at inlet and outlet connections, the use of
static pressure alone can cause errors. Particularly with system velocities over
7.5 m/s, it is important to work with total pressure not just static pressure.
Remember, velocity pressure equals (0.602V 2) Pa.
When installed, a fan may not provide the expected flow. This may be a
result of system pressure losses being different from design calculations or the
fan being affected by the way the inlet and outlet are configured. A difference
in system pressure loss results in the fan riding its curve until the system curve
and fan curve meet. Correction may be possible by adjusting fan speed.
Remember, if the reason is inlet or outlet configuration, this is a system effect.
System effects are due to one or more of the following: outlet connection
geometry, uneven flow across the inlet, and swirl at the inlet. The outlet effects
are due to the uneven velocity profile coming out of the fan and the difference
between the fan air outlet size (blast area) and the fan connection size. At the
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inlet, an uneven flow across the fan effectively overloads some blade positions
and underloads other blade conditions, causing loss of efficiency. Swirling of
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the entering air effectively changes the velocity of the air as it meets the blade,
again jeopardizing efficiency.
The flow at a fan discharge is very uneven and takes a length of duct to bal-
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ance out. The required length and static pressure loss can be calculated based
on manufacturers’ data of blast area versus outlet area. If this duct length is not
available, the pressure drop is increased. Care must be taken to transition from
fan outlet to duct system with minimal losses.
For centrifugal fans, a bend close to the fan outlet causes an additional
static pressure loss that must also be factored into total static pressure losses.
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The way the air enters a fan can significantly influence fan performance and
power consumption. If the entering airstream is biased to one side of the inlet or
is swirling the fan performance is reduced and power may be increased. Careful
analysis of these inlet effects can be very important in ensuring that the system
performs as required and that energy is not wasted due to poor design.

u
AMCA. 1990. AMCA 201-90, Fans and Systems. Arlington Heights, IL: Air
Movement and Control Association Inc.
AMCA. 2007. Standard 210, Laboratory Methods of Testing Fans for Certified
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Aerodynamic Performance Rating. Arlington Heights, IL: Air Movement

and Control Association Inc.
ASHRAE. 2007. ASHRAE Standard 51-2007, Laboratory Methods of Testing
Fans for Certified Aerodynamic Performance Rating. Atlanta: American
G

neers, Inc.
SMACNA. 1990. HVAC Systems—Duct Design. Chantilly, VA: Sheet Metal
and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association.

6-1 A fan delivers 6000 L/s at a pressure of 300 Pa at a rotational speed of 750 rpm.
If the fan speed is reduced to 600 rpm, how much air will the fan deliver and at
what pressure?
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a) 4800 L/s, 240 Pa b) 4800 L/s, 192 Pa
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c) 3840 L/s, 240 Pa d) 3840 L/s, 192 Pa
6-2 Given a fan operating at 4000 L/s, 750 Pa total pressure, and 3.75 kW, what is
the fan total efficiency?
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a) 84% b) 79% c) 74% d) none of the above
6-3 Given a fan operating at 4000 L/s and using 2.3 kW, what is the fan total effi-
ciency?
6-4 What is one effective duct length for a duct with a duct velocity of 20 m/s and
an area of 125,000 mm2?
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a) 6.79 m b) 4.3 m c) 1.57 m d) none of the above
6-5 What is one effective duct length for a duct with a duct velocity of 4.1 m/s and
a) 1.07 m b) 2.18 m c) 4.33 d) none of the above
6-6 A rectangular duct is 250 mm high and 500 mm wide. What is the equivalent
duct diameter of this duct?
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a) 550 mm b) 400 mm c) 460 mm d) none of the above
6-7 For any given system, the system effect factor is constant across the range of
flow volumes of the fan.
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a) True b) False
6-8 A fixed-fan system draws 2.2 kW to deliver 5000 L/s. If the airflow require-
ment can be reduced to 3500 L/s by decreasing the fan speed, the motor power
requirement will be reduced to _______________.
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a) 2.1 kW b) 1.0 kW c) 0.76 kW d) none of the above

6-9 The _______________ is the highest efficiency centrifugal fan design.
a) radial
b) forward curved
c) backward inclined, backward curved
6-10 Power roof ventilators _______________.

a) usually operate without discharge ductwork
b) operate at low pressure
c) operate at high volume
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Duct System Design
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Study Objectives
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lay out and size a simple duct system that transports the required quantity
of air from the fan to the conditioned space using appropriate methods and
materials; and
calculate the pressure losses in a duct system.
Instructions
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opment exercises. Review those sections of the chapter as needed to complete
the exercises.
Duct System Design Overview

Air duct system design must consider space availability, space air diffusion,
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noise, duct leakage, duct heat gains and losses, balancing, fire and smoke con-
trol, and initial investment and system operating cost.
This chapter covers duct construction, methods of duct sizing, and duct siz-
ing examples. The ancillary effects of air leakage and potential heat gain or loss
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along the duct run are also addressed.
Duct Materials
A variety of materials are used in the construction of ducts. Duct materials
should receive the same careful selection consideration as other system compo-
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nents. The material used in a duct system can substantially affect the overall
system performance. The advantages and disadvantages of the available mate-
rials should be weighed.
Materials used for ducts include galvanized steel, carbon (black) steel,
stainless steel, aluminum, copper, fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP), polyvi-
nyl chloride (PVC), polyvinyl steel (PVS), concrete, fibrous glass (duct board),
and gypsum board. These materials are compared in Table 7-1.
160 Chapter 7 Duct System Design
Table 7-1 Duct Materials (SMACNA 2004)

Material Applications Advantages Limitations
Widely used for most air handling High strength, rigidity,
Weldability,
Galvanized applications. Not recommended for durability, rust resistance in
paintability, weight, cor-
Steel corrosive product handling or ordinary conditions, availability,
rosion resistance
temperatures above 200°C. nonporous, workability
Breechings, flues, stacks, hoods, High strength, rigidity,
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Carbon Steel other high temperature duct systems, durability, availability, Corrosion resistance,
(Black Iron) kitchen exhaust systems, ducts paintability, weldability, weight
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requiring paint or special coatings non-porous
Duct systems for moisture-laden air,
Low strength,
louvers, special exhaust systems,
Weight, resistance to some material cost,
Aluminum ornamental duct systems. Often
forms of corrosion, availability weldability,
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substituted for galvanized steel
thermal expansion
in HVAC duct systems.
High resistance to many
Material cost,
Stainless Duct systems for kitchen exhaust, common forms of corrosion (but
workability,
Steel moisture-laden air fume exhaust care is definitely
availability
required in alloy selection)
Cost, electrolytic action
Accepts solder readily,
Duct systems for exposure to outside if in contact with galva-
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Copper durable, resists corrosion,
elements and moisture-laden air nized steel, thermal
nonmagnetic
expansion, stains
Cost, weight, range of
Fiberglass chemical and physical
Chemical exhaust, scrubbers, Corrosion resistant, ease of
Reinforced properties, brittleness,
underground duct systems modification
Plastic (FRP) fabrication, code accep-
tance
Polyvinyl Exhaust systems for chemical fumes Corrosion resistance,
Cost, fabrication, code
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Chloride and hospitals, underground duct weight, weldability, ease
acceptance
(PVC) systems of modification
Susceptible to coating
Underground duct systems, damage, temperature
Polyvinyl Corrosion resistance, weight,
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moisture-laden air, corrosive limitations (120°C

Steel (PVS) workability fabrication, rigidity
air systems max.), weldability, code
acceptance
Compressive strength, corrosion Cost, weight, porous,
Concrete Underground ducts, air shafts resistance (steel reinforcement in fabrication (requires
concrete must be properly treated) forming processes)
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Weight, thermal insulation and Cost, susceptible to dam-

Rigid Fibrous Interior HVAC low-pressure vapor barrier, acoustical qualities, age, system pressure,
Glass duct systems ease of modification, inexpensive code acceptance,
tooling for fabrication questionable cleanability
Weight, code acceptance,
Gypsum Ceiling plenums, corridor ducts,
Cost, availability leakage, deterioration
Board airshafts
when damp
Duct sizing and construction specifications are generally given for galva-
nized steel, and correction factors for other materials must be used. Unless oth-
erwise noted, this chapter considers galvanized steel exclusively.
Consideration must also be given to selection of duct construction compo-
nents other than those materials used for the duct walls, including flexible
ducts, duct liners, pressure sensitive tapes, sealants, reinforcements, and hang-
ers. Lined ducts must be sized to include the lining. The duct drawing must
clearly state that the duct dimension is the metal size or the airway size.
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Duct Construction
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Rectangular Metal Ducts
Rectangular metal ducts must be designed to avoid vibration and structural
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failure. Vibration can occur when a flat sheet acts as a drum, with the center of
the sheet vibrating back and forth. This behavior becomes more pronounced in
both the scale of the vibration and the noise generated as the size of the flat
metal area increases. This vibration is reduced by breaking or, less commonly,
beading the duct sheets as shown in Figure 7-1.
The structural requirements for ducts are determined by duct sheet thick-
ness, duct dimension, and duct pressure. The joined sheets may need reinforce-
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ment at the joints as well as additional reinforcing across the sheet and tie rods.
For commercial and institutional ductwork, HVAC Duct Construction Stan-
dards—Metal and Flexible (SMACNA 2005) provides full details for duct
design, specification, and construction. The following tables are samples from
the third edition.
Table 7-2 indicates what reinforcing is required for a rectangular sheet steel
duct under a 1000 Pa working pressure. Similar tables are available for higher
and lower pressures. The minimum required sheet thickness for no joint rein-
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forcement is provided in the second column: Min, mm. Where the value is not
designed, read horizontally to the right to get the material thickness and
required joint reinforcement. For example, a 2000 mm duct requires 1.61 mm
sheet, joint tie rod (JTR), or joint reinforcement 2(I), plus intermediate rein-
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forcement type K.
For small ducts, the seams joining sections provide adequate stiffening of
the duct. For larger sizes, modified transverse jointing pieces are used as shown
in Table 7-3 to produce adequate stiffness at the joint. For intermediate stiffen-
ing, Table 7-4 shows material sections to provide the stiffness. Note the use of
letter designations for stiffness grades. For example, the letters in the right-hand
G
column in Table 7-2 are for matching in the left-hand column of Table 7-4.
Transverse joints and, when necessary, intermediate structural members are
designed to reinforce the duct system. Ducts larger than 2.5 m require internal
tie rods to maintain their structural integrity. Tie rods allow the use of smaller
reinforcements than would otherwise be required.
Fittings must be reinforced similarly to sections of straight duct. On size
change fittings, the greater fitting dimension determines material thickness.
162
G
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Chapter 7 Duct System Design
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Figure 7-1 Cross broken and beaded ducts (SMACNA 2005).
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Table 7-2 1000 Pa Duct Reinforcement (SMACNA 2005)
100 Pa Static 1.80 m Joints 1.80 m Joints w/0.90 m Reinf. Spacing

Pos. or Neg. Joints/Reinf. Int. Reinf.
Alt.
Duct Min, Joint Alt.
Joint Min, Joint Alt.
Dimension, mm Reinf. Joint Tie Rod
Reinf. mm Reinf. Reinf.
mm Reinf.
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200 and under 0.55 N/R N/A Use 1.80 m Joints
230–250 0.70 N/R N/A 0.55 N/R N/A MPT B
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251–300 0.70 N/R N/A 0.55 N/R N/A MPT C
301–350 0.85 N/R N/A 0.55 N/R N/A MPT C
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351–400 0.85 N/R N/A 0.55 N/R N/A MPT C
401–450 0.85 N/R N/A 0.55 N/R N/A MPT C
451–500 0.85 N/R N/A 0.55 N/R N/A MPT D
501–550 1.00 N/R N/A 0.55 N/R N/A MPT D
551–600 1.00 N/R N/A 0.70 N/R N/A MPT E
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601–650 1.00 N/R N/A 0.70 N/R N/A MPT E
651–700 1.00 N/R N/A 0.70 N/R N/A MPT E
701–750 1.31 N/R N/A 0.70 N/R N/A MPT E
751–900 1.31 N/R N/A 0.85 N/R N/A MPT F
1.61 JTR (2) H 0.85 JTR (2)C MPT G
901–1000
1.00 N/R N/A MPT G
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1.61 JTR (2) H 0.85 JTR (2)E MPT H
1001–1200
1.31 N/R N/A MPT H
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1201–1300 1.61 JTR (2) H 1.00 JTR (2)H MPT I

1301–1500 1.00 JTR (2)H 2 MPT I
1501–1800 1.31 JTR (2)H 2 MPT J
1801–2100 1.61 JTR (2) I 2 MPT K
Not designed
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2101–2400 1.61 JTR (2) K N/A L

2401–2700 1.61 JTR (2) K — L
2701–3000 1.61 JTR (2) K — L
N/R = Not required MPT = Mid panel tie rod(s)
N/A = Not applicable (2) (X) Indicates two external reinforcements of class (X) to be used
JTR = Joint tie rod in lieu of joint tie rods
Table 7-3 Transverse Joint Reinforcement (SMACNA 2005)
Reinf.
Class
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T-2
T-10 T-11 T-12 T-14
Standing Drive
Standing S Standing S Standing S Standing S
Slip
KG KG KG KG KG
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H×T H×T H×T H×T H × T + HR
EI*
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
LM LM LM LM LM
A 0.12 Use B Use B 12.7 × 0.55 0.74 Use B Use D
12.7 × 0.85
B 0.29 28.6 × 0.55 0.6 25 × 0.55 0.9 0.9 25 × 0.55 1.0 Use D
25 × 0.55
C 0.55 28.6 × 0.85 0.9 25 × 0.85 1.2 25 × 0.85 1.2 25 × 0.70 1.2 Use D
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28.6 × 1.00 25 × 1.00 41.3 × 0.70
D 0.78 28.6 × 1.31 1.2 1.3 1.3 Use E 1.5 2.1
25 × 0.85 (+) 25 × 0.85 (+) 38.1 × 3.2 Bar
25 × 1.31
E 1.9 28.6 × 1.31 1.5 25 × 1.31 (+) 1.3 1.8 Use F
38.1 × 1.00
41.3 × 0.85
F 3.7 Use G Use G 2.2
38.1 × 3.2 Bar
41.3 × 1.00
G 4.5 41.3 × 1.31 1.9 38.1 × 1.00 1.9 2.6
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38.1 × 3.2 Bar
41.3 × 1.31
H 7.6 3.0
38.1 × 3.2 Bar
Not given
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54 × 1.00
Not given
I 20 51 × 51 × 3.2 4.3
Angle
Not given Not given
54 × 1.00
J 23 51 × 51 × 4.76 5.5
Angle
G
K 30
Not given
L 60
*Effective EI is number listed times 105 before adjustment for bending moment capacity. T-2 and T-10 through T-14 are restricted
to 750 mm length at 1000 Pa, to 914 mm length at 750 Pa, and are not recommended for service above 1000 Pa.
(+) indicates positive pressure use only.
Table 7-4 Intermediate Reinforcement (SMACNA 2005)
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Reinf.
Angle Channel or Zee Hat Section
Class
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H × T (MIN) KG H × B × T (MIN) KG H × B × D × T × (MIN) KG
E1*
(mm) LM (mm) LM (mm) LM
A 0.12 Use C Use B Use F
B 0.29 Use C 19.1 × 12. 7 × 1.00 0.36 Use F
C 25 × 1.61 0.60 19.1 × 12.7 × 1.31
C 0.55 0.46 Use F
C 19.1 × 3.2 0.85 25 × 19.1 × 1.00
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H 19.1 × 3.2 0.85
D 0.78 25 × 19.1 × 1.31 0.67 Use F
C 25 × 3.2 1.19
C 31.8 × 2.75
E 1.9 1.34 51 × 28.6 × 1.00 0.89 Use F
H 25 × 3.2
38.1 × 19.1 × 15.9 × 1.31 1.34
F 3.7 H 31.8 × 3.2 1.52 38.1 × 19.1 × 1.31 0.80
38.1 × 38.1 × 19.1 × 1.00 1.24
G 4.5 38.1 × 3.2 1.83 38.1 × 19.1 × 1.61 0.98 38.1 × 19.1 × 15.9 × 1.31 1.19
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38.1 × 4.8 2.64 38.1 × 38.1 × 19.1 × 1.31 1.61
H 7.6 38.1 × 19.1 × 3.2 1.95
51 × 3.2 2.46 51 × 25 × 19.1 × 1.00 1.34
C 51 × 4.8 3.63 51 × 28.6 × 2.5 2.38
I 20 51 × 25 × 19.1 × 1.61 2.14
63.5 × 3.2 3.13 76 × 28.6 × 1.61 1.56
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H 51 × 4.8 3.63
51 × 25 × 19.1 × 2.5 3.65
J 23 C 51 × 6.4 4.76 51 × 28.6 × 3.2 2.75
63.5 × 51 × 19.1 × 1.31 2.28
63.5 × 3.2 (+) 3.13
63.5 × 51 × 19.1 × 1.61 2.80
K 30 63.5 × 4.8 4.61 76 × 28.6 × 2.5 2.98
76 × 38.1 × 19.1 × 1.61 2.98
G
63.5 × 51 × 19.1 × 3.2 5.51

L 60 H 63.5 × 6.4 6.10 76 × 28.6 × 3.2 3.40
76 × 38.1 × 19.1 × 2.75 5.06
*Effective EI is number listed times 105 before adjustment for bending moment capacity. C and H denote cold-formed and hot-
rolled ratings; when neither is listed, either may be used. See tie rod option elsewhere.
(+) indicates positive pressure use only.
Hat Section dimension B may be equal to two times dimension H with the same reinforcement class rating.
Where fitting curvature or internal member attachments provide equivalent

rigidity, such features may be credited as reinforcement.
Pressure classification in relation to the fan curve must be considered, espe-
cially with variable-air-volume (VAV) systems, where the dampers may throttle
the airflow, raising the duct pressure. Fire dampers and manual balancing damp-
ers may be inadvertently closed, with a resulting rise in system pressure. Supply
ducts sometimes blow apart and return ducts sometimes collapse as a result of
these effects. Table 7-5 shows the SMACNA duct pressure classification scheme.
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Round Metal Ducts
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Round ducts are inherently strong and rigid, and are generally the most efficient
and economical ducts for air systems. The dominant factor in round-duct con-
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struction is the ability of the material to withstand the physical abuse of installa-
tion and negative pressure requirements. Construction requirements are a
function of static pressure, type of seam (spiral or longitudinal), and diameter.
Flat-Oval Ducts
Hanger designs and installation details for rectangular ducts generally apply to
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flat-oval ducts.
Fibrous Glass Ducts

Fibrous glass ducts are a composite of rigid fiberglass and a factory-applied
facing (typically aluminum or reinforced aluminum), which serves as a finish
and vapor barrier. This material is available in molded round sections or in
board form for fabrication. Duct systems of round and rectangular fibrous glass
are generally limited to 12.5 m/s and ±500 Pa. Molded round ducts are avail-
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able in higher pressure ratings.
Flexible ducts connect mixing boxes, light troffers, diffusers, and other ter-
minals to the air distribution system. Because unnecessary length, offsetting,
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Table 7-5 SMACNA Duct Pressure Classifications (SMACNA 2005)

Static Pressure
Pressure Class Operating Pressure
125 Pa Up to 125 Pa
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250 Pa Over 125 Pa, up to 250 Pa

1 kPa Over 750 Pa, up to 1 kPa
1.5 kPa Over 1 kPa, up to 1.5 kPa
2.5 kPa Over 1.5 kPa, up to 2.5 kPa
and compression of these ducts significantly increases airflow resistance, they

should be kept as short as possible and fully extended.
For further information on fibrous glass ducts, consult Fibrous Glass Duct
Construction Standards (SMACNA 2003) or manufacturers’ construction
standards.
Duct Sealing
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Ducts must be sufficiently airtight to ensure economical and quiet performance
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of the system. Both leakage and the noise of leaks increase with increasing
duct pressure.
A variety of materials and techniques have been developed for duct sealing,
including liquids, mastics, gaskets, pressure sensitive tapes, heat-applied mate-
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rials, and embedded fabric. Surfaces to receive sealant should be free from oil,
dust, dirt, rust, moisture, ice crystals, and any other substances that would
inhibit or prevent bonding.
No sealant system is recognized as a substitute for mechanical joining.
Also, the designer should carefully evaluate proposed duct sealants. Some use
solvents that are toxic to workers applying the sealant. Some deteriorate or
crystallize as they dry, and do not provide adequate sealing only a few months
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after being installed.
Duct Design and Sizing

Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning system duct design follows the deter-
mination of room loads and desired air quantities. Consider the type of duct
system needed, based on an economic analysis of the building design and use,
unless the owner or architect specifies a preference for a particular type. In any
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event, the specific type of system affects the type of air-handling apparatus
selected.
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Air Distribution
Before duct design and sizing can begin, one must locate supply air outlets and
select the size and type required for proper air distribution in each conditioned
space (see Chapter 3, “Human Comfort and Air Distribution”). Air distribution
in the conditioned space is highly important in influencing the comfort of the
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occupants. Good air distribution is ensured by proper consideration of the basic

factors in the selection of the outlet terminal devices. Drafts caused by too
much air or physical flow disturbances within the room should be avoided.
The outlet terminal devices should provide the proper air velocities
within the room occupied zone (floor to 1.8 m above the floor) and the proper
temperature equalization. Entrainment of the room air by the primary (or
supply) airstream at the outlet terminal to attain the required temperature
equalization and to counteract the effects of natural room air convection is

very important.
Select air distribution terminal devices from industry standard types or con-
figurations so that they can be obtained from many sources. Most terminal
device manufacturers’ catalogs furnish data on airflow throw, drop, air pattern,
terminal velocities, acoustics, ceiling heights, etc.
Supply outlets on the same branch should be chosen with approximately
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the same pressure loss (no more than 13 Pa variation) through the outlet. Mix-
ing ceiling supply diffusers with sidewall supply grilles on the same branch
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should be avoided unless there is no significant difference in pressure drops
between the different types.
For a comprehensive review of considerations in the selection of air distri-
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bution equipment, refer to the 2008 ASHRAE Handbook—Systems and Equip-
ment (ASHRAE 2008b) and to air distribution equipment manufacturers’
application engineering data. Some of the basic procedures used in the selec-
tion of air distribution equipment are as follows:
• Consider the ambient conditions that could affect comfort.

• Decide on the location of air supply outlets (such as in the floor, sill, side-
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wall, exposed duct, or ceiling), taking into account the type of system serv-
ing them. Locate return and exhaust air devices.
• Consider the special requirements affecting outlets used with systems such
as a VAV system.
• Place balancing dampers to be used with outlet devices at a convenient loca-
tion, preferably well upstream from the outlet as long as access is available.
• Refer to manufacturer’s data regarding throw, spread, drop, noise level, etc.
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Zoning
With the outlet devices selected and before duct layout and duct sizing can
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begin, the designer must determine how many zones of temperature control are
required for both perimeter zones and interior zones. In general, spaces with
exterior walls are grouped into perimeter zones determined by building expo-
sure (north, east, south, or west exposure).
These perimeter zones may be further subdivided into smaller control zones,
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depending on variations in internal load or a requirement for individual occu-

pant control. Typical situations include private executive offices, where the
owner may want individual control, or areas of high heat gain or loss, such as
computer rooms, conference rooms, or corner rooms with two exposed walls.
Similarly, the interior zones may also be divided into control zones to sat-
isfy individual room requirements or variations created by internal loads, such
as lights, people, or equipment.
Preliminary Layout
The next step is to draw a preliminary schematic diagram for the ductwork that
conveys the design air quantity to the selected zones and outlets by the most
efficient and economical path. It is suggested that this layout be made on a
reproducible tracing of the architectural floor plans. By doing this, the designer
has a better feel for the final relationship of air terminals, branch ducts, main
ducts, risers, and apparatus. This procedure helps the designer coordinate the
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ductwork with the structural limitations of the building and other building sys-
tems and services.
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On this preliminary layout, the designer should indicate the design airflows
throughout the system. If a constant-volume system is chosen, it will be the
arithmetic sum of the airflow of each terminal (including branches) working
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back from the end of the longest run to the fan. However, if a variable-air-vol-
ume system is chosen, the designer must apply the proper diversity factors to
allow a summarization of the peak design airflows to determine their impact on
branch and main duct sizes coming from the supply fan.
The same procedure must also be followed for return air and exhaust air
systems. In addition to sizing the ductwork properly, this also permits the
designer to evaluate the effect of the total HVAC system design, balancing the
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proper proportions of supply air to return air and exhaust air and outside
makeup air. Pressure losses due to fittings and transitions must also be included
in the calculation.
Duct Sizing
After completing the preliminary HVAC system duct layout, the designer pro-
ceeds to use one of the methods for sizing the duct system discussed in the sec-
tion “Design Methods.” Generally, these give the equivalent round-duct sizes
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and the pressure losses for the various elements of the duct system. The
designer then incorporates this information into the preliminary duct layout.
If round ductwork is to be used throughout, the duct sizing efforts are com-
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pleted, providing the ductwork physically fits into the building. If rectangular
or flat oval ductwork is chosen, the proper conversions must be made from the
equivalent round-duct sizes to rectangular or flat-oval sizes. Applying the
appropriate duct friction loss correction factors and using the duct fitting loss
coefficients, the duct system total pressure loss can be calculated.
With HVAC system duct sizes now selected and the total pressure or static
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pressure losses calculated, the designer must determine if the ductwork fits
into the building. At this point, the designer must consider the additional
space required beyond the bare sheet metal sizes for reinforcing and circum-
ferential joints. In addition, consideration must be given to external insulation
or duct liner that may be required, clearance for piping, conduit, light fixtures,
etc., where applicable, and clearance for the removal of ceiling tiles. Further
considerations in the sizing and routing of a ductwork system include space
and access requirements for air terminals, mixing boxes, VAV boxes, fire and
smoke dampers, balancing dampers, reheat coils, and other accessories.
Design Methods
There is no single design method that automatically provides the most eco-
nomical duct system for all conditions. A careful evaluation of all cost vari-
ables for a duct system should be made with each design method or
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combination of methods. Cost variables to consider include the cost of the
duct material (the aspect ratios are a large factor), duct insulation or lining
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(duct heat gain or loss), type of fittings, space requirements, fan power, bal-
ancing requirements, sound attenuation, air distribution terminal devices, and
heat recovery equipment.
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Slightly different duct system pressure losses can be obtained using the dif-
ferent design methods. Some require a broad background of design knowledge
and experience. Careful use of these methods allows the designer to efficiently
size HVAC duct systems for larger residences and institutional and commercial
buildings, including some light industrial process ducts. Traditionally used
duct design methods include the following:
• Equal friction
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• Static regain
• T-method
• Extended plenums
• Velocity reduction
• Constant velocity
Equal Friction (Equal Friction Rate)

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The equal-friction method of duct sizing (where the pressure loss per metre of
duct is the same for the entire system) is probably the most universally used
means of sizing lower-pressure supply air, return air, and exhaust air duct sys-
tems. It normally is not used for higher-pressure systems. With supply air duct
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systems, this design method automatically reduces air velocities in the direc-
tion of the airflow, thus reducing the possibility of generating noise (against the
airflow in return or exhaust duct systems). The major disadvantage of the
equal-friction method is that there is no provision for equalizing pressure drops
in duct branches (except in symmetrical layouts). A manual balance of short
runs, to achieve the same pressure drop as a long branch run, is required.
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The friction chart (Figure 7-2) gives the pressure drop in Pa/m, where the
shaded area indicates the suggested design limits. Many designers use 0.8 Pa/m
for ductwork with no acoustic treatment. For systems with VAV boxes, which
provide a measure of sound attenuation, 1.6 Pa/m might be used from the supply
from fan to VAV boxes, dropping to 0.8 Pa/m from VAV box to outlet.
Whatever equal-friction choices are made, the data can be extracted from
the friction chart and tabulated to provide a quick reference to the data needed.
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u pE
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Figure 7-2 Friction chart for round duct.

171
et
Table 7-6 Data for Duct Sizing at 0.8 Pa/m

Flow, L/s Diameter, mm Velocity, m/s Velocity Pressure, Pa
30 125 2.5 3.8
60 160 3.0 5.4
110 200 3.5 7.4
The beginning of such a table is shown in Table 7-6. The reason for including
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velocity and velocity pressure becomes obvious when calculating the pressure
drop through fittings in the ductwork.
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The Friction Chart (Figure 7-2) provides round duct sizes for a given flow
and pressure drop (or velocity). Equivalent rectangular duct sizes are found in
Table 7-7. For example, the required round duct size is 700 mm, but it is
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restricted to a dimension of 350 mm. Choosing 350 mm along the top of Table
7-7 drop down until a round equivalent diameter of at least 700 is reached. In
this case it is 701 mm diameter and going to the left column one reads off the
required dimension 1300 mm.
Reading data from the friction chart and then another table to obtain equiv-
alent sizes can be done with a simple cardboard device called a ductulator. By
rotating one sheet of the ductulator, you can input two variables from volume,
velocity, round-duct diameter, or rectangular-duct sides, pressure drop per m
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and read the other corresponding variables. For example, setting the pressure
drop at 1 Pa/m and volume at 4000 L/s, you can read duct diameter, the combi-
nations of equivalent rectangular-duct sides, and duct velocity.
Static Regain
The static regain method of duct sizing may be used to design supply air systems
of any velocity or pressure. It normally is not used for return air systems, where
the airflow is toward the HVAC unit fan. This method is more complex than the
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equal friction method, but it is a theoretically sound method that meets the
requirements of maintaining uniform static pressure at all branches and outlets.
Duct velocities are systematically reduced, which allows a large portion of
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the velocity pressure to convert to static pressure that offsets the friction loss in
the succeeding section of duct. The duct system stays in balance because the
losses and gains are proportional to a function of the velocities. This static
regain, which is often assumed at 75% for average duct systems, could be as
low as 50%, or as high as 100+% under ideal conditions. The assumed regain
factors can create installed systems that are quite different than the design
requirements. The classical static regain method should not be used without a
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computer program to make actual mass flow calculations at branches, due to

the unpredictable regain factor.
A disadvantage of the static regain method is the oversized ducts that can
occur at the ends of long branches, especially if one duct run is unusually long.
Often, the resultant very low velocities require the installation of additional
thermal insulation on that portion of the duct system to prevent unreasonable
duct heat gains or losses.
Table 7-7 Equivalent Round and Rectangular Duct Sizes

Lgth Length of One Side of Rectangular Duct (a), mm
100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Adj. Circular Duct Diameter, mm
100 109
125 122 137
150 133 150 164
175 143 161 177 191
200 152 172 189 204 219
t
225 161 181 200 216 232 246
250 169 190 210 228 244 259 273
275 176 199 220 238 256 272 287 301
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300 183 207 229 248 266 283 299 314 328
350 195 222 245 267 286 305 322 339 354 383
400 207 235 260 283 305 325 343 361 378 409 437
450 217 247 274 299 321 343 363 382 400 433 464 492
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500 227 258 287 313 337 360 381 401 420 455 488 518 547
550 236 269 299 326 352 375 398 419 439 477 511 543 573 601
600 245 279 310 339 365 390 414 436 457 496 533 567 598 628 656
650 253 289 321 351 378 404 429 452 474 515 553 589 622 653 683 711
700 261 298 331 362 391 418 443 467 490 533 573 610 644 677 708 737 765
750 268 306 341 373 402 430 457 482 506 550 592 630 666 700 732 763 792
800 275 314 350 383 414 442 470 496 520 567 609 649 687 722 755 787 818
900 289 330 367 402 435 465 494 522 548 597 643 686 726 763 799 833 866
1000 301 344 384 420 454 486 517 546 574 626 674 719 762 802 840 876 911
1100 313 358 399 437 473 506 538 569 598 652 703 751 795 838 878 916 953
pE
1200 324 370 413 453 490 525 558 590 620 677 731 780 827 872 914 954 993
1300 334 382 426 468 506 543 577 610 642 701 757 808 857 904 948 990 1031
1400 344 394 439 482 522 559 595 629 662 724 781 835 886 934 980 1024 1066
1500 353 404 452 495 536 575 612 648 681 745 805 860 913 963 1011 1057 1100
1600 362 415 463 508 551 591 629 665 700 766 827 885 939 991 1041 1088 1133
1700 371 425 475 521 564 605 644 682 718 785 849 908 964 1018 1069 1118 1164
1800 379 434 485 533 577 619 660 698 735 804 869 930 988 1043 1096 1146 1195
1900 387 444 496 544 590 663 674 713 751 823 889 952 1012 1068 1122 1174 1224
2000 395 453 506 555 602 646 688 728 767 840 908 973 1034 1092 1147 1200 1252
2100 402 461 516 566 614 659 702 743 782 857 927 993 1055 1115 1172 1226 1279
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2200 410 470 525 577 625 671 715 757 797 874 945 1013 1076 1137 1195 1251 1305
2300 417 478 534 587 636 683 728 771 812 890 963 1031 1097 1159 1218 1275 1330
2400 424 486 543 597 647 695 740 784 826 905 980 1050 1116 1180 1241 1299 1355
2500 430 494 552 606 658 706 753 797 840 920 996 1068 1136 1200 1262 1322 1379
2600 437 501 560 616 668 717 764 810 853 935 1012 1085 1154 1220 1283 1344 1402
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2700 443 509 569 625 678 728 776 822 866 950 1028 1102 1173 1240 1304 1366 1425
2800 450 516 577 634 688 738 787 834 879 964 1043 1119 1190 1259 1324 1387 1447
2900 456 523 585 643 697 749 798 845 891 977 1058 1135 1208 1277 1344 1408 1469
Note that the loss coefficients for duct fittings found in the 2009 ASHRAE
Handbook—Fundamentals (ASHRAE 2009) include static pressure regain or loss
for the velocity condition changes that occur at divided flow or change-of-size
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duct fittings. Additional duct static pressure regain (or loss) must not be calculated
and added to (or subtracted from) the total duct system pressure losses when those
fitting losses are used.
The Total Pressure Method is a further refinement of the static regain method
that allows the designer to determine the actual friction and dynamic losses at
each section of the duct system. The advantage is having the actual pressure
losses of the duct sections and the fan total pressure requirements provided.
T-Method
The T-method of duct sizing is a comprehensive duct design optimization pro-
cedure that includes system initial costs and operating costs, energy costs,
hours of operation, annual escalation, interest rates, etc. A description of the
method and main procedures and equations may be found in the 2009 ASHRAE
Handbook—Fundamentals chapter on duct design. The method requires com-
puter software and an extensive evaluation of acoustic results.
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Extended Plenums
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An extended plenum is a trunk duct (usually at the discharge of a fan, fan-coil
unit, mixing box, VAV box, etc.) extended as a plenum to serve multiple outlets
and/or branch ducts with essentially equal pressure.
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In a similar way, one can choose to maintain the duct size beyond more than
one branch in what is known as a semiextended plenum. For example, a duct
with four branches could be the same size until after the second branch and a
smaller size until after the fourth branch rather than reduced after each branch.
Advantages may include lower first-costs, lower operating costs, ease of balanc-
ing, and adaptability to branch duct or outlet changes. A disadvantage is that
heat gins or losses will be slightly increased.
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Velocity Reduction
In this method, a system velocity is selected at the section next to the fan and
arbitrary reductions in velocity are made after each branch or outlet. The resul-
tant pressure loss differences in the various sections of the duct system are not
taken into account, and balancing is attempted mainly by the use of good
dampers at strategic locations. An experienced designer who uses sound judg-
ment in selecting arbitrary velocities may design a relatively simple duct sys-
tem using the velocity reduction method. Other practitioners should not
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attempt to use this method except for estimating purposes, unless the system
has only a few outlets and can be easily balanced.
Constant Velocity
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With adequate experience, many designers are able to select an optimum

velocity that is used throughout the design of a duct system. This method is
best adapted to the higher pressure systems that use attenuated terminal boxes
to reduce the velocity and noise before distribution of the air to the occupied
spaces. Industrial exhaust systems often use the constant-velocity method to
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ensure particulate movement along with the exhaust airstream.
Other Design Considerations

The amount of duct leakage in an HVAC system may be determined by the sys-
tem designer using data from HVAC Duct Construction Standards—Metal and
Flexible (SMACNA 2005) and HVAC Air Duct Leakage Test Manual
(SMACNA 1985). Leakage in ducts varies with the fabricating machinery
used, the methods of assembly, and the quality of the installation workman-
ship, plus the effectiveness of any sealants, if used, and the workmanship in
their application.
A variety of sealed and unsealed duct leakage tests have confirmed that
longitudinal seam, transverse joint, and assembled duct leakage can be repre-
sented by Equation 7-1, and that for the same construction, leakage is not sig-
nificantly different in the negative and positive modes:
t
N
Q = C pS (7-1)
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where
Q = leakage rate, L/s per m2
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C = constant reflecting area characteristics of leakage path
ps = static pressure differential from duct interior to exterior, Pa
N = exponent relating turbulence or laminar flow in leakage path
Analysis of the data resulted in the categorization of duct systems into a leak-
age class, CL, the accepted value of N = 0.65, and Q now defined in terms of sur-
face area of the duct:
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Figure 7-3 Duct leakage vs. static pressure (SMACNA 2004).

0.65
C L = 1000Q ps (7-2)
where
Q = leakage rate, L/s per m2 (surface area)
CL = leakage class, mL/(s m2) at 1 Pa
Figure 7-3 shows how duct pressure affects the leakage rate for each leak-
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age class. Table 7-8 is a forecast of the leakage class attainable for commonly
used duct construction and sealing practices. Note that connections of ducts to
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grilles, diffusers, and registers are not represented in the test data. The HVAC
system designer is responsible for assigning acceptable leakage rates.
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Table 7-8 Duct Leakage Classification
Sealed Unsealed
Duct Type Predicted Predicted

Leakage Leakage
Leakage Leakage
Rate* Rate*
Class CL Class CL
Metal (flexible excluded)

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Round and flat oval 4 0.14 42 1.5
(8 to 99) (0.3 to 3.6)
Rectangular
500 Pa 17 0.62 68 2.5
(both positive and negative pressures) (17 to 155) (0.6 to 5.6)
>500 and 2500 Pa 8 0.29 68 2.5
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(both positive and negative pressures) (17 to 155) (0.6 to 5.6)
Flexible
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Metal, aluminum 11 0.40 42 1.5

(17 to 76) (0.6 to 2.8)
Nonmetal 17 0.62 30 1.5
(6 to 76) (0.2 to 2.8)
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Fibrous glass
Round 4 0.14 N/A N/A
Rectangular 8 0.29 N/A N/A
* Leakage rate, L/(s m2) at 250 Pa
Example 7-1
Problem How much leakage is likely from an unsealed 24 m section of 1 m square duct
(Figure 7-4) if the internal pressure is 600 Pa?
Solution From Table 7-8 it is determined that the predicted leakage rate for an unsealed
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rectangular duct with pressure 500 Pa is typically 68. Using Figure 7-2, for a
pressure difference of 600 Pa and CL of 68, Q is about 4.3 L/(s m2). The duct
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has an area of 4 × 1 × 24 = 96 m2. Total leakage is thus 4.3 × 96 = 413 L/s,
depending on construction and installation quality.
Note that in Table 7-8, poor construction and installation of unsealed duct-
work can double the typical leakage rate. Even more significant is the reduc-
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tion in leakage achieved by sealing the duct. In the example case, the
classification drops from 68 to 8; leakage drops by a factor of 8.
ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007, Energy Efficient Design of
New Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings (ASHRAE 2007) pre-
scribes minimum sealing requirements for supply, return, and exhaust ducts
run outside in conditioned spaces and unconditioned spaces.
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Duct Heat Gain or Loss
At the beginning of this chapter, it was stated that duct design follows building
load calculations. An often overlooked factor in load calculations is duct heat
gain or loss. The method of calculating this load is well described in other
texts, such as the 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals. In this section,
some practical considerations in duct design that affect duct heat gain or loss
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are noted.
Consider first a conditioned-air supply system with the air-handling appa-
ratus and ductwork in the conditioned space and with no additional load
imposed on the system. However, if the ductwork is long and the velocities are
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low, the designer should check that airflows are proportioned properly. The air
in the ductwork still becomes warmer or cooler as it passes through the condi-
tioned space, thus decreasing the temperature difference. As a result, less air is
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Figure 7-4 Unsealed 24 m section of 1 m square duct (see Example 7-1).

required to supply the outlets at the start of the supply run and more is required
at the end.
Naturally, when a duct or plenum carrying conditioned air is located out-
side the conditioned space, the heat gain or loss must be accounted for in both
the design air quantity and total sensible load. This system load must be calcu-
lated by the designer when running conditioned-air ductwork through boiler
rooms, attics, outdoors, or other unconditioned spaces. Alternate routing might
be more desirable than increasing the system load.
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With certain exceptions, ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 requires thermal
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insulation of all duct systems and their components (such as ducts, plenums,
and enclosures) installed in or on buildings. To estimate duct heat transfer and
entering or leaving air temperatures, use Equations 7-3, 7-4, and 7-5. Duct air
exit temperatures can then be estimated using the following equations:
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UPL te + t1
Q 1 = ------------ -------------- – t a (7-3)
12 2
t 1 y + 1 – 2t a
t e = -------------------------------- (7-4)
y–1
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t 1 y – 1 + 2t a
t 1 = ---------------------------------- (7-5)
y+1
where
y = 2.4 AV /UPL for rectangular ducts
y = 0.6 DV /UL for round ducts
A = cross-sectional area of duct, mm2
V = average velocity, m/s
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D = diameter of duct, m
L = duct length, m
Ql = heat loss/gain through duct walls
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U = overall heat transfer coefficient of duct wall, W/(m2 K)

p = perimeter of bare or insulated duct, mm
= density, kg/m3
te = temperature of air entering duct, °C
tl = temperature of air leaving duct, °C
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ta = temperature of air surrounding duct, °C

Use Figure 7-5 to determine the U-factors for insulated and uninsulated
ducts. For a 50 mm thick, 12 kg/m3 fibrous glass blanket compressed 50% dur-
ing installation, the heat transfer rate increases about 20%, as shown in Figure
7-5. Pervious flexible duct liners also influence heat transfer significantly, as
shown in Figure 7-5. At 12.5 m/s, the pervious liner U-factor is 1.1 W/(m2·K).
For an impervious liner, the U-factor is 1.9 W/(m2·K).
e t
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u pE
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Figure 7-5 Heat transfer coefficients.

Example 7-2
Problem A 20 m length of 0.6 × 0.9 m uninsulated sheet metal duct, freely suspended,
conveys heated air through a space maintained at 4°C. The ASTM C680-08,
Standard Practice for Estimate of the Heat Gain or Loss and the Surface Tem-
peratures of Insulated Flat, Cylindrical, and Spherical Systems by Use of Com-
puter Programs (ASTM 2008) heat loss calculation gives a heat transfer rate of
t
444 W/m2. Based on heat loss calculations for the heated zone, 8.1 m3/s of
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standard air (cp = 1006 J/[kg·K]) at a supply air temperature of 50°C is
required. The duct is connected directly to the heated zone. Determine the tem-
perature of the air entering the duct.
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Solution The area of the duct is 0.6 × 0.9 = 0.54 m2
Air velocity V is calculated as flow/area = 8.1/0.54 = 15 m/s
Duct perimeter P is (0.6 + 0.9) × 2 = 3 m
Temperature drop tdrop is
444 3 20
------------------------------------------------------ = 2.7K
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15 1006 1.2 0.54
Temperature of air entering the duct is 50 + 2.7 = 52.7°C.
Fitting Losses
Pressure loss at fittings is a critical element of duct system design. The simplest
u
way to incorporate fitting losses into the design is to use loss coefficients taken
from the ASHRAE Duct Fitting Database (ASHRAE 2008a) tables such as the
ones found in the 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals. These loss coeffi-
cients represent the ratio of total pressure loss to the dynamic pressure (in terms
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of velocity pressure). They do not include duct friction loss (which is picked up
by measuring the length of duct sections to fitting center lines). However, the
loss coefficients do include static regain (or loss) where there is a change in
velocity.
The total pressure ( pt) loss of a fitting is determined using the loss coeffi-
cient in the following equation:
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pt = Co pv (7-6)
where
pt = total pressure loss, Pa
Co = Dimensionless local loss coefficient
Pv = Velocity pressure, Pa
By using duct fitting loss coefficients that include static pressure regain or
loss, accurate duct system fitting pressure losses are obtained. When combined
with the friction losses of the straight duct sections sized by the modified equal
friction method, the result is the closest possible approximation of the actual
system total pressure requirements for the fan.
Example 7-3
e t
Problem To demonstrate the use of the loss coefficient tables, assume a velocity of 12 m/s
in a 300 mm 7 Gore (segment), 90° elbow, as shown in Figure 7-6. According to
Table 7-9, the Co for this fitting is 0.08 for D = 300 mm.
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Solution Using Equation 1-8, Pv = 0.602 V2 Pa, we determine that the velocity pressure
is 87 Pa. Using Equation 7-6, we determine the total pressure loss:
pt = C0 p v = 0.08 87 = 7 Pa
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Figure 7-6 CD3-10 elbow.

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Table 7-9 Co Values for CD3-10 Elbow*
D, mm 75 150 230 300 380 450 690 1500

Co 0.16 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.03
*7 Gore, 90 degree, r/D = 2.5
Sample Systems
The following simplified sample systems illustrate calculating pressure drop in
“real” systems.
System 1
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Problem As illustrated in Figure 7-7, this system consists of a fan, a straight length of
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galvanized steel duct and an outlet. The duct is the same size as the fan outlet,
so no system effect factor needs to be added. The outlet is a VAV box with a
220 Pa pressure drop at 2000 L/s. The fan speed is adjusted to deliver 2000 L/s.
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What is the pressure drop in the system?
Solution 1. Find the circular equivalent of the rectangular duct using Table 7-7. Find
the column headed 250 mm, drop down to the row labeled 350, and read
the 322 mm equivalent circular duct diameter. It can also be calculated
using the following formula:
0.625
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ab
D e = 1.30 --------------------------
0.250
- = 322 mm
a+b
where
De = circular equivalent of rectangular duct for equal length, fluid
resistance, and airflow, mm
u
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Figure 7-7 System 1.

a = length of one side of duct, mm

b = length of adjacent side of duct, mm
2. Calculate the velocity of the airstream in the duct:
2000
------------
Q 1000
V = ----- = ------------------------------------ = 22.86 m/s
Ae 250- ----------- 350-
t
-----------
1000 1000
e
3. Calculate the fan outlet velocity pressure from Equation 1-8:
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2 2
p v = 0.602V = 0.602 22.86 = 315 Pa
4. Find the pressure drop in the duct per metre using the friction chart shown
in Figure 7-2:
2000 L/s in a 322 mm duct gives approximately 20 Pa/m
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5. Calculate the pressure drop in the 9 m run of duct:
9 m × 20 Pa = 180 Pa
6. Add the pressure drops:

Pressure drop in 9 m duct run 180 Pa
Fan outlet velocity pressure 315 Pa
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Required VAV outlet pressure drop 200 Pa
Total pressure required at fan 695 Pa
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System 2
Problem Figure 7-8 shows the same system in Figure 7-7, except that the outlet at the
end of the duct run was removed and a 20° 350 × 250 mm to 600 × 250 mm
rectangular transition was added. Attached to the transition outlet are two
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300 × 250 mm elbows with r = 1.5 (Co = 0.2). Attached to each elbow is a
branch duct. One branch is 6 m long, the other branch is 4 m long. At each
end of the duct extension is a VAV box with a 220 Pa pressure drop and
capacity of 1000 L/s. What is the pressure drop in the system?
Solution 1. Calculate the pressure drop, velocity, and pressure at the end of the 9 m
run. Because this is the same configuration as System 1, on the main 9 m
e t
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Figure 7-8 System 2.
run the pressure drop is 180 Pa, the velocity is 22.86 m/s, and the velocity
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pressure is 315 Pa (same as in System 1).
2. Calculate the pressure drop in the transition:
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a. Calculate the ratio of the inlet area to the outlet area:
Outlet area- 600 250 600

------------------------- = ------------------------ = --------- = 1.7
Inlet area 350 250 350
b. Refer to Table 7-10. This table gives Co values for rectangular transi-
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tions (Figure 7-9). Because the table does not give an exact value for an
outlet/inlet ratio of 1.7, by interpolation, the Co value is estimated to be
0.5. Multiply the velocity pressure at the inlet by the Co value to calcu-
late the pressure drop across the transition:
315 Pa 0.5 = 157.5 Pa

Table 7-10 SR4-1 Rectangular Transition* (ASHRAE 2009)

Co Values
Θ
Ao/A1 0 3 5 10 15 20 30 45 60 90 120 150 180
0.10 0.0 0.12 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.19 0.29 0.37 0.43
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0.167 0.0 0.11 0.09 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.19 0.28 0.36 0.42
0.25 0.0 0.10 0.08 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.18 0.27 0.36 0.41
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0.50 0.0 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.12 0.17 0.20 0.27
1.00 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
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2.00 0.0 0.64 0.96 0.54 0.52 0.62 0.94 1.40 1.48 1.52 1.48 1.44 1.40
4.00 0.0 4.16 4.64 2.72 3.09 4.00 6.72 9.60 10.88 11.20 11.20 10.88 10.56
6.00 0.0 12.24 10.08 7.38 8.10 10.80 17.28 23.40 27.36 29.88 29.88 29.34 28.80
10.00 0.0 40.50 27.20 23.30 25.10 34.00 52.84 69.00 82.50 93.50 93.50 92.40 91.30
16.00 0.0 112.64 68.35 63.74 67.84 92.93 142.13 182.53 220.16 254.21 254.21 251.90 249.60
*Two sides parallel, symmetrical.
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Figure 7-9 SR4-1 rectangular transition, two sides parallel, symmetrical, supply air systems.
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3. Calculate the pressure drop in the elbows. The calculation for each elbow is
the same. The average velocity of the airstream entering each elbow is:
2000
------------
Q 1000
V = ---
- = -----------------------------------
- = 13.3 m/s
A 600 250
------------ ------------
1000 1000
a. Convert the 300 × 250 mm rectangular duct to circular measurement

using Table 7-7. Find the column headed 250 mm, drop down to the
row labeled 300, and read off 299 mm; use 300 mm equivalent circular
duct diameter.
b. Calculate the velocity pressure in the elbows:
2
p v = 0.602 13.3 = 107 Pa
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c. Multiply the pressure at the inlet by the Co value (given in the problem
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statement as 0.2) to calculate the pressure drop across each elbow:
107 Pa 0.2 = 21.4 Pa
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4. Calculate the pressure drop in the 6 m branch, the longest branch.
a. Find the pressure drop in the branch duct per metre using the friction
chart in Figure 7-2, based on the equivalent diameter of 300 mm and
volume flow of 1000 L/s:
6 Pa per m
b. Calculate the pressure drop for the 6 m branch run:

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6 m × 6 Pa/m = 36 Pa
5. The loss of the VAV box is given as 220 Pa (which is assumed to include
the pressure losses downstream of the box). Also note that the duct size and
the box inlet are the same size. If this is not the case then there would be
losses or gains, depending on whether the inlet is smaller or larger than the
branch duct. If the inlet is smaller, there would be an additional loss due to
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increasing the velocity, which is equal to the difference in velocity pres-
sures, which must be included.
6. The pressure drop in the 4 m branch is slightly less than in the 6 m branch.
The difference in length is 2 m, so the 4 m branch drop is 2 m × 6 Pa = 12 Pa
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less than in the 6 m branch. As the flows are being controlled by VAV boxes,
this variation does not matter, as the boxes control their flows.
7. Add the pressure requirements:
Pressure drop in 9 m duct run 180 Pa
Pressure drop at transition 157 Pa
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300 × 250 mm elbow 21 Pa

6 m branch duct 36 Pa
Required VAV outlet pressure 220 Pa
Fan outlet velocity pressure 315 Pa
Total pressure drop 929 Pa
The Next Step

Chapter 8 deals with codes and standards that are relevant for air system design
and energy usage.
Summary
Air duct system design must consider space availability, space air diffusion,
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noise, duct leakage, duct heat gains and losses, balancing, fire and smoke con-
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trol, and initial costs plus operating costs.
Many materials are used for ductwork, but the vast majority uses galva-
nized steel. For this reason, duct design information is for galvanized steel with
corrections for other materials. Other materials offer better chemical, moisture,
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acoustic, and high temperature performance, typically at a premium cost.
Lined duct must be sized to include the lining. The duct drawing must
clearly state that the duct dimension is the metal size or the airway size.
Rectangular metal ducts are manufactured to standard specifications for
size, static pressure (positive or negative), material thickness, jointing, rein-
forcing, and supports produced by SMACNA. When choosing the pressure rat-
ing, take care to allow for probable maximum and minimum pressures on all
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but the smallest systems.
Round and oval ducts are inherently strong and rigid and are generally the
most efficient and economical ducts for air systems. However, their shape may
not fit the available route through the building.
Fibrous glass ducts are a composite of faced rigid fiberglass available in
molded round sections or in board form for fabrication. Duty is generally lim-
ited to 14 m/s and 500 Pa.
Flexible ducts are typically manufactured from a coiled wire and fabric and
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are used for connecting ducts to diffusers.
Ducts must be sufficiently airtight to ensure economical and quiet perfor-
mance of the system. Leakage classifications are given in L/s m2 surface area
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at 1 Pa. Actual leakage is Q = CL p0.65. Many materials, gaskets, and tapes are
available, but many have an unfortunately short life. ASHRAE/IES Standard
90.1 prescribes minimum sealing requirements for many duct situations.
Once the room loads have been calculated and temperature difference cho-
sen, the air volumes to each room can be calculated. Depending on the duct
insulation and the temperature of the space the duct runs through, there will be
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some heat gain or loss that should be included at this stage. For designs to meet
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1, the minimum insulation values for energy con-
servation must be met.
Once the air volume to the room, room layout, and architectural features
and requirements are known, a preliminary layout for outlets is made (as dis-
cussed in Chapter 3). Generally, all outlets on the same branch duct should
have the same pressure drop, particularly if they are of different types.
Due to variations in loads, the HVAC system will be zoned. Typically, inte-
rior and exterior spaces are on separate zones, and the duct layout must accom-
modate the zoning and associated air-control devices.
The preliminary layout is drawn, ideally over the architectural layout for
supply, return, and exhaust ducts. Some very preliminary sizing is done at this
stage to ensure there is space for the main duct runs. It is important at this stage
to remember to include space for duct joints, supports, insulation, and outlets.
Allowance must also be made for other services that may have required slopes,
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typically plumbing, and required locations, typically sprinklers and lighting.
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With the preliminary HVAC system duct layout completed, accurate duct
sizing must be undertaken either with a computer program or manually. Sizing
is more straightforward if all ducts are round, as any rectangular ducts must be
converted to equivalent round size for calculating the resistances.
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Once the ducts are sized, the final calculation of system pressure drop and
location of all outlets, control items, and fire and smoke dampers can be fixed.
Duct design is somewhat of an art. There is a choice of design methods;
technical design must be balanced with cost and ease of installation and bal-
ancing. Slightly different pressure losses are obtained using different design
methods and source data, and these are often changed somewhat as the installa-
tion contractor coordinates with other trades.
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With the equal-friction method, a fixed pressure drop in Pa/m is chosen and
used to perform the duct sizing. The method is simple and decreases the veloc-
ity towards outlets, which provides quiet systems. Care must be taken to avoid
very unequal branch resistances, which can cause significant energy waste and
noise due to damper pressure drops.
With the static regain method, the velocity pressure is systematically
reduced to offset the prior duct run pressure drop. The method is not easy to
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employ manually and may need to be modified in cases where branch ducts are
very different in length.
The T-method is an optimization procedure, ideally run in a computer pro-
gram, that designs on the basis of finding the most economic design based on
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initial costs and operating costs.

An extended plenum is a trunk duct maintained at full size to provide a rel-
atively equal supply pressure to each branch. A variation—the semiextended
plenum—keeps the duct size up for a greater length than is necessary, often
reducing the cost of numerous size reductions.
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An experienced designer can learn to size based on constant pressure drop

modified by velocity. This is known as the velocity reduction method.
For the experienced designer, a constant velocity can be chosen for siz-
ing, especially where noise is not an issue or where all outlets include sound
attenuation.
Industrial exhaust systems often use constant velocity sizing to ensure par-
ticulate movement along with the exhaust airstream.

ASHRAE. 2007. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007, Energy Efficient
neers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2008a. ASHRAE Duct Fitting Database, v5.00.00. Atlanta: Ameri-
t
ASHRAE. 2008b. ASHRAE Handbook—Systems and Equipment. Atlanta:
e
neers, Inc.
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ASTM. 2008. ASTM C680-08, Standard Practice for Estimate of the Heat
Gain or Loss and the Surface Temperatures of Insulated Flat, Cylindrical,
and Spherical Systems by Use of Computer Programs. West Con-
shohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials.
SMACNA. 1985. HVAC Air Duct Leakage Test Manual. Chantilly, VA: Sheet
Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association Inc.
SMACNA. 2003. Fibrous Glass Duct Construction Standards. Chantilly, VA:
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association Inc.
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SMACNA. 2004. Rectangular Industrial Duct Construction Standards. Chan-
tilly, VA: Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Associa-
tion Inc.
SMACNA. 2005. HVAC Duct Construction Standards—Metal and Flexible,
3rd edition. Chantilly, VA: Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’
National Association Inc.
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7-1 The system depicted in the figure below consists of a fan, ductwork, and outlets.
The duct is the same size as the fan outlet, so no system effect factor needs to be
added. The outlets are VAV boxes with a 180 Pa pressure drop at 1200 L/s.The
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fan speed is adjusted to deliver 2400 L/s. The Co value of the elbow is 0.2, and
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the transition is style SR4-1 as in Example 2. The total pressure drop in the sys-
tem is _______________.
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a) about 726 Pa
b) about 387 Pa
c) about 539 Pa
7-2 Air duct system design must consider _______________.
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a) noise
b) duct leakage, heat gains, and heat losses
c) fire and smoke control
d) all of the above
7-3 Duct sizing and construction specifications are generally stated in terms of the
use of _______________.
a) galvanized steel
b) aluminum
c) fiberglass reinforced plastic
7-4 Generally, the most efficient and economical ducts for air systems are
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a) rectangular
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b) oval
c) round
d) all of the above
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7-5 Duct systems of rectangular fibrous glass are generally limited to
a) 12 m/s and ±0.5 kPa
b) 20 m/s and ±1 kPa
c) 10 m/s and ±200 Pa
7-6 Compression of flexible ducts significantly decreases airflow resistance.
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a) True
b) False
7-7 Sealant systems have been developed that can substitute for mechanical joining
of ductwork.
a) True
b) False
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Codes and Standards
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Study Objectives
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After completing this chapter, you should be able to list the following principle
codes and standards affecting air system design and briefly state what they
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cover and why they are important:
ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007, Energy Efficient Design of

New Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, ANSI/ASHRAE/
IESNA 90.1 User’s Manual (ASHRAE 2007a, 2007b) and other ASHRAE
energy conservation standards
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2010, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
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Quality (ASHRAE 2010)
NFPA 90A–Installation of Air Conditioning and Ventilating Systems
(NFPA 2002)
NFPA 90B—Installation of Warm Air Heating and Air-Conditioning Sys-
tems (NFPA 2006)
NFPA 96–Standard Ventilation Control and Fire Protection of Commercial
Cooking Operations (NFPA 2004)
HVAC Duct Construction Standards—Metal and Flexible (SMACNA
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2005)
Instructions
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the exercises.
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Building Code Requirements

In the private sector, each new construction or renovation project is normally
governed by national, state, or local laws that require compliance with specific
health, safety, property protection, and energy conservation regulations. Figure
8-1 depicts relationships between laws, ordinances, codes, and standards that can
affect the design and construction of private-sector HVAC duct systems in the
194 Chapter 8 Codes and Standards
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Figure 8-1 Hierarchy of building codes and standards.

United States. However, Figure 8-1 may not list all applicable regulations and
standards for a specific locality. It is the designer’s responsibility to establish
what laws are applicable to a project. Generally, code officials will provide help
if asked before the design is submitted.
Code changes require long cycles for consensus approval. Because the
development of safety codes, energy codes, and standards proceed indepen-
dently, the most recent edition of a code or standard may not be adopted by a
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local jurisdiction.
HVAC designers must know which code compliance obligations affect
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their designs. If a provision conflicts with the design intent, the designer should
resolve the issue with local building officials. New or different construction
methods can be accommodated by the provisions for equivalency that are
incorporated into codes. Staff engineers from the model code agencies are
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available to help resolve conflicts, ambiguities, and equivalencies.
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1

Codes and standards have become much more important. With substantial
increase in energy demands, many codes now also incorporate a minimum
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energy performance requirement. Specifically, many model codes in the United
States reference ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1.
Originally drafted in 1975, ASHRAE Standard 90 was revised and reissued
in 1980, 1989, 1999, 2004, and 2007. The original standard dealt with all
buildings and was split into 90.1, for all but low-rise residential buildings, and
90.2 for low-rise residential buildings. ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 has been
revised into code language to make it code enforceable. The standard is on an
ANSI continuous maintenance schedule; addenda are issued for review when
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ready and approved when they have passed the public review process. To assist
with code enforcement, the standard is reprinted with all addenda incorporated
every three years, with the latest printed revision in 2007.
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The original ASHRAE Standard 90 was very important because it was one
of the first documents that truly addressed what can be done in the design of
buildings to conserve energy. It went through an extensive review and was
commented on by thousands of engineers across the country. Much of the
information in ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 has been adopted by model build-
ing codes.
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The standard deals with all design aspects of building energy use including
Section 5, “Building Envelope”; Section 7, “Service Water Heating”; Section 8,
“Power”; and Section 9, “Lighting.” The most relevant section for this course is
Section 6, “Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning,” although choices made
in the other sections will affect the air system choice, sizing, and zoning.
HVAC systems are one of the most significant energy users in the buildings
covered by Standard 90.1. However, the designer has significant latitude in the
energy costs and consumption of HVAC systems; a poorly designed system

easily can have twice the annual energy costs of an energy-conserving design.
Analyzing the energy use and cost of an HVAC system is complicated by
system interactions. An efficient system is not merely characterized as one that
uses efficient equipment. System-level efficiency must account for installation,
control, maintenance, system losses, and component interactions (such as
reheat or heat recovery).
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As a conceptual model, overall HVAC system efficiency may be defined as
the ratio of loads the system must handle (space heating and cooling as well as
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water heating) to the energy the system consumes.
An efficient system minimizes energy use by minimizing system losses,
maximizing equipment efficiencies, using free heating/cooling, and recovering
heat where possible.
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Section 6 of ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 approaches the regulations of
HVAC system design by addressing the following fundamental factors of sys-
tem efficiency:
• Specifying minimum equipment efficiencies

• Reducing system losses from ductwork through sealing and insulation
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• Reducing system losses from piping through insulation
• Reducing system operation through the use of automatic time controls and
zone isolation
• Reducing system inefficiencies by minimizing simultaneous heating and
cooling
• Reducing system inefficiencies by shutting OFF outdoor ventilation during
setback and warm up
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• Reducing system operation through requirements for zone controls
• Reducing system inefficiencies by limiting equipment oversizing
• Reducing distribution losses, limiting HVAC fan energy demand, and
requiring efficient balancing practices
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• Requiring systems to take advantage of cool weather to provide free cooling

• Requiring energy recovery on systems of over 2500 L/s and 70% outside air
The format of the standard is intended to be general and flexible so it may

be applied to many different building types, HVAC system types, and climates.
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Although compliance with Section 6 assures a minimum level of HVAC

system performance, designers are encouraged to view the requirements as a
starting point and investigate designs that exceed these requirements. Careful
design and application of heat recovery, solar energy, or high-efficiency equip-
ment can create systems that are more efficient than the standard requires and
offer excellent returns on investment. The process of life-cycle costing is used
to determine that the proposed alternates have an economic payback.
Compliance Methods
There are three primary subsections in Section 6. The first is a simplified
approach for smaller buildings with simple HVAC systems. Second, there are
mandatory requirements in Section 6.4 that must be met for either compliance
path. Last of all, the prescriptive requirements in Section 6.5 include measures
that must be met to show compliance via the prescriptive method. In this
method, the designer must choose equipment with required performance and
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obey a number of design requirements.
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These prescriptive requirements do not have to be met with the energy cost
budget method detailed in Section 11 of the standard. In the energy cost budget
method, the building designers must show that their design would have no
greater energy cost than a building designed under the prescriptive route.
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Many of the Section 6 requirements apply to larger, multiple-zone systems.
The breadth of the section may seem overwhelming to designers of simpler,
single-zone HVAC systems that are typically used in one- or two-story build-
ings under 2500 m2.
ASHRAE Standard 62.1

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ASHRAE Standard 62.1 was introduced briefly in Chapter 3 as the standard
that sets minimum outdoor-air ventilation rates and requirements for exhaust.
The standard also sets requirements to provide acceptable indoor air quality
during the building’s lifetime, and it requires documentation of the design
assumptions and that they are available for the system’s operation.
The standard includes requirements in the system planning that address the
following questions:
• How much outside air is required in each space?

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• How will the differing requirements for each space be achieved?
• When variable-air-volume systems are used, how will the required ventila-
tion air volume be maintained when the supply volume to a space is
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reduced?
• How effectively is the ventilation air distributed to the occupants in the
space?
• What quality of air can be recirculated from one space to another space?
• What ventilation is required when occupancy varies over time?
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The standard includes specific construction requirements for
• outdoor-air intakes to minimize moisture problems due to rain and snow,

• filtration requirements to prevent wet coils from excessive dirt collection,
• drain pans’ slope and drainage arrangement to ensure that condensation
drains away,
• access for maintenance and cleaning of coils,
• duct construction, and

• system startup and balancing.
The standard has requirements for the system’s ongoing operation and
maintenance after construction, including inspection and measurement of out-
door airflow.
Other Codes and Standards
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Several organizations other than ASHRAE produce codes and standards tat
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relate to HVAC duct design. Included among these are the National Fire Pro-
tection Association (NFPA), the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contrac-
tors’ National Association (SMACNA), and the American Conference of
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Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
National Fire Protection Association

The NFPA issues a wide range of standards. Three of interest to HVAC design-
ers are NFPA 90A—Installation of Air Conditioning and Ventilating Systems
(2002), NFPA 90B—Installation of Warm Air Heating and Air-Conditioning
Systems (2006), and NFPA 96—Installation of Equipment for the Removal of
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Smoke and Grease-Laden Vapors from Commercial Cooking Equipment
(2004).
NFPA 90A applies to systems for air movement in
• structures over 1000 m3 in volume;

• buildings of Type III, IV, and V construction over three stories in height,
regardless of volume; and
• buildings, spaces, occupants or processes not covered by other NFPA stan-
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dards.
As stated in the standard, the purpose of NFPA 90A is “to prescribe mini-
mum requirements for safety to life and property from fire.” The requirements
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of NFPA 90A are intended to
• restrict the spread of smoke through air duct systems in a building or into a
building from the outside;
• restrict the spread of fire through air duct systems from the area of fire ori-
gin, whether it be within the building or from outside;
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• maintain the fire-resistant integrity of building components and elements

(such as floors, partitions, roofs, walls, and floor/roof-ceiling assemblies)
affected by the installation of air duct systems;
• minimize ignition sources and combustibility of the elements of the air duct
systems; and
• permit the air duct systems in a building to be used for the additional pur-
pose of emergency smoke control.
NFPA 90A provides requirements for HVAC systems (equipment and air
distribution), integrating HVAC systems with building construction, controls,
and acceptance testing.
Of particular interest with respect to duct design, Figure 8-2 shows
required treatments of penetrations of walls or partitions and location of fire
and smoke dampers. The requirement is that fire dampers be shown on the
drawings.
The building’s architectural design determines its fire separations and the
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requirements for duct fire and smoke dampers. Fire dampers are a significant
cost, and access doors must be provided for checking and servicing them.
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When laying out the ductwork, choices can often be made to reduce the num-
ber of fire dampers and to position the access doors to minimize costs.
NFPA 90B applies to all warm-air heating and air-conditioning systems
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that serve one- or two-family dwellings, and spaces not exceeding 1000 m3 in
volume in any occupancy (for example, light commercial). Other systems are
covered by NFPA 90A. NFPA 90B addresses system components, fire integrity
of building construction, equipment, wiring, and controls.
NFPA 96 covers basic requirements for the design, installation, and use of
exhaust system components, including hoods; grease removal devices; exhaust
ducts; dampers; air-moving devices; auxiliary equipment; and fire extinguish-
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ing equipment for the exhaust system and the cooking equipment used in com-
mercial, industrial, institutional, and similar cooking applications.
Other topics discussed in NFPA 96 include duct systems, air movement,
procedures for use and maintenance of equipment, and minimum safety
requirements for cooking equipment. This standard does not apply to installa-
tions for normal residential family use.
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’

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National Association
The SMACNA HVAC Duct Construction Standards—Metal and Flexible (2005)
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cover basic duct construction; fittings and other construction; round, oval, and
flexible ducts; hangers and supports; exterior components; casings; functional
criteria for demonstrating equivalency; and duct sealing classifications.
Also included are highly valuable appendices, useful in duct construction,
and fibrous glass duct construction standards.
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American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
publishes and regularly updates Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recom-
mended Practice for Design (ACGIH 2010). This book includes general infor-
mation on ventilation and numerous examples of industrial ventilation and the
removal of contaminants from specific industrial processes.
200
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Chapter 8 Codes and Standards
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Figure 8-2 Wall and partition penetrations and smoke dampers. et
Sources of Information
Many sources of information are available to HVAC designers. ASHRAE pro-
duces an extensive range of publications, including Standards, Handbook, and
Advanced Energy Design Guides, which can be located online at the ASHRAE
Web site (www.ashrae.org). Other resources include the following:
Air Movement and Control Association Inc. (AMCA)
t
30 West University Drive
e
Arlington Heights, IL 60004-1893
Phone: (708) 394-0150
Fax: (708) 253-0088
www.amca.org
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American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
Kemper Woods Center
1330 Kemper Meadow Dr.
Cincinnati, OH 45240
Phone: (513) 742-2020
Fax: (513) 742-3355
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www.acgih.org
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

1 Batterymarch Park
Quincy, MA 02269-9101
Phone: (617) 770-3000
Fax: (617) 770-0700
www.nfpa.org
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Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’
National Association Inc. (SMACNA)
4201 Lafayette Center Drive
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Chantilly, VA 22021-1209
Phone: (703) 803-2980
Fax: (703) 803-3732
www.smacna.org
In addition, each chapter of each ASHRAE Handbook contains a detailed

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bibliography. An extensive list of HVAC codes and standards is included in the

2009 ASHRAE Handbook–Fundamentals (ASHRAE 2009).
The Next Step

Chapter 9 addresses some air system components, including dampers, air fil-
ters, humidifiers, duct heaters, and duct insulation.
Summary
In the private sector, each new construction or renovation project is normally
governed by state laws and/or local ordinances that require compliance with
specific health, safety, property protection, and energy conservation regula-
tions. These requirements are based on existing design methods, and negotia-
tion may be needed with the authorities to use new design methods.
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ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 has become the legal requirement in the
United States. The standard is a consensus document with public review. It is
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adopted by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and undergoes
continuous improvement through new addenda.
Standard 90.1 covers the building fabric and all permanent energy-using
plants and equipment in the building. Section 6, “Heating, Ventilating, and Air
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Conditioning,” includes two methods of achieving compliance.
The prescriptive method follows a specific set of requirements, including
minimum requirements for plant efficiency, guidelines for when economizers
and heat recovery must be included, and insulation and control strategies to
minimize wasting energy. Simple rules are included for some small buildings.
With the energy cost budget method, the building is designed to have no
greater energy cost than a system designed under the prescriptive approach.
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ASHRAE Standard 62 sets out requirements for ventilation with outside air
and exhaust from polluted spaces, design of the systems to facilitate correct
operation through the life of the building, operations and maintenance require-
ments, and documentation requirements.
The NFPA offers three standards applicable to HVAC systems. NFPA 90A
applies to systems for air movement in larger buildings, with an emphasis on
life safety to reducing the risk of fire and smoke and their effect when they do
occur; NFPA 90B applies to smaller buildings; and NFPA 96 covers kitchen
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exhausts and fire suppression.
SMACNA publication, HVAC Duct Construction Standards, covers the
design, construction, and installation of galvanized ductwork in detail and
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other materials more generally.

ACGIH publication, Industrial Ventilation, A Manual of Recommended
Practice for Design, includes general information on ventilation and numerous
examples of industrial ventilation and the removal of contaminants from spe-
cific industrial processes.
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ACGIH. 2010. Industrial Ventilation, A Manual of Recommended Practice for
Design, 25th Edition. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Govern-
mental and Industrial Hygienists
ASHRAE. 2007a. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007, Energy Efficient

neers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2007b. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1 User’s Manual. Atlanta: Ameri-
t
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neers, Inc.
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ASHRAE. 2010. ASHRAE Handbook—Refrigeration. Atlanta: American Soci-
ety of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
NFPA. 2002. NFPA 90A–Installation of Air Conditioning and Ventilating Sys-
tems. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.
NFPA. 2004. NFPA 96–Standard Ventilation Control and Fire Protection of
Commercial Cooking Operations. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection
Association.
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NFPA. 2006. NFPA 90B—Installation of Warm Air Heating and Air-Conditioning
Systems. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.
SMACNA. 2005. HVAC Duct Construction Standards—Metal and Flexible.
Chantilly, VA: Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractor’ National
Association Inc.
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8-1 Combustibility and toxicity ratings are normally based on tests of
_______________.
a) new materials b) old work
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c) fibrous materials d) all of the above
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8-2 In the private sector, new construction is normally governed by ____________.
a) state laws b) local ordinances
c) codes d) all of the above
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8-3 Zone temperature controls are required for all systems, with special require-
ments for perimeter heating systems.
a) True b) False
8-4 Which of the following standards applies to structures not exceeding 700 m3 in
volume?
a) NFPA 90A b) NFPA 90B
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c) NFPA 96 d) all of the above
8-5 SMACNA HVAC Duct Construction Standards covers _______________.
a) basic duct construction b) hangers and supports
c) duct sealing classifications d) all of the above
8-6 ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 has a somewhat easier compliance route for many
small air-conditioned buildings.
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a) True b) False
8-7 Compliance with ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1, Section 6, assures a minimum
level of HVAC system performance.
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a) True b) False
8-8 HVAC designers must know which code compliance obligations affect their
designs.
a) True b) False
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8-9 HVAC systems are one of the most significant energy users in the types of
buildings covered by ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1.
a) True b) False
8-10 A very efficient HVAC system could have an overall efficiency greater than
one.
a) True b) False
Air System
Auxiliary Components
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Study Objectives
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After completing this chapter, you should understand the function, selection,
and sizing of dampers, air filters, humidifiers, duct heaters, and duct insulation.
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Instructions
the exercises.
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Dampers
Types of Dampers
Two damper arrangements are used for air-handling system flow control: parallel
blade and opposed blade (see Figure 9-1). The linkages shown in the figure are
attached to the blades. Moving the linkage upwards on the parallel-blade damper
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opens the damper, and lowering the linkage closes the damper. Note that the ends
of the damper blades have opposed grooves. This is so that the grooves interlock
when the damper is closed to improve the seal and provide rigidity to the damper
blade. Having the linkage in the airstream increases the damper resistance and, at
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higher air speeds, can produce air noise. The preferable alternative, although a lit-
tle more costly, is for the linkage to be external and connected to the damper
shafts.
The sheet metal blade section shown in Figure 9-1 is made by forming
three grooves (one at each edge and a central one around the shaft) and is
called a triple-V blade. Blades are also made in an airfoil section, providing a
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lower resistance to airflow and lower noise generation. The power to drive the
linkage comes from an actuator.
Optimum control of airflow is obtained with a linear relationship between
airflow and the degree to which the damper is open. Conventional wisdom was
that parallel-blade dampers were useful for open-closed control and adequate
for modulating control if they accounted for the major pressure drop and direc-
tional airflow was not a problem. Opposed-blade dampers were considered
206 Chapter 9 Air System Auxiliary Components
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Figure 9-1 Parallel- and opposed-blade dampers.
preferable because they were thought to provide better control. The reality,
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however, is not that simple. The characteristic curves of the two damper types
are shown in Figures 9-2 and 9-3. In both figures, the parameter a is the ratio of
the pressure drop across the fully open damper at design flow to the total sub-
system pressure drop, including fully open control damper pressure drop.
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These idealized curves are correct in concept but not realized in practice.
Recent research, particularly RP-1157, “Flow Resistance and Modulating
Characteristics of Control Dampers” (ASHRAE 2004), shows that the perfor-
mance of dampers is highly dependent on the following:
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• Construction: This differs from manufacturer to manufacturer for the same

style, triple-V or airfoil. In Figure 9-4, triple-V dampers from two manu-
facturers have very different performance curves in both arrangements.
• Relative size of the damper to the duct or plenum and the arrangement. A
simple example is the situation where the damper is the same size as the
duct, so the airflow is relatively straight into the damper. In contrast, a
small damper in a large wall has air coming from all directions into the
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Figure 9-2 Installed parallel-blade dampers.
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Figure 9-3 Installed opposed-blade dampers.

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Figure 9-4
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Two parallel-blade triple-V dampers from different manufacturers.
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damper, creating a different flow characteristic. In Figure 9-4, the perfor-
mance characteristic is modified for an intake louver and damper to a
damper and relief louver.
• Location relative to other components, including changes in duct direction.
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Figure 9-5 shows an example where the opposed-blade damper characteris-
tic is degraded by being placed inside an inlet louver.
Therefore, actual performance data on their specific dampers must be

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obtained from the manufacturers, and the situational conditions that influence
performance must be considered.
The one situation where parallel-blade dampers consistently provide more
linear control is in the mixing box, typically mixing outdoor air and return air
to provide supply air. The combination of three parallel-blade dampers work-
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ing in unison provides a more linear control characteristic than using opposed-
blade dampers.
Damper leakage is important, particularly where tight shutoff is required.
For example, an outdoor-air damper must close tightly to prevent coils and
pipes from freezing. Low-leakage dampers are more costly and require larger
operators because of the friction of the seals in the closed position. Therefore,
they should be used only when necessary, including in any location where the
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Figure 9-5 Effect of inlet louver on an opposed-blade damper characteristic.
tight-closing damper reduces energy consumption significantly. Literature

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from manufacturers expresses leakage rates based on specific pressure differ-
entials across the closed damper.
Damper Operators
Damper operators are available using either electricity or compressed air as a
power source:
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• Electric damper operators can be either unidirectional spring return or
reversible. This type of operator is available with many options for rota-
tional shaft travel (expressed in degrees of rotation) and timing (expressed
in the number of seconds to move through the rotational range).
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• Pneumatic damper operators use air pressure to produce a linear motion,

which moves the crank arm to rotate the damper open or closed. Normally
open or normally closed refers to the position of the dampers when no air
pressure is applied to the operator; this is also known as the failed position.
Positive positioners are important for accurate positioning due to the vary-
ing pressures on the damper.
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Damper Functions
Dampers have a wide variety of functions:
• Shutoff dampers are used to regulate the flow of air through a duct. When
fully closed, they shut off the flow aside from any leakage that may occur.
• Balancing dampers are used to make final adjustments in the flow of air
through a duct when the system is first being commissioned. In smaller
ducts, balancing dampers are often a flat metal plate as they are just a vari-
able resistance to be set up by the balancing contractor. The balancing
damper may be used to adjust the total flow in a single duct system or to
adjust the ratio of flows in ducts with multiple ducts.
• In fire and smoke control, openings for ducts in walls and floors with fire
resistance ratings should be protected by fire dampers and ceiling dampers,
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as required by local codes. Note that fire dampers are manufactured in two
styles: with the damper in the duct section and with the damper outside the
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duct section. Having the damper in the duct section may be required where
space is very tight. The significant resistance must be allowed for, particu-
larly in small ducts. Air transfer openings should also be protected.
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A smoke damper can be used for either traditional smoke management
(smoke containment) or for smoke control. In smoke management, a smoke
damper inhibits the passage of smoke under the forces of buoyancy, stack
effect, and wind. Generally, for smoke containment, smoke dampers should
have low leakage characteristics at elevated temperatures. However, smoke
dampers are only one of many elements (partitions, floors, doors, etc.)
intended to inhibit smoke flow. In smoke management applications, the
leakage characteristics of smoke dampers should be selected to be appro-
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priate with the leakage of the other system elements.
In a smoke-control system, a smoke damper inhibits the passage of air
that may or may not contain smoke. Low leakage characteristics of a
damper are not necessary when outdoor air is on the high-pressure side of
the damper, as is the case for dampers that shut off supply air from a smoke
zone or that shut off exhaust air from a nonsmoke zone. In these cases,
moderate leakage of smoke-free air through the damper does not adversely
affect the control of smoke movement. Smoke-control supply air systems
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should be designed so that only smoke-free air is on the high-pressure side
of a smoke damper. These dampers should be classified and labeled in
accordance with UL-555 Standards (UL 1999, 2006a, 2006b)
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Air Filters
The purpose of a filter is to remove contaminants from an airstream. Contami-
nants may be gaseous, such as odors from an adjacent restaurant, or particu-
lates from outside and inside the building. Gaseous filtration is costly to install
and maintain. Activated carbon filters may be used for general organic vapor
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removal. In other situations, specific gaseous compounds can use filters con-
taining chemicals to remove the contaminant. Gaseous filtration is a special-
ized field and is not covered in this course.
The most common application of air filters is particulate removal. The
characteristics of airstreams that most affect the performance of an air filter
include particle size and shape, mass, concentration, and electrostatic proper-
ties. The most important of these is particle size.
Particle size may be defined in numerous ways. Particles less than 2.5 µm
(microns, or millionths of a metre) in diameter are generally referred to as fine,
and those greater than 2.5 µm are considered coarse.
From an industrial hygiene perspective, particles that are 5 µm or greater
are considered the nonrespirable fraction of dust, which means that they are fil-
tered in the nasal passages before reaching the lungs. Particles less than 5 µm
are considered the respirable fraction. Particle size in this discussion refers to
aerodynamic particle size (defined as the diameter of a unit-density sphere hav-
t
ing the same gravitational settling velocity as the particle in question). There-
fore, larger particles with lower densities could be found in the lungs. Also
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note that fibers differ from particles in that fiber shape, diameter, and density
all affect where a fiber will settle in the body (NFPA 2009a).
Atmospheric dust is a complex mixture of smokes, mists, fumes, dry gran-
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ular particles, microorganisms, other biologically produced particles, and natu-
ral and synthetic fibers. When suspended in air, this mixture is called an
aerosol. A sample of atmospheric dust usually contains soot, smoke, silica,
clay, decayed animal and vegetable matter, organic materials in the form of lint
and plant fibers, and metallic fragments. It may also contain living organisms,
such as mold spores, bacteria, and plant pollens, which may cause disease or
allergic responses.
Major factors influencing filter design and selection include degree of air
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cleanliness required, specific particle size range or aerosols that require filtra-
tion, and aerosol concentration.
Note that filters are used to protect ductwork and equipment as well as
occupied spaces. Cooking facilities require a grease filter that both reduces the
grease load in the duct and also acts as a fire stop between the cooking surface
and the ducting. Clothes dryers require filters to reduce the buildup of fibers in
the duct and on any exhaust screen. These situations are often quite specifically
mandated in local building and fire codes.
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Rating Filters
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In addition to criteria affecting the degree of air cleanliness, factors such as

cost (initial investment and maintenance), space requirements, and airflow
resistance have stimulated the development of a wide variety of filters. Accu-
rate comparisons of different filters can be made only from data obtained by
standardized test methods.
The three main operating characteristics that distinguish the various types
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of filters are efficiency, airflow resistance, and dust-holding capacity:
• Efficiency measures the filter’s ability to remove particulate matter from an

airstream. Average efficiency during the life of the filter is the most mean-
ingful metric for most filters and applications. However, because the effi-
ciency of many dry-type filters increases with dust load, in applications
with low dust concentrations, the initial (clean filter) efficiency should be
considered for design.
• Airflow resistance (or resistance) is the pressure drop across the filter at a
given airflow rate. The term pressure drop is used interchangeably with
resistance.
• Dust-holding capacity defines the weight of dust that a filter can hold when
it is operated at a specific airflow to some maximum resistance value, or
before its performance drops significantly as a result of the collected dust.
In general, four types of tests together with certain variations determine fil-
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ter efficiency:
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• Arrestance. A standardized synthetic dust consisting of various particle
sizes is fed into the filter, and the weight fraction of the dust removed is
determined. In the old ASHRAE Standard 52.1-1992, Gravimetric and
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Dust-Spot Procedures for Testing Air-Cleaning Devices Used in General
Ventilation for Removing Particulate Matter (ASHRAE 1992) test, this
type of efficiency measurement is named synthetic dust weight arrestance
to distinguish it from other efficiency values. The synthetic dust used con-
tains fibers and is generally coarser than normally experienced dust, so the
test is of limited value.
• Dust spot efficiency. As defined in ASHRAE Standard 52.1, a standardized
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atmospheric dust is passed into the filter, and the discoloration effect of the
cleaned air on filter paper targets is compared with that of the incoming air.
This type of measurement is called atmospheric dust spot efficiency.
• Particle size removal efficiency test. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 52.2-2010,
Method of Testing General Ventilation Air-Cleaning Devices for Removal
Efficiency by Particle Size (ASHRAE 2010) details this method. An opti-
cal particle counter measures the number of particles upstream and down-
stream of the filter. The measurements are made for particles in the range
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of 0.3 to 10 µm. Based on the results, filters are classified into a scale of
20 categories known as the minimum efficiency reporting value (MERV).
The MERV 1 filter is the least efficient, typically collecting long fibers
and particles over 10 µm. At the other end of the scale are the MERV 17
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to 20 filters used in industrial and medical facilities to remove dusts of

0.3 µm at better than 99.97% efficiency.
• DOP Penetration Test. This is a U.S. Army specification test based on
MIL-STD-282, Military Standard, Filter Units, Protective Clothing, Gas-
Mask Components, and Related Products: Performance Test Methods (U.S.
DOD 1956) using a chemical, dioctyl phthalate (DOP), that produces a par-
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ticle cloud of around 0.3 µm. The rating is based on the proportion of parti-
cles penetrating through the filter. This test is used to rate very high-
efficiency filters, MERV 17 to 20.
Table 9-1 describes the performance of dry media filters as tested under
ASHRAE Standards 52.1 and 52.2. Read through the table’s application
guidelines and MERV ratings to understand the range of filter performance
Table 9-1 Filter Types and Performance*

Approx. Std. 52.1
Application Guidelines
Std. 52.2 Results
MERV Typical Typical
Rating Dust Spot Arrestance Controlled Applications and
Typical Air Cleaner/
Efficiency Filter Type
Contaminant Limitations
20 n/a n/a Larger than 0.3
Cleanrooms; HEPA/ULPA filters ranging
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19 n/a n/a m particles:
pharmaceutical from 99.97% efficiency on
Virus, all
18 n/a n/a manufacturing; 0.3 mm particles to 99.999%
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combustion
orthopedic efficiency on 0.1–1.2 mm
17 n/a n/a smoke, sea salt,
surgery particles
radon progeny
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16 n/a n/a 0.3–1.0 m
15 >95% n/a particle size and Hospital in-
all over 1 m: patient care; gen- Bag Filters: Nonsupported
14 90%–95% >98%
All bacteria, eral surgery; supe- (flexible microfine fiberglass or
most tobacco rior commercial synthetic media 300-900 mm
13 80%–90% >98% smoke, sneeze buildings deep, 6–12 pockets
nuclei
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12 70%–75% >95% 1.0–3.0 m Box Filters: Rigid style cartridge
Hospital labs; filters 150–300 mm deep may
11 60%–65% >95% particle size and
better commer- use lofted (air laid) or paper
all over 3.0 m:
10 50%–55% >95% cial buildings; (wet laid) media
Legionella, auto
superior
9 40%–45% >90% emissions,
residential
welding fumes
8 30%–35% >90% Pleated Filters: Disposable

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7 25%–30% >90% extended surface 25–125 mm
3.0–10.0 m Commercial thick with cotton polyester blend
6 <20% 85%–90%
particle size and buildings; media, cardboard frame
all over 10 m: better residential; Cartridge Filters: Graded density
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Mold, spores, industrial viscous coated cube or pocket

5 <20% 80%–85% cement dust workplaces filters, synthetic media
Throwaway Filters: Disposable
synthetic media panel filters
4 <20% 75%–80% Throwaway Filters: Disposable

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3 <20% 70%–75% fiberglass or synthetic panel

>10.0 m parti- filters
2 <20% 65%–70% Minimum filtra-
cle size: Pollen, Washable Filters: Aluminum
tion; residential;
dust mites, mesh, latex coated animal hair,
window air
sanding dust, foam rubber panels
1 <20% <65% conditioners
textile fibers Electrostatic Filters:
Self-charging (passive) woven
polycarbonate panel filter
*As related to ASHRAE Standard 52.1 and Standard 52.2.
and typical uses. This provides context for discussion on filter selection later
in this course.
Mechanisms of Particle Collection

Filters rely on five main principles or mechanisms:
• Straining. The coarsest kind of filtration strains particles through a mem-
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brane opening that is smaller than the particulate being removed. This is
most often observed as a collection of large particles and lint on the filter
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surface.
• Direct interception. Particles follow a fluid streamline close enough to a
fiber that the particle contacts the fiber and remains there. The process is
nearly independent of velocity.
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• Inertial deposition. Particles in the airstream are large enough or of large
enough density that they cannot follow the fluid streamlines around a fiber;
thus, they cross over streamlines, contact the fiber, and remain there. At
high velocities (where these inertia effects are most pronounced), the parti-
cle may not adhere to the fiber because drag and bounce forces are so high.
In this case, a viscous coating applied to the fiber obtains the full benefit
and is the predominant mechanism in an adhesive-coated, wire-screen
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impingement filter.
• Diffusion. Very small particles have random motion about their basic
streamlines (Brownian motion), which contributes to deposition on the
fiber. This deposition creates a concentration gradient in the region of the
fiber, further enhancing filtration by diffusion. The effects increase with
decreasing particle size and velocity. Do not exceed manufacturer’s recom-
mended velocities.
• Electrostatic effects. Particle or media charging can produce changes in the
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coagulation and collection of dust.
Types of Filters
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Common filters are broadly grouped as those using a fibrous media and electri-
cally powered electrostatic filters. The fibrous filters can be subdivided into
those with replaceable panels and those with a renewable media that is moved
across the airstream.
Panel Filters
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There are a variety of panel filters, including viscous impingement filters, dry-
type extended-surface filters, and high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters.
Viscous impingement filters are panel filters made of coarse fibers with
high porosity. Glass fibers, steel or aluminum mesh, and metal baffles are used
as filter media. The filter medium is coated with a viscous substance, such as
filter oil (also known as adhesive) that causes particles that impinge on the
fibers to stick to them. Design air velocity through the fiber is usually in the
range of 0.1 to 0.4 m/s. These filters are characterized by low pressure drop,
low cost, and good efficiency on lint but low efficiency on normal atmospheric
dust. They are commonly made 12 to 100 mm thick. Unit panels are available
in standard and special sizes up to about 600 by 750 mm. This filter is com-
monly used in residential furnaces and air conditioning and is often used as a
prefilter for higher-efficiency filters.
Although viscous impingement filters usually operate in the range of 0.15
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to 0.3 m/s, they may be operated at higher velocities. The limiting factor other
than increased flow resistance is the danger of blowing off agglomerates of col-
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lected dust and the viscous coating on the filter. Do not exceed the manufac-
turer’s recommended velocities.
The loading rate of a filter depends on the type and concentration of the dirt
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in the air being handled and the system’s operating cycle. Manometers, static
pressure gauges and pressure transducers are often installed to measure the
pressure drop across the filter bank and thereby indicate when the filter
requires servicing. The final allowable pressure drop may vary from one instal-
lation to another. But, in general, unit filters are serviced when their operating
resistance reaches 125 Pa. Note that in systems with low air pressure losses, the
increase in filter pressure drop may seriously reduce the airflow as the filter
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becomes loaded.
The manner of servicing unit filters depends on their construction and use.
Disposable viscous impingement, panel-type filters are constructed of inexpen-
sive materials and are discarded after one period of use. The sides of this
design are usually a combination of cardboard and metal stiffeners. Permanent
unit filters are generally constructed of metal to withstand repeated handling.
Various cleaning methods have been recommended for permanent filters; the
most widely used involves washing the filter with steam or water (frequently
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with detergent) and then recoating it with its recommended adhesive by dip-
ping or spraying. Unit viscous filters are also sometimes arranged for in-place
washing and recoating.
Dry-type extended-surface filters use media made of random fiber mats or
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blanks of varying thicknesses, fiber sizes, and densities. Bonded glass fiber,
cellulose fibers, wool felt, synthetics, and other materials have been used com-
mercially. The media in filters of this class are frequently supported by a wire
frame in the form of pockets, or V-shaped or radial pleats. In other designs, the
media may be self-supporting because of inherent rigidity or because airflow
inflates it into extended form, such as with bag filters. Pleating of the media
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provides a high ratio of media area to face area, allowing lower pressure drops.
The efficiency of dry media filters can be improved by the use of passive,
electrostatically charged media. The charged media is manufactured in several
ways. In one such way, electret manufacturing, the charge increases the collec-
tion effect, particularly when the filter is clean. As the dust builds up, the
charged effect is reduced by varying degrees. Therefore, the lifetime perfor-
mance, not just the clean performance, must be considered in choosing this
type of filter. These are not electronic filters, although commercial literature
sometimes implies that they are.
High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are made in an extended sur-
face configuration of deep space folds of submicron glass fiber paper. Such fil-
ters operate at face velocities near 0.125 m/s with resistance rising from 125 Pa
to 500 Pa or more over their service life. Note that this large increase usually
requires some type of control to ensure reasonably constant airflow. These fil-
ters are the standard for critical medical facilities, cleanrooms, nuclear, and
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toxic-particulate applications.
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Renewable-Media Filters
The two types of renewable media filters are moving-curtain viscous impinge-
ment filters and moving-curtain dry media filters. Automatic moving-curtain
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viscous filters are available in two main types. In one type, random-fiber media
are furnished in roll form. Fresh media are fed manually or automatically
across the face of the filter, while the dirty media are rewound onto a roll at the
bottom. When the roll is exhausted, the tail of the media is wound onto the
take-up roll, and the entire roll is thrown away. A new roll is then installed and
the cycle is repeated.
In moving-curtain dry media filters, random-fiber (nonwoven) dry media of
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relatively high porosity are also used for general ventilation service. Operating
duct velocities in the area of 0.1 m/s are generally lower than for viscous
impingement filters.
Special automatic dry filters are also available. These are designed for the
removal of lint in textile mills and dry-cleaning facilities and the collection of
lint and ink mist in press rooms. The medium used is extremely thin and serves
only as a base for the buildup of lint, which then acts as a filter medium. The
dirt-laden media are discarded when the supply roll is used up. Another form
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of filter designed specifically for dry lint removal consists of a moving curtain
of wire screen, which is vacuum cleaned automatically at a position out of the
airstream. Recovery of the collected lint is sometimes possible with such a
device.
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Performance of renewable media filters is covered by ASHRAE Standard

52.2 as detailed in Table 9-1.
Higher-MERV-rated filters are normally provided with a lower MERV pre-
filter. Thus, a low-cost MERV 6 filter may be used to collect the larger particles
and extend the useful life of a MERV 14 filter. The MERV 6 filter likely needs
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to be changed more frequently than the MERV 14 filter.
Electronic Filters
Electronic filters can be highly efficient, using electrostatic precipitation to
remove and collect particulate contaminants, such as dust, smoke, and pollen.
The filter consists of an ionization section and a collecting plate section. This
filter should not be confused with passive electrostatic unit filters.
In the ionization section, small-diameter wires with a positive direct current

potential of between 6 and 25 kV DC are suspended equidistant between
grounded plates. The high voltage on the wires creates an ionizing field for
charging particles. The positive ions created in the field flow across the air-
stream and strike and adhere to (charge) the particles, which then pass into the
collecting plate section.
The collecting plate section consists of a series of equally spaced parallel
plates, with a positive direct current voltage of 4 to 10 kV DC applied to alter-
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nate plates. Plates that are not charged are at ground potential. As the particles
pass into this section they are forced to the plates by the electric field on the
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charges they carry and are removed from the airstream and collected by the
plates. Figure 9-6 shows a typical electronic filter cell. Particulate retention is a
combination of electrical and intermolecular adhesion forces and may be aug-
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mented by special oils or adhesives on the plates.
Filter Selection and Maintenance

To evaluate filters properly for a particular application, the following factors
should be considered:
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• Code requirements
• Types of contaminants present indoors and outdoors
• Sizes and concentrations of contaminants
• Air cleanliness levels required in the system and space
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Figure 9-6 Cross section of an ionizing electronic air cleaner.

• Air filter efficiency needed to achieve cleanliness

• Space available to install and access equipment
• Life-cycle costing, including
° operating resistance to airflow (static pressure differential, fan power)
° disposal or cleaning requirements of spent filters
° initial cost of selected system
° cost of replacement filters or cleaning
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° cost of warehousing filter stock and change-out labor
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Savings—from reduction in housekeeping expenses, protection of valuable
property and equipment, ability to conduct dust-free manufacturing processes,
improved working conditions, and even health benefits—should be credited
against the cost of installing and operating an adequate filtration system. The
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capacity and physical size of the required unit may emphasize the need for low
maintenance cost. Operating costs, predicted life, and efficiency are as impor-
tant as initial cost because air cleaning is a continuing process. Panel filters do
not have efficiencies as high as can be expected from extended-surface filters,
but their initial cost and upkeep are generally low. They require more careful
attention than the moving-curtain type if the resistance is to be maintained
within reasonable limits.
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If higher efficiencies are required, extended-surface filters or electronic fil-
ters should be considered. The use of very fine glass fiber mats or other materi-
als in extended-surface filters makes these available in the highest efficiency
ranges. Initial costs of extended-surface filters are lower than for electronic
types but higher than for panel types. Operating and maintenance costs of some
extended-surface filters may be higher than for panel types and electronic fil-
ters, but the efficiencies are always higher than for panel types, and the cost/
benefit ratio must be considered.
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The pressure drop of media-type filters is greater than electronic type and
slowly increases during their useful life. The advantages are that no mechanical
or electrical services are required. The choice should be based on both initial
and operating costs, as well as on the degree of cleaning efficiency and mainte-
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nance requirements.
In selecting specific filters, designers should carefully evaluate the total
media surface area. Filters with more surface area generally have longer ser-
vice life and lower pressure drops.
While electronic filters have a higher initial cost, they exhibit high initial
efficiencies in cleaning atmospheric air; this is largely because of their ability
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to remove fine particulate contaminants. System resistance remains unchanged

as particles are collected, and the resulting residue has to be periodically
washed off. The manufacturer must supply information on maintenance or
cleaning, but this information is often not specific about cleaning frequencies.
Industrial systems with automatic washing built in can be continuously
effective. The typical residential unit performance drops off in 10–20 days,
so the panels must be run through a dishwasher every two weeks to maintain
performance. Not surprisingly, the typical problem is that the collection

plates are not cleaned frequently enough to maintain performance.
Filter Installation
Many filters are available in units of convenient size for manual installation,
cleaning and replacement. A typical unit filter may be 500 to 600 mm square,
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from 25 to 1000 mm thick, and of either the dry or viscous impingement types.
In large systems, the frames in which these units are installed are bolted or riv-
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eted together to form a filter bank. Automatic filters are constructed in sections
offering several choices of width up to 1.8 m and generally range in height
from 1 to 4 m, available in 100 to 150 mm increments. Several sections may be
bolted together to form a filter bank.
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Several manufacturers provide side-loading filter sections for various types
of filters. Filters are changed from outside the duct, making service areas in the
duct unnecessary and thus saving cost and space.
Of course, the in-service efficiency of an air filter is sharply reduced if air
leaks through either bypass dampers or poorly designed frames. The higher the
filter’s efficiency, the more attention must be paid to the frame’s rigidity and
sealing effectiveness. In addition, high-efficiency filters must be handled and
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installed with care.
Filters may be installed in the outdoor-air intake ducts of buildings and resi-
dences and in the recirculation and bypass air ducts. But they are always placed
ahead of heating or cooling coils and other air-conditioning equipment in the
system to protect the equipment from dust. The dust captured in an outdoor-air
intake duct is likely to be mostly particulate matter of a greasy nature, while lint
may predominate in dust from within the building.
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Where high-efficiency filters protect critical areas such as cleanrooms, the
filters must be installed as close to the room as possible to prevent the pickup
of particles between the filters and the outlet. The ultimate is the so-called lam-
inar flow room, in which the entire ceiling or one entire wall becomes the filter
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bank.
The published performance data for all air filters are based on straight-
through unrestricted airflow. Filters should be installed so that the face area is
at right angles to the airflow whenever possible, although a V-bank filter
arrangement is often used. Eddy currents and dead air spaces should be
avoided; air should be distributed uniformly over the entire filter surface. The
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use of baffles, diffusers, or air blenders is occasionally necessary. Filters are

sometimes damaged if significantly higher than recommended air velocities
impinge directly on the filter face.
An example is where a filter with design face velocity of 2.5 m/s is to be
installed in a duct with an air velocity of 5 m/s. The duct needs a tapered sec-
tion to enlarge by a factor of 1.4 to fit the filter. The taper to the filter must be
slow enough to let the air spread out to cover the entire filter area. After the
filter, the taper back down to duct size can be quite short without significantly
affecting filter performance.
Air filter installations that give unsatisfactory results can, in most cases, be
traced to faulty installation, improper maintenance, or both. The most important
requirements of a satisfactory and efficiently operating air filter installation are
as follows:
• The filter must have ample capacity for the amount of air and dust load it is
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expected to handle. An overload of 10% to 15% is regarded as the maxi-
mum allowable. When air volume is subject to future increase, a larger fil-
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ter bank should be considered initially.
• The filter must be suited to the operating conditions, such as degree of air
cleanliness required, amount of dust in the entering air, type of duty, allow-
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able pressure drop, operating temperatures, and maintenance facilities.
• The filter type should be the most economical for the specific application.
The initial installation cost should be balanced against efficiency and
depreciation, as well as the expense and convenience of maintenance.
The following recommendations apply to filters installed with central fan

systems:
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• Duct connections to and from the filter should change size or shape gradu-
ally to ensure even air distribution over the entire filter area.
• Sufficient space should be provided in front of or behind the filter, or both
depending on the filter’s type, to make it accessible for inspection and ser-
vice. A distance of 0.5 to 1 m may be required, depending on the filter
chosen.
• Access doors of convenient size should be provided to the filter service
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areas.
• All doors on the clean-air side should be gasketed to prevent infiltration of
unclean air. All connections and seams of the sheet metal ducts on the clean-
air side should be sealed as airtight as possible. The filter bank must be
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sealed to prevent bypass of unfiltered air, especially when high-efficiency

filters are used.
• Electric lights should be installed in the plenum in front of and behind the
air filter.
• Filters installed close to an air inlet should be protected from the weather
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by suitable louvers or an inlet hood. A large-mesh wire bird screen should

be placed in front of the louvers or in the hood.
• Other than electronic filters should have permanent indicators to give a
warning when the filter resistance reaches too high a value or is exhausted,
as with automatic roll media filters.
• Electronic filters should have an indicator or alarm system to indicate when
high voltage is OFF or shorted out.
The required filter performance is generally not specified in codes for com-
mercial, institutional, and large residential buildings. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard
62.1-2010, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality (ASHRAE 2010)
requires a MERV 6 before any cooling coil that can run with a wetted surface
and a MERV 6 filter in dirty locations. Health facilities are normally covered
by codes with very specific requirements.
Remember that particulate filters do not remove odors and that gas phase
filtration is costly to install and maintain. If specific odors are near the site,
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such as an adjacent restaurant, or on the site, such as a loading dock, do not
ignore them. It may be much more cost effective to modify the layout of the
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building and air system so that the intake is well away from the odor source.
Filter Safety Requirements
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Safety ordinances should be investigated when the filter installation is contem-
plated. Combustible filtering media may not be permitted in accordance with
some existing local regulations. Combustion of dust and lint on filtering media
is possible, although the media itself may not burn. This may cause a substan-
tial increase in filter combustibility.
Smoke detectors and fire sprinkler systems may be considered for filter
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bank locations. In some cases, depending on the contaminant, hazardous mate-
rial procedures must be followed during removal and disposal of the spent filter.
Humidifiers
The purpose of a humidifier is to maintain or increase the relative humidity of
the space being conditioned. In cooler climates, the humidifier also offsets the
low moisture content of the incoming ventilation air. An example of the process
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is shown in Figure 9-7. The outdoor condition is 0°C and 80% relative humidity,
and the inside condition is 22°C and 40% relative humidity. For every kilogram
of outdoor air, the humidifier must add 0.0065 – 0.003 = 0.0035 kg of moisture
to bring the outdoor air up to the inside condition.
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A space with an outside wall also loses moisture by diffusion through the
building fabric and infiltration of outdoor air. These losses must be offset by
humidifying the supply air to a higher moisture content than the room condition.
The moisture can be added by either evaporating water into the air or by
injecting steam into the air. When water evaporates in the air, the latent heat of
evaporation (2560 kJ/kg) is provided by the air that is cooled. In this example,
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if the outdoor air is humidified by evaporation, the air must be heated to

30.9°C, and then evaporative cooling reduces the temperature to 22°C. The
alternative is to put the same 2560 kJ/kg into water to produce steam and inject
the steam into the air.
The heating energy for humidification can be a very significant part of the
load in cold weather. To keep energy use down, the relative humidity should be
progressively lowered as much as is practical in cold weather.
222
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Chapter 9 Air System Auxiliary Components
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Figure 9-7 Humidification of outdoor air.
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Humidifiers must be installed where the air can absorb the water vapor and
not be cooled below the dew point, thereby causing condensation and potential
rusting of steel duct and water dripping from the joints. Note that humidifiers
are usually downstream of the system filters, so any rusting of the duct can
cause rust flakes that are not collected by the filters.
Several industrial/commercial humidifiers are depicted in Figure 9-8. In
selecting the type of humidifier, care should be taken to minimize growth of
microbes and contamination due to chemicals in the water that can become air-
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borne. Note that a requirement of ASHRAE Standard 62.1 is that the water for
humidifiers “shall originate directly from a potable source or from a source
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with equal or better water quality.”
Types of Humidifiers
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Heated-Pan Humidifiers
These units offer a broad range of capacity and may be heated by an electrical
element, steam or hot-water coil (see Figure 9-8a). Electric heated-pan humidi-
fiers are usually provided with a low-water-level cutoff switch as a protection
device for the heating elements.
Steam coils are commonly used in pan humidifiers. At steam pressures
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above 100 kPa, moisture carryover occurs because of splashing caused by
nucleate boiling. To prevent boiling over, baffle splash eliminators must be
used according to manufacturers’ instructions where steam pressure is greater
than 100 kPa.
Steam Humidifiers
Direct steam injection humidifiers cover a wide range of designs and capaci-
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ties. Because water vapor is steam at low pressure and temperature, the whole
process can be simplified by introducing steam directly into the air to be
humidified. This method is essentially an isothermal process because the air
temperature remains constant as the moisture is added in vapor form. The
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steam control valve may be modulating or two-position in response to a humid-

ity controller.
The steam may be either used from an external source with enclosed grid,
cup, or jacketed dry steam humidifiers or produced within the humidifier, as
in the self-contained type. When the steam is supplied from a separate source
at a constant supply pressure, it responds quickly to system demand. Steam
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units must be installed where the air can absorb the vapor, otherwise conden-
sation can occur in the duct. For proper psychrometric calculations, refer to
the 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (ASHRAE 2009).
• Enclosed steam grid humidifiers (Figure 9-8b) should be used on low

steam pressures (under 80 kPa) to prevent condensate splashing in the duct.
The drain should be located on the side opposite the control valve. A drip
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Figure 9-8 Humidifiers for larger systems.
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leg—dimension H, a minimum of 300 mm—should provide the pressure to

flow the condensate through the trap.
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• Cup- or pot-type steam humidifiers are usually attached under a system

duct. Steam is attached tangentially to the cup’s inner periphery by one or
more steam inlets, depending on the unit’s capability. The steam supply
line should have a suitable steam trap. There may be a tendency toward
supersaturation due to stratification along the bottom of the duct. Multiple
units may be required to produce satisfactory distribution. Under certain
conditions, condensate droplets may be injected into the airstream.
• Jacketed steam humidifiers use an integral steam valve with a steam-jacketed

duct-traversing dispersing tube and condensate separator to prevent conden-
sate from being introduced into the airstream (Figure 9-8b). An inverted
bucket-type steam trap is required to drain the separating chamber. This
humidifier may be used without the jacketed tube in nonducted installations.
These humidifiers inject steam directly from the boiler into the space or
duct system. Some boiler treatment chemicals can be discharged, which can
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affect indoor air quality. Take care to avoid contamination from boiler water or
steam supply chemical treatment.
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• A self-contained steam humidifier converts tap water to steam by electrical
energy using either the electrode boiler principle (Figure 9-8d) or resis-
tance heating (Figure 9-8e). This steam is injected into the duct system
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through a dispersion manifold, or the humidifier may be freestanding for
nonducted applications.
Atomizing Humidifiers with Optional Filter Eliminator

(Figures 9-8f and 9-8h)
Centrifugal atomizers use a high-speed disk that slings water through a fine
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comb to create a mist that is introduced directly into the air, where it is evapo-
rated. The ability of the air to absorb the moisture depends on temperature, air
velocity, and moisture content.
Where mineral fallout from hard water is a problem, optional filter elimina-
tors may be added to remove mineral dust from humidified air, or water demin-
eralizers may be installed.
Additional atomizing methods use nozzles; one uses water pressure and the
other uses both air and water, as shown in Figure 9-8i. Mixing air and water
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streams at combined pressures atomizes water into a fine mist, which is evapo-
rated in the room or air duct.
Ultrasonic nozzles place air and water under pressure to atomize the water
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into a fine mist (Figure 9-8g). Accurate psychrometric calculations must be

made to ensure that the water droplets are absorbed in the duct airstream.
Wetted-Element Humidifier
Wetted-element humidifiers (Figure 9-8j) have a wetted media, sometimes in
modular configurations, through or over which air is circulated to evaporate
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water. This unit depends on airflow for evaporation; the rate varies with tem-
perature, humidity, and velocity of the air.
Duct Heaters
Duct heaters may be either steam, water (hydronic), or electric. They are used for
a variety of purposes, including preheating outdoor air, reheating, and making up
for heat loss when the duct is run through an unconditioned space. When using
electric in-duct heaters, the liner must be removed from the area of the heater and
the duct insulated on the outside.
The required output of a duct heater is calculated using
W = 1.23 × L/s × rise in temperature °C
For example, a variable-air-volume box (VAV) with maximum capacity of
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300 L/s and 150 L/s flow when reheating is to have a reheat coil installed. The
coil design is to raise the air temperature from13°C to 28°C. The required
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capacity is
1.23 L s °C = 1.23 150 28 – 13 = 2767 W or 2.8 kW
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Electric heaters may also be combined with a VAV outlet for zone control.
Here a control with two minimum positions is used. If the space is too cold, the
control closes off the airflow to some preset amount (for example, 10%). If the
space is still too cold, the control opens up to a second preset amount (for
example, 25%), and the heater is turned ON. The advantage of this arrangement
is that the heater is required to heat only 25% of the maximum airflow. Most
codes do not allow a design where 100% of the airflow is reheated.
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Duct Insulation
In all new construction (except low-rise residential buildings), air-handling
ducts and plenums installed as part of an HVAC air distribution system should
be thermally insulated in accordance with ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard
90.1-2007, Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings Except Low-Rise Resi-
dential Buildings (ASHRAE 2007) or local codes. The insulation used should
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not pose a fire hazard, and conforming to NFPA 90A, Installation of Air-Condi-
tioning and Ventilating Systems (NFPA 2009a) and NFPA 90B, Standard for
the Installation of Warm Air Heating and Air-Conditioning Systems (NFPA
2009b) is advised, even if not code required.
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In low-rise residential buildings, any ducts run through unconditioned

areas, such as attics and crawlspaces, should be sealed and insulated. A reflec-
tive surface on external insulation significantly reduces heat gain in places with
a high radiant temperature, such as outdoors and in residential attics. In addi-
tion to thermal insulating properties, insulation also provides some degree of
sound control.
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Duct insulation may be either inside or outside the metal duct. The advan-
tages of inside duct insulation are that it can be applied by the duct fabricator in
one operation and it provides sound attenuation. The disadvantage is that it
may be more likely to provide a breeding ground for pathogenic bacteria and
fungus.
The advantage of outside insulation of the metal duct is that there is no
pressure drop or breeding ground for bacteria or fungus caused by insulation,
and the ductwork around equipment is cleanable as required by ASHRAE

Standard 62.1. The disadvantage is that outside insulation is typically installed
by a different contractor than the duct fabricator.
Ducts that are likely to operate at temperatures below the surrounding dew-
point must be protected against condensation. Typically, external insulation is
used with a vapor retarder on the outside to minimize moisture entry. This
vapor retarder must be well sealed, with care taken around hangers and flanges.
Leaks allow moisture in to wet the insulation and further lower the insulation
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value.
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The heat transmission (U-factor) for uninsulated sheet metal ducts is
affected by air velocity, emittance, and duct shape. An approximate value of 5.5
W/m2·K may be used. For insulated ducts, the heat transmission is reduced by a
factor of about 4 for typical 25 mm insulation and about 8 for 50 mm insulation.
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A method for determining heat loss or gain for ducts, which also requires ASTM
Standard C 680-08, Standard Practice for Estimate of the Heat Gain or Loss
and the Surface Temperatures of Insulated Flat, Cylindrical, and Spherical Sys-
tems by Use of Computer Programs (ASTM 2008), is given in the 2009
ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals.
The Next Step

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The noise generated by an air system can range from being very beneficial to
very detrimental to the occupied environment. Chapter 10 begins with an intro-
duction to noise and a discussion of the benefits and disadvantages of system-
produced noise. The rest of the chapter is devoted to designing systems to
achieve the desired sound criteria.
Summary
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Parallel blade and opposed blade are the standard control and shutoff damper
designs. They may have the linkage attached to the blades in the airstream or
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with the linkage driving the damper shafts and out of the airstream. Blade form
may be flat for balancing use, triple-V, or aerofoil for lowest resistance.
Damper performance depends on the particular manufacturer’s design, size
relative to the duct, and any other components or changes in duct shape or
direction. Ideally, the airflow varies directly with change in damper angle. In
practice, this is often not achieved near fully open or fully closed.
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The one situation where parallel-blade dampers consistently provide more

linear control is in the mixing box, typically mixing outdoor air and return air
to provide supply air.
Particulate air filters are covered by ASHRAE Standard 52.2, which grades
the full range based on particle size efficiency from MERV 1 (inefficient) to
MERV 20 (super efficient). Due to the different methods of particle capture,
the performance varies with face velocity.
Panel and extended-surface filters feature fiber panels using fibers of vary-
ing materials, diameter, and packing in varying depths to provide a complete
range of filtration efficiency. Performance may be enhanced by using electro-
static fibers or by coating them with a viscous fluid. Filters for finer particles
are normally protected from the high mass of larger particles with a lower-
performance prefilter.
With renewable-media filters, replaceable rolls or a continuous belt of filter
media are moved across the airstream when loaded.
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Electronic filters electrically charge and then collect the particles. Their
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clean efficiency is high but drops quite quickly. Industrial units are often pro-
vided with automatic washing equipment.
Filter selection depends on many factors, including code requirements,
required filtration performance, first cost, replacement costs, fan energy cost,
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space, and access for filter changing. Poor mounting frames and inadequate
access space to change the filters can seriously reduce the actual performance
of filters.
The purpose of a humidifier is to maintain or increase the relative humidity
of the space being conditioned. In cooler climates, the humidifier also offsets
the low moisture content of the incoming ventilation air. The moisture can be
added by either having water evaporate into the air or by injecting steam into
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the air, with both methods requiring the latent heat of evaporation, 2560 kJ/kg.
To keep energy use down, the relative humidity should be progressively low-
ered as much as is practical in cold weather.
Humidifiers must be installed where the air can absorb the vapor and not be
cooled below the dew point, causing condensation and potential rusting of steel
duct and water dripping from the joints. In selecting the type of humidifier,
biological and chemical contamination must also be considered.
Humidifiers are either direct steam injection, steam produced locally from
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boiling water, atomizing, or wetted fabric in the airstream. In all cases, the
humidification should be to potable standards.
Duct heaters may be either steam, water (hydronic), or electric. The
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required output of a duct heater is calculated using: W = 1200 × m3/s × change

in temperature, °C.
In all new construction (except low-rise residential buildings), air-handling
ducts and plenums installed as part of an HVAC system should be thermally
insulated in accordance with ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 or local codes. The
insulation used should not provide a fire hazard and should conform to NFPA
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Standards 90A and 90B, even if not code required.

Interior insulation provides greater sound reduction, increased airflow
resistance, and more biological contamination problems. The disadvantages of
exterior duct insulation are that it is typically installed by a different contractor
than the duct fabricator, and sealing against condensation moisture can be diffi-
cult in restricted spaces. Leakage reduces system performance and maximum
rates should be specified.
The heat transmission (U-factor) for uninsulated sheet metal ducts is

affected by air velocity, emittance, and duct shape. An approximate value of
5.5 W/m2 K may be used for bare metal, 1.4 W/m2 K for 25 mm of insulation,
and 0.7 W/m2 K for 50 mm of insulation.

ASHRAE. 1992. ASHRAE Standard 52.1-1992, Gravimetric and Dust-Spot
t
Procedures for Testing Air-Cleaning Devices Used in General Ventilation
e
for Removing Particulate Matter. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
ASHRAE. 2004. Flow resistance and modulating characteristics of control
dampers. Research Report (RP) 1157, American Society of Heating,
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Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta.
ASHRAE. 2007a. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 52.2-2007, Method of Testing Gen-
eral Ventilation Air-Cleaning Devices for Removal Efficiency by Particle
Size. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Condi-
tioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2007b. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007, Energy Efficient
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neers, Inc.
neers, Inc.
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NFPA. 2009a. NFPA 90A, Installation of Air-Conditioning and Ventilating Sys-
tems. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.
NFPA. 2009b. NFPA 90B Standard for the Installation of Warm Air Heating
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and Air-Conditioning Systems. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection

Association.
NIOSH. 1973. The Industrial Environment—Its Evaluation and Control. Wash-
ington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office.
UL. 1999. UL-555S, Standard for Smoke Dampers. Northbrook, IL: Under-
writers Laboratories Inc.
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UL. 2006a. UL-555, Standard for Fire Dampers. Northbrook, IL: Underwriters
Laboratories Inc.
UL. 2006b. UL-555C, Standard for Ceiling Dampers. Northbrook, IL: Under-
writers Laboratories Inc.
U.S. DOD. 1956. MIL-STD-282, Military Standard, Filter Units, Protective
Clothing, Gas-Mask Components, and Related Products: Performance Test
Methods. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Defense.

9-1 In a smoke-control system, _______________.
a) a smoke damper inhibits the passage of air that may or may not
contain smoke
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b) moderate leakage of smoke-free air through the damper does not
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adversely affect the control of smoke movement
c) design the system so that only smoke-free air is on the high-
pressure side of a smoke damper, unless the smoke-control
damper is in the return air system
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d) all of the above
9-2 Particles less than _______________ in diameter are generally referred to as
the fine mode.
a) 0.75 µm b) 7.5 µm c) 75 µm d) none of the above
9-3 From an industrial hygiene perspective, particles with an aerodynamic particle
size of _______________ or greater are considered the nonrespirable fraction
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of dust.
a) 5 µm b) 10 µm c) 15 µm d) none of the above
9-4 _______________ measures the ability of the filter to remove particulate mat-
ter from an airstream.
a) Efficiency b) Airflow resistance
c) Dust-holding capacity d) All of the above
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9-5 Different types of filters are distinguished by _______________.
a) efficiency b) airflow resistance
c) dust-holding capacity d) all of the above
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9-6 Filters collect particles by _______________.

a) straining b) inertial deposition
c) electrostatic effects d) all of the above
9-7 In panel filters, the accumulating dust load causes pressure drop to
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_______________.
a) decrease to the filtration load rating, then increase
b) increase to the filtration load rating, then decrease
c) have no effect, remain constant
9-8 Electronic filters, if maintained properly by regular cleaning, have relatively

constant pressure drop and efficiency.
a) True b) False
9-9 Important requirements for a satisfactory and efficiently operating air filter
installation include _______________.
a) ample capacity for the amount of air and dust load it is expected to
handle
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b) suitability to the operating conditions
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c) affordability for the specific application
d) all of the above
9-10 Duct heaters may be _______________.
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a) steam b) water c) electric d) all of the above
9-11 The performance of particulate filters is categorized in ASHRAE Standard
52.2 into 20 MERV ratings, with MERV 1 being coarse screen and MERV 20
being the high-rating filter for demanding cleanroom situations. To control a
buildup of dirt on wet cooling coils, ASHRAE Standard 62.1 requires a filter
be installed upstream of cooling coils that can run wet. What MERV filter rat-
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ing does the Standard require?
a) MERV 2 b) MERV 6 c) MERV 10 d) MERV 14
9-12 A parallel-blade damper deflects air in one direction as it passes through. This
usually makes the performance of a parallel-blade damper more sensitive to
location than is an opposed-blade damper in the same location.
a) True b) False
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Sound and Vibration
in Air Systems
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Study Objectives
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explain the fundamentals of sound and sound transmission that are relevant
to air system design;
list and explain the major sound sources and absorbers found in air systems;
and
understand the calculation of sound reduction methods.
Instructions
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Fundamentals of Sound
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Sound is the vibration of fluids, such as air and water, and the vibration of sol-
ids, such as framed walls and rotating equipment. In general conversation,
sound is often considered to be what we hear in the air around us. Typical hear-
ing range is from 200 to 20,000 cycles per second, or hertz (Hz). In contrast,
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vibration is restricted to motion we can feel or see, the very low end of our
hearing range and lower frequencies. Thus, someone standing beside an air-
handling unit (AHU) and touching it might say that the unit is noisy and it
vibrates a lot. They are commenting on one physical phenomena, sound, but
they are differentiating between the higher frequencies they can hear and the
lower frequencies they can feel.
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In this chapter, the words sound and vibration are discussed as they are
commonly used. But remember that sound and vibration are not separate phe-
nomena. For example, consider a drum in a room with stud and gypsum board
walls. When the drum is played, you hear the sound. If you place your hand on
the wall, you feel it vibrating. The vibration is set up by the low-frequency
sound from the drum. You are hearing the higher frequencies and feeling the
lower frequencies of the sound produced by the drum.
234 Chapter 10 Sound and Vibration in Air Systems
Sound behavior is very different from and more complex than other types
of energy. Therefore, Chapter 10 provides general advice and an introduction
to sound assessment. Chapter 11 will cover sound assessment and trouble-
shooting of existing situations.
Sound is generated by a vibrating surface or a turbulent fluid stream. In an
air-handling system, the fans with their motors, drives, and blades are the com-
mon surface generator. The air flowing through contorted duct paths and leak-
ing through holes produces turbulent stream noise. The generated sound can be
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transmitted as airborne sound and structureborne sound. Following are several
sound-related terms:
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• Speed. The speed of a longitudinal wave in a fluid medium is a function of
the medium’s density and modulus of elasticity. In air at room temperature,
the speed of sound is 335 m/s; in water, it’s about 1524 m/s.
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• Frequency. Frequency is the number of oscillations (or cycles) per second
completed by a vibrating object. The international unit for frequency is the
hertz (Hz). Natural sounds have a range of frequencies. For example, voice
frequencies typically range from 200 to 8000 Hz (8 kHz), with voice over a
hardwired telephone ranging from about 300 Hz to 3 kHz.
• Sound Pressure. The human ear and microphones are sensitive to the
pressure changes in a sound. The threshold of excellent youthful hearing
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at 1 kHz—20 µPa—has been adopted as the international standard. Sound
pressure measurements are all related to this base level. Unlike heat and
light, adding two equal sound pressures does not produce twice the sound
pressure. Thus, a different scale called the decibel is used.
• Decibel (dB). The sound pressure decibel is defined as 10 times the base
10 logarithm of the ratio of the actual sound to the reference (whisper)
sound. Lp = 10 log(p/pref). A buzzing insect at 1 m is perceptible at a level
of about 20 dB, often referred to as a sound level of 20 dB. To be accurate,
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the level should include the reference level in the form of 20 dB re 20 µPa.
Table 10-1 shows the sound pressure and sound pressure level in decibels
for a wide range of sources.
• Octave band. Each particular sound has varying pressures at different fre-
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quencies. Thus, a deep voice has relatively more sound power at lower fre-
quencies than a high-pitched voice. To represent this variation, sound
measurements are made in octave bands. An octave band is a frequency
band with an upper frequency limit of twice the lower frequency limit. The
standard center frequencies for octave bands are 63, 125, 250, and 500 Hz,
and 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 kHz. Our ears increase in sensitivity up to about 1 kHz
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and then drop off again above 8 kHz. The sensitivity decreases with age.
Thus, it is possible for a child to complain about a 20 kHz noise that is
inaudible to many adults due to its high frequency.
A meter calibrated to behave like the human ear is called A-weighting, and
its response curve is shown in Figure 10-1. Also shown is the almost but not
flat C-weighting curve. The simplest sound-level meters have the A-weighting
Table 10-1 Typical Sound Pressures and Pressure Levels

Sound Pressure
Sound Pressure, Subjective
Source Level,
Pa Reaction
dB re, 20 μPa
Military jet takeoff at 30 m 200 140 Extreme danger
Artillery fire at 3 m 63 130
Passenger jet takeoff at 15 m 20 120 Threshold of pain
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Loud rock band 6.3 110 Threshold of discomfort
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Automobile horn at 3 m 2 100
Unmuffled large diesel engine at 40 m 0.6 90 Very loud
Accelerating diesel truck at 15 m 0.2 80
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Freight train at 30 m 0.06 70 Loud
Conversational speech at 1 m 0.02 60
Window air conditioner at 3 m 0.006 50 Moderate
Quiet residential area 0.002 40 Quiet
Whispered conversation at 2 m 0.0006 30
Buzzing insect at 1 m 0.0002 20 Perceptible
Threshold of good hearing 0.00006 10 Faint
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Threshold of excellent youthful hearing 0.00002 0 Threshold of hearing
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Figure 10-1 A and C sound pressure curves.

built in. More sophisticated meters have the C-weighting and octave band fil-
ters. These measure the sound pressure level at individual octave bands. This
ability to measure the levels in the octave bands can help detect the source of a
noise. Figure 10-2 shows the frequency range of some sources with their
descriptive characteristic. Figure 10-3 shows the descriptive words for various
sounds and the likely equipment cause.
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Figure 10-2 Mechanical system component ranges of predominant sound.
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Figure 10-3 Frequency ranges of likely sources of sound-related complaints.

• Wavelength. Wavelength is the distance between successive rarefactions or

compressions due to the sound wave. Wavelength, speed and frequency are
interrelated by the following equation:
= c f (10-1)
where
= wavelength, m
t
c = speed of sound, m
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f = frequency, Hz
• Noise. The first and simplest definition of noise is any unwanted sound. The
second definition is that noise is broadband sound with no distinguishable
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frequency characteristics, such as the sound of a waterfall. The second defi-
nition is appropriate when one sound is used to mask another, as when con-
trolled sound radiated into a room from a well-designed air-conditioning
system is used to mask or hide low-level intrusive sounds from adjacent
spaces to increase privacy. This controlled sound is called noise, but not in
the context of unwanted sound. Rather, it is a broadband, bland sound that is
frequently unobtrusive, also sometimes called white noise.
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An unobtrusive, steady sound (no pulsing or oscillating ON/OFF) has a spec-
trum that seems equally loud in each frequency band, no detectable specific
tones, and a loudness that is relatively quiet in a given environment.
A series of standard curves of roughly equal loudness called noise criteria
(NC) is shown in Figure 10-4. These curves are commonly used to specify the
maximum loudness of a noise in each frequency band. Thus, specifying NC 35
for an office requires the loudness in each frequency band to be no higher than
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as defined by the NC 35 line at any frequency. There is no requirement for the
noise to have a spectrum matching the curve. Thus, a noise that peaks at the
NC curve at a high frequency is a hiss, and one that peaks to the NC curve at a
low frequency is a boom or rumble. In addition, the total sound is on average
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lower than the curve, so the noise may not mask as well as anticipated.
There are two often-conflicting requirements for noise level. The first
requirement is that in many situations enough background noise is needed to
mask, at least partially, unwanted noise. For example, in a large open office, the
background noise should be loud enough to mask nearby phone conversations,
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and in a downtown hotel, the noise from an HVAC system can be used to mask
traffic noise.
The second requirement, which conflicts with that mentioned above, is
that the noise level must be low enough to avoid discomfort and obstruction of
activities. In a concert hall, a very low noise level from the HVAC is required
so that every nuance of the music can be heard. Offices should be quiet
enough to comfortably talk to another person or on the telephone. These
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Figure 10-4 Noise criteria (NC) curves.
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more-noise/less-noise needs lead to different ideals in apparently similar situ-

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ations, in offices for example. Here are ASHRAE-suggested levels for office:
Rooms with frequent teleconferencing: NC20 to NC25

Private offices and conference rooms: NC25 to NC35
Open-plan office areas: NC35 to NC40
Corridors, hallways: NC35 to NC45
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Teleconferencing requires minimum background noise to maximize the

quality of the microphone pickup. This is in contrast to the open-plan office,
which requires a masking background level of noise.
The use of the NC curves is far from satisfactory. Unfortunately, modern
methods of defining noise criteria more effectively using the room criteria
method (RC) and RC Mark II are not simple to explain or use. These two
methods set out to quantify overall level and the effect of higher and lower
levels in the higher- and lower-frequency bands.
• Sound intensity. Sound intensity is a measure of the power in a sound per

square metre. Sound intensity follows the inverse square law; that is, sound
intensity varies inversely as the square of distance from the source. This is
reasonably true for acoustical sources outdoors, but indoors, reflections sig-
nificantly mask the effect. Sound intensity level is expressed in dB, with a
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reference quantity of 10–12 W/m2.
• Sound power and sound power level. A fundamental characteristic of an
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acoustic source is its ability to radiate energy, whether weak and small in
size (a cricket) or strong and large (a compressor). Some energy input
excites the source, which radiates some fraction of this energy in the form
of sound. Because unit power radiated through a sphere one metre in diam-
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eter yields unit intensity, the power reference base, established by interna-
tional agreement, is 1 picowatt (pW), or 10–12 W.
Sound and Vibration Sources

Sound and vibration sources are either actively powered, such as fans and com-
pressors, or passive (aerodynamic), such as turbulence and vibration in duct-
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work. In an air system, a fan generates sound that propagates out of its supply
outlet, its inlet, and the casing. The mechanical engineer should make prelimi-
nary equipment selections as soon as possible to allow for a preliminary noise
analysis and to determine the probable required sizes of the mechanical rooms.
Each type of HVAC system has its own set of layout and operating features
that determine which noise and vibration control measures are most effective.
Therefore, the choice of one system type over another should not be made
without considering the cost of controlling noise and vibration. For example,
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consider a midrise office building with a built-up penthouse fan system that
generates most of its noise and vibration in the penthouse and, therefore,
requires the most attention there. Some care should also be taken in designing
the supply duct takeoff and return air opening at each floor.
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Conversely, a system using water-source heat pump units distributed

throughout the building’s ceiling plenums requires much less concern for noise
and vibration control at the central plant but much more care in the selection,
placement, and installation of the dozens of noise and vibration sources (i.e.,
the heat pump units).
Figure 10-5 shows several problems that can create sound and vibration
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issues. The problems have been grouped under four headings that are consid-
ered later in more detail. Figure 10-6 shows an optimal mechanical room with
the features grouped under the same four headings.
The most obvious difference between the two figures is that the room with
optimal features (Figure 10-6) is larger and more massive. Unfortunately, extra
space and masonry walls are often not readily available to the air system
designer. The challenge is then to choose the equipment and layout in the space
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Figure 10-5 Mechanical room with common sound problems.

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Figure 10-6 Mechanical room with optimal acoustical features.

available to be as satisfactory as possible. As you look at the two situations,

consider how you could relay out the equipment in the first figure to avoid sev-
eral of the problems, even if none or only some of the additional space were
available.
Sound Attenuation
The four challenging areas for sound attenuation presented by the systems in
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Figures 10-5 and 10-6 are as follows:
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• Supply air path to occupied space
• Breakout sound from the supply duct
• Return air path
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• Breakout sound from the mechanical room
Supply Air Path to Occupied Space

For air systems, the critical sound generator is the fan. Fan noise depends on
fan design, volume flow, total fan pressure, and inlet and outlet (system) condi-
tions. Most HVAC fans are made in a range of sizes, and several fans in the
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range provide the required flow and total pressure. In general, the fan with the
highest efficiency is the quietest. Metaphorically, think of the situation as the
smallest fan screaming as it rotates very fast to achieve the duty, the efficient
fan just quietly doing its job, and the very large fan grumbling that it really is
bored with so little to do. The prudent choice is the efficient fan so the mechan-
ical room does not have to be built to contain the screams or grumbling.
The sound power produced by an installed fan depends on the fan and the
inlet and outlet conditions, or system effects. The first step in choosing a fan is
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to assess the available space and layout possibilities so that the most suitable
type and fan arrangement can be chosen. For centrifugal fans, this is particu-
larly important at the outlet, as the air velocity is much higher at the outside of
the volute. Note that poor supply duct arrangements with rectangular ducts can
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lead to severe duct rumble in adjacent occupied spaces. Installations such as

those shown on the right of Figure 10-7 create significant noise and pressure
drop that can be largely avoided by connecting the fan as shown on the left of
the figure.
After selecting fan type, choose the most efficient fan at the desired duty. In
variable-air-volume (VAV) systems, aim for maximum efficiency at 80% flow,
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because the system will rarely be at 100% flow. Use the fan manufacturer’s
data, which has been obtained by a recognized test method—normally by
AMCA Standard 301-2006, Methods for Calculating Fan Sound Ratings from
Laboratory Test Data (AMCA 2006). Note that manufacturers do not test every
size of every fan at every duty to produce the data. Limited testing is done, and
the results are interpolated to produce extensive data tables. As a result, do not
assume particular data are correct to better than ±3 dB.
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Figure 10-7 Improved airflow by design of fan delivery. gp
243
et
After choosing the fan and obtaining the inlet and outlet sound spectrums,
the effect of sound traveling along the duct and into the occupied space can be
assessed. The elements along the duct to consider are plenum, straight duct,
silencers, branches, elbows, outlets, and the occupied space.
Plenum
Plenums—lined cavities—are often used to reduce fan noise entering the dis-
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tribution system (Figure 10-8). Significant pressure loss occurs through the
plenum, and this disadvantage must be balanced against other ways of ducting
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the air and providing sound control.
Sound attenuation can be calculated using Equation 10-2:
Qcos - 1 – A
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TL = – 10log 10 S out --------------- + --------------- (10-2)
4 r
2 S A
Sout = area of plenum outlet, m2

S = total inside surface area of plenum minus inlet and outlet areas, m2
r = distance between the centers of inlet and outlet of plenum, m
Q = directivity factor, which may be taken as 4
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A = average absorption coefficient of plenum lining
= angle of vector representing r to long axis l of duct (see
Equation 10-3)
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Figure 10-8 Schematic of a plenum chamber.

l l
cos = - = ------------------------------ (10-3)
r 2 2 2
l + rv + rh
l = length of plenum, m
rv = vertical offset between axes of plenum inlet and outlet, m
rh = horizontal offset between axes of plenum inlet and outlet, m
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Note that absorbency is the average in the plenum calculated as the sum
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total of each material’s sound-absorbent coefficient times its area divided by
the total area. Typical absorbencies are shown in Table 10-2. Note that increas-
ing the fiberglass sound absorbency is effective at the low frequencies but not
at higher frequencies.
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Straight Duct
Ductwork transmits and attenuates the fan noise. If the air velocity is high, aero-
dynamic noise can also be generated. Table 10-3 provides recommended maxi-
mum air velocities for specific NC targets. Note that the table indicates a
decreasing maximum velocity as the air proceeds from the main duct to branches
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to outlets. This progressive reduction in velocity occurs automatically if the
design method of constant pressure drop per unit length (e.g., 75 Pa/100 m) is
used. This design method lines up reasonably well with Table 10-3 criteria for
NC35 spaces.
Sheet metal duct provides some sound attenuation. Table 10-4 shows the
attenuation per foot for some square ducts based on tests done with 3 m lined
sections. The data shows the attenuation for bare metal with 25 and 50 mm of
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Table 10-2 Sound Absorption Coefficients of Selected Plenum Materials
Octave Midband Frequency (Hz)
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
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Non-Sound-Absorbing Material
Concrete 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03
Bare sheet metal 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.07
Sound-Absorbing Material (Fiberglass Insulation Board)
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25 mm, 48 kg/m3 0.05 0.11 0.28 0.68 0.90 0.93 0.96
50 mm, 48 kg/m3 0.10 0.17 0.86 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
75 mm, 48 kg/m3 0.30 0.53 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
100 mm, 48 kg/m3 0.50 0.84 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.97
Note: The 63 Hz values are estimated from higher frequency values.
Table 10-3 Recommended Maximum Duct Velocities for Design NC Conditions

Maximum Airflow Velocity, m/s
Design Rectangular
Main Duct Location Circular Duct
RC (N) Duct
45 17.8 25.4
In shaft or above drywall ceiling 35 12.7 17.8
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25 8.6 12.7
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45 12.7 22.9
Above suspended acoustic ceiling 35 8.9 15.2
25 6.1 10.2
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45 10.2 19.8
Duct located within occupied space 35 7.4 13.2
25 4.8 8.6
Notes:
1. Branch ducts should have airflow velocities of about 80% of the values listed.
2. Velocities in final runouts to outlets should be 50% of the values or less.
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3. Elbows and other fittings can increase airflow noise substantially, depending on the type. Thus, duct airflow velocities should be
reduced accordingly.
Table 10-4 Square Duct Attenuation Data

Square Duct Attenuation (Insertion Loss) dB/m—Bare Metal, 25 mm Fiberglass, 50 mm Fiberglass
Octave Midband Frequency
63 125 250 500 1 kHz 2 kHz 4 kHz
Duct Size, Bare Bare Bare Bare Bare Bare Bare
mm × mm 50 50 50 50 50 50
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100 100 100 100 100 100
1.0 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
150 × 150 2.0 4.9 8.9 19.0 24.3 14.1
2.6 9.5 16.1 23.6 24.3 14.1
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1.1 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

300 × 300 1.3 2.6 6.2 13.1 13.5 9.2
1.6 5.2 11.5 16.4 13.5 9.2
1.3 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
300 × 600 1.0 2.0 5.6 11.5 10.5 7.5
1.3 4.3 9.8 14.1 10.5 7.5
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0.1 0.7 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

600 × 600 0.7 1.6 4.6 9.2 7.2 5.9
1.0 3.0 8.2 11.5 7.2 5.9
0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
1200 × 1200 0.3 1.0 3.3 6.6 3.9 3.9
0.7 1.6 5.9 8.2 3.9 3.9
fiberglass insulation board. In each case, the clear passage is maintained. So

with 50 mm of fiberglass, the sheet metal outside dimensions are increased by
100 mm on each side. Look at the table and note that
• the attenuation peaks in the 1 kHz to 2 kHz range;

• increasing the absorber thickness improves low frequency attenuation but
has no effect on higher frequency attenuation; and
• attenuation is much greater in ducts with a high perimeter-to-area ratio
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(smaller or long and narrow), a factor that is mentioned again when we dis-
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cuss passive silencers later in this chapter.
Table 10-5 shows the attenuation data for a selection of round ducts. Again,
the peak attenuation is in the 1–2 kHz range, and increasing the absorber thick-
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ness is only effective for lower frequencies. Also note that the attenuation of
lower frequencies in bare round ducts is very small, a tenth of the attenuation
in rectangular ducts. This is due to the inability of the round duct metal to
vibrate and absorb and radiate-out the low frequencies.
The final connection to ceiling outlets is often conveniently achieved using
nonmetallic insulated flexible duct. The flexible duct allows for dimensional
flexibility between the ductwork installer and the ceiling layout. Their length is
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normally in the range of 1 to 2 m to provide flexibility but to restrict the higher
pressure loss of the ducting. The installation should keep the duct straight with
long radius bends. Any abrupt bend or offset at the outlet can produce unac-
ceptable air noise and flow restriction. The attenuation for typical lined flexible
ducts is shown in Table 10-6.
Table 10-5 Round Duct Attenuation Data

Round Duct Attenuation (Insertion Loss) dB/m—Bare Metal, 50 mm Fiberglass, 100 mm Fiberglass
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63 125 250 500 1 kHz 2 kHz 4 kHz
Duct Size, Bare Bare Bare Bare Bare Bare Bare
mm × mm 50 50 50 50 50 50
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100 100 100 100 100 100

0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3
150 mm 1.9 3.1 5.0 7.1 7.6 6.7
2.6 4.5 7.4 7.1 7.6 6.7
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
300 mm 1.5 2.7 4.8 7.2 6.3 4.9
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2.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 6.3 4.9

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2
600 mm 0.8 1.9 4.2 5.6 4.1 2.8
1.5 3.3 6.6 5.6 4.1 2.8
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
1200 mm 0.0 0.6 2.1 0.9 1.1 1.5
0.5 2.0 4.5 0.9 1.1 0.0
Table 10-6 Insertion Loss for Lined Flexible Ducts

Lined Flexible Duct Attenuation (Insertion Loss) dB for 1 m Length
Duct Diameter 63 125 250 500 1 kHz 2 kHz 4 kHz
100 mm 2 3 3 8 9 11 7
150 mm 2 3 4 8 10 10 7
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200 mm 2 3 5 8 9 9 6
250 mm 2 3 6 8 9 9 5
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Silencers
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At times, the attenuation in the ductwork is not sufficient, or the sound must be
contained in the mechanical room; in such cases an extra attenuation unit
called a silencer or muffler is included in the duct run. The silencer provides a
much higher attenuation than the same length of ductwork. The actual attenua-
tion required for the silencer is based on the complete sound assessment from
fan to listener. The required insertion for the silencer is the calculated levels at
each frequency arriving at the listener less the desired maximum level. There
are three types of silencer: dissipative, reactive, and active.
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Dissipative silencers are passive and use sound-absorbing media similar to
duct lining. They take advantage of the fact that attenuation is greater in smaller
ducts. Therefore, they are designed with narrower air paths and, consequently,
have a higher air velocity and resistance through them. A schematic section
through an absorptive silencer is shown in Figure 10-9. Note that friction is
increased due to the increased surface area, and the air velocity is higher due to
the obstruction of the duct cross section. These silencers have a perforated metal
cover over the absorber to prevent erosion of the absorptive material.
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The performance of a silencer is defined in two ways. First, it absorbs
sound, and the manufacturer provides a decibel insertion loss for each octave
band. These insertion losses are simply deducted from the entering sound
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power levels to give the reduced sound power level. Second, the silencer may
generate noise due to the air velocity over the restricted passage and absorber
cover sheet. This regenerated noise is given as sound power levels in each
octave band. Unfortunately, the sound powers cannot be arithmetically added
due to the logarithmic nature of the decibel unit. The combined effect can be
calculated, but it is easier to use Table 10-7, which is adequately accurate for
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most HVAC situations.

Table 10-8 provides an example to show the effect of adding a high pres-
sure silencer. First, the decibel insertion loss is deducted and then the regener-
ated sound is combined using data from Table 10-7 to produce an output sound
power in each octave band.
If you review the numbers above, you can see that the regenerated silencer
noise is predominant at all but the two lowest frequencies.
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Figure 10-9 Cross section of rectangular dissipative silencer.
Table 10-7 Combining Two Sound Levels

Difference between two levels to be combined 0 to 1 2 to 4 5 to 9 <9
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Number of decibels to be added to highest level to
3 2 1 0
obtain combined level
Table 10-8 Silencer Attenuation and Sound Regeneration

Octave Band Center Frequency, Hz
63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k
Fan power 92 85 78 75 75 71 68
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Silencer attenuation –4 –7 –19 –31 –38 –38 –27
88 78 59 44 37 33 41
Silencer regenerated noise 68 79 69 60 59 59 55
88 82 69 60 59 59 55
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Reactive or resonant silencers are constructed only from plain and perfo-
rated sheet metal. They are designed to reflect sound back toward the source
and have cavities that act as tuned resonators to cancel sounds at specific fre-
quencies. They have the advantage of containing no absorbing media that can
break down, actively collect dirt, limit the temperature of operation, or restrict
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sterilization. The reactive silencer has a lower performance than a dissipative

unit for ventilation systems, as shown in Figure 10-10. This reduction in per-
formance is often accepted in ventilation systems where avoiding contamina-
tion and the ability to sterilize are important. The reactive silencer is
particularly valuable for reducing specific low frequencies in sound from
equipment, such as compressors and reciprocating engines; the car silencer, or
muffler is a common example.
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Figure 10-10
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Performance comparison of dissipative and reactive silencers.
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Active silencers have a microphone to measure the noise and a loudspeaker
that delivers the same sound but exactly out of phase. So the incoming noise
and speaker noise cancel each other. This is often referred to as a noise cancel-
ing system. Noise canceling works well at low frequencies, so a combination of
active and dissipative silencers can provide a very effective full spectrum
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silencer combination. The system, particularly the pickup microphone, needs a
steady, nonturbulent airflow at a velocity below 7.5 m/s for steady perfor-
mance.
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General guidelines for locating duct silencers in duct systems with fans for
minimum static pressure drop with maximum acoustical performance are as
follows:
Centrifugal and Axial Fans

• From fan discharge: 1.0 duct diameter for every 5 m/s
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• From fan intake: 0.75 duct diameter for every 5 m/s
Duct Elbows
• Three duct diameters or their equivalent, both upstream and downstream
Mixing Boxes and VAV Terminals

• One duct diameter upstream or downstream
Table 10-9 Attenuation at Duct Branches

Duct Branch Sound Power
Ba/ΣBa Branch Attenuation Ba/ΣBa Branch Attenuation
0.8 1 0.08 11
0.5 3 0.05 13
0.4 4 0.04 14
t
0.3 5 0.02 17
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0.2 7 0.01 19
0.1 10
Ba = Branch cross-sectional area
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ΣBa = Sum of all branch sectional areas
Branches
At a branch, the sound energy is divided between the branches in proportion to
their cross-sectional areas. Table 10-9 shows the attenuation into a branch duct
based on the branch cross-sectional area compared to the sum of all branch
areas.
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Elbows
Elbows provide some attenuation as the sound changes direction. Table 10-10
shows data for square and radiused elbows. The attenuation of a lined square
elbow is often used in return air sound traps where two lined square bends are
connected to form a “U.” The trap is mounted through a wall with the open
ends facing upwards. Where the local codes allow the return air to pass from
the occupied room into the corridor, this is an economical method of allowing
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free return air passage but preventing normal speech from being heard through
the sound trap.
Outlets
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At the supply outlet, the sound transmission is affected in two ways. First,
some of the sound is reflected back into the duct. Second, some noise is gener-
ated by the outlet diffuser or grill.
The Occupied Space

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When the sound enters the occupied space, it spreads out through the space
and reflects back and forth, in which manner it is attenuated (dies away).
Thus, the sound level is the sum of the direct sound from the inlet and
reflected sound from the surfaces in the space. In a typical room with furni-
ture, carpet or dropped ceiling, and blinds, the reflectivity is quite low, and
the reflected sound is not obvious. In a newly finished room with flat walls
and no furniture or finishes, the average reflectivity may be high and the
Table 10-10 Square Elbow Attenuation

dB Insertion Loss of Elbows
Radiused
Square Elbows
Elbow
Plain Elbows With Turning Vanes
Unlined Lined Unlined Lined Unlined
fw < 1.9 0 0 0 0 0
t
9 fw < 3.8 1 1 1 1 1
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8 fw < 7.5 5 6 4 4 2
5 fw < 15 8 11 6 7 3
5 fw < 30 4 10 4 7 3
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fw > 30 3 10 4 7 3
f = frequency in kHz
w = width, in.
room reverberant (i.e., echoing). Sound level measurements should not be

made before furnishing unless allowance is made for the reverberant situa-
tion.
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The decibel sound values calculated as entering through the diffuser are
sound power levels. We hear and measure sound pressure levels so the power
must be converted to pressure.
Lp = Lw + A – B (10-4)
where
Lp = sound pressure level at a specified distance from sound source, dB
Lw = sound power level of sound source, dB
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A, B = see Tables 10-11 and 10-12
From tests in real rooms, the decrease in sound level is about 3 dB for every
doubling of distance from the source.
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Breakout Sound from Supply Duct

The previous section, “Supply Air Path to Occupied Space,” covered changes
in sound through ductwork and fittings from the main sound generator to the
occupied space. As the duct passes through other spaces, breakout sound is
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radiated from the ductwork. The two sources of breakout sound are fan noise in
the duct and airstream turbulence.
For fan noise, tables of transmission loss (attenuation) from inside the duct
to outside are used to estimate the radiated sound power. Then other tables are
used to assess the sound pressure at a distance from the duct. If the duct is
above a false ceiling, an additional attenuation for the ceiling is factored into
the final sound pressure.
Table 10-11 Values for A in Equation 10-4

Value for A, dB Octave Midband Frequency, Hz
Room Volume, m3
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
42 4 3 2 1 0 –1 –2
71 3 2 1 0 –1 –2 –3
113 2 1 0 –1 –2 –3 –4
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170 1 0 –1 –2 –3 –4 –5
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283 0 –1 –2 –3 –4 –5 –6
425 –1 –2 –3 –4 –5 –6 –7
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Table 10-12 Values for B in Equation 10-4
Distance from Sound Source, m Value for B, dB
0.9 5
1.2 6
1.5 7
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1.8 8
2.4 9
3.0 10
4.0 11
4.9 12
6.1 13
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Note that a suspended ceiling must not be directly or indirectly hung from
the ductwork. This requirement should be clearly stated in the contract for the
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ceiling installation.
Duct breakout noise due to airstream turbulence is a low-frequency rumble,
typically 16 to 100 Hz. It is produced by dramatic changes in airflow direction
near the fan and by large (over 1200 mm) unreinforced duct walls near the fan.
Ideally, this problem is resolved by modifying the source. In some cases, rect-
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angular duct vibration can be adequately damped by adding reinforcement or

bonding drywall sheets to the duct. Encasing the duct is difficult due to the low
frequency, which requires both a massive enclosure and deep absorber.
Because round duct walls are very stiff, rumble breakout is not a problem
with round duct. However, a length of round duct often carries the turbulence.
Thus, a round main with rectangular branches may experience the rumble in
the branches.
Return Air Path

Sound travels back along the return air path in the same way it travels along the
supply air path. The manufacturer should provide the fan inlet sound spectrum,
which is lower than the supply spectrum. But using the supply spectrum is a
conservative choice if specific data is not available.
An open air return situation is depicted in Figure 10-5. The mechanical
room acts as a sound plenum. As concrete and gypsum board have very low
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absorbencies, the room does not act as an effective silencer. Lining the walls is
generally not as practical or effective as providing a lined duct sound trap or
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silencer at the intake to the mechanical room, as depicted in Figure 10-6.
Breakout Sound from Mechanical Room
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During the initial building planning stages, the location of the central plant, and
the noise separations should be carefully considered. Arranging for the
mechanical rooms to be well away from noise-sensitive areas is the first
choice. Then choose a location with as few transmission paths as possible.
Basement space can be a good location option for a mechanical room, as
the surrounding structure is massive and the closest noise-sensitive areas are
above the ceiling and not adjacent to the chosen space. Be careful to keep ade-
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quate space for plant replacement. On the penthouse or roof, the structure is
usually relatively light, and vibration isolation can be a challenge.
It is tempting to place the mechanical room in the building core, surrounded
by elevators, washrooms, power and communications equipment rooms, and
service riser shafts. Noncritical areas are good, but the restrictions on how duct-
work gets into and out of the mechanical room may create convoluted high-
velocity ductwork that generates duct noise and requires a noisier fan.
Economic pressure to maximize a building’s rentable space has resulted in
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less space being available for the HVAC system and other building services.
This reduction in room size often forces the mechanical engineer to select
small, inefficient equipment or to shoehorn properly sized equipment into a
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restricted space. Both options can lead to excessive noise. To minimize the pos-
sibility of this, mechanical rooms should be sized as follows.
• A mechanical room housing a fan or AHU with an unducted intake should

have a floor area of 2 to 3 m2 for each 1 m3/s of airflow. This allows ade-
quate space for proper airflow into the fan, for low-noise supply duct fit-
tings, and for duct silencers, if required.
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• All HVAC equipment rooms should have a floor area large enough to
allow a clearance of at least 600 mm around all equipment, with more
clearance at the piping, drive, and filter areas. Building codes require a
minimum 900 mm clearance in some cases.
These are all internal considerations. Now consider the situation outside
the building. Noise can and will emanate from the building intakes and
exhausts. Assess whether these noise sources are limited by code, neighbor-
hood use, or client use. Using the required levels, assess what measures must
be taken to control the sound. Just as a sound trap was required to prevent the
return air from being an objectionable sound path, so might a sound trap be
needed to reduce intake or exhaust noise.
The noise from the mechanical room can be considered to have two
sources: radiated noise and equipment vibration. First, consider radiated noise.
Radiated noise passes to the surrounding spaces through any air gaps (flanking
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paths) around partition walls, doors, pipes, ducts, and conduits. Figure 10-11
shows typical details for sealing around ducts and pipes. Note that the caulking
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must be a nonhardening acoustic sealant that does not transmit the vibration
and can flex as needed.
Because sealing every leak is an arduous and often poorly executed task, it
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is wise to avoid pass any ducts, pipes, or conduits through the mechanical
room. This also eliminates the need to relocate the AHU, because a pipe riser is
already installed in a convenient location for the installer. Doors can be pro-
vided with weather sealing to avoid noise leakage around the frame. If the
mechanical room will be at negative pressure, an outward opening door should
be chosen so that it sucks against the seals.
After all leaks are sealed, sound can still radiate through doors, walls,
floors, and ceilings. Usually doors and walls are the main challenge to dampen,
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especially if the walls are framed and gypsum boarded. Sound transmission
may be substantially increased by installing the AHU closer than 600 mm from
the wall. If the AHU is close to the wall, air between the vibrating casing and
the wall can act as a pulsing plunger to actively vibrate the wall.
Wall constructions have sound transmission class (STC) ratings. The rat-
ings are the mean attenuation over the speech frequencies from 125 Hz and up
and tend to overrate the performance at low frequencies. For low-frequency
attenuation, mass is the important factor, so masonry is better than frame and
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gypsum board even for the same STC.
Having the air intake facing a wall can also produce wall vibration, and it is
wise to ensure that the intake is as far from the wall as the intake is high. If the
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intake into the fan is too close to the wall, the air will not flow evenly into the
fan inlet. This may cause the fan to run faster (and noisier) and produce turbu-
lence that results in low-frequency surging.
Vibration Control
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After addressing radiated sound, consider vibration produced by equipment.

Vibration is conducted through solid materials and is generally a low-frequency
issue. Effective vibration isolation requires that all components have a flexible
connection between the vibrating equipment and the building fabric. This flexi-
ble connection allows the equipment to vibrate but transmits little vibration
energy. Isolation depends on the equipment, the weight of the equipment
(including the base), and the mass and stiffness of the supporting structure.
256
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Chapter 10 Sound and Vibration in Air Systemss
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Figure 10-11 Duct, conduit, and pipe penetration details.
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In general, the goal of vibration control is to use an isolator mount that

deflects substantially more sound than does the supporting structure. As more
structures are designed to be lighter, and more equipment is roof mounted, the
challenges of effective vibration control increase.
Ductwork should have a flexible connection, typically of rubberized can-
vas. Conduit loops should be flexible, and pipes should have resilient hangers.
The main equipment needs some form of vibration reduction mount, which
depends on the mass and stiffness of the supporting floor, ceiling, or roof, and
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the weight and vibration produced by the equipment. For a heavy concrete slab
on grade, a resilient pad is often adequate.
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At the other extreme is the rooftop air handler on a light metal truss roof,
where structural reinforcement and sophisticated antivibration measures may
be needed to avoid vibration problems. In general, rooftop units should be
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located as close to columns as possible to minimize flexing the roof structure.
The 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—Applications (ASHRAE 2007) has general
suggestions for what type of vibration isolation to use in a variety of cases, but
it may be best to contact a manufacturer for specific proposals.
Correcting a noise or vibration problem usually costs much more than pre-
venting one. The real costs are not only the direct payments to the retrofitting
contractor; they also include the time required to coordinate the investigation
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and retrofit equipment, as well as the loss of goodwill from inconvenienced
occupants. Therefore, in most cases, the slight extra cost for prevention (usu-
ally about 1% of the total HVAC system cost) is money well spent.
Specifying quiet equipment and adding noise-control materials to an
HVAC system design are necessary parts of the design process because they
help control noise and vibration. Calculations can be used to estimate the
sound levels in a room or to select noise control materials to achieve a design
goal. Comparing manufacturers’ sound data can help in the selection of quiet
equipment, but design decisions based on such work lose their value if the
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equipment and materials are not integrated into a properly designed and
installed system.
The Next Step

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Chapter 11 addresses system startup, where the system is initialized, adjusted,

and balanced to work as designed. It also covers some diagnostic methods for
problem solving once the system is running.
Summary
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Sound is vibration in solids and fluids. Typically we can hear sound in the air
in the frequency range of 200 to 20 kHz and feel sound vibrations at lower fre-
quencies. The human ear and microphones sense sound pressure, which is
measured in decibels (dB), relative to good youthful hearing. Because the deci-
bel is a logarithmic unit, adding sound powers is not simple, and adding two
equal sound powers increases the dB level by +3 dB.
Sound power is typically measured in octave band levels. The ear is less
sensitive at lower frequencies, so a sound of equal loudness through the audible
range has a decreasing sound power as the frequency band rises. This is shown
approximately in the commonly used NC scale.
Noise may be undesirable due to annoyance or desirable to mask other
obtrusive sounds. To be unobtrusive, noise must have a reasonably equal loud-
ness at audible frequencies and not have specific detectable tones or a pulsing
quality. Choosing sound levels in spaces thus is often a compromise between a
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low level for easy hearing and a higher level to provide privacy.
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Equipment produces sound power that radiates away in all directions. The
sound power passing through an area of 1 m2 is the sound intensity. Both sound
power and intensity are measured in decibels relative to a reference level.
Sound and vibration are produced by equipment, and the turbulent passage
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of air is called regenerated noise. Fans normally produce minimum noise at
their maximum efficiency, so choosing the fan size for maximum efficiency
typically is the quietest choice. Fan noise is increased by poor inlet and outlet
arrangements. For minimum noise, it is best to design for minimum turbulence
in the system.
The sound power produced by a fan is attenuated by the ductwork and fit-
tings. The flat sheet metal of rectangular duct vibrates, attenuating the sound.
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Round duct cannot vibrate significantly and does little attenuation. The attenu-
ation can be increased by lining the duct and including purpose made silencers.
Duct lining is typically 50 mm or more thick. Increasing above 50 mm
improves absorption for lower frequencies.
Silencers may be dissipative with absorbent materials; reactive with tuned
cavities; or active, where sound exactly out of phase is added to cancel the
lower frequencies. The final connection to an outlet is often made with a short
length of lined duct. The outlet produces some regenerated sound, and diffuser
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choice is made according to the required airflow performance and required
sound level in the space.
The sound pressure level in the space is calculated by taking the sound
power from the fan, with additions due to regenerated noise and deductions by
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attenuation to find the sound power into the space. This sound power is then
used to calculate the resulting sound pressure level in the space.
Sound is radiated from sheet metal ducts by vibration of the sheet metal.
Round duct is very stiff, and breakout sound is small. The flat sheets of rectan-
gular duct can more easily vibrate, so breakout sound is greater. The conse-
quence is that the in-duct attenuation is much higher for rectangular duct than
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for round duct. Rectangular duct with larger unsupported sheets can vibrate
seriously at low frequencies, setting up a resonance rumble with the fan.
The sound from the mechanical room travels along the return path and is
often controlled by a sound trap at the entry to the mechanical room. Choos-
ing the mechanical room location away from sound-sensitive areas and in
more massive structural areas can greatly assist in reducing sound and vibra-
tion challenges from the system. The mechanical room should be designed to
contain the sound and vibration. Sound containment is both a design and
installation issue.
Vibration, usually low frequency, is transmitted from the equipment to the
building structure. Isolation using specifically designed antivibration mount-
ings and fittings reduces this transfer to acceptable levels. Equipment mounts
are best chosen with a manufacturer’s assistance.
The vibration mount needs to deflect substantially more than the structure
with the plant load, so light structures, such as steel truss roofs, can be a chal-
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lenge and may require equipment relocation or structural stiffening. Methods
of sound and vibration mitigation are usually less than 1% of the mechanical
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system cost if included in the design. Remedial work can be very difficult and
expensive.
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AMCA. 2006. AMCA Standard 301-2006, Methods for Calculating Fan Sound
Ratings from Laboratory Test Data. Arlington Heights, IL: Air Movement
and Control Association International, Inc.
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Schaffer, M. 1991. A Practical Guide to Noise and Vibration Control in HVAC
Systems, SI edition. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Warren, W., and M. Geshwiler. 1998 ASHRAE Application of Manufacturers’
Sound Data. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
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10-1 Fundamental sound-related issues of concern to the HVAC designer include
_______________.
a) sound pressure levels in occupied spaces
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b) sound power levels produced by equipment
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c) sound intensity in supply and return sound paths
d) all of the above
e) a and b only
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10-2 The audible frequency range extends from about _______________.
a) 20 kHz to 20 mHz
b) 2 Hz to 20 Hz
c) 20 Hz to 20 kHz
10-3 Typically, the cost of preventing sound and vibration problems in an HVAC
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system is approximately _______________ of the total system cost.
10-4 A mechanical room housing a fan or AHU with an unducted intake should
have a floor area of _______________ for each 1000 L/s of airflow.
a) 0.4 to 0.7 m2
b) 0.9 to 1.4 m2
c) 1.3 to 1.9 m2
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10-5 All HVAC equipment rooms should have a floor area large enough to allow a
clearance of at least _______________ mm around all equipment.
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10-6 Sound-absorbing material can be arranged in a duct system by ____________.
a) lining fan suction and discharge plenums
b) lining ducts with sound-absorbing material
c) lining duct sections close to elbows
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d) all of the above

10-7 Duct silencers should be located _______________ duct diameters for every
5 m/s mean air velocity out of the fan supply.
a) 0.1 b) 0.5 c) 1.0 d) none of the above
10-8 Reactive silencers are often used in medical facilities where sterilization or
biological decontamination may be required.
a) True b) False
10-9 Choosing a silencer is dependent on _______________.
a) air resistance
b) regenerated noise
c) space availability
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d) attenuation
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e) all of the above
10-10 Inherent resistance to vibration and sound breakout are advantages of round duct.
a) True b) False
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Air System Startup and
Diagnostics
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Study Objectives
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After completing this chapter, you should be able to list and explain the major
steps involved in, and diagnose common problems associated with, initializing
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an air system.
Instructions
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Introduction
Testing, adjusting, and balancing (TAB) are required to change an installed air
system into a properly working air system. Historically, TAB was performed
on each air system with little reference to the associated cooling, heating, and
control systems. The TAB of each system is now often part of the commission-
ing process. To quote from the 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications
(ASHRAE 2007):
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COMMISSIONING is a quality assurance process of the installation
of the systems in a building. It is a process for achieving, verifying,
and documenting the performance of each system to meet the opera-
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tional needs of the building within the capabilities of the documented

design and specified equipment capacities, according to the owner’s
functional criteria. It is a process that ensures the quality of the instal-
lation. Successful commissioning includes the preparation of manu-
als and training of operation and maintenance personnel. The result
of commissioning should be fully functional systems that can be
properly operated and maintained throughout the useful life of the
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building. All efforts related to commissioning should be specified in

the contract documents.
Under commissioning, TAB is extended to ensure the air-handling sys-
tem operates effectively and that it works with the other parts of the build-
ing’s HVAC systems. Because the noise generated by the air system may be
important or critical, a section on checking sound power levels as well as
suggestions for identifying the sources of noise problems are also included.
264 Chapter 11 Air System Startup and Diagnostics
A building’s uses and its environment are dynamic, change with time, and
must be rebalanced accordingly. The designer must consider initial and supple-
mentary testing and balancing requirements during design and specification
writing. Complete and accurate operating and maintenance instructions and
manuals that include intent of design and how to test, adjust, and balance the
building systems are essential.
This chapter focuses on TAB and leaves the more comprehensive commis-
sioning to other courses. This is accomplished by checking installations for
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conformity to design, measuring and establishing the system’s air quantities as
required to meet design specifications, and recording and reporting the results.
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The following terms and definitions are used in this chapter:
• Test. To determine quantitative performance of equipment.
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• Balance. To proportion flows within the distribution system (submains,
branches, and terminals) according to specified design quantities.
• Adjust. To regulate the specified fluid flow rate and air patterns at the ter-
minal equipment (for example, reducing fan speed or resetting a damper
position).
• Procedure. An approach to and execution of a sequence of work operations
to yield repeatable results.
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• Report forms. Test results summary and data sheets arranged for collecting
test data in logical order for submission and review. The data sheets should
also form the permanent record to be used as the basis for any future TAB.
• Terminal. A point where the controlled medium (fluid or energy) enters or
leaves the distribution system. In air systems, these may be variable-air-
volume (VAV) or constant-volume boxes, registers, grilles, diffusers, lou-
vers, and hoods.
Design Considerations
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TAB begins as a series of design functions, where most of the devices required
for adjustments are integral parts of the design and installation. To ensure that
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proper balance can be achieved, the engineer should specify a sufficient number
of dampers, valves, flow-measuring locations, and flow-balancing devices.
These must be properly located in required straight lengths of pipe or duct for
accurate measurement. They must also be located so as to provide access.
The testing procedure depends on the system’s characteristics and layout.
The interaction between individual terminals varies with system pressures,
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flow requirements, and control devices.
Air Volumetric Measurement Methods

The pitot-tube, or digital anemometer, traverse is a generally accepted method
of measuring airflow in duct systems. Other methods of measuring airflow at
individual terminals are described by the various terminal manufacturers. The
primary objective is to establish repeatable measurement procedures that pro-

vide reliable, repeatable results.
In critical situations, laboratory tests, data and techniques prescribed by
equipment and air terminal manufacturers must be reviewed and corroborated
for accuracy, applicability, and repeatability of the results. Conversion factors
that correlate field data with laboratory results must be developed to predict the
equipment’s actual field performance.
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Air Devices
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Generally, K-factors of air diffuser manufacturers should be checked for accu-
racy by field measurement, and actual flow measured by pitot-tube traverse
should be compared to actual measured velocity. Air diffuser manufacturers usu-
ally base their volumetric test measurements on readings obtained using a
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deflection vane anemometer. The velocity is multiplied by an empirical effective
area to obtain the air diffuser’s delivery. Accurate results are obtained by mea-
suring at the vena contracta with the probe of the deflection vane anemometer.
The methods advocated for measuring the airflow of troffer-type termi-
nals are similar to the methods described for air diffusers. The capture hood
is frequently used to measure device airflows, primarily of diffusers and
slots. K-factors should be established for hood measurements with varying
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flow rates and deflection settings. If the air does not fill the measurement
grid, the readings will require establishing a correction factor (similar to the
K-factor).
Rotating vane anemometers are commonly used to measure airflow into
sidewall grilles. Effective areas (K-factors) should be established with the face
dampers fully open and deflection set uniformly on all grilles. Correction fac-
tors are required when measuring airflow in open ducts, such as damper open-
ings and fume hoods (Sauer and Howell 2010).
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Duct Flow
Most procedures for testing, adjusting and balancing air-handling systems rely
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on measuring volumes in the ducts rather than at the terminals.

The preferred method of duct volumetric flow measurement is the pitot-
tube traverse average. Care should be taken to obtain the maximum straight run
to the traverse station. Test holes should be located as shown in the 2009
ASHRAE Handbook–Fundamentals (ASHRAE 2009) and ANSI/ASHRAE
Standard 111-2008 (ASHRAE 2008) to obtain the best duct velocity profile.
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Where factory-fabricated volume measuring stations are used, the measure-

ments should be checked against a pitot-tube traverse for field calibration.
The power input to a fan’s driver should be used only as a guide to indicate
its delivery. It may be used to verify performance determined by a reliable
method (such as a pitot-tube traverse of the system’s main), considering system
effects that may be present. The flow rate from some fans is not proportional to
the power needed to drive them. In some cases (as with forward-curved blade
fans), the same power is required for two or more flow rates. The backward-
curved blade centrifugal fan is the only type with suitable characteristics; flow
rate that varies directly with the power input up to the point of maximum
horsepower.
If an installation has an inadequate straight length of ductwork or no duct-
work to allow a pitot-tube traverse, multiple face velocities across the coil
using the vane anemometer and determining the K-factor may be read. The
velocity readings must be taken exactly as prescribed by Sauer and Howell,
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using procedures from the airflow measurements at coil faces (2010).
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Mixture Plenums
Approach conditions are often so unfavorable that the air quantities comprising
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a mixture (such as outdoor air and return air) cannot be determined accurately
by volumetric measurements. In such cases, the temperatures of the individual
airstreams and of their mixture can be used to assess the proportions with rea-
sonable accuracy using the following equation:
Qm tm = Qo to + Qr tr (11-1)
where
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Qm = mixture air quantity, 100%
Qo = outdoor air quantity, as a % of mixture
Qr = return air quantity, as a % of mixture
tm = temperature of outside and return mixture, °C
to = outdoor temperature, °C
tr = return temperature, °C
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This method generally provides acceptable results if the difference between
to and tr is greater than 10°C.
Pressure Measurements
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The pressures involved in air measurement are barometric pressure, static pres-
sure, velocity pressure, total pressure, and differential pressure. Pressure mea-
surement for field evaluation of air-handling-system performance should be
taken as recommended in ASHRAE Standard 111 and analyzed together with
the manufacturers’ fan curves and system effect as described in Chapter 6.
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When measured in the field, pressure readings, air quantity, and power input
often do not agree with the manufacturers’ certified performance curves unless
proper correction is made.
Pressure drops through equipment such as dampers or filters should not be
used to measure airflow. Pressure is an acceptable means of establishing flow
volumes only where it is required by and performed in accordance with recom-
mendations of the manufacturer certifying the equipment.
Stratification
Normal design should minimize conditions causing air turbulence to produce
the least friction, resistance, and consequent pressure losses in the system.
However, under certain conditions, air turbulence is desirable and necessary.
For example, two airstreams of different temperatures can stratify in smooth,
uninterrupted flow conditions. In this situation, mixing should be promoted in
the design.
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The return and outdoor airstreams at the inlet side of the air-handling unit
(AHU) tend to stratify where enlargement of the inlet plenum or casing size
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decreases the air velocity. Without a deliberate effort to mix the two airstreams,
stratification can exist and be carried throughout the system filters, coils, elim-
inators, fans, and ducts. Stratification can cause damage by freezing coils and
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rupturing tubes. It can also affect the temperature control in plenums, spaces,
or both.
Stratification can also be reduced by adding vanes to break up and mix the
two airstreams. No solution to stratification problems is guaranteed; each con-
dition must be evaluated by field measurements and experimentation. In
extreme situations, static-air mixers could be used effectively to assist mixing
of airstreams at significantly different temperatures.
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Balancing Procedures for Air Distribution Systems
General procedures for testing and balancing are described here, although no
one established procedure is applicable to all systems. Instrumentation for field
testing and balancing of air systems and for checking sound pressure levels are
as follows:
• Manometers to measure the differential pressure across a pitot tube
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• Pitot tubes in various lengths, as required
• Digital anemometer to measure air velocity and also temperature
• Tachometer to measure rotational speed—direct-contact, self-timing, or
strobe-light types
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• Clamp-on ampere meter with voltage scales (RMS type)

• Deflecting-vane anemometer to measure air velocity
• Rotating-vane anemometer to measure air velocity
• Flow hood to capture air from a diffuser and funnel it through an orifice for
flow measurement
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• Dial thermometers (50 mm diameter minimum and 0.5°C graduations min-

imum) and glass stem thermometers (0.5°C graduations minimum)
• Sling psychrometer to establish wet and dry bulb temperatures
• Etched stem thermometer (0°C to 50°C in 0.2°C increments)
• Digital or analog hygrometers
• Digital thermometers
• Sound level meter, ideally with octave band filters
The instrumentation must be evaluated periodically to verify its accuracy

and repeatability prior to use in the field. Note that balancing is somewhat of an
art. An experienced person can do a very good job with limited tools, while a
novice can become very frustrated when damper changes produce unexpected
results. For duct runs that contain no automatic flow control devices, such as
VAV or dual-duct boxes, the following is a simple and logical balancing meth-
odology.
Start with all dampers open except for the main duct dampers, which
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should be partially closed if the fan is the forward-curve or radial-blade type to
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prevent motor overload. Now choose the longest run of ductwork and start bal-
ancing at the farthest outlets from the fan. Figure 11-1 shows an example. Four
outlets are shown with their initial airflows and required airflows. The last two
outlets (A and B) both need the same flow of 65 L/s. Balance B to have the
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same flow as A. The actual flow does not matter. Now consider outlet C, which
requires 130 L/s, or twice the flow of outlet A. Balance C to twice the flow
through A. Again, the actual flow does not matter; the ratio of C (adjusted) to
A (not adjusted). Next balance outlet D to twice outlet A.
Now outlets B, C, and D are all in correct proportion to outlet A. If the flow
into the branch is corrected, then the flows in A, B, C, and D will be correct
because they are in the correct proportions. Correct the flows for all outlets on
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a branch.
Where two branches divide, adjust the branch flows to the desired ratio to
achieve the desired system ratio. Finally, adjust the fan flow to the desired flow.
To minimize energy waste, this is accomplished by slowing the fan, not by
closing dampers. All outlets will have the correct flow, and the system will
include minimum damper resistance.
In practice, an experienced balancer can measure several outlets and decide
which to throttle and how much to achieve the desired flows. If you are new to
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balancing, the above method can help avoid frustration.
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Figure 11-1 Duct with four outlets to be balanced.

Preliminary Procedure for Air Balancing

Before operating the system, the following steps should be performed:
• Obtain as-built design drawings and specifications and become thoroughly

acquainted with the design intent.
• Obtain copies of approved shop drawings of all air-handling equipment,
including performance curves, outlets (supply, return, and exhaust), and
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temperature control diagrams.
• Compare the design to installed equipment and field installation.
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• Physically check the system, from the air-handling equipment to terminal
units, to determine variations of installation from the design.
• Check dampers (both volume and fire) for correct and locked position,
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and check temperature control for completeness of installation before
operating fans.
• Prepare report test sheets for both fans and outlets. Obtain manufacturer’s
outlet factors and recommended testing procedures. A summary of
required outlet volumes permits cross checking with required fan volumes.
The main duct dampers should be partially closed if the fan is the forward-
curved or radial-blade type to prevent motor overload.
• Determine best locations in main and branch ductwork for most accurate
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duct traverses.
• Place all outlet dampers in the open position. The main duct dampers
should be partially closed if the fan is the forward-curve or radial-blade
type to prevent motor overload.
• Prepare schematic diagrams of system as-built ductwork and piping layouts
to facilitate reporting.
• Check filters for cleanliness and proper installation (no air bypass). Check-
ing cleanliness is particularly important if the system has been running dur-
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ing construction. If the specifications require, establish a procedure to
simulate dirty filters.
• For VAV systems, develop a plan to simulate diversity. Zones with different
geographic orientations experience peak loads at different times throughout
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the day. At outset of operation, VAV terminals should not be set at maxi-
mum design volume but at a lower value to simulate peak system load,
which is less than the sum of all terminal peak volumes.
Equipment and System Check

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• Place all fans (supply, return and, exhaust) in operation, and immediately
check the following items:
° Motor amperage and voltage to guard against overload
° Fan rotation, speed, and direction
° Operability of static pressure limit switch
° Automatic dampers for proper position
° Air and water resets operating to deliver required temperatures

° Equipment antivibration mounts should be free with no metal-to-metal
contact. On many smaller systems, the flexibility of the mounts can be
checked by pushing against the equipment and noting the movement.
All pipes, ducts, and electrical conduits should have the required anti-
vibration mounts and flexible connections specified.
° Air leaks in the casing and around the coils and filter frames should be
checked by moving a bright light along the outside of the joints against
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the ducts while observing the darkened interior of the casing. Any leaks
should be sealed. Note points where piping enters the casing to ensure
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that escutcheons are tight. Do not rely on pipe insulation to seal these
openings, because the insulation may shrink. In prefabricated units,
check that all panel-fastening holes are filled to prevent whistling.
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• Traverse the main supply ductwork whenever possible. All main branches
should also be traversed where duct arrangement permits. Selection of tra-
verse points and method of traverse should be as follows:
° Traverse each main or branch after the longest possible straight run for
the duct involved. For test hole spacing, refer to the 2009 ASHRAE
Handbook–Fundamentals.
° Traverse using a pitot tube and manometer where velocities are over
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3 m/s. Below this velocity, use a recently calibrated thermal ane-
mometer.
° Note temperature and barometric pressure to determine if they need to
be corrected for standard air quantity. Corrections are normally insig-
nificant below 600 m elevation. However, where accurate results are
desirable, corrections are justified.
° Proportionally adjust branch dampers until each has the proper air vol-
ume. Each branch and main duct should be within 10% of its design
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airflow rate to be considered in balance.
° After establishing the total air being delivered, adjust the fan speed to
obtain the design airflow if necessary. Check power and speed to see
that motor power and/or critical fan speed have not been exceeded.
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° With the supply, return, and exhaust fans operating at or near design
speed and delivering close to design airflow rates, set the minimum out-
door and return air ratio. This can be done by measuring the mixture
temperature with thermometers in the return air, outdoor-air louver, and
filter section. As an approximation, the temperature of the mixture may
be calculated using Equation 11-1.
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° The greater the temperature difference between hot and cold air, the
more accurate the results can be. Take the temperature at many points
in a uniform traverse to be sure there is no stratification.
° After the minimum outdoor-air damper has been set for the proper per-
centage of outdoor air, take another traverse of mixture temperatures,
and install baffling if the variation from the average is more than 2°C.
Remember that stratified mixed-air temperatures vary greatly with the
outdoor temperature in cold weather, while return air temperature has

only a minor effect.
• Carefully set the system for balance using the following procedures:
° Adjust the system with mixing dampers positioned for minimum out-
door air.
° When adjusting multizone or double-duct constant-volume systems,
establish the ratio of the design volume through the cooling coil to total
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fan volume to achieve the desired diversity factor. Keep the proportion
of cold air to total air constant during the balance. However, check each
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zone or branch with this component on full cooling. If the design calls
for full flow through the cooling coil, the entire system should be set to
full flow through the cooling side while making tests. Perform the same
procedure for the hot-air side.
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• Balance terminal outlets in each control zone in proportion to one another.
Balance the terminals using the following steps:
° Once the preliminary fan quantity is set, proportion the terminal outlet
balance from the outlets into the branches to the fan. Concentrate on
proportioning the flow rather than the absolute quantity. As changes are
made to the fan settings and branch dampers, the outlet terminal quanti-
ties remain proportional. Branch dampers should be used for major
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adjusting; terminal dampers, if used, are for trim or minor adjustment
only. It may be necessary to install additional subbranch dampers to
decrease the use of terminal dampers that create objectionable noise.
° Normally, several passes through the entire system are necessary to
obtain proper outlet values, unlike the method starting at the terminals,
where multiple passes are only required in some branches, and one
achieves minimum overall resistance.
° The tested outlet air quantity may be an indicator of duct leakage.
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° With total design air established in the branches and at the outlets, per-
form the following: take new fan motor amperage readings, find static
pressure across the fan, read and record static pressure across each
component (intake, filters, coils, and mixing dampers), and take a final
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duct traverse.
° Each outlet should be within 10% of the design airflow rate to the near-
est 10 L/s to be considered in balance.
Dual-Duct Systems
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Most constant-volume dual-duct systems are designed to handle a portion of

the total system’s supply through the cold duct and smaller air quantities
through the hot duct. Balancing should be accomplished as follows:
• Check the leaving-air temperature at the nearest terminal to verify that the
hot and cold damper inlet leakage is not greater than the maximum allow-
able leakage established.
• Check apparatus and main trunks.

• Determine if the static pressure at the end of the system (the longest duct
run) is at or above the minimum required for mixing box operation. Proceed
to the extreme end of the system and check the static pressure drop across
the last three boxes with a manometer. The drop across the box should
exceed the minimum static pressure recommended by the manufacturer.
Additional static pressure is required for the low-pressure distribution sys-
tem downstream of the box.
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• Proportionally balance the diffusers or grilles on the low-pressure side of
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the box as described for low-pressure systems.
• Change the control settings to full heating and make certain that the con-
trols and dual-duct boxes function properly. Spot check the airflow at sev-
eral diffusers. Check for stratification.
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• If the engineer has included a diversity factor in selecting the main apparatus,
it will not be possible to achieve full flow from all boxes simultaneously.
Variable-Air-Volume Systems
The general procedure for balancing a VAV system is as follows:
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• Determine the required maximum air volume to be delivered by the supply
and return air fans. Diverse load usually means that the volume will be
somewhat less than the outlet total.
• Obtain fan curves and request information on surge characteristics from the
fan manufacturer.
• If an inlet vortex damper control is to be used, obtain the fan manufac-
turer’s data pertaining to the deaeration of the fan when used with the
damper. If speed control is used, find the maximum and minimum speeds
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that can be used on the project.
• Obtain the minimum and maximum operating pressures for terminal or
VAV boxes to be used on the project.
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• Construct a theoretical system curve, including an approximate surge area.

The system curve starts at the minimum inlet static pressure of the boxes,
plus system loss at minimum flow, and terminates at the design maximum
flow. The operating range using an inlet vane damper is between the surge
line intersection with the system curve and the maximum design flow.
When variable-speed control is used, the operating range is between the
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minimum speed that can produce the necessary minimum box static at min-
imum flow still in the fan’s stable range and the maximum speed necessary
to obtain maximum design flow.
• Position the terminal boxes to the proportion of maximum fan air volume
to total installed terminal maximum volume.
• Set the fan to operate at approximate design speed (increase about 5% for a
fully open inlet vane damper).
• Check a representative number of terminal boxes. If a wide variation in

static pressure is encountered, or if the airflow at a number of boxes is
below minimum at maximum flow, check every box.
• Run a total air traverse with a pitot tube.
• Increase the speed if static pressure and/or volume are low. If the volume is
correct but the static pressure is high, reduce the speed. If the static pres-
sure is high or correct but the volume is low, go over all terminals and
adjust them to the proper volume.
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• Run the previous four steps with the return or exhaust fan set at design and
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measured by a pitot-tube traverse and with the system set on minimum out-
door air.
• Proportion the outlets and verify the design volume with the VAV box on
the maximum flow setting. Verify the minimum flow setting.
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• Set the terminals to minimum and adjust the inlet vane or speed controller
until minimum static pressure and airflow are obtained.
• The temperature-control personnel, the balancing personnel, and the design
engineer should agree on the final placement of the sensor(s) for the static
pressure controller. This sensor must be placed in a representative location
in the supply duct to sense static pressure(s) in the system.
• Check the return air fan speed or its inlet vane damper that tracks or adjusts
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to the supply fan airflow to ensure proper outdoor air volume.
• On systems with economizers, operate the system on 100% outdoor air
(weather permitting) and check supply and return fans for proper power
and static pressure.
Induction Systems
Most induction systems use high-velocity air distribution. Balancing should be
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accomplished as follows:
• Perform steps outlined under the basic procedures common to all systems
for apparatus and main trunk capacities.
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• Determine the primary airflow at each terminal unit by reading the unit
plenum pressure with a manometer and locating the point on the charts
(or curves) of air quantity versus static pressure supplied by the unit
manufacturer.
• Normally, about three complete passes around the entire system are
required for proper adjustment. Make a final pass without adjustments to
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record the final result.

• To provide the quietest possible operation, adjust the fan to run at the slow-
est speed that provides sufficient nozzle pressure to all units with minimum
throttling of all unit and riser dampers.
• After balancing each induction system with minimum outdoor air, reposi-
tion to allow maximum outdoor air and check power and static pressure
readings.
Report Information
To be of value to the consulting engineer and the owner’s maintenance depart-
ment, the air-handling report should consist of at least the following items:
• Design
° Total air quantity to be delivered
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° Fan static pressure
° Motor power
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° Percent of outdoor air under minimum conditions
° Fan speed
° Power required to obtain this air quantity at design static pressure
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• Installation
° Equipment manufacturer (indicate model number and serial number)
° Size of unit installed
° Arrangement of the AHU
° Fan class
° Nameplate power, nameplate voltage, phase, frequency and full-load
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amperes of the motor installed
• Field Tests
° Fan speed
° Power readings (voltage, amperes of all phases at motor terminals)
° Total pressure differential across unit components
° Fan suction and fan discharge static pressure (equals fan total pressure)
° Plot of actual readings on manufacturer’s fan performance curve to
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show the installed fan operating point
° Measured airflow rate
The initial static pressures must be accurately established for the air treat-
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ment equipment and the duct system so that the variation in air quantity due to
filter loading can be calculated. This ensures that the total fan air quantity will
never be less than the minimum requirements. This also serves as a check of
dirt loading in coils, because the design air quantity for peak loading of the fil-
ters has already been calculated.
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• Terminal Outlets
° Outlet by room designation and position
° Outlet manufacture and type
° Outlet size (using manufacturer’s designation to ensure proper factor)
° Manufacturer’s outlet factor (Where no factors are available, or field
tests indicate the listed factors are incorrect, a factor must be deter-
mined in the field by traverse of a duct leading to a single outlet.)
° Design air quantity and the required velocity

° Test velocities and resulting air quantity
° Adjustment pattern for every air terminal
• Additional Information (if applicable)
° AHUs: belt number and size; drive and driven sheave size; belt position
on adjusted drive sheaves (bottom, middle, and top); motor speed under
full load; motor heater size; filter type and static pressure at initial use,
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anticipated full load, or time to replace; variations of velocity at various
points across the coil face; and existence of vortex or discharge damp-
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ers, or both
° Distribution system: unusual duct arrangements; branch duct static
readings in double duct and induction system; ceiling pressure readings
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where plenum ceiling distribution is being used, and tightness of ceil-
ing; relationship of building to outdoor pressure under both minimum
and maximum outdoor air; and induction unit manufacturer and size
(including required air quantity and plenum pressures for each unit)
and a test plenum pressure and resulting primary air delivery from the
manufacturer’s listed curves
° All equipment nameplates visible and easily readable
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Many independent firms have developed detailed procedures and forms
suitable to their own operations and the area in which they function. These pro-
cedures are often available for information and evaluation on request.
Noise and Vibration Diagnostics

A frustrating feature of human behavior is that once a noise and vibration prob-
lem occurs, the sound levels must be reduced to levels lower than if no problem
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had occurred in order to satisfy occupants. It may be necessary to verify sound
levels even when no problem exists. Two pieces of information are required to
effectively verify that design requirements have been met:
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• The required sound levels in terms of A weighting, noise criteria method,

or the room criteria method when the space is fully furnished for operation
• The measuring method or parameters
Ideally, this information will have been clearly identified and agreed upon
with the client before verification is begun. Note that the levels in a just-finished
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space prior to furnishing are likely to be about 4 dB higher than levels after fur-
nishing. Defining the measuring method is important because the results can
differ depending on measurement locations. A specification that requires all
measurements to be taken at 1.2 m from the floor and 1 m from any flat surface
would provide measurements relevant to seated occupants. It would also avoid
any higher levels that may occur close to walls and in corners due to sound
reflections.
Another challenge is that any sound level meter will likely be accurate to
±3 dB even if it is recently calibrated. It may be prudent to recommend using
a client’s meter and that a member of the his or her staff be present to confirm
the readings. Remember that equipment only measures sound pressure levels.
The quality of the sound cannot be measured; it is an issue of human percep-
tion and varies from person to person.
Traffic noise and occupant activity can make obtaining useful sound pres-
sure readings very difficult. It may be advisable to conduct the tests at night or
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on a weekend to reduce these challenges. Ideally, the test is performed after the
system is balanced, as balancing may significantly modify results.
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Following is a basic procedure for performing a sound check:
• Obtain project system specifications and required sound pressure levels and
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measurement methodology.
• Visually check the system for compliance and any obvious likely problems.
• Activate the system and listen. Can you hear specific equipment, duct
leaks, or duct vibrations?
• Check that the sound-measuring equipment is correctly calibrated.
• In each measurement area, use an A-weighted meter to find the spot with
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the highest reading and perform detailed measurements in that location.
Note the location so truly comparative measurements can be obtained. In
situations where background noise is significant, it may be necessary to
assess the background noise by taking measurements first with the equip-
ment OFF and then with the equipment running.
• Note any specific noises, even if the measurements indicate an acceptable
sound pressure level.
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Be systematic in your approach to resolving problems. Remember that
every sound and vibration has a specific source and a specific path from that
source to a specific listener. If the overall sound level is excessive, check which
frequencies are high. Lower frequencies indicate equipment-generated noise
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and higher frequencies indicate regenerated air noise. Can you identify the
source by listening carefully? As the ear is very sensitive to changes in sound,
have someone else deactivate one piece of equipment at a time as you listen. If
the problem involves a vibration, can you feel where it is most pronounced in
the space? You will likely be able to hear/feel the change as the offending item
is turned deactivated.
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Decide whether sound, vibration, or both are the problem. Vibration prob-
lems may be due to lightweight panels vibrating as a result of sound pressures.
The 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications (ASHRAE 2007) suggests
the following for determining if vibration is the problem:
• If a sound-level meter is available, check C-weighted and overall

(unweighted, or linear) readings. If the difference is greater than 6 dB or if
the slope of the acoustic spectrum is greater than 5 to 6 dB per octave at

low frequencies, vibration is likely a contributing factor.
• If excessive noise is found close to the equipment and/or main ductwork,
airborne noise is probably the contributor.
• If the affected area is remote from the source equipment, no problem is
apparent in intermediary spaces, and noise does not appear to be coming
from the duct system or diffusers, structure-borne noise is probably the
cause.
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Sound leakage between adjacent spaces can be checked by listening in one
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space while someone shouts in the adjacent space. If the shout is easily heard,
look for air leakage paths, seal any found, and recheck. If none are then found,
check the wall performance.
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If the offending equipment is the supply fan, identify where the offending
sound enters the space. While moving around the space, can you detect where
the sound enters? Does it enter from the outlets, the ceiling, above the ceiling,
walls, or floor? If it enters from the outlets, is the airflow correct? Can you
remove an outlet and recheck to determine if the noise is outlet generated?
The Next Step

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Chapter 12 steps you through calculations for a sample air system design.
Summary
Testing, adjusting, and balancing (TAB) are required to change an installed air-
handling system into a properly working air system. Where TAB is part of
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commissioning, it must be integrated into the total commissioning process.
TAB must be considered during design so that adequate dampers and
access are available to the contractor. The actual procedure depends on whether
TAB is part of a comprehensive commissioning process and on the system type
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and components used.

The best volume flow readings are obtained from duct traverses in straight
lengths of duct using a recently calibrated digital anemometer or pitot tube.
The flow from most devices can be measured using flow hoods
Most procedures for testing, adjusting, and balancing air-handling systems
rely on measuring volumes in the ducts rather than at the terminals. The pre-
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ferred method of duct volumetric flow measurement is the digital anemometer

or pitot-tube traverse average. This requires care to ensure the flow is reason-
ably even (straight section of duct) and that the measurement locations are rep-
resentative. Fan speed and pressure, or pressure across coils or filters, should
only be used as a check and not to assess airflow. The inlet and outlet condi-
tions of a fan (system effect) can markedly influence measurements and perfor-
mance.
The temperatures of mixing airstreams can be used to estimate relative

flows as the sum of (flow × temperature) in must equal (flow × temperature)
out of the mixing process. This method loses accuracy when the temperature
difference in entering airstreams is less than 10°C.
Ensure that the outdoor air and return air mix without significant stratifica-
tion. Mixing vanes can be added to promote better mixing.
A variety of analog and digital equipment is available for measuring. The
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actual process depends on the system. A logical progressive method from far-
thest outlet to fan was demonstrated. Effective air balancing depends on gather-
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ing the design information, preparing the balancing procedure, and then
following it while recording data.
Having determined that the supply fan cannot overload, initiate it and make
sure it and other equipment are operating correctly. Then adjust balancing
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dampers and fan speed to achieve correct airflows. With the correct flows,
ensure that the outdoor air supply is correct, and adjust as necessary.
Check that the static pressure for the last three boxes is adequate but not
excessive. Ensure that each box leakage is acceptable at full cooling and full
heating. Adjust to correct flow, and balance outlets from the box.
VAV systems are more complex to test, adjust, and balance. The VAV
boxes must normally be set to a fixed value to set the fan static pressure con-
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trol. Once this is achieved, the performance of each box must be set and termi-
nal outlet volumes balanced.
Induction systems operate at a high supply air pressure, and the system
must be balanced to provide adequate pressure to each terminal. Due to noise
generation, minimal damper use is preferred.
Comprehensive records of all test data should be made as the tests are con-
ducted. These records are invaluable should any dispute arise and for future
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checking and retrofitting. The data must be recorded in a predetermined format
and indexed for later access.
Firms specializing in TAB have well-established procedures for performing
the work and recording results.
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Occupant expectations generally increase when noise and vibration prob-

lems arise, so a well-designed and installed air-handling system can save a lot
of aggravation.
Sound pressure levels and measurement methods should be agreed upon
with the client before checking begins. When checking, remember that
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equipment has limited accuracy, and record specifically where measurements

were taken.
If problems exist, systematically track down the source. The human ear is
your best tool for detecting changes. Activating and deactivating equipment
while listening will often enable you to identify the problem source. Methods
for deciding whether the problem is a result of noise, vibration, or both were
outlined.

ASHRAE. 2005. ASHRAE Guideline 0-2005, The Commissioning Process.
Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2007. ASHRAE Guideline 1.1-2007, HVAC&R Technical Require-
ments for The Commissioning Process. Atlanta: American Society of Heat-
ing, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
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ASHRAE. 2008. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 111-2008, Measurement, Testing,
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Adjusting, and Balancing of Building HVAC Systems. Atlanta: American
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Sauer, H., Howell, R. 2010. Principles of Heating, Ventilating and Air-Condi-
tioning, 6th ed. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
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11-1 The _______________ is the generally accepted method of measuring airflow
in duct systems.
a) anemometer
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b) psychrometer
c) digital anemometer or pitot-tube traverse
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d) all of the above
11-2 Most procedures for establishing accurate airflows in air-handling systems rely
on measuring air volumes at the terminals.
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a) True b) False
11-3 Pressure drops through equipment such as dampers or filters may be used to
measure airflow.
a) True b) False
11-4 _______________ is a necessary instrument for air balancing.
a) pitot tube or digital anemometer
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b) flow hood
c) digital or dial thermometers
d) all of the above
11-5 Air leaks in casing and around coils and filter frames should be checked by
_______________.
a) moving a bright light along the outside of joints against the duct
b) red smoke introduced into the airstream
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c) halogen sniffers
d) all of the above
11-6 _______________ dampers should be used for major adjusting and
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_______________ dampers for trim or minor adjustment only.

a) branch, terminal b) terminal, branch
c) branch, subbranch d) none of the above
11-7 The _______________ is frequently used to measure diffusers and slot air
flows.
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a) anemometer b) pitot tube

c) capture hood d) all of the above
11-8 _______________ are commonly used to measure airflow into sidewall grilles.
a) rotating vane anemometers b) pitot tubes
c) flow hoods d) all of the above
11-9 Air volume measurements taken at terminals are generally more reliable than
those obtained in the ducts.
a) True b) False
11-10 Pressures involved with air measurements include _______________.
a) barometric pressure b) static pressure
c) velocity pressure d) all of the above
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11-11 Under certain conditions, air turbulence is desirable and necessary.
a) True b) False
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11-12 To avoid your check on sound pressure levels being challenged, it is best to
have agreed on _______________.
a) the allowable levels
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b) the method for determining reading locations
c) an adjustment to the readings if the spaces are unfurnished
d) whether the levels are to be assessed against an A weighting,
noise criteria, room criteria, or other scale
e) All of the above
11-13 The most useful item for initial assessment of the cause of noise and vibration
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problems is _______________.
a) a complainer
b) your ears
c) a high-quality sound meter with octave band filters
d) all of the above
11-14 When recording sound pressure levels during a check to establish that levels
are within specification, it is valuable to note any noticeable tones, even when
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the levels are within specification, because _______________.
a) the tone indicates that the system causes significant vibration
b) the occupants may complain about the tone
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c) the client’s sound level meter may be more sensitive to the tone
than yours
d) all of the above
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et
A Duct Design Problem
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Instructions
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the exercises.
Introduction
This final chapter leads you through duct design for one floor of an office
building. Duct system design was the focus of Chapter 7, but information from
other chapters is also used here. Complete the exercises as you progress
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through the chapter and compare your results to those given to become more
comfortable with the design choices and calculations. You may work in an
office where ducts are sized using software, but you will be able to produce
better designs if you understand the complete process and are able to critically
review the results that the software produces.
Other building projects will undoubtedly require return, outside, and
exhaust ducts that you can design following these same principles. Not every
contingency or challenge that you encounter in practice is covered in this book.
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You have been exposed to the fundamentals of duct design and provided a few
examples of their application. Understanding these fundamentals and their
application will help you solve more advanced problems on your own.
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Duct Design Procedure

Before beginning the duct design, let's review the proper steps for designing a
supply duct system:
1. From your load calculations, supply air temperature, space design tempera-
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ture, and outdoor-air ventilation requirements, calculate the maximum

amount of air to be supplied to each space. For variable-air-volume (VAV)
systems, also calculate the minimum volumes. Make preliminary adjust-
ments for heat gain and loss and for leakage.
2. Based on your knowledge of the building plans and intended occupancy,
select the size and type of air terminals and outlets, and then locate them on
the plan.
284 Chapter 12 A Duct Design Problem
3. Sketch a duct system that connects the outlets and any VAV or bypass ter-
minals to the supply fan discharge. Indicate the amount of air at each outlet,
terminal, and duct segment.
4. Assign a number to each fitting and segment of straight duct so they can be
readily identified in the tabulations of size and static pressure losses.
5. Size the ducts and calculate the static pressure that the supply fan must
overcome. To minimize resistance, use round ducts where feasible, then
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square ducts, and finally rectangular ducts that are as close to square as
possible.
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6. Layout the system in detail, giving attention to height and width restric-
tions. Be sure to allow space for joints, supports, and any external insula-
tion in addition to light fixtures, sprinklers, and other building systems.
Assess the sound performance, and add attenuation as required. Recalcu-
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late sizes and losses if there are any changes.
7. Complete the design by specifying duct materials, pressure classification,
seal classification, and any insulation or liner.
The Building and System

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In the northern hemisphere, an intermediate floor of a 31 × 61 m multistory
office building is to be conditioned (Figure 12-1). The space has been divided
with full partitions into individual perimeter offices and an open interior office.
The 6 × 15 m core area of toilets and a mechanical equipment room (MER)
shown in the middle is unconditioned.
The single-zone draw-through air-handling unit (AHU) serves a VAV
cooling-only system for this floor only. The AHU will be installed in the
MER. The design will be based on a supply air temperature of 12°C and a
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maximum space temperature of 24°C. All ducting is to be constructed with
galvanized steel.
The architect will lower the ceiling for a short distance near the MER to
allow 600 mm-high supply duct, up to the first branch. The remainder of the
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duct is to be a maximum of 400 mm internal height that allows for duct joints,
support, and insulation.
The perimeter offices will have 1200 mm slot diffusers, each of which han-
dles a maximum of 60 L/s. Where the airflow to an individual office exceeds
this amount, there will be two diffusers per office. The interior will have 600 ×
600 mm perforated lay-in diffusers.
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The ceiling space is a return air plenum, and the MER is a mixed-air plenum.
System Parameters and Design Assumptions

It was determined from load calculations that
• each square metre of enclosed office has a load of 50 W/m2, and

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Figure 12-1 Building plan.

• each lineal foot of perimeter office has a peak wall heat load of
north exposure 80 W/m run of wall
east exposure 302 W/m run of wall
south exposure 213 W/m run of wall
west exposure 346 W/m run of wall
For example, a 3 m wide × 4 m deep north perimeter office requires cooling
for the floor area and the 3 m of wall. Design the duct system for peak airflow,
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allowing for no diversity. You may assume zero leakage for calculating air-
flows.
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The supply duct between the AHU and VAV terminals will be wrapped
with insulation. Between the VAV terminals and diffusers, the duct will be
lined. Use a roughness factor of ×1.3 to compensate for the additional resis-
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tance of duct liner. In all cases, show the inside dimensions of your recom-
mended duct sizes. Using the equal friction method, size the duct as follows:
• Supply fan to VAV boxes:1.5 Pa/m static-pressure loss

• VAV terminals to diffusers: 0.75 Pa/m static-pressure loss
• First segment of duct leaving the fan: 600 mm high and 400 mm high there-
after until the duct can be reduced to 300 × 300 mm, and then size as near
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to square as practical through the end of the run, including the duct down-
stream of the VAV terminals
• Use only integers for equivalent round duct sizes
• Use 30° transitions
• Do not add transitions beyond those shown.
Information on VAV terminals, excerpted from the manufacturer’s catalog

data is provided. Use the given static pressure loss listed for each terminal with-
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out further correction. The AHU manufacturer has provided the following data:
• Mixing damper loss: 30 Pa static pressure

• Wet cooling coil loss: 115 Pa static pressure
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• Dirty filters loss (filters and accumulated dirt): 250 Pa static pressure
Allow 90 Pa static-pressure loss for the fan discharge plenum (before

entering the straight duct section), which includes any system effect upon the
fan. Allow for a 40 Pa static-pressure loss through the ceiling return plenum.
Add 2 Pa static-pressure loss for each diffuser connection, but do not add any
G
length for them in your calculations. Air distribution static-pressure losses:
• Perimeter slot diffusers: 15 Pa

• Return grilles: 15 Pa
You do not need to show balancing dampers, fire dampers, or any other air-
distribution devices, nor do you need to calculate losses through them.
This problem is “open book,” and the data you need have already been pro-
vided or will be provided as you need it. Most of the process is dealt with in
Chapter 7. Velocity pressure for standard air = 0.602V 2 Pa, where V is in m/s.
Working through the Problem

Step 1
t
From your load calculations, supply air temperature, space design tem-
e
perature, and outdoor-air ventilation requirements, calculate the maxi-
mum amount of air to be supplied to each space. For variable-air-volume
systems, also calculate the minimum volumes. Make preliminary adjust-
ments for heat gain and loss and for leakage.
gp
The cooling loads for this floor have been calculated. In many buildings,
these loads are the same for all floors, except for the top floor with added roof
cooling load, the main floor with entrance loads, and the basement with differ-
ent floor and wall loads. The loads are shown in Table 12-1 in two parts. The
first is a load in watts per square metre. The second is the additional load in
watts for each metre run of perimeter wall.
In this example, the exterior offices need cooling for their floor area plus
pE
the relevant orientation (north/south/east/west) wall load(s) times meters of
wall. The supply temperature is given as 12°C and the space design tempera-
ture as 24°C. Fill in the required L/s values in the second column of Table 12-1
to offset these cooling loads. Help is available in the “Duct Heaters” section of
Chapter 9. When you’ve completed your calculations, check your answers
using Table 12-2.
Table 12-1 Supply Airflow to Offset Cooling Loads, Partial

u
W L/s
Per square metre 50
North wall/metre run 80
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East wall/metre run 302

South wall/metre run 213
West wall/metre run 346
Table 12-2 Supply Airflow to Offset Cooling Loads, Completed

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W L/s
Per square metre 50 3.4
North wall/metre run 80 5.4
East wall/metre run 302 20.5
South wall/metre run 213 14.4
West wall/metre run 346 23.4
Did you remember the formula from the end of Chapter 9?

Watts = 1.23 × L/s × rise in temperature °C
Rearranging gives: L/s = (W)/[1.23 × rise in temperature °C]
= (W)/[1.23 × (24 – 12)]
= (W)/14.76
We will use these values to calculate the individual office volumes. When
we add the calculated volumes, what will they total? Consider the whole floor:
t
North and south wall lengths are 17 × 3 + 2 × 5 = 61 m
e
East and west wall lengths are 7 × 3 + 2 × 5 = 31 m
Total air-conditioned area = 61 × 31 – core area 6 × 15 = 1801 m2
System volume = Walls N + E + S + W + per square metre
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= 61 × 5.4 + 31 × 20.5 + 61 × 14.4 +31 × 23.4
+ 1801 × 3.4 = 8692.1 L/s
When we calculate the supply volumes to each zone, they should add up to
about 8692 L/s. If they do not, there is an error that must be found. This pro-
cess of using a global figure—the whole floor volume—to check the sum of
calculated zone volumes is a useful way of avoiding errors.
Now use the volume values in Table 12-2 to calculate the required supply
pE
volume for the typical spaces shown in Table 12-3.
The volumes you calculated do not make allowances for heat gains or
losses or for air leakage. In this problem, the supply ducts are in the ceiling ple-
num, so the surrounding temperature will be close to room temperature. The
duct will almost certainly be insulated and have a vapor barrier, so heat gain
will be small.
Leakage will reduce the actual volume supplied by the fan from reaching
the conditioned spaces. The leakage will cool the plenum, so it is not a load on
u
the plant. This is in contrast to a duct run through an unconditioned roof space
where leakage is lost to the system. In our system, leakage is accounted for by
an increase in fan capacity and static, so it does not need to show in our duct
sizing calculations.
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Do your calculations match the figures shown in the first six lines of
Table 12-4?
Table 12-3 Calculate Sample Required Office Cooling Volumes

Wall Run Wall Run Floor Area Total L/s
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North 3 × 4
East 3 × 4
South 3 × 4
West 3 × 4
NE Corner 5 × 5
SW Corner 5 × 5
Step 2
Based on your knowledge of the building plans and intended occupancy,
select the size and type of air terminals and outlets, and then locate them
on the plan.
Slot diffusers are being used in the perimeter offices, and 600 × 600 mm
t
perforated face diffusers are being used in the interior offices.
Decide on a layout and size of diffusers for an open office area. The Air
e
Diffusion Performance Index (ADPI) information and representative manu-
facturers’ data are shown in Tables 12-5 and 12-6. In Table 12-6, the throw is
given as three numbers, for example “1/1.5/3.0,” which is the distance from
the diffuser (throw) before the jet velocity falls to 0.75/0.5/0.25 m/s. For situ-
gp
ations where occupants are sitting in a fixed location, the 0.25 m/s throw
(T0.25) is normally chosen. For perforated, louvered ceiling diffusers, L is the
distance from the diffuser to the nearest wall.
When laying out diffusers, the ADPI gives guidance on the diffuser-to-wall
distance. With more than one diffuser, you must also consider the diffuser-to-
diffuser distance. The air from each diffuser will meet and drop as indicated in
Figure 12-2. To achieve the same downward velocity on the occupants, the dif-
pE
fusers should be approximately twice as far apart as they are from the wall.
The design space is 299 m2 east interior and requires 1017 L/s. Using
knowledge of the office sizes, we can figure the space to be 13 × 23 m. How
many diffusers, what neck size, and what volume through each would you
choose? Based on the ADPI, the throw should be between 2 × L (ideal) down
to 1.4 × L.
Table 12-4 Required Room Cooling Volumes

u
Wall Run Wall Run Floor Area Total L/s You Calculated
North 3 × 4 3 × 5.4 3 × 4 × 3.4 57.0
East 3 × 4 3 × 20.5 3 × 4 × 3.4 102.3
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South 3 × 4 3 × 14.4 3 × 4 × 3.4 84.0

West 3 × 4 3 × 23.4 3 × 4 × 3.4 111.0
NE Corner 5 × 5 5 × 5.4 5 × 20.5 5 × 5 × 3.4 214.5
SW Corner 5 × 5 5 × 14.4 5 × 23.4 5 × 5 × 3.4 274.0
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SE Corner 5 × 5 5 × 14.4 5 × 20.5 5 × 5 × 3.4 259.5

NW Corner 5 × 5 5 × 5.4 5 × 23.4 5 × 5 × 3.4 229.0
East Interior 299 m2 299 × 3.4 1016.6
Interior 196 m2 196.5 × 3.4 668.1
West Interior 218.5 m2 218.5 × 3.4 742.9

Table 12-5 ADPI Data for Perforated, Louvered Ceiling Diffusers

Room Load, T0.25/L for Maximum For ADPI Range of T /L
Terminal Device 0.25
W/m2 Maximum ADPI ADPI Greater Than
3 – 15 0.7 96 90 0.5 – 0.9
Perforated,
louvered ceiling 80 0.35 – 1.1
diffusers
t
Table 12-6 600 × 600 mm Perforated Face Diffuser Performance
e
Neck Size, mm Neck Velocity, m/s 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
200 × 200 Flow Rate, L/s 84 105 126 147
Throw, m 1.0/1.5/3.0 1.2/2.1/3.7 1.5/2.4/4.0 1.8/2.7/4.3
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Static Pressure, Pa 7 11 15 22
NC 14 20 26 32
250 × 250 Flow Rate, L/s 131 164 197 230

Throw, m 0.9/1.8/3.7 1.5/2.1/4.3 1.8/2.7/4.8 2.1/3.0/4.9
pE
NC 16 24 30 35
300 × 300 Flow Rate, L/s 122 152 183 213

Throw, m 1.2/1.8/4.0 1.5/2.4/4.8 1.8/3.0/5.2 2.1/3.4/5.5
u
NC 19 26 32 38
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Figure 12-2 Diffuser spacing.

• One diffuser: Not suitable because the room is not near square, so the
throw will be excessive in the short dimension and inadequate in the long
dimension.
• Two diffusers: Throw across the narrow distance is 13/2 = 6.5 m. Minimum
throw is 6.5 × 1.4 = 9.1 m. None of the diffuser choices have a T50 throw
exceeding 5.5 m. Therefore, two rows of diffusers are needed.
• Four diffusers: L will be 13/4 = 3.25 m (see Figure 12-1) across the short
room dimension but 23/4 = 5.75 m across the long span, which is too much
t
of a difference.
e
• Six diffusers as two rows of three: L will be 13/4 = 3.375 m across the short
room dimension but 23/6 = 3.8 m across the long span, close to the short
dimension L of 3.375 m. Ideal throw is the average L, (3.375 + 3.8)/2 = 3.6 m
× 2 = 7.2, down to 3.6 m × 1.4 = 5.04. The flow through each diffuser is
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1106/6 = 184 L/s. You could choose the 250 × 250 neck, although the throw
is short, giving an ADPI of only 80%. With a flow of 184 L/s, one can inter-
polate between the flows of 164 and 197 L/s in Table 12-6 to estimate the
pressure drop as 15 Pa. This value will be used later as diffuser pressure drop.
• Fifteen diffusers as three rows of five: L will be 13/6 = 2.2 m across the short
room dimension and 23/10 = 2.3 across the long span, close to the short
dimension L of 2.2 m. Ideal throw is the average L, 2.25 × 2 = 4.5, down to
2.25 × 1.4 = 3.15. The flow through each diffuser is 1106/10 = 111 L/s. A
pE
200 × 200 neck diffuser at 111 L/s has a throw of 3.7 m, which is in the
required range. This is a better solution than six diffusers, providing an
ADPI over 90%, although at a greater initial cost.
Step 3
Sketch a duct system that connects the outlets and any VAV or bypass ter-
u
minals to the supply fan discharge. Indicate the amount of air at each out-
let, terminal, and duct segment.
This step presents two somewhat interrelated tasks: zoning and laying out
ro
duct routes. Zoning is the process of choosing which spaces are to be grouped
together and served by a VAV terminal. If funding were not an issue, every
space could have a VAV terminal and its own thermostat. Typically, several
spaces with the same use and load profile are grouped and controlled by a ther-
mostat located in one of the spaces. A general rule of thumb for choosing
group size is that with more variable loads, fewer spaces should form a zone.
G
The next issue is balancing the outlet volumes. A very long supply duct with
many outlets after the VAV terminal means that the outlets close to the terminal
will have a substantially higher pressure drop, and damper noise may be an
issue. Table 12-7 shows the manufacturer’s VAV terminal data, and Figure 12-3
shows the floor layout with the main duct runs and airflows to each space. How
would you group the spaces? Record your choices on Figure 12-3 before look-
ing at our solution in Figure 12-4 and Table 12-8.
Table 12-7 Available VAV Terminal Units

Inlet Diameter, mm Maximum L/s Static-Pressure Loss, Pa
150 200 30
200 350 20
250 500 20
300 800 30
t
350 1100 40
e
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u pE
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Figure 12-3 Main duct layout and air volumes.

e t
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u pE
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Figure 12-4 Sections A, B, and C ducts and fittings labeled.

G
Our solution is shown in Figure 12-4. It is almost certainly different from

yours, as there is no one right answer. Look at the choices and note that they
conform to the recommendation of using fewer spaces per zone the greater the
range of load, and that the number of outlets per zone is limited.
Table 12-8 Zone VAV Unit Choice

VAV Inlet VAV Maximum
Zone Airflow, Maximum as%
Zone Office Description Diameter, Airflow,
L/s of Capacity
mm L/s
1 NE Corner 215 200 350 61%
2 East Perimeter 409 250 500 82%
3 East Perimeter 307 200 350 88%
t
4 SE Corner 260 200 350 74%
5 South Perimeter 336 250 500 67%
e
gp
9 SW Corner 274 200 350 78%
10 West Perimeter 333 250 500 67%
11 West Perimeter 444 250 500 89%
12 NW Corner 229 200 350 65%
13 North Perimeter 513 300 800 64%
14 North Perimeter 456 250 500 91%
15 Interior 1017 350 1100 92%
pE
16 Interior 668 300 800 84%
17 Interior 668 300 800 84%
18 Interior 743 300 800 93%
19 Interior 743 300 800 93%
TOTAL 8707
Do you remember how we calculated the total supply airflow for the floor
as 8692 L/s? Our total for the zones is almost identical, so our zone calcula-
tions are likely correct.
u
Step 4
Assign a number to each fitting and segment of straight duct so they can
ro
be readily identified in the tabulations of size and static pressure losses.

If you are sizing ducts using software, check whether there are any specific
rules for numbering duct sections and fittings. Some software requires that you
number from outlets back to a branch point and that you make sure all outlets
downstream of a branch are numbered before numbering upstream of the branch.
G
The locations of each zone’s VAV box (number in a square), duct section
(A1, A2), and fitting (FB2, FB3) are shown in Figure 12-4 for three duct runs:
A—from the mechanical room to the south offices then eastwards to serve
the south east portion of the building
B—from the mechanical room to the north offices and then east to serve
the north east portion of the building.
C—a major branch from duct run B
Do not be concerned with the details portion of the building west of the
mechanical room.
Step 5
Size the ducts and calculate the static pressure that the supply fan must over-
come. To minimize resistance, use round ducts where feasible, then square
t
ducts, and finally rectangular ducts that are as close to square as possible.
e
After choosing the zones and VAV terminals, you can now size the ducts.
Ignore the length of fittings, as their coefficients are based on having the duct
loss accounted for in the duct run. The procedure for sizing ducts is as follows:
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• Work out the flow in each section of duct.
• Look up the required round size and note the velocity if using round ducting.
• Convert round sizes to equivalent rectangular sizes as necessary to fit the
space restrictions, allowing for duct supports, sealing, and insulation.
Ducts should be sized using a fixed static pressure drop of 1.5 Pa/m for the
main runs to the VAV terminals, and 0.75 Pa/m for the runs from VAV terminal
pE
to outlet. Lengths for each segment to size are given in Table 12-9.
You may be able to use round or oval ducts in your real-world applications.
However, in this problem, we use rectangular ductwork with the following
guidelines.
1. The first segment of duct (A1 and B1) leaving the fan is 600 mm high.
2. Ducting is 400 mm high thereafter until it can be reduced to 300 × 300 mm.
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3. Use a height of 300 mm downstream of the VAV terminals.
4. Size round ducts to the nearest size shown in Figure 12-5.
5. Use 30° transitions (reduction in duct size); do not add transitions not
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shown.
Table 12-9 Sizing Branch C

Duct Size
Length, Flow, SP, Diameter, Width, Height,
Segment
G
m L/s Pa/m mm mm mm
B1 6
B2 3
B3 20
B4 6
C5 8
C6 8
296
G
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u
Chapter 12 A Duct Design Problem
pE
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Figure 12-5 Sizing chart for round ducts.
et
Figure the duct sizes from the fan to the end of branch C in Table 12-9 using
the sizing chart in Figure 12-5 and the round-to-rectangular chart in Table 12-10.
You will need the air velocity in the ducts to assess the pressure drop
through the various fittings. If you are to use round ducts, note the velocity as
you note the size on the chart. When you convert from round to rectangular
duct, the conversion table will be on the basis of the same flow and pressure
drop. Because the rectangular duct is a less efficient shape, the velocity will be
lower than if a round duct had been used.
t
You can calculate the velocity by dividing the flow (in meters per second)
e
by the lengths of the sides (in meters). Because the flows used in this section
are in L/s, you must divide L/s by 1000 to obtain m/s. On a calculator, this is
most simply done as (L/s)/1000 /side 1/side 2 = velocity m/s.
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The fitting coefficients shown in Figures 12-6 through 12-9 are for use
without roughness or other correction. They include all static and dynamic
gains and losses.
Now that you have completed Table 12-9, compare your results with those
shown in Table 12-11. If you calculated approximately the same results, well
done. If not, do you understand why there are differences?
Now calculate the pressure drops through the fittings in duct section C in
pE
Table 12-12. With the fitting loss, you can then calculate the total static pres-
sure the fan has to produce to offset the pressure drops around the section C air
system.
Compare your calculations with those shown in Table 12-13. Where differ-
ences exist, see if you can work out why.
Table 12-10 Round to Rectangular Duct Conversiona

Lgth Length of One Side of Rectangular Duct a, mm
u
b 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 900
Adj. Circular Duct Diameter, mm
100 109
125 122 137
150 133 150 164
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175 143 161 177 191

200 152 172 189 204 219
225 161 181 200 216 232 246
250 169 190 210 228 244 259 273
275 176 199 220 238 256 272 287 301
300 183 207 229 248 266 283 299 314 328
350 195 222 245 267 286 305 322 339 354 383
400 207 235 260 283 305 325 343 361 378 409 437
450 217 247 274 299 321 343 363 382 400 433 464 492
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500 227 258 287 313 337 360 381 401 420 455 488 518 547
550 236 269 299 326 352 375 398 419 439 477 511 543 573 601
600 245 279 310 339 365 390 414 436 457 496 533 567 598 628 656
650 253 289 321 351 378 404 429 452 474 515 553 589 622 653 683 711
700 261 298 331 362 391 418 443 467 490 533 573 610 644 677 708 737 765
750 268 306 341 373 402 430 457 482 506 550 592 630 666 700 732 763 792 820
800 275 314 350 383 414 442 470 496 520 567 609 649 687 722 755 787 818 847 875
900 289 330 367 402 435 465 494 522 548 597 643 686 726 763 799 833 866 897 927 984
1000 301 344 384 420 454 486 517 546 574 626 674 719 762 802 840 876 911 944 976 1037
a
Table based on De = 1.30(ab)0.625/(a + b)0.25.
bLengthadjacent side of rectangular duct b, mm.
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u pE
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Figure 12-6 Fitting coefficient CR3-1.
Once you have completed this comparison, look at Tables 12-14 and 12-15,
which show the comparable calculations for sections A and B.
G
Notice that the total pressure losses were highest for section C. The totals
are A, 704 Pa; B, 766 Pa; and C, 777 Pa. To demonstrate a point, assume that
the pressure drop in run B was also 709 Pa, as in section A.The pressure loss in
section C is 73 Pa greater than section A. This means that the fan must produce
the extra 73 Pa for a flow to C of 1017 L/s, just 12% of the total flow.
Producing extra pressure takes energy; let us consider how much:
e t
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pE
Figure 12-7 Fitting coefficient SR4-1.
u
Air kW = (L/s × kPa)/1002

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Typical equipment efficiencies are fan, 65% to 70% (say, 0.68); drive 98%
to 99% (say, 0.99); and motor, 86% to 90+% (say, 0.86).
Actual kW, typically = (L/s × kPa)/(1002 × 0.68 × 0.99 × 0.86)

= (L/s × kPa)/580
G
In this case, an increase in pressure drop of 0.073 kPa requires an additional
8692 × 0.0.073/580 = 1.1 kW
If the system runs for only 70 h/week, and electricity costs average $0.1/kWh,
the annual cost of just 73 Pa extra static pressure is 1.1 × 70 × 52 × 0.1 = $400.
For continuous operation, the annual cost rises to $964.
te
gp
u pE
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G

e t
gp
pE
u
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Consider duct run A in Table 12-14 and duct run C in Table 12-13. The
extra pressure losses in Section C compared to section A are in fittings FB2
and FB4. In both cases, the fittings have a high resistance. They can both be
changed to fittings with substantially lower pressure drops. In the case of fit-
ting FB2, fitting type CR3-1 resistance can be achieved by designing the fitting
as two elbows (Figure 12-10). For fitting CR3-1 with r/W = 1 and H/W = 400/
G
900 = 0.44, the coefficient is 0.25. Pressure loss is reduced from 50 Pa to 50 ×

0.25 = 12.5 Pa, a reduction of 37.5 Pa.
Using the same technique noted above, fitting FB4 can be made as a duct
that splits (SR5-1) so that the coefficient drops to 0.25 (see Figure 12-11). The
result of these two changes is to reduce section C to 698 Pa and section B to
734 Pa. The changes reduce the difference in losses to less than 36 Pa and
reduce the extra pressure cost above section A to approximately one third—
Table 12-11 Chosen Duct Sizes

Duct Size
Diameter,
Segment Length, m Flow, L/s SP, Pa/m Width, mm Height, mm
mm
A1 6 4012 1.4 800 900 600
A2 3 2601 1.4 630 900 400
t
A3 9 1238 1.4 500 550 400
e
A4 12 902 1.4 400 400 400
A5 11 566 1.4 315 275 300
A6 4 306 1.4 250 175 300
gp
A7 3 306 0.7 315 275 300
A8 6 204 0.7 250 175 300
B1 6 4693 1.4 800 900 600

B2 3 3282 1.4 630 900 400
pE
B3 20 2096 1.4 500 900 400
B4 9 1640 1.4 500 550 400
B5 5 623 1.4 315 275 300
B6 3 408 1.4 315 275 300
B7 6 408 0.7 315 275 300
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B8 6 204 0.7 250 175 300
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C5 9 1017 0.7 500 750 300

C6 9 509 0.7 400 450 300
$137 for the working week and $330 for continuous operation. This discussion
of the additional energy for relatively small branches with relatively higher
G
pressure drops is only an example. The pressure drop in Section B in our case
means that there is very little useful reduction in Section C pressure drop.
Always review your duct designs to check whether a particular fitting has
a significantly high drop and also whether a particular section has a signifi-
cantly higher pressure loss. Always mark on your drawings where you require
particular fittings so that the contractor does not degrade your intended design
by installing what is most convenient.
Table 12-12 Duct Run C—Fitting Dynamic Losses, Partial
G
Fitting Number Item
ASHRAE
Number
Parameters
Flow, Width, Depth, Velocity,
L/s mm mm m/s
Velocity
Pressure,
Pa
Co
SP Loss,
Pa
FB1 Transition SR5-13 4693 900 600

FB2 Tee SR5-14 3282 900 400
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FC5 Transition SR4-1 1017 750 400
Total fittings pressure loss =
u
Return grill
Return plenum
Mixing dampers
Common pressure drops
Filters
Cooling coil
Fan outlet supply plenum (system effect) and turn to duct
pE
Duct run m at 1.5 Pa/m 38
Duct run m at 0.75 Pa/m 18
Specific pressure drops Fittings
for supply route C Terminal unit
Diffuser connection
Diffuser
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Total Pressure, Pa =
303
e t
304
Table 12-13 Duct Run C—Duct System Losses

G
Fitting Number Item
ASHRAE
Number
Parameters
Flow, Width, Depth, Velocity,
L/s mm mm m/s
Velocity
Pressure,
Pa
Co
SP Loss,
Pa
FB1 Transition SR5-13 As /Ac = 0.7, Qs /Qc = 0.7 4693 900 600 8.7 45 0.04 1.8
FB2 Tee SR5-14 Ab /Ac = 1.0 3282 900 400 9.1 50 1 50.0
FB3 Transition SR5-13 As /Ac = 0.6, Qs /Qc = 0.8 2096 550 400 9.5 55 0.04 2.2
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FB4 Transition SR5-13 As /Ac = 1, Qs /Qc = 0.8 1640 550 400 7.5 33 1.65 55.2
FC5 Transition SR4-1 A/A = 0.6, 30° 1017 750 400 3.4 7 0.05 0.3
u
Return grill 15
Total fittings pressure loss = 109.6
Return plenum 40
Mixing dampers 30
Common pressure drops
Filters 250
Cooling coil 115
pE
Fan outlet supply plenum (system effect) and turn to duct 90 540
Duct run m at 1.5 Pa/m 38 57
Duct run m at 0.75 Pa/m 18 14
Specific pressure drops Fittings 110
for supply route C Terminal unit 40
Diffuser connection 2
Diffuser 15 237
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Total Pressure, Pa = 777
e t
Table 12-14 Duct Run A
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Fitting Number Item
ASHRAE
Number
Parameters
Flow,
L/s
Width,
mm
Depth, Velocity,
mm m/s
Velocity
Pressure,
Pa
Co
SP Loss,
Pa
FA1 Tee SR5-13 As /Ac = 0.7, Qs /Qc = 0.6 4013 900 600 7.43 33.25 0.09 3.0
FA2 Wye SR5-14 Ab /Ac = 0.5 2602 900 400 7.23 31.45 0.3 9.4
FA3 Tee SR5-13 As /Ac = 0.6, Qs /Qc = 0.7 1239 550 400 5.63 19.09 0 —
ro
FA6 Tap SR4-1 Ao /Ai = 0.5, 90° 307 175 300 5.85 20.59 0.14 2.9
FA7
FA8
Ell
u
Transition
CR3-1
SR4-1
r/W = 1.0, H/W = 1.0
Ao /Ai = 0.5, 30°
307
204
275
175
300
300
3.72
3.89
8.34
9.09
0.21
0.05
1.8
0.5
Return grill 15
Return plenum 40
Common pressure Mixing dampers 30
pE
drops Filters 250
Cooling coil 115
Duct run m at 1.5 Pa/m 47 m 70.5
Duct run m at 0.75 Pa/m 9 m liner × 1.3 8.8
Specific pressure Fittings 28.0
drops for
supply route A Terminal unit 40
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Diffuser 15 164
305
e t
306
Table 12-15 Duct Run B

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Fitting Number Item
ASHRAE
Number
Parameters
Flow,
L/s
Width,
mm
Depth, Velocity,
mm m/s
Velocity
Pressure,
Pa
Co
SP Loss,
Pa
FB1 Tee SR5-13 As /Ac = 0.7, Qs /Qc = 0.7 4693 900 600 8.69 453.468 0.04 1.8
FB2 Wye SR5-14 Ab /Ac = 1.0 3282 900 400 9.12 50.034 1.0 50.0
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FB6 Transition SR4-1 Ao /Ai = 0.5, 90° 408 175 300 7.77 36.358 0.14 5.1
FB7 Ell
u CR3-1 r/W = 1.0, H/W = 1.0 408 275 300 4.95 14.723 0.21 3.1
FB8 Transition SR4-1 Ao /Ai = 1.0, 30° 204 175 300 3.89 9.089 0 —
Return grill 15
Return plenum 40
Common pressure Mixing dampers 30
pE
drops Filters 250
Cooling coil 115
Duct run m at 1.5 Pa/m 47 m 71
Duct run m at 0.75 Pa/m 9 m liner × 1.3 12
Specific pressure Fittings 87
drops for
supply route B Terminal unit 40
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Diffuser 15 226
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Figure 12-10 New fitting FB2.
Step 6
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Lay out the system in detail, paying attention to height and width restric-
tions. Be sure to allow space for joints, supports, and any external insula-
tion in addition to light fixtures, sprinklers, and other building systems.
Assess the sound performance, and add attenuation as required. Recalcu-
late sizes and losses if there are any changes.
This exercise focuses on duct sizing and ignores the additional challenges
of sound calculations. Note that it’s difficult to add attenuation as required,
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especially if you have sized your ducts to fit the available space. In general, it is
best to choose a fan that does not require significant sound reduction and to
restrict duct velocities to avoid generating noise, as discussed in Chapter 10.
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Step 7
Complete the design by specifying duct materials, pressure classification,
seal classification, and any insulation or liner.
This step is reasonably straightforward. On more complex projects requir-
G
ing special materials, fabrication, or duct sealing (such as kitchen exhausts,

laboratory exhausts, and duct extraction), ensure that the specification and
drawings clearly define the requirements for each run of ductwork.
With external insulation, be clear where a vapor barrier is required. For
liner, be very clear about both the method and spacing of fixing and any sur-
face protection required. This is a situation where copying the manufacturer’s
suggested specification can be very effective, particularly if there are any
te
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Figure 12-11 SR5-1 fitting coefficient.

challenges with the installation. It is always easier to negotiate with a contrac-

tor if you have the material manufacturer on your side.
Now that you have worked through this example, apply what you’ve
learned to the Skill Development Exercises at the end of this chapter.
Conclusion
This course introduced you to air system design. If you have worked through
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the examples and exercises, you should understand the process. This the scope
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of this course is limited and does not include all detailed information on fan
performance, equipment resistances, duct fitting coefficients, sound attenuator
performance, ventilation air requirements and costs, to name a few. For these,
you will need to supplement the fundamentals presented here with other texts,
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including manufacturers’ information.
ASHRAE Handbooks contain information on air systems, duct design, and
sound and vibration control, as well as information for specific comfort and
industrial systems. The Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National
Association (SMACNA) produces several texts on duct system design, duct
fabrication standards, and installation requirements.
For industrial system design, particularly for the exhaust of contaminants,
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the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
produces a detailed system design guide. Also consider local Code require-
ments, which may incorporate National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
design codes to deal with fire and smoke.
If you are designing via a computer program, practice before you attempt a
project with an imminent deadline. Even the simplest software can require
inputs in a particular format or order. If you collect input data in a format that
matches the input requirements, input will be quicker, errors less likely, and
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error tracking more timely. Ask experienced program operators to run a dem-
onstration for you and provide advice on dealing with any idiosyncrasies.
When you have your computer output, run a common-sense check on the
results to confirm that sizes are sensible for the airflows.
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Finally, use information provided by manufacturers. Their staffs have been

trained in their products’ operation, so use them as a resource. Always ask
more than one manufacturer, so you can make comparisons and increase your
knowledge and understanding. If at first you do not receive the information you
need, ask again. Manufacturers would rather you specify their products cor-
rectly for suitable applications.
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Good air system design is an art refined and improved upon by experience.
We wish you well in your designs.

ASHRAE. 2008. ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment.

Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc.
ACGIH. 2010. Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice for
Design. 27th ed. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Industrial
Hygienists.
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12-1 In the example presented in this chapter, you were told that this is an intermedi-
ate floor of the multistory office building. Assuming that the layout and use of
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each floor are the same and excluding the basement, would you expect the
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loads to be the same on each floor?
a) Yes b) No
12-2 Due to a serious design error, you are being pressured to dramatically reduce
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the main duct sizes. You are asked how much the ducts would be reduced in
size if the system were designed to provide the supply air at 5°C instead of
12°C, while retaining the space design temperature of 24°C. As an example,
you suggest that a 400 × 400 mm duct could be reduced to _______________,
although the insulation thickness may need to be increased.
a) 200 × 200 mm b) 250 × 200 mm
c) 200 × 400 mm d) 250 × 400 mm
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12-3 One open area in the problem office floor will be used initially for general stor-
age and printing, with a room load of 56 W/m2. In the future, it will be devel-
oped for special use, but no layout has been established and no ceiling is to be
installed at this stage. The intermediate ceiling is the flat concrete floor above,
and temporary sidewall diffusers blowing across the space will be used. Know-
ing the tenant organization, you believe part of the space will be used as tempo-
rary office space before any fitting is performed. Therefore, you want to choose
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sidewall grilles that provide reasonable comfort. Using the table below, which
range of T0.25/L would you choose?
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Air Diffusion Performance Index (ADPI) Selection Guide

T0.25/L for For ADPI
Room Load, Maximum Range of
Terminal Device Maximum Greater T0.25/L
W/m2 ADPI
Than
ADPI
250 1.8 68 — —
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High-sidewall 190 1.8 72 70 1.5 to 2.2

grilles 125 1.6 78 70 1.2 to 2.3
65 1.5 85 80 1.0 to 1.9
a) 1.5 to 2.2 b) 1.2 to 2.3 c) 1.0 to 1.9

12-4 Due to a misunderstanding, the electrician has run a conduit across the route for
your main supply duct. The sheet metal contractor can narrow the 4000 L/s, 600
× 600 duct down to 600 × 450 to pass the conduit using a fitting. The fitting
coefficient is 0.3. You tell the owner the duct can be narrowed at slightly less
cost than having the electrician reroute the conduit. However, as the system will
be running 24 hours a day, all year, and electricity costs are already $0.12 per
kWh, the ductwork change will add _______________ to the annual electricity
bill, as this problem adds to the total resistance of the ductwork system.
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a) $161 b) $133 c) $112 d) $82
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12-5 You are in a design office and notice a chart pinned on the wall (see table
below). What pressure drop was used to produce this chart? (Refer to the duct
sizing chart in Figure 12-5.)
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Duct Size, mm Maximum Flow, L/s
200 100
250 180
300 312
400 630
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500 1200
a) 2.5 Pa/m b) 2 Pa/m c) 1.4 Pa/m d) 0.7 Pa/m

12-6 You are designing a dead-end length of supply duct to provide air at regular
intervals in a pedestrian tunnel between the office and somewhat dirty manu-
facturing buildings. The architect would like an unpainted galvanized steel spi-
ral steel duct with diffusers mounted from it. You warn the architect that
_______________.
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a) the unpainted surface will attract dust
b) the unsealed duct will likely produce dirt smudging at joint leaks,
making it look bad
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c) The leakage of air will reduce the conditioning air in the tunnel
12-7 The system works well and a near-peak design day is experienced. You are
showing a visitor around the control room and they ask why the return temper-
ature is at 26°C when the system is meant to maintain 24°C. You explain that
_______________.
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a) this was a lowest bid direct-digital-control system and the sensor

accuracy is not particularly good or reliable
b) air from the occupied spaces at 24°C is warmed by heat from the
lights between the occupied spaces and the return air sensor at the
air-handling unit inlet
c) energy from the supply fan increases the return temperature
several degrees
12-8 You are in a design office and notice a chart pinned on the wall (see table below).
What limiting velocity was used to produce the chart? (Refer to Figure 12-5).
Duct Size, mm Max. Flow, L/s

100 100
200 400
300 900
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400 1600
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500 2500
a) 20 m/s b) 16 m/s c) 12 m/s d) 8 m/s

12-9 An 450 mm high × 900 mm wide supply duct carrying 2500 L/s runs along
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the ceiling before turning upward to go up a floor and run back along the cor-
ridor above (see figure below). What is the total pressure loss in the pair of
smooth elbows, assuming they are type CR3-1 (data on page 16) smooth
radius elbow fittings with r/W, radius/width, of 1.5?
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a) 28.2 Pa b) 6.4 Pa c) 12.8 Pa d) 3.2 Pa

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Skill Development
Exercises
To receive full continuing education credit, all questions must be answered and
submitted at www.ashrae.org/sdlonline. Please log in using your student ID
t
number and the SDL number. Your student ID number is composed of the last
five digits of your Social Security number or another unique 5-digit number
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you create when first registering online. The SDL number for this course can
be located near the top of the copyright page of this book.
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Chapter 1 Skill Development Exercises

Total number of questions: 11
1-1 In Figure 1-6, area A1 = 2 m2, area A2 = 1.25 m2, and velocity V1 = 10 m/s. Cal-
t
culate V2 (m/s).
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a) 16 m/s b) 25.6 m/s c) 7.5 m/s d) 12.6 m/s
1-2
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The total pressure at a certain point in a system is determined to be 1.25 kPa,
and the static pressure at that point is determined to be 500 Pa. What is the
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velocity pressure (Pa) at that point?
a) 1.75 b) 1 c) 750 d) 250
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1-3
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Which of the following is the most correct definition of static-pressure regain?

a) as the velocity of an airstream decreases, the static pressure increases.
b) as the velocity of an enclosed airstream decreases due to friction, the
static pressure increases.
c) friction reduces static pressure, while velocity pressure increases with
reduction in duct size.
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Skill Development Exercises Chapter 1
1-4 An air-handling system is determined to have a 1500 Pa pressure drop through

the system at a flow of 4000 L/s. What is the system constant?
a) 2.7 b) 6000 c) 77.4 d) 103
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1-5 The product of fluid pressure and specific volume is _______________?
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a) internal energy b) Reynolds number (Re)
c) kinetic energy d) flow work
e) viscosity
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1-6 A water manometer measures _______________.
a) velocity b) pressure c) temperature d) all of the above
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1-7 Fan pressures are typically indicated in what units?

a) Pa b) kg/m2 c) N/m d) none of the above
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1-8 If the cross-sectional area of a duct decreases in size, the velocity of an air-
stream passing through the duct increases.

a) True b) False
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1-9 Air passes through a length of inaccessible duct with a constant cross-sectional
area. You suspect that there is a serious leak in the duct. The velocity pressure
drops from 200 to 160 Pa along the suspect section of duct. Approximately
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what percentage of air is being lost through the leak?
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1-10 2000 L/s of outdoor air at 2°C is drawn in over a heater and delivered into the
building at 24°C. What volume of air is delivered?
a) 1851 L/s b) 2000 L/s c) 2079 L/s d) 2160 L/s
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1-11 In an air-conditioning system, 15 m3/s of return air at 25°C is mixing with

2.3 m3/s of outdoor air at 35°C. What is the approximate resulting volume
and temperature?
a) 17.3 m3/s, 22.7°C b) 17.3 m3/s, 29.9°C
c) 17.3 m3/s, 26.3°C d) 17.3 m3/s, 33.7°C
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2-1 The symbol in the figure below represents a(n) _______________.
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a) centrifugal fan b) axial fan
c) diffuser d) none of the above
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2-2 In the figure below, this ductwork is _______________, and the dimension of
the side shown is _______________.
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a) dropping, 500 b) dropping, 300

c) rising, 500 d) none of the above
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2-3 The symbol in the figure below is for a flexible duct.

a) True b) False
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2-4 The symbol in the figure below shows a(n) _______________.
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a) blanked-off duct, with a top dimension of 300
b) return air duct, with a side dimension of 450
c) supply air duct, with a side dimension of 450
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2-5 The dimension of the duct shown in the figure below is 600.
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a) True b) False
2-6 A filter that uses a liquid as an adhesive is a(n) _______________.

a) carbon filter b) electrostatic filter

c) viscous filter d) all of the above
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2-7 An air-handling unit may be used to _______________.
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a) move air b) mix air
c) heat air d) all of the above
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a) manually operated damper

b) electrically controlled damper
c) manual damper
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a) pneumatically operated damper
b) inline psychrometric observation device
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c) fire damper
d) all of the above
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a) temperature relay
b) test station
c) remote bulb thermostat
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d) all of the above

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3-1 The human body uses which of the following heat transfer mechanisms?
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a) radiation b) convection c) evaporation d) all of the above
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3-2
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The perception of comfort relates to which of the following?
a) individual physical condition
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b) body heat exchange with the surroundings
c) physiological characteristics
d) all of the above
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3-3 Based on the comfort chart from ASHRAE Standard 55 (Figure 3-2), which of
the following would be within the acceptable range of temperature and humid-
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ity for human comfort when wearing light summer clothing?

a) 27°C, 30% RH b) 25°C, 50% RH
c) 23°C, 40% RH d) both a and b
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3-4 In a system with 7000 annual wet-bulb degree hours above 19°C, with a maxi-
mum 55% RH indoor desired, and 72 h of cooling system operation per week,
the energy used will be _______________ × 1000 mJ per year per 1000 L/s.
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3-5 The __________________ procedure for determining the required ventilation
rate is based on knowledge of the contaminants being generated within the
space and the capability of the ventilation air supply to limit them to acceptable
levels.
a) indoor air quality b) ventilation rate
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c) contaminant mitigation d) all of the above
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3-6 Many designers have adopted a minimum total supply airflow of ___________
for office applications.
a) 0.6 to 1.8 L/s·m2 b) 3.6 to 4.8 L/s·m2
c) 1.2 to 12.0 L/s·m2 d) all of the above
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3-7 The airstream velocity at the end of the throw is called _______________.
a) terminal velocity b) primary velocity

c) airstream velocity d) all of the above
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3-8 _________________ air distribution systems create relatively uniform air con-
ditions in the occupied zone.
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a) Unidirectional b) Local c) Mixing d) All of the above
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3-9 The stagnant region of a Group B mixing outlet in a heating-only system is
_______________ the stagnant region of a Group A mixing outlet.
a) larger than b) the same as
c) smaller than d) all of the above
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3-10 In displacement systems, the outlets are frequently located _______________.

a) at or near the floor level b) in the walls
c) in the ceiling d) all of the above
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3-11 Smudging is most likely to occur from dirt particles held in suspension in
_______________
a) room air b) supply air c) return air d) all of the above
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3-12 The fan kW for underfloor supply systems can often be less than required for a
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ceiling supply mixing system due to which of the following?
a) much cooler supply air
b) the low resistance to airflow in the plenum
c) the insulating value of the floor and carpet
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3-13 Underfloor supply systems work well for large open areas and the most effec-
tive control is a thermostat in the return duct.
a) True b) False
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4-1 External offices with windows will have different thermal characteristics than
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windowless rooms in the interior of the building.
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a) True b) False
4-2
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In a building with a natatorium, the air pressure gradients within the building
should _______________.
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a) draw air from the natatorium into the rest of the building
b) draw air into the natatorium from the rest of the building
c) relieve the natatorium air intake
d) all of the above
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4-3 Which of the following is an advantage of an all-air system?

a) additional duct clearance is not required
b) air balancing in large systems is less difficult
c) vertical shaft space is not required
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4-4 Single-duct, single-zone systems can respond simultaneously to more than one
set of space conditions, in more than one area at a time.
a) True b) False
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4-5 In air-and-water systems, the air supply generally has a constant volume.
a) True b) False
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4-6 Evaporative coolers _______________.
a) evaporate water into an airstream
b) exchange sensible heat for latent heat
c) can be either direct or indirect
d) all of the above
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4-7 An economizer can achieve energy savings when _______________.

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a) the outdoor-air enthalpy is lower than the supply air enthalpy

b) the outdoor-air enthalpy is higher than the supply air enthalpy, but
lower than the return air enthalpy
c) both of the above
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4-8 A minimum height of _______________ above the roof surface is recom-

mended for locating outdoor-air louvers where light snowfall is expected.

a) 0.25 m b) 0.50 m c) 0.75 m d) 1.00 m
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5-1 Natural ventilation systems are most applicable when the building produces a
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significant stack effect.
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a) True b) False
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5-2 Care must be taken in exhaust systems to minimize _______________.
a) corrosion b) dissolution c) melting d) all of the above
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5-3 All other things being equal, ductwork is least subject to condensation corro-
sion when the runs are _______________.
a) long and horizontal b) short and vertical
c) direct to the terminal discharge d) all of the above
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5-4 Kitchen air pressure should be kept _______________ relative to other areas.
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5-5 Smoke movement is driven by _______________.
a) stack effect b) buoyancy c) expansion d) all of the above
5-6
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To prevent smoke infiltration on a fire floor, a pressurized stairwell must main-
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tain a _______________ pressure difference across a closed stairwell door.
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5-7 Health facility ventilation requires _______________.

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a) little need for accurate control of temperature and humidity

b) free movement of air between departments
c) removal of airborne microorganisms
d) all of the above
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6-1 A fan delivers 6000 L/s at a pressure of 300 Pa at a rotational speed of 750 rpm.
t
If the fan speed is reduced to 600 rpm, how much air will the fan deliver and at
what pressure?
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a) 4800 L/s, 240 Pa b) 4800 L/s, 192 Pa
c) 3840 L/s, 240 Pa d) 3840 L/s, 192 Pa
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6-2 Given a fan operating at 4000 L/s, 750 Pa total pressure, and 3.75 kW, what is
the fan total efficiency?
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6-3 Given a fan operating at 4000 L/s and using 2.3 kW, what is the fan total effi-
ciency?
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6-4 What is one effective duct length for a duct with a duct velocity of 20 m/s and
a) 6.79 m b) 4.3 m c) 1.57 m d) none of the above
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6-5 What is one effective duct length for a duct with a duct velocity of 4.1 m/s and
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a) 1.07 m b) 2.18 m c) 4.33 d) none of the above
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6-6 A rectangular duct is 250 mm high and 500 mm wide. What is the equivalent
duct diameter of this duct?
a) 550 mm b) 400 mm c) 460 mm d) none of the above
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6-7 For any given system, the system effect factor is constant across the range of
flow volumes of the fan.
a) True b) False
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6-8 A fixed-fan system draws 2.2 kW to deliver 5000 L/s. If the airflow require-
ment can be reduced to 3500 L/s by decreasing the fan speed, the motor power

requirement will be reduced to _______________.
a) 2.1 kW b) 1.0 kW c) 0.76 kW d) none of the above
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6-9 The _______________ is the highest efficiency centrifugal fan design.
a) radial
b) forward curved
c) backward inclined, backward curved
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6-10 Power roof ventilators _______________.
a) usually operate without discharge ductwork
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b) operate at low pressure
c) operate at high volume
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7-1 The system depicted in the figure below consists of a fan, ductwork, and outlets.
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The duct is the same size as the fan outlet, so no system effect factor needs to be
added. The outlets are VAV boxes with a 180 Pa pressure drop at 1200 L/s.The
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fan speed is adjusted to deliver 2400 L/s. The Co value of the elbow is 0.2, and
the transition is style SR4-1 as in Example 7-2. The total pressure drop in the
system is _______________.
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a) about 726 Pa
b) about 387 Pa
c) about 539 Pa
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7-2 Air duct system design must consider _______________.

a) noise
b) duct leakage, heat gains, and heat losses

c) fire and smoke control
d) all of the above
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7-3 Duct sizing and construction specifications are generally stated in terms of the
use of _______________.
a) galvanized steel
b) aluminum
c) fiberglass reinforced plastic
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7-4 Generally the most efficient and economical ducts for air systems are
a) rectangular
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b) oval
c) round
d) all of the above
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7-5 Duct systems of rectangular fibrous glass are generally limited to

a) 12 m/s and ±0.5 kPa

b) 20 m/s and ±1 kPa
c) 10 m/s and ±200 Pa
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7-6 Compression of flexible ducts significantly decreases airflow resistance.
a) True
b) False
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7-7 Sealant systems have been developed that can substitute for mechanical joining
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of ductwork.
a) True
b) False
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8-1 Combustibility and toxicity ratings are normally based on tests of
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_______________.
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a) new materials b) old work
c) fibrous materials d) all of the above
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8-2 In the private sector, new construction is normally governed by ____________.
a) state laws b) local ordinances
c) codes d) all of the above
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8-3 Zone temperature controls are required for all systems, with special require-
ments for perimeter heating systems.
a) True b) False
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8-4 Which of the following standards applies to structures not exceeding 700 m3 in
volume?
a) NFPA 90A b) NFPA 90B

c) NFPA 96 d) all of the above
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8-5 SMACNA HVAC Duct Construction Standards covers _______________.
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a) basic duct construction b) hangers and supports
c) duct-sealing classifications d) all of the above
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8-6 ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 has a somewhat easier compliance route for many
small air-conditioned buildings.
a) True b) False
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8-7 Compliance with ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1, Section 6, assures a minimum

level of HVAC system performance.
a) True b) False
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8-8 HVAC designers must know which code compliance obligations affect their
designs.

a) True b) False
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8-9 HVAC systems are one of the most significant energy users in the types of
buildings covered by ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1.
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a) True b) False
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8-10 A very efficient HVAC system could have an overall efficiency greater than
one.
a) True b) False
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9-1 In a smoke control system, _______________.
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a) a smoke damper inhibits the passage of air that may or may not
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contain smoke
b) moderate leakage of smoke-free air through the damper does not
adversely affect the control of smoke movement
c) design the system so that only smoke-free air is on the high-
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pressure side of a smoke damper, unless the smoke control
damper is in the return air system
d) all of the above
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9-2 Particles less than _______________ in diameter are generally referred to as
the fine mode.
a) 0.75 µm b) 7.5 µm c) 75 µm d) none of the above
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9-3 From an industrial hygiene perspective, particles with an aerodynamic particle

size of _______________ or greater are considered the nonrespirable fraction
of dust.
a) 5 µm b) 10 µm c) 15 µm d) none of the above
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9-4 _______________ measures the ability of the filter to remove particulate mat-
ter from an airstream.
a) Efficiency b) Airflow resistance

c) Dust-holding capacity d) All of the above
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9-5 Different types of filters are distinguished by _______________.
a) efficiency b) airflow resistance
c) dust-holding capacity d) all of the above
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9-6 Filters collect particles by _______________.
a) straining b) inertial deposition
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c) electrostatic effects d) all of the above

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9-7 In panel filters, the accumulating dust load causes pressure drop to
_______________.

a) decrease to the filtration load rating, then increase
b) increase to the filtration load rating, then decrease
c) have no effect, remain constant
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9-8 Electronic filters, if maintained properly by regular cleaning, have relatively
constant pressure drop and efficiency.
a) True b) False
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9-9 Important requirements for a satisfactory and efficiently operating air filter
installation include _______________.
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a) ample capacity for the amount of air and dust load it is expected to
handle
b) suitability to the operating conditions
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c) affordability for the specific application

d) all of the above
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9-10 Duct heaters may be _______________.

a) steam b) water c) electric d) all of the above
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9-11 The performance of particulate filters is categorized in ASHRAE Standard
52.2 into 20 MERV ratings, with MERV 1 being coarse screen and MERV 20
being the high-rating filter for demanding cleanroom situations. To control a
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buildup of dirt on wet cooling coils, ASHRAE Standard 62.1 requires a filter
be installed upstream of cooling coils that can run wet. What MERV filter rat-
ing does the Standard require?
a) MERV 2 b) MERV 6 c) MERV 10 d) MERV 14
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9-12 The parallel-blade damper deflects air in one direction as it passes through.
This usually makes the performance of a parallel-blade damper more sensitive
to location than is an opposed-blade damper in the same location.
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a) True b) False
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10-1 Fundamental sound-related issues of concern to the HVAC designer include
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_______________.
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a) sound pressure levels in occupied spaces
b) sound power levels produced by equipment
c) sound intensity in supply and return sound paths
d) all of the above
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e) a and b only
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10-2 The audible frequency range extends from about _______________.
a) 20 kHz to 20 mHz
b) 2 Hz to 20 Hz
c) 20 Hz to 20 kHz
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10-3 Typically, the cost of preventing sound and vibration problems in an HVAC
system is approximately _______________ of the total system cost.
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10-4 A mechanical room housing a fan or AHU with an unducted intake should
have a floor area of _______________ for each 1000 L/s of airflow.
a) 0.4 to 0.7 m2
b) 0.9 to 1.4 m2
c) 1.3 to 1.9 m2
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10-5 All HVAC equipment rooms should have a floor area large enough to allow a
clearance of at least _______________ mm around all equipment.
pE a) 300 b) 450 c) 600 d) none of the above
10-6 Sound-absorbing material can be arranged in a duct system by ____________.

a) lining fan suction and discharge plenums
b) lining ducts with sound-absorbing material
c) lining duct sections close to elbows
d) all of the above
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10-7 Duct silencers should be located _______________ duct diameters for every
5 m/s mean air velocity out of the fan supply.
a) 0.1 b) 0.5 c) 1.0 d) none of the above
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10-8 Reactive silencers are often used in medical facilities where sterilization or
biological decontamination may be required.

a) True b) False
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10-9 Choosing a silencer is dependent on _______________.
a) air resistance
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b) regenerated noise
c) space availability
d) attenuation
e) all of the above
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10-10 Inherent resistance to vibration and sound breakout are advantages of round duct.
a) True b) False
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11-1 The _______________ is the generally accepted method of measuring airflow
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in duct systems.
a) anemometer
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b) psychrometer
c) digital anemometer or pitot-tube traverse
d) all of the above
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11-2 Most procedures for establishing accurate airflows in air-handling systems rely
on measuring air volumes at the terminals.
a) True b) False
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11-3 Pressure drops through equipment such as dampers or filters may be used to
measure airflow.
a) True b) False
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11-4 _______________ is a necessary instrument for air balancing.

a) pitot tube or digital anemometer
b) flow hood
c) digital or dial thermometers
d) all of the above
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11-5 Air leaks in casing and around coils and filter frames should be checked by
_______________.
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a) moving a bright light along the outside of joints against the duct
b) red smoke introduced into the airstream
c) halogen sniffers
d) all of the above
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11-6 _______________ dampers should be used for major adjusting and
_______________ dampers for trim or minor adjustment only.
a) branch, terminal b) terminal, branch
c) branch, subbranch d) none of the above
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11-7 The _______________ is frequently used to measure diffusers and slot air
flows.
a) anemometer b) pitot tube
c) capture hood d) all of the above
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11-8 _______________ are commonly used to measure airflow into sidewall grilles.
a) rotating vane anemometers b) pitot tubes

c) flow hoods d) all of the above
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11-9 Air volume measurements taken at terminals are generally more reliable than
those obtained in the ducts.
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a) True b) False
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11-10 Pressures involved with air measurements include _______________.
a) barometric pressure b) static pressure
c) velocity pressure d) all of the above
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11-11 Under certain conditions, air turbulence is desirable and necessary.

a) True b) False
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11-12 To avoid your check on sound pressure levels being challenged, it is best to
have agreed on _______________.
a) the allowable levels

b) the method for determining reading locations
c) an adjustment to the readings if the spaces are unfurnished
d) whether the levels are to be assessed against an A weighting,
noise criteria, room criteria, or other scale
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e) All of the above
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11-13 The most useful item for initial assessment of the cause of noise and vibration
problems is _______________.
a) a complainer
b) your ears
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c) a high-quality sound meter with octave band filters
d) all of the above
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11-14 When recording sound pressure levels during a check to establish that levels
are within specification, it is valuable to note any noticeable tones, even when
the levels are within specification, because _______________.
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a) the tone indicates that the system causes significant vibration

b) the occupants may complain about the tone
c) the client’s sound level meter may be more sensitive to the tone
than yours
d) all of the above
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12-1 In the example presented in this chapter, you were told that this is an intermedi-
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ate floor of the multistory office building. Assuming that the layout and use of
each floor are the same and excluding the basement, would you expect the
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loads to be the same on each floor?
a) Yes b) No
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12-2 Due to a serious design error, you are being pressured to dramatically reduce
the main duct sizes. You are asked how much the ducts would be reduced in
size if the system were designed to provide the supply air at 5°C instead of
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12°C, while retaining the space design temperature of 24°C. As an example,
you suggest that a 400 × 400 mm duct could be reduced to _______________,
although the insulation thickness may need to be increased.
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a) 200 × 200 mm b) 250 × 200 mm

c) 200 × 400 mm d) 250 × 400 mm
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12-3 One open area in the problem office floor will be used initially for general stor-
age and printing, with a room load of 56 W/m2. In the future, it will be devel-
oped for special use, but no layout has been established and no ceiling is to be
installed at this stage. The intermediate ceiling is the flat concrete floor above,
and temporary sidewall diffusers blowing across the space will be used. Know-
ing the tenant organization, you believe part of the space will be used as tempo-
rary office space before any fitting is performed. Therefore, you want to choose
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sidewall grilles that provide reasonable comfort. Using the table below, which
range of T0.25/L would you choose?
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Air Diffusion Performance Index (ADPI) Selection Guide
T0.25/L for For ADPI
Room Load, Maximum Range of
Terminal Device Maximum Greater
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W/m2 ADPI T0.25/L
ADPI Than
250 1.8 68 — —
High 190 1.8 72 70 1.5 to 2.2
sidewall grilles 125 1.6 78 70 1.2 to 2.3
65 1.5 85 80 1.0 to 1.9
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a) 1.5 to 2.2 b) 1.2 to 2.3 c) 1.0 to 1.9
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12-4 Due to a misunderstanding, the electrician has run a conduit across the route for
your main supply duct. The sheet metal contractor can narrow the 4000 L/s, 600
× 600 duct down to 600 × 450 to pass the conduit using a fitting. The fitting
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coefficient is 0.3. You tell the owner the duct can be narrowed at slightly less
cost than having the electrician reroute the conduit. However, as the system will
be running 24 hours a day, all year, and electricity costs are already $0.12 per
kWh, the ductwork change will add _______________ to the annual electricity
bill, as this problem adds to the total resistance of the ductwork system.
a) $161 b) $133 c) $112 d) $82
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12-5 You are in a design office and notice a chart pinned on the wall (see table
below). What pressure drop was used to produce this chart? (Refer to the duct

sizing chart in Figure 12-5.)
Duct Size, mm Maximum Flow, L/s

200 100
250 180
t
300 312
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400 630
500 1200
a) 2.5 Pa/m b) 2 Pa/m c) 1.4 Pa/m d) 0.7 Pa/m
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12-6 You are designing a dead-end length of supply duct to provide air at regular
intervals in a pedestrian tunnel between the office and somewhat dirty manu-
facturing buildings. The architect would like an unpainted galvanized steel spi-
ral steel duct with diffusers mounted from it. You warn the architect that
_______________.
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a) the unpainted surface will attract dust
b) the unsealed duct will likely produce dirt smudging at joint leaks,
making it look bad
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c) The leakage of air will reduce the conditioning air in the tunnel
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12-7 The system works well and a near-peak design day is experienced. You are
showing a visitor around the control room and they ask why the return temper-
ature is at 26°C when the system is meant to maintain 24°C. You explain that
_______________.
a) this was a lowest bid direct-digital-control system and the sensor
accuracy is not particularly good or reliable
b) air from the occupied spaces at 24°C is warmed by heat from the
lights between the occupied spaces and the return air sensor at the
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air-handling unit inlet
c) energy from the supply fan increases the return temperature
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several degrees
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12-8 You are in a design office and notice a chart pinned on the wall (see table below).
What limiting velocity was used to produce the chart? (Refer to Figure 12-5).
Duct Size, mm Max. Flow, L/s

100 100
200 400
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300 900
400 1600
500 2500
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a) 20 m/s b) 16 m/s c) 12 m/s d) 8 m/s

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12-9 An 450 mm high × 900 mm wide supply duct carrying 2500 L/s runs along
the ceiling before turning upward to go up a floor and run back along the cor-

ridor above (see figure below). What is the total pressure loss in the pair of
smooth elbows, assuming they are type CR3-1 (data on page 16) smooth
radius elbow fittings with r/W, radius/width, of 1.5?
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a) 28.2 Pa b) 6.4 Pa c) 12.8 Pa d) 3.2 Pa
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ASHRAE LEARNING INSTITUTE
Self-Directed Learning Course Evaluation Form
Course Title: Fundamentals of Air System Design (SI) (2010)
On a scale of 1 to 5, circle the number that corresponds to your feeling about the statements below.
(1 = strongly agree, 5 = strongly disagree, 3 = undecided)
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Strongly Strongly
Course Content Agree Undecided Disagree
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1. The objectives of the course were clearly stated. 1 2 3 4 5
2. The course content supported the stated objectives. 1 2 3 4 5
3. The content quality and format of the course material make it valuable as a future reference. 1 2 3 4 5
4. The quality and clarity of the charts and diagrams enhanced your ability 1 2 3 4 5
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to understand the course concepts.
5. The organization of course material supported effective mastery of the 1 2 3 4 5
topic.
6. The material presented will be of practical use to you in your work. 1 2 3 4 5
7. The degree of difficulty (level) of this course was correct to meet your 1 2 3 4 5
needs and expectations.
General
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1. Which description best characterizes your primary job function?
_____Architect* _____Developer _____Manufacturer _____Sales
_____Code Agency _____Educator/Research _____Marketing _____Specifier
_____Consultant _____Energy Conservation _____Owner _____Student
_____Contractor/Installer _____Facilities Engineer _____Plant Engineer _____Utilities
_____Consumer/User _____Government _____Policy Maker/Regulator
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_____Other (please specify)________________________________________________________________________________
*Are you a registered architect? ___No ___Yes, AIA Membership Number (required)_____________________
2. Which describes your educational background?

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_____High School _____Master's Degree—Engineering

_____Associates Degree/Certificate Program _____Master's Degree—Other Than Engineering
_____Bachelor's Degree—Engineering Technology _____Doctoral Degree—Engineering
_____Bachelor's Degree—Engineering _____Doctoral Degree—Other Than Engineering
_____Bachelor's Degree—Other Than Engineering
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_____Other (please specify)_______________________________________________________________________________
3. Approximately how many hours did it take you to complete this course?
_____10 hours _____20 hours _____30 hours _____40 hours _____Other (please specify)___________
4. What topics would you suggest for future courses? ______________________________________________________________

General Comments regarding any aspect of the course, including suggestions for improvement:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Return to: ASHRAE, Education Department, 1791 Tullie Circle NE, Atlanta, GA 30329
Fax: 404-321-5478
Flexible and Effective Continuing Education
for HVAC&R Professionals
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This new SI version of Fundamentals of Air System Design includes updated
standards and guidelines, revised damper information, and a completely
pe
rewritten chapter on sound and vibrations in air systems. Twelve chapters
comprise the course, begining with an introduction to air system basics
and culminating in an example design that draws on lessons learned. Skill
Development Exercises at the end of each chapter help readers assess
their understanding of the material and apply what they learn to real-world
situations. Answers to to these exercises can be submitted online to earn
Eg
PDH, CEU, or LU credits.
Fundamentals of Air System Design provides an indispensable introduction

to designing systems for the transfer of air in buildings and is intended for
engineering graduates who wish to broaden their expertise, as well as vet-
eran technicians seeking to brush up on current theory and practice.
up
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1791 Tullie Circle

Atlanta, GA 30329-2305
Telephone: 404/636-8400
Fax: 404/321-5478
E-mail: edu@ashrae.org
www.ashrae.org/ali
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9 781933 74287 8
Product Code: 98038 9/15
Errata noted in the list dated

6/24/15 have been corrected.
Air_System_Design_cover.indd 2 8/27/2015 4:18:32 PM

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Fundamentals of

Air System Design

A Course Book for

Includes Skill Development Exercises

A Course Book for Self-Directed or Group Learning

Fundamentals of... Editorial Coordinator

HVAC Systems ASHRAE Learning Institute Telephone: 404/636-8400

Karen M. Murray Email: kmurray@ashrae.org

We hope your educational experience is satisfying and successful.

Chapter 5: Exhaust and Ventilation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Fan Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Chapter 7: Duct System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Noise and Vibration Diagnostics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Skill Development Exercises

Fundamentals of Air System Design SI is an introductory guide to

Production of this SI version of the course has been a joint effort. I am

Static and Dynamic Compressible Fluid (Air) Laws

Difference between Mass and Weight

As a thermodynamic property, density is the ratio of mass to volume. It has

rho). At times, it is convenient to express the density as weight density, , (the

• Atmospheric air pressure on the surface of the water

Note that the density is the weight density, = (g/gc) .

The Continuity Equation

two locations, 1 and 2, on the same duct, we can write

Under normal conditions in a short length of duct with no heating or cool-

and institutional HVAC system with very small pressure changes.

ume, L/s, is equivalent to mass and use Equation 1-3:

For example, based on Equation 1-3, the resulting volume is

11 000 + 3000 = 14 000 L/s

11 000 24 + 3000 5 = 11 000 + 3000 Tm

Tm = 19.9°C, which is very close to the correct answer of 19.7°C.

Following is a brief listing and discussion of the forms of energy:

the fluid on an external machine, such as an electric generator. Fluid fric-

• Kinetic energy results from motion. For example, an automobile traveling

Kinetic Energy = mV2/2 J (m in kg, V in m/s)

The Energy Equation is simply a balance of the forms of energy described

The terms of the Energy Equation are depicted in Figure 1-3.

Static Pressure, Velocity Pressure, and Total Pressure

Now let's discuss a run of ductwork with the following conditions:

• No machines exist, so all work terms are zero.

weight density, . Equation 1-6b then becomes

p static + p velocity = p total (1-6e)

Examining the units of the velocity pressure term, we find that

• vertical temperature lines, °C.

Air Handling—A Practical Application

less at A2 than at A1.

In terms of head as meters of fluid flowing, the Darcy-Weisbach equation

--------f = f --- ------- m (1-11)

For standard air, the Darcy-Weisbach equation can be written

where µ is the absolute viscosity in mPa·s, V is the velocity in m/s, D is the

laminar flow filters where the pore size, D, is very small.

Several interesting features are present on the Moody chart:

• If this value is substituted into Equation 1-12, we get the following:

where n is a numeric constant and V, the kinematic viscosity, is with

It is used extensively in HVAC systems work. A system curve, as shown in Fig-

Similarly, we find that K = 10. Values of pf and m3/s can be plotted on a

As long as the system is unchanged, it will operate on this curve.

The Friction Chart

pressure around the duct is the same on all sides.

Figure 1-10 Friction chart (ASHRAE 2009).

Table 1-1 Typical Altitude Correction Factors

Packaged air-conditioning units, air-cooled condenser

energy in = energy out – energy stored in the system