VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, BELAGAVI

SUBJECT CODE: 18CSE13

SUBJECT NAME: MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

PROGRAMME/COURSE: M.Tech (STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING)

DEPARTMENT: CIVIL

NAME OF THE STUDENT: ARJUN RATHOD

REG. NO: 2VX18CSE02

SEMESTER/YEAR: 1ST SEM/ 1ST YEAR

SUBJECT LEADER: Dr. SATISH A ANNIGERI

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

JNANA SANGAMA, SANTIBASTAWADN ROAD,VTU CAMPUS BELAGAVI 590018

STRAIN GAGES AND STRAIN ROSETTES ARJUN RATHOD

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VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, BELAGAVI
STRAIN GAGE

Definition:

When a force is applied to body, the body deforms. In the general case, the deformation is called strain.

Introduction:

Strain gauges measurements play an important role in many industrial sectors. Appropriate
measurements systems can define the strain level occurring in different construction from biomechanics
to civil engineering

The most commonly used strain gauge is an electrical resistance strain gauge.

Working Principle [1]:

A Strain gauge (Figure 1) is a sensor used to measure strain. It has a conductive grid, which changes its
electrical resistance when is deformed. Grid deformation is caused by forces coming from loaded object
to which strain gauge is mounted by bonding. Strain gauge produces as output change of resistance
corresponding to a physical change of the investigated object.

Figure 1. Stain gauge construction

The strain gauge principle of operation is based on Equation (1). When the strain gauge is subjected to
tensile or compressive forces, it changes its length and cross-section which affects change of the
resistance.

𝑙
𝑅 = 𝑆 ∗ 𝜌------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1)

Where,

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R – Electrical Resistance (Ω)

𝜌 –Electrical resistivity (Ω. 𝑚)

𝑙 - Length (m)

S – Cross section Area 𝑚2

The change of resistance is proportional to the change of the length, Equation (2).

∆𝑅 ∆𝐿
𝑅
~𝐿 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)
𝑂

Where,

∆𝐿 - Difference between initial Length 𝐿𝑂 and final length

𝐿𝑂 – Initial Length

∆𝑅 – Resistance (Ω)

The difference between absolute and relative change in length presents belowFigure .

∆𝑳 = 𝑳 − 𝑳𝑶 Absolute change in length

∆𝑳
𝑳𝑶
Relative change in length

Strain is the ratio of length change to the initial length of sample, Equation (3).

∆𝐿
𝜖=𝐿 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3)
𝑂

Based on Equation (2) and Equation (3) we obtained Equation (4)

∆𝑅
𝑅
~𝜖 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4)

Where,

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𝜖 − strain (μm/m)

The proportional sign in Equation (4) can be replaced by a constant k, which is characteristic for the
individual stain gauge and gives connection between resistance change and strain, Equation (5).

∆𝑅
= 𝑘 ∗ 𝜖 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (5)
𝑅

Because ∆𝑳 is very small, the magnitude10−6 for strain ε common unit is𝛍𝐦/𝐦 .When selecting strain
gauge following criteria should be taken in consideration:

 Material to which the strain gauge temperature response is matched

 Measuring grid resistance
 Maximum permissible effective bridge excitation voltage
 Number of measuring grid, their dimensions and positions to each other’s.

When the strain gauge has been selected, another important aspect is to use suitable adhesive and
covering material adapted to working conditions, mainly in terms of the operating temperature. Figure 2
presents fully installed strain gauge on the object.

Figure 2. Properly installed strain gauge on object

How They Work [2]:

The strain gauge has been in use for many years and is the fundamentalsensing element for many types of sensors,
including pressure sensors,load cells, torque sensors, position sensors, etc.The majority of strain gauges are
foil types, available in a wide choiceof shapes and sizes to suit a variety of applications. They consist of
apattern of resistive foil which is mounted on a backing material. Theyoperate on the principle that as
the foil is subjected to stress, theresistance of the foil changes in a defined way.

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The strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone bridge circuit with a combination of four active gauges
(full bridge), two gauges (half bridge), or, less commonly, a single gauge (quarter bridge). In the half and
quarter circuits, the bridge is completed with precision resistors.

Figure 3. Wheatstone bridge

The complete Wheatstone bridge is excited with a stabilised DC supply and with additional conditioning
electronics, can be zeroed at the null point of measurement. As stress is applied to the bonded strain
gauge, a resistive change takes place and unbalances the Wheatstone bridge.

This results in a signal output, related to the stress value. As the signal value is small, (typically a few
millivolts) the signal conditioning electronics provides amplification to increase the signal level to 5 to 10
volts, a suitable level for application to external data collection systems such as recorders or PC Data
Acquisition and Analysis Systems.

STRAIN ROSETTES:

Definition:

A strain gauge rosette is, by definition, an arrangement of two or more closely positioned gauge
grids, separately oriented to measure the normal strains along different directions in the underlying
surface of the test part.

Introduction[3]:

Rosettes are designed to perform a very practical and important function in experimental stress
analysis. It can be shown that for the not-uncommon case of the general biaxial stress state, with the
principal directions unknown, three independent strain measurements (in different directions) are
required to determine the principal strains and stresses. And even when the principal directions are
known in advance, two independent strain measurements are needed to obtain the principal strains and
stresses

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In common with single-element strain gauges, rosettes are manufactured from different combinations
of grid alloy and backing material to meet varying application requirements. They are also offered in a
number of gauge lengths, noting that the gauge length specified for a rosette refers to the active length
of each individual grid within the rosette.
To meet the foregoing requirements, the Micro-Measurements Division manufactures three basic types
of strain gauge rosettes (each in a variety of forms):
1. Tee (0-90 degree)
Two mutually perpendicular grids.

Figure 4.Tee Rosette

2. Rectangular (0-45-90 degree)

Three grids, with the second and third grids angularly displaced from the first grid by 45 degrees
and 90 degrees, respectively.

Figure 5.Rectangular Rosette

3. Delta (0-60-120 degree)

Three grids, with the second and third grids 60 degrees and 120 degrees away,
Respectively, from the first grid.

Figure 6.Delta Rosette

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4. Stacked
Co-location of the gauges requires mounting each individual gauge on top of the others in what
is called a “stacked” rosette, but this leads to a complicated and often inaccurate type of gauge.

Figure 7.Stacked Rosette

STRAIN TRANSFORMATION EQUATION AND THIER USE TO OBTAIN STRAIN COMPONENTS FROM
STRAIN ROSSET READINGS[4]

CASE 1: UNIAXIAL STATE OF STRESS

In this problem shown in Figure 8, only 𝜎𝑥𝑥 is present. In this case, a single element strain gage is placed
with its axis coincident with the x axis. Then

𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸𝜖𝑥𝑥 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (1)

Figure 8. Uniaxial state of stress

CASE 2: ISOTROPIC STATE OF STRESS

For this case, as shown in Figure 9, the state of stress at a given point is givenas

𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾𝑥𝑦

Figure 9. Isotropic state of stress

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In this case, to determine the state of stress at a given point a single element strain gage may be placed
in any direction and the magnitude of stresses may be established from:

𝐸∗𝜖
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎 = 1−𝑣 2 ------------------------------------------------------- (2)

CASE 3: PURE TORSION(𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦 present)

In this case as shown in Figure 10, a single strain gage is placed with its axis coincident with one of the
principal stress direction (45 degree with the x axis). The maximum shearing stress is calculated from:

𝜏𝑥𝑥 = 𝜏𝑦𝑦 = 𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3)

Where

𝜏𝑥𝑦= 2𝜖( ε is the strain measured strain from the gage)

Figure 10. Pure torsion loading and shearing strain

CASE 4: BIAXIAL STATE OF STRESS

a) If less is known about the state of stress, but directions of principal stresses are known, then two-
element rectangular rosette is placed on the specimen with its axes coincident with principal directions.
Two strains ε1 and ε2 are obtained from the gage and the corresponding principal stresses are as
calculated as:

𝐸 𝐸
𝜎1 = 1−𝑣2 (𝜖1 + 𝑣𝜖2 ) and 𝜎2 = 1−𝑣 2 (𝜖2 + 𝑣𝜖1 )-------------------------------------------- (4)

These relations give the complete state of stress since the principal directions are known a priori.

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Figure 11. Biaxial state of stress and 2-element strain gage

b) If knowledge of the stress field or principal directions is not available, then a three-element rosette is
needed. To show that three measurements are sufficient, consider three strain gages placed along axes
A, B, and C, as shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Three-element rosette

Then the following transformation relations are valid for strain readings 𝜖𝐴 , 𝜖𝐵 and 𝜖𝐶 from gages A, B
and C, respectively;

𝜖𝐴 = 𝜖𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼𝐴 + 𝜖𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼𝐴 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝐴

𝜖𝐵 = 𝜖𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼𝐵 + 𝜖𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼𝐵 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝐵

𝜖𝐶 = 𝜖𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼𝐶 + 𝜖𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼𝐶 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝐶 -------------------------------------------------- (5)

The Cartesian components of strain, 𝜖𝑥𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦𝑦 and ,𝛾𝑥𝑦 can be determined from a simultaneous solution
of above equations. The principal strains and the principal directions may then be established by
employing;

𝜖1 = 0.5(𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦 ) + 0.5√(𝜖𝑥𝑥 − 𝜖𝑦𝑦 )2 + 𝛾 2 𝑥𝑦 ------------------------------------------------------ (6a)

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𝜖2 = 0.5(𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦 ) − 0.5√(𝜖𝑥𝑥 − 𝜖𝑦𝑦 )2 + 𝛾 2 𝑥𝑦 ---------------------------------------------------------------- (6b)

𝛾𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃 = 𝜖 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (7)
𝑥𝑥 −𝜖𝑦𝑦

The solution of Eq. 7 yields two values for the angle θ. These are 𝜃1 , which refers to the angle between
the x-axis and the axis of the maximum principal strain 𝜖1 , and 𝜃2 , which is the angle between the x-
axis and the axis of the minimum principal strain 𝜖2 .

The principal stresses can then be calculated from the principal strains by utilizing Eqs. 4 as;

𝐸 𝐸
𝜎1 = 1−𝑣2 (𝜖1 + 𝑣𝜖2 ) and 𝜎2 = 1−𝑣 2 (𝜖2 + 𝑣𝜖1 ) -------------------------------------------------- (7a)

In practice, three-element rosettes with fixed angles (that is, ∝𝐴 , ∝𝐵 , and ∝𝐶 are fixed at specified
values) are employed to provide sufficient data to completely define the strain and stress fields. These
rosettes are defined by the fixed angles as the rectangular rosette, and the delta rosette.

THREE-ELEMENT RECTANGULAR ROSETTE

The three-element rectangular rosette employs gages placed at 0°, 45°, and 90° positions, as indicated
in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Three-element rectangular rosette

For this particular rosette:

∝𝐴 = 0° cos ∝𝐴 = 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝𝐴 = 0

∝𝐵 = 0° cos ∝𝐵 = 0.707 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝𝐶 = 0.707

∝𝐶 = 90° cos ∝𝐶 = 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝𝐶 = 1

It is clear from Eq. 5 that

𝜖𝐴 = 𝜖𝑥𝑥

𝜖𝐵 = 0.5(𝜖𝑥𝑥𝐵 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 )

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𝜖𝑐 = 𝜖𝑦𝑦 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (8)

From above equations:

𝜖𝑥𝑥 = 𝜖𝐴

𝜖𝑦𝑦 = 𝜖𝑐

𝜖𝐵 = (2𝜖𝐵 + 𝜖𝐴 + 𝜖𝑐 )----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (9)

Thus, by measuring the strains, 𝜖𝐴 , 𝜖𝐵 and 𝜖𝑐 , the Cartesian components of strains 𝜖𝑥𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 can
be determined by using Eq. 9. Next, by utilizing Eqs. 6 and 7, the principal strain 𝜖1 and 𝜖2 and the
principal angle θ can be

calculated. Finally, the principal stresses occurring in the component can be solved by employing Eq. 4.

DELTA ROSETTE:

Figure 14. Delta rosette for 2-D loading

For this particular rosette:

∝𝐴 = 0° cos ∝𝐴 = 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝𝐴 = 0

√3
∝𝐵 = 120° cos ∝𝐵 = −0.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝𝐶 =
2

√3
∝𝐶 = 240° cos ∝𝐶 = −0.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝𝐶 = −
2

It is clear from Eq. 5 that

𝜖𝐴 = 𝜖𝑥𝑥

𝜖𝐵 = (0.25𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 0.75𝜖𝑦𝑦 − 1.224𝛾𝑥𝑦 )

𝜖𝑐 = (0.25𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 0.75𝜖𝑦𝑦 + 1.224𝛾𝑥𝑦 )----------------------------------------------------------------- (10)

Solving Eq. 10 for𝜖𝑥𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾𝑥𝑦 interms of 𝜖𝐴 , 𝜖𝐵 , 𝜖𝐶 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠

𝜖𝐴 = 𝜖𝑥𝑥

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𝜖𝐵 = 0.3(2(𝜖𝐵 + 𝜖𝐶 ) − 1.224𝛾𝑥𝑦 ))

𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 0.577(𝜖𝐶 − 𝜖𝐵 )-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (11)

Next,by utilizing Eqs. 6 and 7, the principal strains 𝜖1 and 𝜖2 and the principal angle θ can be found.
Finally, the principal stresses occurring in the component can be calculated by employing Eq. 4

NUMERICAL PROBLEM:

A strain Gage rosette was applied at a point on the free surface of a structural member and resultantly
developed the state of strain on an element with components 𝜖𝑥 = 900𝜇 , 𝜖𝑦 = 400𝜇 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 500𝜇.

If the material for the structural member has a modulus of elasticity of E=200Gpa and poisson’s ratio =
0.3.

Solution:

𝜖𝑥 = 900𝜇 = 0.0009

𝜖𝑦 = 400𝜇 = 0.0004

𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 500𝜇 = 0.005

Modulus of elasticity of (E)=200Gpa

Poisson’s ratio (v) = 0.3.

Calculate the principal strains 𝝐𝟏 , 𝝐𝟐 , 𝝐𝟑

Take equation From6a and 6b

𝜖1 = 0.5(𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦 ) + 0.5√(𝜖𝑥𝑥 − 𝜖𝑦𝑦 )2 + 𝛾 2 𝑥𝑦

𝜖2 = 0.5(𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦 ) − 0.5√(𝜖𝑥𝑥 − 𝜖𝑦𝑦 )2 + 𝛾 2 𝑥𝑦

𝜖3 = √𝜖1 2 + 𝜖2 2

Substitute the values in above equation then we get,

𝜖1 = 0.5(0.0009 + 0.0004) + 0.5√(0.0009 − 0.0004)2 + 0.00052

𝝐𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟒

𝜖2 = 0.5(0.0009 + 0.0004) = 0.5√(0.0009 − 0.0004)2 + 0.00052

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𝝐𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑

𝜖3 = √𝜖1 2 + 𝜖2 2

𝝐𝟑 = √𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟐

Calculate the maximum inplane shear strain.

𝛾𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 (𝜖3 − 𝜖2 )1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝜖1 − 𝜖2 )1

𝛾𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = (𝝐𝟑 − 𝝐𝟐 )𝟏

Substitute the values in equation

𝛾𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = (0.00105 − 0.003)1

𝜸𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟓

Calculate the principal stresses.

From equation (7a)

𝐸
𝜎1 = (𝜖 + 𝑣(𝜖2 + 𝜖3 )
1 − 𝑣2 1
𝐸
𝜎2 = (𝜖 + 𝑣(𝜖1 + 𝜖3 )
1 − 𝑣2 2
𝐸
𝜎3 = (𝜖 + 𝑣(𝜖2 + 𝜖1 )
1 − 𝑣2 3

Substitute the values in above Equation

200 ∗ 109
𝜎1 = (0.001004 + 0.3(0.0003 + 0.00105)
1 − 0.32

𝝈𝟏 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝑴𝑷𝒂

200 ∗ 109
𝜎2 = (0.0003 + 0.3(0.001004 + 0.00105)
1 − 0.32

𝝈𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟒𝟏𝑴𝑷𝒂

200 ∗ 109
𝜎3 = (0.00105 + 0.3(0.001004 + 0.0003)
1 − 0.32

𝝈𝟑 = 𝟑𝟐𝟕. 𝟖𝟑𝑴𝑷𝒂

Calculate the maximum inplane shear stress:

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(𝜖3 − 𝜖1 )1 (𝜖3 − 𝜖2 )1 (𝜖1 − 𝜖2 )1
𝛾𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑
2 2 2

(𝝐𝟑 − 𝝐𝟏 )𝟏
𝜸𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 =
𝟐

And substitute the values in above equation

(327.83 − 208.41)1
𝛾𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 =
2

𝜸𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟕𝑴𝑷𝒂

Calculate the maximum shear stress

(𝝐𝟑 − 𝝐𝟏 )𝟏
𝜏𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 =
𝟐

𝝉𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟕𝑴𝑷𝒂

References / Bibliography:

[1]APPLICATION OF STRAIN GAUGES IN MEASUREMENTS OF STRAIN DISTRIBUTION IN COMPLEX

OBJECTS. Piotr Tutak IT Institute, University of Social Sciences, Łódź, Poland piotrtutak@wp.pl

[2]www.sensorland.com/Howpage002.html. how sensors work - strain gauge

[3]STRESS ANALYSIS BY USING STRAIN GAGESuploaded by basit_ehsan. Strain Rosettes

[4]Applied Elasticity for Engineers.T.G.Sitharam&L.GovindaRaju

[5]Mechanics of Materials by B.C. Punmia

[6]Strength of Materials by R.K. Bansal

[7]Vishay micro-measurements. www.vishaymg.com

[8]EMBEDDED OPTICAL FIBRE STRAIN GAGES FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING: APPLICATION TO CONCRETE
MONITORING

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