Fitz Atlas

lntroduction
PREFACE
The aim of this Atlas is to illustrate the range of coating and surface defects
likely to be encountered,and give advice on probable causes,prevention and
repair, it is not intended as acomplete'Do it yourself manual' for failure analysis.
Use of this Manual will not make the user an "lnstant Expert" on coating
failures. Many coating failures need further evaluation and analyses to be
carried out in conjunction with aqualified Chemist or Coating Specialist,often
using specialised laboratory equipment.
With any coating failure, a process of elimination shou ld be considered

as the first course of action. This should take into account the type of
failure; the enviran mental conditions; any unusual or unexpected
variations from normal operating conditions; a check on application
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conditions to ensure these were within the accepted range for the coating
ü system applied; was the surface preparation suitab:le for the type of
coating system applied. The list of questions to be asked will depend on
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the coating system or much later in the life of the coating.
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111 The first section of this Atlas includes anumber of welding faults which may
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be encountered and which need to be addressed or corrected befare
application of any coating system.This is followed by asection on pre-surface
conditions. Section four and five deal with surface preparation, giving
guidance notes on dry abrasive blast cleaning and high pressure water jetting
respective! y.
Section six is the main pictorial reference of coating defects and includes a
description of each defect, its probable causes, prevention and repair.
Section seven illustrates various types of marine fouling and finally, an

appendix gives details of breakdown sea les which will be useful to users in
assessing the degree ofbreakdown and the potential areas in need of repair.
lt also includes aquick reference guide to the characteristics of certain types
of paint and paint compatibllity.
Each of these sections have been compiled by coating specialists who

understand paint coatings and their application and as such will provide a
1
lntroduction
useful pictorial reference to all who use and encounter paint coatings, their
defects and failures. We would welcome any other suggestions for future
modules and any constructive criticisms of the present volume.
All photographs and information contained w1thín this document are
intended for guidance.Where standards are referred to, these should be taken
as the authoritative documents on the relevant subject matter. No
responsibility can be taken for any problems which may arise as aresult of
theuse of any information contained within this document.
ISBN O9513940 2 9
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Compiled by: Bren dan F1tzsimons, Fitz-Coatíngs Limited ..
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www.fitz-coatings.com •
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Edited by: RogerWeatherhead and Peter Margan,

Lithgow &Associates
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Published by: MPI Group
Peel House, Upper South View, ,...
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Farnham, Surrey, GU9 7JN
Tel: +44 (0)1252 732220 Fax>44 (0)1252 732221
www.mpigroup.co.uk
Neither the publishers or the authors, edirors and contributors and their employinq
organisations, nor any persons aaing on behalfofrhem a) makes any warranty, express
or 1mplied, wíth respecr to the use of any informarían, apparatus, method or process
desaibed in this publication or that such use may not infringe private/y owned rights or
b) assume any fiabilíties wíth respect to the use o( or for damages resufting from the
use ofany mformation, apparatus method or process disclosed in rhis publication, and
the use ofany sueh materials, processes or methods is sale/y at the risk of the user.
Data contained within this pubficatión is protected by copyright. Al/ rights reserved No
part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means electronic, mechamea/, photocopying, recording ar otherwise
without the prior permission ofMPI Group.
11
lntroduction
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the following organisations and individuals that have

contributed material for use in this publication;
Akzo Nobel (lnternational Coatings Ltd)

British Steel
Chugoku BV
Clemco Industries Corp.
Hempel UK Ltd
Jotun-Henry Clark Ltd
Peter Margan
Roger Weatherhead
Trevor Parry, Scientific &Technical Services Ltd
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"O PPG Industries UK Ltd
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Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1NTRODUCTION ............•.....................•.•....••.................•... 1
CONTENTS •.•..••......•..•................•...•...••.•.•..•.......•..•...••. 1-0
WELDING FAULTS .....•................................................... 2-0
SURFACE CONDITIONS .................................................. 3-0
SURFACE PREPARATION ................................................ 4-0

Dry Abrasive Blasting
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-"'' SURFACE PREPARATION ................................................ 5-0
... Water Jetting
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~ COATI NG DEFECTS •....•..•.•.••.•••.•••.•.•....•...••.•••.•••...••..•.... 6-0
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¡¡ MARINE FOULING ...............•...............•........................• 7-0
APPEN DIX .....................................................•....••... App-0

Coating Breakdown scales
Paint Compatability chart
Paint Properties chart
Paint Arithmetic
Formulae for Surface Areas
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Welding Faults
WELDS
Where aprotective coating system is to be applied over aweld, the application

of a well brushed-in stripe coat to the prepared surface is strongly
recommended to ensure adequate protect1on and to prevent bridging by the
coating system.ln addition,any welding faults of the types described below
should be appropriately rectified befare any coating is applied.
WELDING FAULTS
The following section describes various faults in fusion welds in construction

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steels. This is nota comprehensive compilation of alllikely welding faults,
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"O the faults are rectified prior to the appropriate surface preparation and
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All comments are for guidance only.
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Photographs within this section are courtesy ofThe Welding lnstitute~ 'Faults
in Fusion Welds' by Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge.
2-3
Welding Faults
CRACKS
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Descri ption: Crack visible at the surface.
Probable Causes: Excessively deep or wide be ad. High current and/or

welding speed. Large root gap.
Repair: Cut out defective weld length plus 5 mm beyond visible

end of crack and reweld.
Comment: Protective coatings can maskcracks but rarely successfully

bridge cracks. Unless rectified prior to the application of
the coating, su eh cracks can result in premature failure of
the coating system, irrespective of any danger that míght
be caused to the structure by their presence.
2-4
Welding Faults
CRATER PIPES
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Description: Crater resulting from shrinkage at the end of aweld run.
Probable Causes: lncorrect manipulative technique or current decay to allow

for era ter shrinkage.
Repair: All such porosities must be appropriately filled prior to

application of aprotect1ve coating system.
Comment: Coatings rarely bridge pares in a metal substrate and if

they do, this can lead to premature coating failure.
2-5
Welding Faults
EXCESS PENETRATION BEAD
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Description: Weld metal normally extends below the parent metal

surface but this is only a problem when excessive and
exceeds the specification.
Probable Causes: lncorrect edge preparation providing insufficient support

at the root, and/or incorrect welding parameters.
Repair: Where sharp changes in contour occur these need to be

smoothed to prevent bridging of the protective coating
system.
Comment: Thorough brushíng in of astripe coat can be effective but

so me form of filling may be necessary to prevent bridging
of the coating. Any undercuts must be appropriately
treated to prevent bridging by the coating system.
2-6
Welding Faults
EXCESS PENETRATION BEAD
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Description: Weld metal normally extends below the parent metal

surface but this is only a problem when excessive and
exceeds the specification.
Probable Causes: lncorrect edge preparation providing insufficient support

at the root, and/or incorrect welding parameters.
Repair: Where sharp changes in contour occur these need to be

smoothed to prevent bridging of the protective coating
system.
Comment: Thorough brushing in of astripe coat can be effective but

so me form of filling may be necessary to prevent bridging
of the coating. Any undercuts must be appropriately
treated to prevent bridging by the coating system.
2-7
Welding Faults
ROOT CONCAVITY
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Description: Shrinkage at the weld root resulting in a deep pita long

the weld.
Probable Causes: Shrinkage of molten pool at the weld root, resulting from
incorrect weld preparation or insufficient heat input. Also
from incorrect welding technique.
Repair: Ensure the edges are smooth with no sharp changes in

contour.
Comment: All sharp edges must be ground smooth in accordance

with the specification, prior to surface preparation and
application of the coating system.
2-8
Welding Faults
SPATTER
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Substrate
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Description: Globules of metal which adhere to the meta'l surface,often

so me distan ce from the weld.
Probable Causes: lncorrect welding conditions, such as too high awelding

current and/or contaminated consuma bies or preparations
giving rise to explosions within the are and weld pool.
Repair: Grind or needle gun off all globules to leave a smooth

surface, prior to full surface preparation.
Comment: Weld spatter can rarely be successfully coated and can

result in premature coating breakdown.
2-9
Welding Faults
STRAY ARCING
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Description: Small hard spots, craters or rough surface featu res.
Probable Causes: Accidental contact of electrode or welding torch with pi ate

surface remo te from the weld.
Repair: Grind smooth, blast clean or use other appropriate

treatment to ensure the surface is sufficiently prepared for
adequate adhesion of the protective coating.
Comment: The application of a protective coating to rough

insufficiently prepared areas can lead to premature coating
failure.
2 10
Welding Faults
SURFACE POROSITY
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Description: Pares visible at the surface of aweld.
Probable Causes: Excessive contamination from grease, dampness or

atmospheric entrainment. Occasionally caused by
excessive sulphur in consuma bies or parent metal.
Repair: All such porosities must be appropriately filled prior to

application of aprotective coating system.
Comment: Coatings rarely bridge pares in a metal substrate and if

they do, this can lead to premature coating failure.
2-11
Welding Faults
UNDERCUT
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Substrate
Description: Undercut cavity which results from washing away of the

edge preparation when molten.
Probable Causes: Poor welding technique and/or unbalanced welding

conditions.
Repair: All such undercuts must be appropriately prepared,

rewelded or filled prior to application of the coating
system.
Comment: Coatings rarely bridge undercuts in ametal substrate and

if they do, this can lead to premature coating failure.
2-12
Surface Conditions
INDEX OF SURFACE CONDITIONS

CORROSION TRAP .••.•••••••••.•.••••..................................... 3-4
EDGES - Flame cut ....................................................... 3-5
EDGES - Sharp ......•.....•.•.....•.•....................................... 3-6
Mlll SCALE .................................................................. 3-7
MI LLSCALE -"A" quality steel ....................................... 3-8
MILLSCALE -"B" quality steel ..................................... 3-10
MI LLSCALE - "C" quality steel ..................................... 3-12
OIL CONTAMINATION .................................................. 3-14
SKIP WELD ......•.........•.•.....•.•••...•................................ 3-15
""' SLAG .•...•...•.•.•....................•................................•.•... 3-16
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3-1
Surface Conditions
SURFACE PREPARATION
This section includes pictorial examples ofsome typical conditions,from bare

steel through to failed coating system, likely to be encountered befareany
surface preparation 1s carried out. Al so illustrated are so me typical problem
areas which need to be appropriately treated prior to or during full surface
preparation.
Various photographs areincluded whichshow mili scale on unprepared steel

at various stages of degradation.
Whenever grinding is used forre moval of defects,professional advice should

be sought to ensure that the integrity of the structure or vessel is not
compromised.Strict limits are usually applied tothe thickness of metal wh1ch .,
canbe removed by grinding e.g. with high pressure pipework. ..-·
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Burrs o
Bolt hales and other cut areas should be thoroughly checked for burrs and o
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Contamination on surface ....

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Oil, grease and other foreign contamination must be removed by solvent

cleaning or the use of an alternative suitable biodegradable cleaner prior to
full surface preparation.
Edges
All edges should be radiused to provide asmooth round surface to which
the paint can adhere to provide good protection.
Feathering
Where repairs are carried out toan already painted surface, the edge of the
old paint should be feathered to a sound, well adhered thin edge using an
appropriate means of abrasion, prior to overcoating.
Laminations, Surface Shelling or Hackles

The steel surface should be checked for laminations both befare and after
surface preparation. Any laminations found must be removed by grinding
3-2
Surface Conditions
befare application of any coating system.The use of an Ultrasonic thickness

gauge may be necessary to determine the extent of delamination.
Minor laminations
sometimes known as
surta ce shelling
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Substrate
Mili Scale
All mili sea le should be removed by appropriate cleaning techniques, usually
abrasive blast cleaning, prior to application of acoating system.
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Surface Porosity
"O All surface porosities should be filled with an appropriate filler to provide a
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underlying weld may be inspected and suitably prepared. Coatings should
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Spatter
All weld spatter should be removed by mechanical means.
Undercuts
Undercuts should not be excessive or rough.
Welds
Welds should be continuous and free from sharp projections. See also the
section on Welding Defects.
3-3
Surface Conditions
CORROSION TRAP
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Description: Poor design resulting in awell where water can collect.
Comment: This problem should be eliminated wherever possible at

the design stage,by including appropriate drainage hales
or modifying the design to prevent areas where water or
corrosive ftuids can collect.
3-4
Surface Conditions
EDGES - FLAME CUT
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Description: Sharp rough edges resulting from flame cutting.
Comment: All such rough cut edges should be ground smooth and
any sharp edges radiused. Aradius of 2 mm is generally
recommended for good painting practice.
3-5
Surface Conditions
EDGES - SHARP
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Description: Sharp edge on cut or constructional steel. Note in the

second photograph how the coating becomes very thin
over an untreated sharpedge.
Comment: Remove all sharp edges prior to surface preparation. A

radius of 2 mm is generally recommended for good
painting practice. Apply a stripe coat over all edges to
ensure adequate coverage by the coating system.
3-6
Surface Conditions
MILL SCALE
Severa! photographs are included to show the effect of outdoor exposure on

untreated rolled steel stock. The extent of degradation of the surface will
depend on the type of exposure conditions, whether Rural Unpolluted,
Industrial Polluted, or Marine.The examples included are purely to illustrate
the various types of surface conditions which might be encountered.
The photographs on the following pages are from British Steel and show
"A': "B" and "C" quality steel surfaces and can be related to the appropriate
quality designations included in the blast cleaning standards.
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3-7
Surface Conditions
MILLSCALE -"A" QUALITY STEEL
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Description: An example of steel with an "A" quality surface, showing

fresh, tightly adherent mili sea le. Note the overall blue oxide
sea le.
3-8
Surface Conditions
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MILLSCALE - A" QUALITY STEEL
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Description: Acloser view of"N' quajity steel with virtually intact blue
mili sea le.
3-9
Surface Conditions
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MILLSCALE - 8" QUALITY STEEL
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Description: An exampleor steel with a"B" quality surface condition.

The steel sections have been exposed to a Rural
Unpolluted Externa! atmosphere for a period of 2-3
months. The corrosion process has caused sorne
degradation of the mili sea le anda light patina ofrust has
formed on the steel surfaces.
3-1 o
Surface Conditions
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MILLSCALE - 8" QUALITY STEEL
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Description: Acloser view of/18" quality steel indicating delamination

and corrosion effects ofthe mili sea le.
3- 11
Surface Conditions
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MILLSCALE - C" QUALITY STEEL
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Description: An example of a1/C" quality surface condition. The steel

sections have been exposed toa Rural Unpolluted Externa!
atmosphere for a period of 4 - 6 months. The corrosion
process has ca used total degradation of the mili sea le and
an overall patina of rust has formed on the steel surfaces.
3-12
Surface Conditions
MILLSCALE - "C" QUALITY STE EL
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Description: A closer view of "C" quality steel where practically all

residues of mili sea le have disappeared. Any remaining
mili sea le is in afriable state.
3-13
Surface Conditions
OIL CONTAMINATION
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Description: Partial oil contamination of the surface with an oil film.
Comment: All oil and grease must be removed fromthesurface using

solvent or biodegradable detergent degreasing prior to full
surface preparation. Unless this is properly carried out, a
residual oil film will be transferred to the surface during
dry blast cleaning, which will prevent good adhesion of
the coating system.
3-14
Surface Conditions
SKIPWELD
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Description: Non-continuous weld or skip weld.
Probable Causes: Used where afull weld is unnecessary for constructional

purposes.
Repair: ldeally acontinuous weld should be used. Where this is

impractical/ the gaps should be cleaned and filled with a
suitable mastic ro prevent bridging by the coating.
Comment: Unless the gaps are properly treated these areas will serve
as initiation pomts for corrosion.
3-15
Surface Conditions
SLAG
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Description: Weld slag which has not been removed from the surface.
Comment: All welding slag should be removed by mechanical means

so that the underlying weld may be inspected and suitably
prepared. Coatings should not be applied over welding
slag.
3-16
Dry Abrasive Blast Cleaning
INDEX OF DRY ABRASIVE BLAST CLEANING
SU RFACE PREPARATION ................................................ 4-3

DRY ABRASIVE BlAST ClEANING .........•......................... 4-5
RUST GRADES (A-O) .........••......•...••.............................. 4-8
UGHT BlAST ClEANING (SA 1) .................................... 4-1 0
THOROUGH BlAST ClEANING (SA 2) ............................ 4-12
1
VERYTHOROUGH BlAST ClEANING (SA 2 h) ................. 4-14
BlAST ClEANING TO VISUAllY ClEAN STEEl (SA 3) ....... 4-16
FEATHERI NG ..•.••••.•.•••...•.•.......•.....••••....•••••••.............. 4-18
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The images within this section are courtesy of Clemco Industries Corp. The
images are for il/ustrative purposes only and may not reflect actual surface
conditions or results.
4-1
SURFACE PREPARATION
The performance of protective coatings applied to steel is significantly affected

by the state of the steel surface immediately prior to painting.The principal
factors that are known to infiuence this performance are:
· the presence of rust, millscale and previous coatings;

· the presence of surface contaminants, including salts,
dust, oils, acid and greases;
· the surface profile.
lnternational Standards ISO 8501 ,ISO 8502 and ISO 8503 provide methods
of assessing these factors, while ISO 4628-3 provides guidance on evaluating
the degradation of paint coatings by degree of rusting and ISO 4627 covers
....
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the evaluation of the compatibility of aproduct with asurface to be painted .
"O Other national standards and codes of practice contain recommendations for
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·-u.. · suitability of the coating system for the environmental
conditions to which the steel will be exposed;
· compatibility with any remaining paint coatings.
The lnternational Standards referred to abovedeal with the following aspects

of preparation of steel substrates:
ISO 8507 - Visual assessment of surface cleanliness.

ISO 8502- Tests for the assessment of surface cleanliness.
ISO 8503- Surface roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned
steel substrates.
ISO 4627- Paints and varnishes - Evaluation of the
compatibility of aproduct with asurface to be
painted - Methods of test.
ISO 4628-3- Evaluarían of degradation ofpaint coatings.
In the following sections include guidelines on the preparation of steel

4-3
substrates befare the application of paints and related products and include
reproductions of visual assessment guides of surface finish and cleanliness
by water jetting.
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4-4
DRY ABRASIVE BLAST CLEANING
These guidance notes are intended to be atool for the visual assessment of
preparation grades by means of dry abrasive blast cleaning.
The surface fimsh achieved by dry abrasive blast cleaning depends on the
original surface condition as well as the type of abrasive blasting equipment,
size, hardness, type and abrasive shape.
The original surface conditions of steel may be one of four of the following
rust grades:
A Steel surface largely covered with adhering mili

sea le but little, if any rust.
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B Steel surface which has begun to rust and from

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e Steel surface on which the mili sea le has rusted
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slight pitting visible under normal vision.
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D Steel surface on which the mili sea le has rusted
away and on which general pitting is visible
under normal vision.
Preparation grades
Surface cleanllness is divided into four grades, designated by the letters 'Sa'.
Sa 1 Light blast cleaning or Brush-off.

Sa 2 Thorough blast cleaning or Commercial.
Sa 21/2 Very thorough blast cleaning or Near white
metal.
Sa 3 Blast cleaning to visually clean steel or White
metal.
4-5
Other considerations
Apart from cleanliness of the steel, consideration needs to be given to the
etch or profile roughness created by the impact of the abrasive on the steel
surface.The substrate profile is regulated by:
· Shape, type and grading of the abrasive.

· Blasting method and velocity of abrasive
impaction.
· Steel condition prior to abrasive blast cleaning.
The etched profile of the surface enables adhesion of the protective paint
coatings. Of great importance is the level at which this is achieved as too
severe aprofile will cause awaste of paint and time in application, whilst too
light aprofile could result in lack of adhesion.
.,
Profile of the surface can be meas ured by various items of test equipment -·
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but still the best method of obtaining a profile specification is by ensuring '"'-
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abrasive to be used in the operation.
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type of equipment and training of personnel should follow. Equipment used ro
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for surface preparation needs to be extremely reliable and simple to use. .....
Operation and training information should be up-to-date and accurate.
The various rust grades and cleaning standards are now illustrated.
4-6
RUST GRADES
GRADE A
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Steel surface largely covered with adhering mili sea le but little,if any rust. ,..
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GRADEB
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Steel surface which has begun to rust and from which the mili scale has
begun to ftake.
4-8
GRADEC
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1.1. GRADE D
Steel surface on which the mili sea le has rusted away and on which general
pitting 1s visible under normal vis ion.
4-9
LIGHT BLAST CLEANING OR

BRUSH-OFF BLAST CLEANING (SA 1)
Re moval of loose mili sea le, loose rust,and loo se pai nt, to the degree hereafter
specified, by the impact of abrasives propelled through nozzles or by
centrifuga! wheels.lt is not intended that the surface shall be free of all mili
sea le, rust,and paint.The remaining mili sea le, rust, and paint should be firmly
adhered and the surface should be sufficiently abraded to provide good
adhesion and bonding of paint.
Abrush-off blast cleaned surface finish is defined as one from which all oil,
grease, dirt, rust sea le, loose mili sea le, loose rust and loose paint or coatings
are removed completely but tight mili sea le and firmly adhered rust, paint
and coatings are permitted to remain provided that all mili scale and rust
have been exposed to the abrasive blast pattern sufficiently to expose .,
numerous fiecks of the underlying metal fairly uniformly distributed over -t:T
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the entire surface. ...->

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Sa 1 SIS 05 5900 Swedish Standards Organisation

Sa 1 ISO 8501-1
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THOROUGH BLAST CLEANING OR

COMMERCIAL BLAST CLEANING (SA 2)
Removal of partial mili sea le, rust, rust sea le, paint or foreign matter by the
use of abrasives propelled through nozzles or by centrifuga! wheels, to the
degree specified.
Acommercial blast cleaned surface finish is defined as one from which all
oil, grease, dirt, rust sea le and foreign matter have been completely removed
from the surface and all rust, mili sea le and old paint have been completely
removed except for slight shadows, streaks, or discoloration ca used by rust
stain, mili sea le oxides or slight, ftrm residues of paint or coating that may
rema in if the surface is pitted, slight residues of rust or paint may by fou nd in
the bottom of pits. At least two-thirds of each square inch of surface area
shall be free of all visible residues and the remainder shall be limited to the
light discoloration, slight stainmg or firm residues mentioned above. ...-·
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VERYTHOROUGH BLAST CLEANING OR

NEARWHITE METAL BLAST CLEANING {SA 21/ 2}
Re moval of nearly a11 mili sea le, rust, rust sea le, paint, or foreign matter by the
use of abrasives propelled throuqh nozzles or by centrifuga! wheels, to the
degree hereafter specified.
Anear-white metal blast cleaned surface finish is defined as one from which
all oil, grease, dirt, mili sea le, rust, corros ion products, oxides, paint or other
foreign matter have been completely removed from the surface except for
very light shadows, very slight streaks or slight discolouration caused by rust
stain, mili sea le oxides, or light, firm residues of paint or coating that may
remain.At least 95 percent of ea eh square in eh of surface areashall be free of
all visible residues, and the remainder shall be limited to the light discoloration
mentioned above. .,
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Sa 2 12
Sa 2 /2
SIS 05 5900 Swedish Standards Organisation
ISO 8501-1
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BLAST CLEANING TO VISUALLY CLEAN STEEL

OR WHITE METAL BLAST CLEANING (SA 3)
Removal of all mili sea le, rust, rust sea le, paint or foreign matter by the use of
abrasives propelled through nozzles or by centrifuga! wheels.
A white metal blast cleaned surface finish is defined as a surface with a

grey-white, uniform metallic colour, slightly roughened to form a suitable
anchor pattern for coatings.The surface, when viewed without magnification,
shall be free of all oil, grease, dirt, visible mili scale, rust, corrosion products,
oxides, paint, or any other foreign matter.
Sa 3 SIS OS 5900 Swedish Standards Organisation

Sa 3 ISO 8501-1
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4-17
FEATHERING
Before Feathering
Paintfilm
Substrate
After Feathering
Paint film
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Description: Where repairs are carried out toan already painted surface,
theedge of the old paint should be feathered toa sound,
well adhered thin edge using an appropriate means of
abrasion, prior to overcoating.
Caution: 1) Check compatability of new paint over old paint.

2) Ensure new paint does not soften and lift old paint,
particularly at the feathered edges,
4-18
Water Jetting
INDEX OF WATER JETTING

WATER JETTING ...••............•......•...•.....•........•............... 5-5
TERMS ANO DEFINITIONS ............................................. 5-6
INITIAl SURFACE CONDITIONS ....................................... 5-7
PREPARATI ON GRADES ................................................. 5-8
FlASH RUST GRADES .................................................... 5-9
PROCEDURE FOR THE VISUAl ASSESSMENT
OF STEEl SUBSTRATES ........................................... 5-1 O
PHOTOGRAPHS ......•....••............................................. 5-11
lnitial surface condition DC1, DC1 Wa 1................. 5-12
DC1 Wa 2, DC1 Wa 21h ...................................................................... 5-13
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DCl Wa2,DC2 Wa2 1h ...................................................................... 5-15
lnitial surface condition DC3, DC3 Wa 1.....•.•.......... 5-16
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lnitial surface condition DS1, DS1 Wa 1 •...•............. 5-18
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DS1 Wa 2, DS1 Wa 21h ...................................................................... 5-19

lnitial surface condition DS2, DS2 Wa 1•.....•.•......... 5-20
DS2 Wa 2, DS2 Wa 21h ...................................................................... 5-21
Degrees of flash rust ............................................. 5-22
FR1, FR2, FR3 ........................................................ 5-22
5-1
Water Jetting
SURFACE PREPARATION
The performance of protective coatings applied to steel is significantly affected

by the state of the steel surface immediately prior to painting.The principal
factors that are known to infiuence this performance are:
· the presence of rust, millscaleand previous coatings;

· the presence of surface contaminants, including salts,
dust, oils acid greases;
· the surface profile.
lnternational Standards ISO 8501, ISO 8502 and ISO 8503 provide methods
of assessing these factors, while ISO 4628-3 provides guidance on evaluating
the degradation of paint coatings by degree of rusting and ISO 4627 covers
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the evaluation ofthe compatibility of aproduct with asurface to be painted .
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Other national standards and codes of practice contain recommendations for
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· suitability of the cleaning procedure and
.,111 standard specified;
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· suitability of the coating system for the environmental
conditions to which the steel will be exposed;
· compatibility with any remaining paint coatings.
The lnternational Standards referred to abovedeal with the following aspects

of preparation of steel substrates:
ISO 8501 - Visual assessment of surface deanliness.

ISO 8502- Tests for rhe assessment of surface deanliness.
ISO 8503- Surface roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned
steel substrates.
ISO 4627- Paints and varnishes - Evaluation of the
compatibility of aproduct with asurface to be
painted- Methods of test.
ISO 4628-3- Evaluation of degradation ofpaint coatings.
In the following sections include guidelines on the preparation of steel
5-3
Water Jetting
substrates befo re the application of paints and related products and melude
reproductions of visual assessment guides of surface finish and cleanliness
by high pressure water jetting.
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5-4
Water Jetting
WATER JETTING
These guidance notes are intended to be atool for the visual assessment of
preparation grades by means of high pressure water jetting (which may al so
include ultra high pressure jetting).They have been produced by the use of
water only, with no abrasive material included.They have been endorsed by
the paint manufacturers listed below for use with their various paint products.
However, specific recommendations with regard to the suitability of this
technique for use with any speciftc paint product and under any particular
environmental conditions should always be sought from the paint
manufacturer concerned.
Akzo Nobel (lnternational Coatings Ltd)

Chugoku BV
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Hempel UK Ltd
'"O Jotun-Henry Clark Ltd
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As with dry blast cleaning, the roughness characteristics of the surface should
."' also be considered by reference to ISO 8503, although it should be noted
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LL. that preparation by high pressure water jetting does not crea te aprofile nor
significantly change an existing profile.
The definitive document on high pressure water jetting, ISO standard ISO
8501 - Part 4, is in the course of preparation.
Caution
When water jetting at lower pressures is used on old coatings which
have not been completely removed, it is strongly recommended that
checks on adhesion and chemical compatibility between old and new
coatings are carried out, particularly for solvent softening and lifting
of the old coating. Frequently different generic types of coating are
used when overcoating.
5-5
Water Jetting
TERMS ANO DEFINITIONS
Water jetting - this method consists of directing ajet of pressurised water

onto the surface to be cleaned. The water pressure depends upon the
contaminants to be removed, such as water-soluble matter, rust and paint
coatings.When detergents have been used in the cleaning operation, rinsing
with clean fresh water is necessary.
A number of terms are used synonymously with 'water jetting' including

'hydrojetting:'aq uajetting:'hyd roblasti ng' and 'aqua bias ti ng~
Terms containing rhe words 'blasting' can be confusing as they may be

associated with the use of abrasives and hence 'high pressure water jetting'
(Wa) is the preferred description. .,
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High pressure water jetting involves the use ofwater at pressures ofgreater )>
than 70 MPa (700 bar). Ql

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Ultra high pressure water jetting mvolves the use of water at pressures ....
greater than 140 MPa (1400 bar) and may re move millscale from partially -·
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weathered steel, but does not imparta surface profile to the steel substrate.
5-6
Water Jetting
INITIAL SURFACE CONDITIONS
The initial surface condition applies to steelwork that has previously been
blast cleaned and painted with either shop primer alone or with afull coating
system.
Three degrees of damaged paint coatings by rusting, blistering, flaking are

specified, and two of damaged shop primer.
DC1 Asurface where the paint coating system has

degraded to a majar extent. This degradation
being similar to that illustrated in ISO 4628-3,
RiS or when completely degraded, as illustrated
... in ISO 8501-1, rust grades Cand D.
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DC2 Asurface where the paint coating system has
degraded toan extent similar to that illustrated
- o in ISO 4628-3, Ri4.
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0(3 A surface where the paint coating system has
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degraded toan extent similar to that illustrated
in ISO 4628-3, Ri3.
DS 1 An iron oxide epoxy prefabrication (shop) primer

surface that has been damaged by rusting,
welding, or burning.
DS2 A zinc silicate prefabrication (shop) primer

surface that has been damage by rusting,
welding, or burning.
5-7
Water Jetting
PREPARATION GRADES
Three preparation grades/ indicating the degree of cleaning/and three degrees

of ftash rusting are specified.The preparation grades are defined by written
descriptions of the surface appearance after the cleaning operation with
representative photographic examples.
The photographs are designated by the initial surface condition befare

cleaningfollowed by the designation of the preparation grade/e.g. DC3 Wa2.
Description of preparation grades

The letters Wa designare surface preparation by high pressure water jetting.
.,.,
Wa1 Light high pressure water jetting ...-·
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When v1ewed w.thout magn1f1cat1on/ the surface shall be free from oitgrease/ "'
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loase rustand foreign matter.Any residual contamination shall be randomly Cl
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dispersed and firmly adherent.
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Wa 2Thorough high pressure water jetting -
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When viewed without magmfication/ the surface shall be free from VISible 1'1)
(b'
oil/ grease and dirt and most of the rus eprevious paint coatings and foreign
matter. Any residual contamination shall be randomly dispersed and firmly
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adherent.
Wa 2 Very thorough high pressure water jetting

When viewed w1thout magn1fication the surface shall be free from all-visible
rust/ oil/ grease/ dirt previous paint coatings/and foreign matter except slight
traces. So me discolora ti en of the surface may be present adjacent to pitted
areas but should show only as slight stains.
5-8
Water Jetting
FLASH RUST GRADES
Three degrees of flash rust are specified. They are defined by written
descriptions together with representative photographic examples.
FR 1 Heavy flash rust

Asurface when viewed without magnification exhibils a !ayer of yellow 1
blown rust that obscures the original steel surface and is loosely adherent.
The rust layer may be evenly distributed or present in patches and it will
readily mark acloth that is lightly wiped over the surface.
FR 2 Medium flash rust

Asurface when viewed without magnification exhibits a layer of yellow 1
brown rust that obscures the original steel surface. The rust layer may be
.....
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evenly distributed or in patches, but 1t will be reasonably well adherent and
willlightly mark acloth that is lightly wiped over the surface.
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Asurface when viewed without magnification exhibits small quantities of a
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yellow-brown rust !ayer through which the steel substrate can be observed.
,\1\ The rust/discoloration may be evenly distributed or in patches, but wi ll be
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tightly adherent and not easily removed by light wiping with acloth .
5-9
Water Jetting
PROCEDURE FOR THE VISUAL

ASSESSMENT OF STEEL SUBSTRATES
Either in good daylight or in artificial illumination (agreed between the

parties) examine the steel surface and compare it with each of the
photographs using normal vision. Place the appropriate photograph clase to
and in the plan eof the steel surface to be assessed.
· For the initial condition record the assessment as the worst

degree that is evident.
· Assessment of the cleaning degree shall be made when

the surface isdry and befo re flash rusting occurs.
· Assessment of the flash rust degree (if any) shall be made .,.,
immediately prior to paint application. ,.,-·•
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5-10
Water Jetting
PHOTOGRAPHS
Five photographs show the condition of the damaged painted steel

designated DC1, DC2, DC31 and OS 1& 052.
Fifteenphotographsshow the three degrees of preparation (Wa 1, Wa 2and

Wa 21/2) for each of theoriginal conditions.
Three photographs show the flash rusting degrees FRl, FR2 and FR3.
DC 1 DC2 DC3
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A lication & Coati"" Defects
CONTENTS
ADHESION FAILURE •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-3

ALLIGATORI NG ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-6
ALUMINIUM CORROSION .............................................. 6-7
8ITTI NESS ••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••..•••.••.••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••• 6-8
BLEACHING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-9
BLEEDING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-10
BLISTERING ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-11
BLOOM •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-14
BRIDGING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-15
BRUSH MARKS ••••.••••••••••••••••.••••••••.•••••.••••••••.•••••••.••••• 6-17
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,?J BUBBLES or BUBBLING ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-18

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CHALKING ••••••••••••..•••••.••..••.•.•..••••.•..•••••.•..••••••••••••.•••• 6-19
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I'G CHECKING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-21
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CHEESINESS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-24
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10 CISSING ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-25
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COBWEBBING ............................................................ ti-~{;
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CRACKING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-27
CRATERING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-30
CROWSFOOTI NG ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-31
DELAMINATION •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-32
DRYSPRAY ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-34
EFFLORESCENCE ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-36
EROS ION .•••••••.••.•..•••.•••.•..•••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••• 6-38
FADING •••••••••••...••••••••••••.••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-40
Flll FORM••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••.••••••.•..•.•••••..••••••••.• 6-41
FLAKING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-42
FLOCCULATION •••..•••••••••.•••••.•.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••• 6-44
FLOODING ••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••.•.••••..•.••••••.••••••••••••••••••• 6-45
FLOTATION ••••••••••••••••••••••••••..•.•••••••••••••••.••••••••.••.••••.•• 6-46
GRINNING •••••.•••••••.•••.•••••••••••••••••••.••.•••••.••••••••••••••••••• 6-47
6-1
AppJicªtio~_ ~-C(!at~ng Defects
GRIT INCLUSIONS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-48

GROWTH ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-49
INCORRECT COATING SYSTEM •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-50
IMPACT DAMAGE •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-52
LAMINATIONS or SHELLING ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-54
MISSES/SKIPS/HOLIDAYS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-55
MISSING TOPCOAT •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-56
MUO CRACKING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-57
ORANGE PEEL •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-58
OVERSPRAY ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-60 .,
PEELING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-61 --·
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RAIN DAMAGE -WATER SPOTTING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-65 "'

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RIPPLED COATING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-66 oCll
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RUNS or SAGS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-68 ro
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RUST RASHING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-71 "'

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RUST SPOTTING ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-72

RUST STAINING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-75
SAPO NI FICATION •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-76
SETTLEMENT .............................................................. 6-77
SOLVENT LIFTING ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-78
SOLVENT POPPING ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-80
TACKINESS ................................................................. 6-81
UNDERCUTTING ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-82
WATER SPOTTING ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-84
WRINKLING ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-85
ZINC CARBONATES ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-88
6-2
Application & Coating Defects
ADHESION FAILURE
see also delamination and flaking
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Description: Paint fails to adhere to substrate or underlying coats of

paint.
Probable Causes: Surface contamination or condensation.
Prevention: Ensure that the surface is clean, dry and free from any
contamination and that the surface has been suitably
prepared.Use the correct coating specification.
Repair: Depends upon the extent of adhesion failure. Removal of

detective areas will be necessary prior to adequate
preparation and application of correct coating system to
manufacturer's recommendations.
6-3
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ALLIGATORING
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Description: Very large (macro) checking or cracking which resembles 1'0
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Probable Causes: Interna! stresses in the coating where the surface shrinks
fas ter than the body of the paint film. Can be ca used by
excessive film thickness and limited paint ftexibility. Also
found on paint films having asoft undercoat with ahard
topcoat.
Prevention: Use correct coating specification and materials. Avoid

excessive thickness. Avoid application at high ambient
temperatures.
Repair: Repair will depend upon size and extent of alligatoring.

Abrade or remove all affected coats and apply suitable
undercoat and topcoat. Follow recommended application
procedures.
6-6
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ALUMINIUM CORROSION
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Description: Blistering ofthe paínt coating dueto aluminium corrosion

product under the paint.
Probable Causes: Pinholes in the coating. Porosity of flame sprayed

aluminium. lnsufficient coating thickness.
Prevention: Use correctly formulated coating system applied in the

correct thickness.
Repair: Blast clean and recoat.

6-7
BITTINESS
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the surface of the paint film to give arough appearance.
The term Peppery is used when the bits are small and
uniformly distributed.
Probable Causes: The main cause is contamination within or on the surface

of the paint film. This can be paint skin, gelled particles,
airborne sand and grit or contamination from brushes,
rollers etc.
Prevention: Use clean application equipment and clean working

environment. Use new, uncontaminated paint.Follow good
painting practices.
Repair: Repair depends on size and extent of problem. Abra de or

completely remove the contaminated layer and recoat.
6-8
BLEACHING
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Description: Totalloss of colour of acoating.
Probable Causes: Bleachingdueto weathering or chemical attack.
Prevention: Use colour stable pigments ora system which will

withstand the chemical environment.
Repair: Remove bleached coating or abrade and recoat using a

more suitable coating system.
6-9
Application & Coatin9 Defects
BLEEDING
al so called 'Bieed Through'
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Description: Staining of apaint film by diffusion of asoluble colo ured ".......
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bitumen ortar based products are over-coated with alkyd
based or other conventional topcoats. Also occurs with
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Probable Causes: 'Bieed Through'is generally afull or partial redissolving of

the previous coat. Bleeding can happen when strong
solvents are used in the topcoats.
Prevention: Use correct coating specification and materials. Use

compatiblematerials.Use appropriate sealer coat.
Repair: Remove stained or contaminated layer. Apply asuitable

sealer coat which will not dissolve soluble material e.g.an
aluminium pigmented coating.
6-10
Aoolication &Coatina Defects
BLISTERING
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Other examples are shown on the following page
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·-u.
Descri pti on: Dome shaped projections or blisters in the dry paint film
through localloss of adhesion from the underlying surface.
Blisters may contain liquid, gas or crystals.
Probable Causes: Localised loss of adhesion caused by contamination with

grease, oil, salts, rust, trapped moisture, retained solvent,
hydrogen vapour pressure (on coatings used with cathodic
protection), soluble pigments etc. Osmotic blistering can
also occur in immersed conditions.
Prevention: Ensurecorrect surface preparation and application. Apply

asuitable coating system.
Repair: Depending upon size and type of blistering, remove

blistered are as or entire coating system and repair or fully
recoat.
6-11
Fitz's Atlas of coatmg defects
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al • • •
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ApplicatiC!I'l_~ Jºª!illg Defects
BLOOM
•
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Description: Ahazy deposit on the surface of the paintfilm resembling
the bloom on grape, resulting in a loss of gloss and a
dulling of colour.
Probable Causes: Paint film exposed to condensation or moisture during

curing (common phenomenon with amine cured
epoxies).lncorrect solvent blend can also contribute to
blooming.
Prevention: Apply and cu re coating systems under correct

environmental conditions and follow the manufacturer's
recommendations.
Repair: Remove bloom with clean cloth or suitable solvent

cleaners.lf necessary, apply undercoat/topcoat following
6-1 4
BRIDGING
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(1)
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ra
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N
LL.
Description: The covering over of unfilled gaps such as cracks or corners

with afilm of coating materiai.This causes aweakness in
the paint film which may crack, blister or flake off.
Probable Causes: Poor application. High viscosity paint system. Failure to

brush paint into cornersand over welds.
Prevention: Brush apply astripe coat into corners and welds, and fill
all cracks prior to application of the full coating system.
Repair: Re move allloose paint, abrade the surface, apply astripe

coat by brush and recoat.
6-15
Fitz's Atlas of coatlng def tts
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BRUSH MARKS
(al so Laddering, Ladders or Ropiness)
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·-u.. Description: Undesirable ridges and furrows which remain in a dry
paint film after brush application, where the paint fi lm
has notfiowed out.May be found as across-hatch pattern
(Laddering) where alternate coats have been applied in
opposite directions. Pronounced brush marks are known
as Ropiness.
Probable Causes: Viscosity of material may be too high for brush application;
lncorrectthinners used in the paint; lnadequate mixing or
poor application technique. Two-pack paints may have
exceeded application pot-life.
Prevention: Use brushing grade of paint and apply adequate thickness.

Thin paint to brushing viscosity. Use within pot-life
Repair: Depending on extent of brush marks, thoroughly abrade

surface and recoat with asuitable viscosity paint.
6-17
Appli~ª~ion & Coating Defects
BUBBLES OR BUBBLING
.,
...-·
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Description: Bubbles within apaint film appear as small raised blisters. t'D
ro'
These may be intact or broken (to le ave acrater). Can be !:+
"'
found in excessively thick paint films, especially if spray
applied, and also with roller application. This should not
be confused with blistering.
Probable Causes: Trapped air/solvent within the coating which is not

released before the surface dries.Can be found with factory
applied coatings where application is by dipping,
electrodeposition or roller coating.
Prevention: Spray application - use airless spray equipment, adjust

viscosity with thinners or modify spray temperature. Use
correct mixing equipment to ensure air is not stirred in
during mixing. Add defoaming agent to emulsion paints.
Repair: Depending on extent and severity of bubbling, abrade or

remove the offending coat(s) and recoat.
6-18
CHALKING
• • \
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LL.
Description: Afriable, powdery layer on the surface of a paint film. A

change of colour or fading is al so se en. Chalking rates vary
with pigment concentration and cho1ce ofbinder.Chalking
is aknown characteristic of certain paints e.g.epoxy paints.
Probable Causes: Disintegration of the paint binder on exposure to

weathering and/or UV light.
Prevention: Apply asuitable topcoat with high resistan ce to chalking,

and UV resistance.
Repair: Remove all powdery deposits by abrasion or light sweep

blast cleaning, wipe loose material off and apply achal k
resista nt topcoat.
6-19
Fitz's Atlas of o tmg defects
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CHECKING
(see al so cracking)
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ou '
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:LL.
Description: Fine cracks which do not penetrate the topcoat of apaint

system. Sorne checking can be so minute that it is
impossible to see without magnification.
Probable Causes: Typically aformulation and/or aspecification problem.As

with cracking/ stresses are developed which cause the
surface of the paint film to beco me brittle and crack.
Limited paint fiexibility.
Prevention: Use acorrectly formulated coating system.
Repair: Abrade ande lean surface then apply an undercoat/topcoat

to suit.
6-21
Fitz's Atlas of Odtmg def c.t
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CHEESINESS
(5oft Coating)
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Description: Coating remains soft, even after prolonged drying time.
Probable Causes: Wrong mixing ratio fortwo-pack paints.Too low adrying/

curing temperature. Excessive solvent retained within the
coating.
Prevention: Ensu re adequate mixing of two-packpaints. Onlyuse the

recommended amount of thinners. Apply and cure the
coating under controlled environmental conditions.
Repair: Remove all soft coatings and apply suitable coating system
or topcoat to coating manufacturer's recommendations.
6-24
CISSING
also referred toas Crawling and Fisheyes
VI
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Description: Surface breaks in a wet paint film, where the paint has
receded to expose the underlying substrate. Sometí mes
known as crawling or fisheyes. The paint is unable to
wet-out the substrate. Can be very large.
Probable Causes: Surface contamination by either moisture or foreign matter

such as oil, grease, silicone etc. Also known to happen
when incorrect solvent blends ha ve been used.
Prevention: Ensure surface is clean and free from grease,oil and foreign
contaminates prior to application of coating.
Repair: Abrade and thoroughly clean the contaminated surface

or re move the coating to achieve aelean surface. Reapply
the coating system to the coating manufacturer's
recommendations.
6-25
COBWEBBING
,
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Description: The production of fine filaments instead of normal

atomised particles when so me solutions ofhigh molecular
weight polymers are sprayed.
Probable Causes: Too high aviscosity with so me types of polymer solutions.
Prevention: Reduce the spraying viscosity. Select a more suitable

solvent blend. Change the spraymg conditions.
Repair: Abrade to remove all affected material and recoat.

6·26
CRACKING
(see also Alligatoring and Checking)
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ov
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Description: Paint coatings with visible cracks which may penetrate
down to the substrate. Cracking comes in several forms,
from minute cracking to severe cracking.
Probable Causes: Cracking is gene rally a stress related failure and can be
attributed to surface movement, ageing, absorption and
desorption of moisture and generallack of fiexibility of
the coating. The thicker the paint film the greater the
possibility it will crack.
Prevention: Use correct coating systems, application techniques and

dry fi lm thicknesses. Alternatively, use a more flexible
coating system.
Repair: Abrade to re move all cracked paint. Correctly reapply the

coating system or use amore fiexible system and one less
prone to cracking.
6-27
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CRATERING
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Description: The formation of small bowl shaped depressions in the

paint film. Not to be con fu sed with Cissing.
Probable Causes: Trapped air bubbles which have burst toleave small craters
as the coating dries. The coating has insufficient time to
flow into auniform film.
Prevention: lmprove spray technique to avoid air entrainment. Add

thinners as recommended by the paint supplier.
Repair: Abrade and clean the surface and recoat.

6-30
CROWSFOOTING
see also Wrinkling
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LL.
Description: The development of small wrinkles in the paint film which

occur in apattern resembling that of acrow'sfoot.
Probable Causes: Usually dueto the surface drying rapidly to form askin
which then wrinkles as solvent slowly evaporates from
the soft underlying paint.
Prevention: Apply athinner coat of paint,add slower drying thinners,

check application and drying conditions are correctfor the
paint system used.
Repair: Abra de the surface when fully dry and recoat.
6-31
DELAMINATION
see al soAdhesion Failure and Flaking
·~ ¡1 •
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Description: Loss of adhesion between coats of paint.
Probable Causes: Provided compatible paint materials ha ve been used,

delamination defects are generally related to poor surface
preparation and application defects,such as contamination
between coats;exceeding overcoat times;application toa
glossy surface.
Prevention: Ensure no contamination between paint coats, closely

follow intercoat times, lightly abrade and clean glossy
surfaces between coats.
Repair: Depending on extent, abrade and recoat or completely

remove the delaminated coating and reapply.
6-32
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DRVSPRAY
see also Overspray
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Description: Rough and uneven finish to the surface of the paint film
where the particles are insufficiently fiuid to fiow together
and are often poorly adhered.
Probable Causes: lncorrect spray application i.e.gun distance.Aiso associated

with fast drying products and too high an application
temperature.
Prevention: Use correct coatingapplication equipment and techniques.

Use a slower dryi ng solvent or solvent blend. Follow
recommended application procedures.
Repair: Abrade and remove any loase dryspray and re-apply

coating or topcoat.
6-34
l.()
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Applica!ion & Coating Defects
EFFLORESCENCE
.' 1_.;a;:~_,~;:..!"' ..
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Description: White (powdery) substance on the substrate of concrete,
brick, masonry and plaster.The efflorescence, which comes
from the migration of salts, l1fts the paint from the
substrate.
Probable Causes: Soluble salts within the substrate.Moisture brings the salts
to the surface of the substrate resulting in coating adhesion
failure.
Prevention: Ensure surface is moisture free, elean and suitable for

application of the coating system. Remove or eliminate
the so urce of moisture.
Repair: Remove all powdery substances and thoroughly clean the

surface. Apply a suitable sealer and coating system
formulated for concrete, masonry etc.
6-36
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Application &Co~!~!l_g Defects
EROS ION
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Oescription: Selective removal of paint films from areas or high spots.
Probable Causes: The wearing away of the paint film by various elements
such as rain, snow, wind, sand etc. Found to be more
prominent on brush applied coatings beca use of the
uneven fin ish.
Prevention: Use asuitablecoating system with resistance to surface

eros ion/abrasion.
Repair: Clean surface free from contamination and apply acoating

system formulated and tested for the specific environment.
6·38
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see al so Bleaching
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Description: Discoloration or gradual decrease in colour of apaint when

exposed to sunlight/weather.May be accompanied by loss
of gloss.ln sorne situations it may resemble chalking but
without the powdery surface. Fading tends to accelerate
in the presence moisture.
Probable Causes: lncorrect pigmentation; use of organic pigments;

atmospheric conta mination; porous substrate.
Prevention: Use correct coating systems which resists UV light and

fading. Use acoating withlight stablepigments.
Repair: Abrade and clean the surface and apply a light stable
coating system.
6-40
FILIFORM
(Corrosion)
....u
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Description: Random threads of corros ion that develop beneath thin
lacquers and other coating films from agrowing head or
poi nt. Often seen on old 'ti n' food ca ns, with th in electro
plating but also seen on painted aluminium and other
surfaces.
Probable Causes: Contamination on the metallic substrate or damage to the

coating which allows acorrosion cell to develop at the tip
and advance under the coating.
Prevention: Ensure no contamination exists on the substrate prior to

coating application.
Repair: Re move all traces of corros ion products and non adhering
coatings. Abrade, clean and coat to manufacturer's
recom mendations.
6-41
lication &Coatina Defects
FLAKING
see al so Delamination and Adhesion Failure
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Description: Aform of adhesion failure where paint literally fiakes from 1"'1
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the substrate. Afamiliar sight on wood substrates and on

galvanising.
Probable Causes: lncorrect paint system used. Either non eor incorrect pre-
treatment used for certain substrate i.e. non-ferrous or
galvanised.Aiso poor application techniques. May also be
attributed to differential expansion and contraction of paint
and substrate e.g. wood. Can be the result of ageing of the
paint system.
Prevention: Use correct coating system and pre-treatment.
Repair: Remove all flaking coating until a firm edge can be

achieved.Abrade,sweep blast and clean overall and apply
suitable coating system to coating manufacturer's
recommendations.
6-42
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Application &Coating Defects
FLOCCULATION
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Description: The development of loosely coherent pigment

agglomerates in acoating material.
Probable Causes: Non-uniform pigment dispersion which results in the

pigments forming agglomerations.Unsuitable thinners or
inadequate mixing.
Prevention: Ensureonly properly formulated and mixed products are

use d. Use recommended thinners.
Repair: Remove coating where ftocculation is visible.Abrade and

clean the surface and apply a properly formulated and
mixed coating system.
6-44
FLOODING
see al so Flotation
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Description: A defect which appears soon after application due to

pigmentseparation.The visual appearance is adeepening
of the colour. The affected area dries to a deeper shade
than the remainder of the surface.
Probable Causes: Pigment separation and settlement.
Prevention: Use correctly formulated products.
Repair: Lightly abra de and clean and then recoat with asuitably
formulated material.
6-45
A~~i~~~i()~ &Coating Defects
FLOTATION
see also Flooding
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Description: Occurs in coloured materials containing mixtures of

different pigments.lt closely resembles fiooding,although
amonled or streaky effect is produced when the different
pigments separate.
Probable Causes: The mottled effect, which is visible to the eye, is caused
by separation of the different coloured pigments.lt may
also result from the addition of excessive thinners.
Prevention: Use correctly formulated products. Do not over thin with

solvent.
Repair: Abrade and clean overall and apply a suitable sealer or

topcoat.
6-46
GRINNING
o(Grinning Through'
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Description: The underlying surface is visible through the paint film

dueto inadequate hiding power of the coating material.
This is sometimes called 'Grinning-Through~ Often seen
where dark colours are overcoated with lighter colours.
Probable Causes: Low film thickness of penultimate coa t. Poor opacity and
covering power of topcoat coat. Strong colour of primer/
undercoats.
Prevention: Apply adequate dry film thickness between individual

coats.Use opaque coatings with good covering properties.
Repair: Apply addítional compatible coats to clean surface.

6-47
GRIT INCLUSIONS
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Description: Particles of grit and dust embedded within the coating

system.
Probable Causes: Failure to re move used grit from the surface prior to
application ofthe paint. Contamination ofthe wet primer
or undercoat with grit from other blast cleaning operations.
Wind blown grit particles adhering to the topcoat.
Prevention: Ensure all used grit is removed befo re application of fresh

paint. Do not carry our blast cleaning whilst there is wet
paint on nearby surfaces. Ensure than all cans of paint
and brushes etc. are protected during blast cleaning
operations.
Repair: Abrade or blast clean the surface to remove all grit

contamination, thoroughly elean the surface and recoat.
6-48
GROWTH
(on the surface of paint film)
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Description: Growth and attachments of natural and organisms to

surface of finished products. These vary in formf size and
lifespanf e.g. algaefmosses etc.
Probable Causes: Generallyf natural organisms within moistf wet or

immersed conditions. Growth may continue after
attachment.
Prevention: Use correct coating specification and products suitable for

the environment. Where practica I/ clean regularly to
prevent build-up of moss and alga e.
Repair: Clean and remove all growthfabrade the surface and apply
6-49
Aoolication & Coatina Defects
INCORRECT COATING SVSTEM
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Description: An unsuitable or incompatible coating system has been

used which results in rapid failure.
Probable Causes: Use of incompatibleor unsuitable coating materials.
Prevention: Use correct coatíng specification and materials. Ensure that

different coatsare compatible with each other.
Repair: Remove all defective coating and apply correct coating

system to manufacturer's recommendations.
6-50
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IMPACT DAMAGE
(Star cracking)
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Description: Cracks which radia te from apoínt of impact.
Probable Causes: lmpact damage toa relativelybrittle coating. Often see on

glass fibrereínforced plastícs.
Prevention: Prevent impact damage.
Repair: Abrade all damaged areas and recoat.

6-52
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LAMINATIONS OR SHELLING
(of cast iron)
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Description: The photograph shows fiaking or shelling of sections of

cast iron from the surface which have been overpainted
and which have led to subsequent rust staining.
Probable Causes: Failure to re move or treat delaminated sections prior to

application of the coating system.
Prevention: Ensure proper surface preparation is carried out.
Repair: Grind all laminations to remove them, blast clean the

surface and recoat.
6-54
MISSES/SKIPS/HOLIDAYS
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Description: Exposed areas ofsubstrate when the intention was to coat

the entire area. Could be confined to a single coat in a
multi-coat paint system.
Probable Causes: Poor application techniques. La ekof quality control.
Prevention: Use correct application techniques. Apply good painting

practices. Use qualified inspectors.
Repair: Applycoatings to suitable prepared and cleaned substrates

to original specification and manufacturer's repair
procedures.
6-55
MISSING TOPCOAT
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Description: Failure to apply the topcoat leaving the undercoat exposed.
Probable Causes: Poor coating application and quality control.lnadequate

dry film thickness.
Prevention: Thoroughly inspect all surfaces to ensure each coat has

been correctlyapplied.
Repair: Abrade the surface and either apply the topcoat, or an

additional undercoat and topcoat, in accordance with the
paint suppliers recommendations.
6-56
MUO CRACKING
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Description: The dried paint film has the appearance of a dried-out

mud bath. Cracks vary in size and amount but form a
network of cracks.
Probable Causes: Generally over application of heavily pigmented primers

such as inorganic zinc silicates or water based coatings,
although can occur with other over thick systems.
Prevention: Only apply the recommended coating thickness. Use

recommended application techniques with suitably
formu lated products.
Repair: Remove all cracked and fiaking paint back toa sound base.
Abrade and clean surface. Re-apply coating to
6-57
ORANGE PEEL
also known as Pock-marking
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Description: The uniform pock-marked appearance, in particular of a

sprayed paint film in which the surface of the paint film
resembles the skin of an orange.
Probable Causes: Failure ofthe paintfilm to fiow out. Usually caused by poor
application techniques or by incorrect solvent blend.
Prevention: Use correct app lication techniques with suitably

formu lated products.
Repair: Where aesthetics are ofconcern,abrade overall,clean and

recoat.
6-58
ORANGE PEEL
also known as Pock-marking
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6-59
OVERSPRAY
see also Dryspray
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Description: Small particles of paint adhering to the surface of the

previous dry coat, generally adjacent to the area being
sprayed. Often appears as apebbly surface. Similar to dry
spray.
Probable Causes: Particles of wet paint falling outside the spray pattern.
Solvent evaporates too rapidly. Spray application under
windy conditions.
Prevention: Spray paint under suitable environmental conditions.

Adjust spray pattern to minimise overspray onto drypaint.
Repair: Befare cure or drying: remove by dry brushing followed

by solvent wipe. After cure: abrade and apply another
coat.
6-60
PEELING
see also Flaking
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Description: Similar to flaking, although peeling tends to produce soft

and pliable coatings which can be pulled away from or
spontaneously ftake away from the substrate or from
between coats, dueto loss of adhesion.
Probable Causes: Peeling is the reduction in bond strength of the paint film
dueto contamination or incompatibility of coats.
Prevention: Use correct coating system and specification applied to

clean and uncontaminated surfaces.
Repair: Re move all soft and pliable coating back toa firm edge or
total removal. Abrade, clean and apply su1table coating
system to coating manufacturer's recommendations.
6-61
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Description: The farmation of minutehales inthewet paint film during
!f
·-u. applicatian and drying, due ta air or gas bubbles which
burst, giving rise ta small craters ar hales which fail ta
caalesce befare the film dries.
Probable Causes: Salvent ara ir entrapment within apaint film. Acomman

problem when coating parous substrate such as zinc filled
primers, zinc silicates and metal sprayed caatings etc.
Pinhales can alsa be ca used by incarrect spray applicatian
ar incarrect salvent blend.
Prevention: Use carrect applicatian techniques wi th suitably

farmu lated praducts. Carrect salvent blends and
enviran mental canditians. Check spray equipment and
distan ce af spray gun from the surface.
Repair: Abra de, elean averall and apply suitable tiecaat/undercaat

and tapcoat as necessary.
6-63
Fitz's Atlas of coatang defects
•
RAIN DAMAGE -WATER SPOTTING
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Description: Craters and water marks on the surface of the paint film
caused by rain or heavy condensation.
Probable Causes: Rain falling on afreshly painted surface causes craters to

form on thesurface befo reit has hardened sufficiently.
Prevention: Allow coating (where practicable) to surface harden prior

to exposure to rain or heavy condensation.
Repair: Abra de/ clean all surface damage areas and apply overall
undercoat/topcoat.
6-65
RIPPLED COATING
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Description: Arippled effect on the surface ofthe paint.
Probable Causes: Strong wind blowing across the surface ofwet paint causes
it to ripple.Where this is on the underside,the ripples can
hang down ín the form of small stalactites. Can also be
caused by poor applicatíon techníques.
Prevention: Do not apply paint under unfavourable conditions. Use

correct application equipment and workmanship.
Repair: When mild ripples are seen,abrade the surface and recoat.
Where this is a majar effect, remove the coatings and
re coa t.
6 -66
ROT
(wood)
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Description: Damp and rotten wood exposing friable substance,

splitting, ftaking and cracking of paint.
Probable Causes: Generally poor maintenance or application over soft and

rotten wood. Occasionally, use of incorrect paint system.
Prevention: Correct and ongoing maintenance to the wood and

coating. Ensure all wooden surfaces are sound and free
from rot befo re application of paint.
Repair: Replace rotten wood, preferably with treated wood.Apply

asuitable coating system formulated for wood surfaces.
6-67
RUNS OR SAGS
also described as curtains or wrinkles
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Description: Downward movement and tears of paínt whích appear

soon after applícatíon to vertical surfaces dueto excessíve
paint application.ln severe situations it may be descríbed
as curtaíns.
Probable Causes: Over applícation of paínt, excessive thinners, wrong (lack)

of curing agent or just poor workmanshíp. Could, in
extreme circumstances, be aformulatíon problem.
Prevention: Use correct appl ícation tech niq ues with suitab ly
formulated products.
Repair: While the paint is still wet brush out runs and sags.When
the paínt has dríed, abrade and clean defective areas and
apply overall coat or spot repair, as necessary.
6-68
RUNS OR SAGS
also described as curtains or wrinkles
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Other examples are shown on the following page

6-69
Fitz's Atlas of o tmg defettc;
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RUST RASHING
to Thermal Spray Coating
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L&. Description: Spots of ferrous oxide develop within the pares of a
sprayed metal coating. Similar to rust spotting of apaint
film.
Probable Causes: Aphenomenon which can develop on aluminium thermal

sprayed coatings soon after application. Moisture is
absorbed into the metal coating and reacts with the ferrous
substrate. Early sealing with an appropriate coating
prevents such events.
Prevention: Apply thermal spray coating in acontrolled environment.

Seal metal sprayed surface immediately after application.
Repair: Clean rust rashing locations, wire brush, fresh water clean.
Providing dry film thickness of the thermal spray is
adequate, apply sealer coat to coating manufacturer's
recommendations.
6-71
RUST SPOTTING
also referred toas rash rusting
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Description: Fine spots of rust which appear on apaint film, usually a
thin primercoat.This frequently starts as localised spotting
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but rapidly spreads over the surface.
Probable Causes: Low film thickness, voids and holidays,also defects in the
steel i.e.laminations.Too high asurface profile may cause
penetration of peaks through apaint film and cause rust
spotting. May also occur from metallic contamination of
acoated surface by grinding dust etc.
Prevention: Apply an adequate primer coat. Ensure coating system

adequatelycoversthesurface profile. Use athicker coating
system or a lower blast profile. Protect coating from
contamination withgrinding dust etc.
Repair: Depending on type and extent, abrade or blast clean

surface and recoat. Re move all foreign debris and abrade,
elean damaged areas. Apply spot repair or recoat overall.
6-72
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Aoolication & Coatina Defects
RUST STAINING
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LL.
Description: Alight staining on the surface of the paint ca used by the

precipitation of ferrous oxide.
Probable Causes: Water run-offfrom arusty surface above asoundly coated

surface. Rust staining occurs when the rust is wetted-out
and contaminated water runs over and discolours other
items or locations. Usually more of an eye-sore than a
defect.The coating itself may not be detective, onlystained.
Prevention: Adequate design and suitable maintenance.
Repair: Remove staining and apply a cosmetic coating, as

necessary.
6-75
SAPONIFICATION
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Description: The coating appears to be soft and sticky.Can be sporadic

isolated spots oran overall effect.
Probable Causes: Asoap formation reaction between esters,alkali and water.

Often found in alkyd and oil coatings. Notably found on
concrete coated structures and coating used in conjunction
with cathodic protection.
Prevention: Use correct coating specifications and materials.
Repair: Remove all soft coatings where saponification has

occurred, abrade, clean and re-apply undercoat/topcoat
(non-saponifiable).
6-76
SETTLEMENT
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Description: Aterm used to describe the settled pigment/solids in a
liquid prior to application. Found during paint storage.
Settlement which occurs after mixing and during
application can result in different colours in different areas.
Probable Causes: OId stock, heavily pigmented paint,wrong formulation or

contamination of product. Can be aproblem with zinc rich
•
pnmers.
Prevention: Use products within shelf life. Use adequate mixing

procedures. Keep paint mixed or recirculated during spray
application.
Repair: As Prevention:Where the results is apatchy finish, re move

the affected coating and recoat taking precautions against
settlement.
6-77
1
SOLVENT LIFTING
see al soWrinkling
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Description: Eruption of the surface of the paint film. Wrinkling and

blistering which leads to a weak surface and ultimate
coating breakdown.
Probable Causes: Incompatible paint systems used.Topcoats with astrong

solvent blend can attack previous and weaker solvent
blended coatings. Overcoating befo re the previous coat has
adequately hardened.
Prevention: Use correct coating specification, overcoating times and

materials. Conduct compatibility trials with undercoat/
topcoats.
Repair: Remove all defective coatings. Abrade, clean and recoat

with correct coating system, following the recommended
overcoati ng ti mes.
6-78
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Description: Solvent (clear) bubbles on the surface of the paint film

soon after application.
Probable Causes: lncorrect solvent blends, porous surfaces and wrong

enviran mental conditions.
Prevention: Use correct coating specifications and materials. Correct

application techniques and enviran mental conditions.
Repair: Lightly abrade and clean the surface and apply undercoat/
topcoat.
6-80
TACKINESS
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...·-u. Description: Soft film of applied coatings. Although beyond the wet
and liquid stage, the paint film remains as atacky and
soft surface. Sometimes only apparent on touching the
substrate.
Probable Causes: There are various reasons why apaint will rema in tacky:
Over thickness;
Excessive thinners;
Wrong (lack of) curing agent;
Low drying/curing temperature;
Use of coating beyond pot life or shelf life.
Prevention: Use correct coating specifications and materials. Ensure

two-pack materials are correctly mixed. Follow paint
suppliers recommendations.
Repair: Re move defective coating. Abrade, elean and recoat.
6-81
UNDERCUTTING
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Description: Visual corrosion beneath a paint film. Corrosion travels
beneath the paint film and lifts the paint from the
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substrate. Severe cases can show as blistering, flaking,
cracks and exposed rust.
Probable Causes: Application of paint to corroded substrate. Rust creep from

areas of mechanical damage and missing primer coat. Can
be found in areas of poor design or access where
inadequate preparation and coating thickness was applied.
Could also be dueto lack of maintenance.
Prevention: Use adequate coating specifications and maintenance

procedures. Apply asuitably formulated primer.
Repair: Spot repair localised areas.Ciean areas back to sound base,

apply suitable repair coating to manufacturer's
recommendations.
6-82
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WATER SPOTTING
see al so Rain spotting
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Description: The spotty appearance of the paint film caused by drops

of water on the surface and which remains afterthe water
has evaporated.The effect mayor may not be permanent.
Probable Causes: Rain drops falling on the wet paint film. These lea ve
permanent marks. Rain drops falling on afreshly dried but
hard surface. When the water evaporated, marks may be
seen which can be rubbed off.
Prevention: Do not apply paint when rain is threatened.
Repair: Where the marks are just on the surface these may be
washed off but where there is cratering or permanent
damage to the paint film, abrade the surface and recoat.
6-84
WRINKLING
al so Rivelling (see al so Crow'sfooting)
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Description: The development of wrinkles in the paint film during

drying, wrinkling,swelling and blistering of the coating.
Probable Causes: Usually dueto the initial formation of asurface skin with
solvent based paints. Also swelling of the coating from
solvent anack. Can arise from overcoating befare the
previous coat has adequately hardened.
Prevention: Use correct coating specification and materials.Adequate

mixing, application and curing of materials. Follow the
paint suppliers recommended overcoating times.
Repair: Re move detective coatings. Abrade, elean and recoat.
6-85
Fitz's Atlas of codtmq defects
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ZINC CARBONATES
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Description: Loss of adhesion to galvanised surfaces.Biistering of paint

on agalvanised surface.
Probable Causes: White rust or carbonates on the surface of galvan1sing prior

to application ofthe paint coating.Corrosion ofzinc under
the paint surface. Can be similar to rash rusting but white
in colour.
Prevention: Seal zinc coating from the environment and application

of an appropriateprotective coating system.
Repair: Water wash the surface to remove all traces of zinc

corrosion products.Sweep blast or abrade,clean and apply
6-88
Marine Fouling
INDEX OF MARINE FOULING
MARINE FOULING ...........•.••.......................................•.. 7-3

ClASSIFICATION OF FOUUNG ........................................ 7-3
ANIMAL FOULING .•....•..............•................................... 7-5
FIGURES: Animal Fouling ............................................ 7-7
Barnacles .......................•............................. 7-8
Barnacles - acorn ....................................... 7-1 O
Barnacles - gooseneck ..•............................. 7-12
Hydroid - tubularia .••................................. 7-14
Molluscs .........................:........................... 7-15
Po lyzoa ...................................................... 7-16
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Tubeworms ......•••..•....•...•........................... 7-17
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0\ Tunicate - sea squirt ....••...•......................... 7-18
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PlANT- WEED OR AlGAE FOUUNG ...........•.................. 7-19
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FIGURES: Ectocarpus (brown algae- grass) ...............• 7-20
-c:t...
10 Ectocarpus and enteromorpha ........•..••..••.. 7-22
'
111 Enteromorpha (green grass) ..••..•......•••..•.•.. 7-24
-
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Rhodophycea (red algae) ••••....•.....•..••.•.....• 7-26
7-1
Marine Fouling
MARINE FOULING
Fouling is anatural phenomenon which occurs continuously in the marine

environment. On sea-going vessels this leads toa significant in crease in fuel
consumption. The term 'fouling' describes the growth of marine plants and
animals on structures in the sea.The fouling organisms of concern are those
we enea unter on ship's hulls.lt is estimated that the number offouling species
involved in fouling is in the region of 4500-5500 although only a small
number of these species are of great concern toship Owners and Operators.
Classification of fouling can be demonstrated by the two main groups;
Macrofouling and Microfouling with further sub classification between
animals, plants and slimes.
MACROFOULING • MICROFOULING
Animal Plant Slimes
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Barnacles Brown Algae Marine Bacteria
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..... Hydroids (Ectocarpus) Diatoms (Piants)
o Molluscs Green Algae
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Polyzoa (Enteromorpha)
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Tu be Worms Red Algae
,111 Tunicates (Rhodophycea)
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CLASSIFICATION OF FOULING
As can be seen above, plant fouling is an assemblage of different types of

seaweed, mainly green and brown varieties/ while animal fouling comprises
principally barnacles (acorn and gooseneckL tu be worms, polyzoa (hydroids
and bryozoa) and mussels. The slime consists of microscopic forms of both
1
plants and (diatoms) and bacteria.

Contrary toso me belief, the adult forms of fouling su eh as mussels and
barnacles are not floating around in the water ready to be attached to
structures, it is the larva eor sea spores which float around in the top 100 feet
or so of the waters. The moment a larva e settles on a structure the
metamorphosis begins.The length oftime alarvae remains freely swimming
is variable and may range from about six weeks, in the case ofbarnacle larva e,
7-3
Marine Fouling
toa matter of hours in the case of larva eof so me tu be worms and hydroids.
Such an existence is hazardous and to ensure survival the animals produce
large numbers of larvae. Anative barnacle, for example, will produce 10,000
in a season. Reproductive potential is only one of severa! attributes that
characterise the marine fouling forms found on ships. As aconsequence of
the intertidal character of their natural environment they have the ability to
withstand extremes of temperature and salinity, also the ability to attach
quickly and firmly to surfaces; thecapacity for rapid growth highlightsthe
severe problem of marine fou ling to ships. Although it has been shown that
seaweed spores andcertain gooseneck barnacles are capable of attaching in
water flows up to 1Oknots and other barnaclelarva eat water fiow of up to 5
knots, it is still assumed that the bulk of settlementto ship's hu lis occur while
the vessel is stationary. Algae spores attach themselves within minutes of
contact with a surface, whereas animallarvae require considerably longer
periods for firm attachment. On ship's hu lis the settlement of plant fouling
occurs where there is available sunlight i.e. around the waterline anda few ""-·
roto
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meters below. Light is necessary for them to survive, light energy being "'.
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converted to chemical energy (food) by photosynthesis. Animal organisms, ~
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however, do not require light and can therefore be found on any underwater ....o
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7-4
Marine Fouling
ANIMAL FOULING
Prior to the mid sixties,commercial vessels tended to be comparatively small

and lack of port facilities determined that lengthy stationary periods were
encountered in most types of vessel operation.This predisposed shipping to
fouling by marine animals, especially barnacle fouling, and up to the mid-
sixties biologists working on fouling problems worked on barnacle fouling.
The introduction of large ships and improved port facilities resulted in
considerably decreased stationary time during vessel operation and the
fouling emphasis in shipping changed from an animal dominated problem
toan alga edominated problem. However, if aship does encounter alengthy
stationary period it beco mes vulnerable to animal fouling. Animal fouling
problems are caused by the larvae stages, the larvae being comparatively
large (1 mm), and as with all animal fouling problems a period of time of
.,.. around 2- 3days is required for the establishment of the problem to allow
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the larval stage of metamorphosis to become the miniature adult. Where
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light is the food for plants the microscopic 'drifting life: consisting of micro
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Barnacles - Acorn The most commonly encountered fouling animals
.VI and in consequence much is known about their biology. These animalslive
..-
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·-u.. within hard calcareous shells and again have a net of tentacles to trap
planktonic food. Barnacle larva eare selective in choosing their settlement
sites and can actually recognise the presence of other barnacles.This results
in barnacles attaching clase to other members of their own species which
ensures clase enough proximity to allow cross fertilisation. Removal of
accumulations of barnacle fouling by underwater scrubbing results in a
roughening of the surface and also in aspreading around of a biologically
attractive'flavou(Rapid recolonisation by yet more barnacles is the inevitable
result! When the animals die, the shell remains on the ship's hull.
Barna des - Gooseneck Specifically adapted for planktonic life attached

to floating objects,gooseneck barnacles are the exception to the rulethat the
shoreline plant and animal communities are the so urce of all macroscopic
fou ling problems. They differ from acorn barnacles in having long feathery
stalks. When adult they are around 1Ocm in length. The 'lepas' barnacle is
commonly found attached to fioating objects, but amore severe problem is
caused by'conchoderma' agooseneck typically found attached to whales.
7-5
Marine Fouling
Hydroids (typically tubularia ) Although plant-like in appearance,

hydroid are typical animal fouling forms. The so called 'ftower heads' are
actually batteries of stinging cells which are used to paralyse and capture
planktonic food. Hydroids are colonial forms. Ea eh animal is placed in alittle
cup, the body has asingle opening which serves both as mouth and anus.
They are often found on the fiats of vessels and are often misrepresented as
algae forms.ln general there is insufficient light to allow algae fouling to
grow on the fiats oflarge vessels;filamentitious growths found on these areas
are generally types of hydroid.
Molluscs Molluscs are paired shells and are similarto musselsand oysters.
Although molluscs have a hard shell the attachment threads are relatively
weak which limits its abilityto attach to moving structures;growth is normally
found on stationary objects.
,,..
Polyzoa As the na me suggests, these animals are composed of many cells. -·
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111..
They have a hard calcareous skeleton. Sorne forms are ftat and encrusting ...-
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while others have an erect growth ha bit. In each case clase observation reveals 01
111
their lace-like appearance. They use a net of tentacles with which to catch o.....
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their planktonic food. olll
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Tu be Worms Easily recognised by their hard white calcareous tu bes, these ro
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tube-dwelling animals are again plankton feeders and entrap theirfood using ,...
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VI
anet of adapted tentacles.Again, the larva ecan exercise adegree ofselection

over their attachment site and are capable of recognising the presence of
their own species often resulting in the build up of large complex colonies.
Tunicates Tunicates are sessile marine animals, sorne of which are

important fouling organisms.Tunicates live in awide range of habitats, from
the lower part of the seas down to waters of great depth. So me species are
attached to sol id surfaces, such as ships, while others are attached to loase
substrata of sand and mud. Most species feed mainly on minute plant ce lis
of the plankton, which they filter from astream of water down through the
oral opening into the perforated pharynx and expel through theatrial opening.
This current brings required oxygen and carries away waste products.
7-6
Marine Fouling
ANIMAL FOULING
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Severe animal fouling to the underwater location of aship. Fouling can add
.....o considerableweight toa ship and in crease fu el consumption dramatically.
-..
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Removal of the fouling by high pressure water washing. Note damage to

existing pa intwork.
7-7
Marine Fouling
BARNACLES
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Ascattering of tiny barnacles with sporadic mussels attached to the si de of a

ship.
7-8
Marine Fouling
BARNACLES
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Aclose-up shot ofbarnacles. Note the various sizes along with paint damage
to the surrounding areas.
7-9
Marine Fouling
BARNACLES - ACORN
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Acolony of acorn barnacles.The barnacle larvae can recognise the presence

of other barnacles which result in el ose contact and cross fertilisation.
7-10
Marine Fouling
BARNACLES - ACORN
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Small acorn barnacles and mussel fouling on the underside of the bilge keel
turn of bilge. The shell of the barnacles remains attached to the substrate
even when the life ofthe animal has ended.
7-11
Marine Fouling
BARNACLES - GOOSENECK
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Gooseneck Barnacles - specially adapted for planktonic life. The fouling

goosenecks are all oceanic and prefer to settle on a substrate which is in
motion i.e.ship's hu lis. So me gooseneck barnacles even settle when the ship
runs ata speed of 1Oknots.
7-12
en M
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Marine Fouling
HYDROID - TUBULARIA
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Tubularia- atypical Hydroid.Aithough plant-like in appearance, hydroids are

typica l animal fou ling. Hyd roids are, in fact, one of the most important animal
fouling.They can be distinguished from alga eand so me bryozoa, which they
superficially resemble, by the polyp which appears as enlargements to the
ends of the bra nches.
7-14
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Marine Fouling
POLVZOA
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Polyzoa -colonial animals with agreat variety of forms, which may at first
result in confusion with organisms such as hydroids, compound tunicates
and even tufted seaweed. Divided into 2groups; encrusting and erect.
7-16
Marine Fouling
TUBEWORMS
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Tubeworms- Also called Serpulids.Settlement is heavier in warmer waters.

Feeding is conducted on the planktonic microscopic organisms carried past
them in the water currents.
7-17
f1tz s Atlas of o tmg def
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Marine Fouling
PLANT- WEED OR ALGAE FOULING
Regularly encountered are the finely branched brown alga e'Ectocarpus' and
the green algae' Enteromorpha: commonly known as 'grass'fouling beca use
of the similarity in appearance. There the resemblance ends. Algae are very
simple plants, deriving their nutrient requirements by uptakes directly into
their body ce lis from the surrounding seawater, the root structures being non
absorptive with use for anchorage only. When divers ha veto re move algae
growth by scrubbing, they leave the root structures embedded on the surface.
Beca use of the simplicity of the plant, rapid growth occurs and further
cleaning becomes necessary. lndeed the more a surface is scrubbed the
rougher and more attractive it beco mesto further alga ecolonisation. Alga e
fouling is caused by spores which are too small to be seen by the unaided
eye andona roughened surface those spores are capable of attaching within
seconds and becoming established in afew hours.
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Fouling by the brown algae 'Ectocarpus' is similar to that already
QJ
described for 'Enteromorpha:The green alga etend to domínate in positions
"'e
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of higher light intensity while 'Ectocarpus' domínate in conditions of lower
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o light intensity.Since all algae require light for growth they are not generally
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111
found on the fiat bottoms of commercial ships.With few exceptions all green
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alga eare green grass colour owing to the predominance of chlorophyll. Red
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algae is basically filamentitious, but compaction of cells may conceal this
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feature. The life cycle is peculiar and complicated, and the reproductive
products are dispersed passively by the water currents.
7-19
Marine Fouling
ECTOCARPUS (BROWN ALGAE - GRASS)
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-
oQl
-
l'"t
:J
.o
c..
rtl
iñ'
~
VI
""
\.,
Ectocarpus (brown alga e - grass) - underwater exposure. The colour is

attributed to the pigment fucoxanthin.The spores ofthe Ectocarpus are very
small and can be planktonic for one day before they settle. Ectocarpus
dominates in conditions of lower light intensity.
7-20
Marine Fouling
ECTOCARPUS ANO ENTEROMORPHA
.,
-·
~
N
•
VI
...l>-
Al
VI
-:....;::,
o.
/1)
Ectocarpus and Enteromorpha. Most common forms of green and brown grass.
7-22
•
V"l m
0\ V"l N
e ro ,.....'
·-
-o::S e(
~
en
e
~
..... :I: o~
Cll o.. ..0
·-...n:s
e -o
c:x: e
ro
:e o e
Cl.J
:E <l.J
en
oc:x: ~
o
V"l
w E
....._
....z ,p
e
o
w E
E
e ol....)
ze( ........
V"l
o
~•
ro
"'o..::l ..e
a..
....._
o
E
c:x: p
Cl.J
e( .........
e
u u..J
o.... -o
e
ro
V"l
u :::>
a..
....._
w ro
l....)
o
........
l....)
u..J
Marine Fouling
ENTEROMORPHA (GREEN GRASS)
.,
.:-·
•
"'...
>
Enteromorpha (green grass). Thicker and more continuous around the
-
Al
"'
waterline where the algae can obtain more sunlight and energy through
photosynthesis.
o.
ltl
n:·
~
Re moval of green alga e, exposing sound anti-fouling paint.
7-24
Marine Fouling
ENTEROMORPHA (GREEN GRASS)
..... ...
-~·- "--=~
u
..,.;.
- .
""'e:
0'1
-
ro
o
Severe forms of green grass. All green alga eare of green grass colour, owing
-u
o
to the predominance of chlorophyll.
"'ro
-
....
<
..-
~"'
N
u..
Severe forms of green grass. All green alga eare of green grass colour, owing
to the predominance of chlorophyll.
7-25
Marine Fouling
RHODOPHYCEA (RED ALGAE)
,
..-·
N
•
"')lo
Rhodophycea - severe forms of red algae.
--
a¡
.....
..0
a.
....t"'
7-26
Appendix
CONTENTS OF APPENDIX
COATING BREAKDOWN SCALES ................................ App-3

BREAKDOWN SCALES (Scattered) ......•..................... App-4
BREAKDOWN SCALES (Localised) ...•••.•••••...•.•••.•.•.•.•• App-6
PAINT COMPATIBILITY CHART ••••••.••••....•.••••.•..••.•...•. App-8
PAINT PROPERTIES CHART ..................................... App-10
PAINT ARITHMETIC ............................................... App-12
FORMULAE FOR SURFACE AREAS ..•.•.......•.•••.•••...... App-15
V\
~
u
...~
"'O
0'1
-e
4 -J
oV
-o
-"'
1'0
.<t...
..·-
,VI
N
u.
App-1
Appendix
COATING BREAKDOWN SCALES
The Extent of Coating Breakdown Sea les on the following pages should be
used in conjunction with the following Standards;
European Sea le of Corrosion

ISO 4628
ASTM 610
The above Standards illustrate the type of coating failure observed on asmall
are aof agiven substrate.
The sea les are used to represent the failure rñode expanded over a much
larger surface area su eh as tan ksurfaces ora large pipe surface.
~
-V
CIJ
"U lt can be seen that in most cases where 'scattered' failure has taken place it
0'1
-
e:
.ro.... would be uneconomical to attempt a patch repair. Total removal and
oV replacement ofthe coating system is warranted. However, where the coating
-o
111
has failed in a'localised' mode, a patch repair can often be economically
-<
~
1'0
justified.
..·-
,111
N
LL. Wherever possible the assessor or surveyor should view and categorise coating
failure modes on aglobal scale rather than isolated or localised are a.
Coating Breakdown Sea/es courtesy ofTC/
App-3
Appendix
COATING BREAKDOWN (SCATTERED)
0.1 °/o Coating Breakdown
1°/o Scattered
.,
..-·
N
vi'
3°/o Scattered ...-
):a
Cl
111
o
.....
oCl
-
l"'t
:J
1.0
c.
ro
ro'
n,...
111
So/o Scattered
10°/o Scattered
App-4
Appendix
COATING BREAKDOWN {SCATTERED)
15°/o Scattered
25°/o Coating Breakdown
.....
\11
u
~
!e
·-
.....
ltl
o
-u
o
111
-<..-
IV
~"'
N
·-
~
LL.
App-5
Fitz s Atlas of coating defec.ts
# ;
ew
-
V\
....J
e:(
u
o....J
... ,
z
==
o e
~
e o
~ "'C
e:( ~
w ra
a: (])
"""
~ al
"'C
~ O" "'C "'C "'C (])
z e
- ·-ra (])
·-
(]) (])
·-
-"'ra
-"'ra -·-"'ra ·-
-"'ra
+J
·-
)(
~ u
o u u u o
u
-,::s
e o
u
o o o _J
o~ ....J _J ....J
Ql
c. o~
Q.
M
• o~ o~ o~ o 6_
< o t"""- M Lll ~
a.
<(
Appendix
COATING BREAKDOWN (LOCALISED)
15°/o Localised
...u
VI
,.;;.
"'e
Cl
-
~
tU
o
-v
o
-ca:...
111
1'0
,111
...·-u.
'N
App-7
Appendix
PAINT COMPATIBILITY CHART
Acrylated Amine Chlor. Coal Tar Epoxy

Alkyd Bitumen
Rubber Epoxy Rubber Epoxy Es ter
Acrylated
Rubber 1 E 1 X 1 X 1 X 1 X 1 X 1 X
Alkyd 1 F [1,4] 1 E[2] 1 X 1 F[4] 1 P 1 X 1 G[2]
Amine
Epoxy 1 F [1 ,4] 1 X 1 E [2,3] 1 F [1] 1 F [3] 1 G [3] 1 X
Bitumen 1 X 1 X 1 X 1 E 1 X 1 X 1 X
Ch lor.
Rubber X X X IF[1,4]1 E X X
1 1 1 1 1
Coal Tar -·"'"

....
N
F [3,4] X G [3,4] F [3,4] F [3,4] E [3] X vi'
Epoxy
,~..
Epoxy 1
-
DI
"'o
Ester
Ethyl Zinc
F [1 ,4] E [2] X F [4] 1 p X E [2] 1
-
n
on.>
....
Silicate F [1 ,4] X G [4] F [1 ,4] G [4] F [1 ,4] X -
:3
~
0..
fT)
M.C. tt
,...
Urethane F [1 ,4] F [1 ,4] F [2,3] 1 F [1 ,4] F [4] F [3,4] F [1 ,4] ....
Polyamide
Epoxy 1 F [1 ,4] p F [2,3] 1 F [1,4] 1 F [4] 1 G [3] p
Silicone
Alkyd 1 F [1 ,4] 1 E [2] X F [4] p X G [2]
Urethane
(2 pack) 1 F [1 ,4] 1 F [1 ,4] 1 F [2,3] 1 F [3,4] 1 F [1 ,4] 1 F [3,4] 1 F [1 ,4]
Urethane
Acrylic 1 F [1 ,4] 1 F [1 ,4] F F [1,4] 1 F [1] 1 F [4] 1 F [1,4]
Vinyl X X F [4] 1 F [ 1,4] 1 F [ 1] X X
E == Excellent [1] == Guide only- conduct test patch

G== Good [2] == Apply primer or undercoat first- same
F == Fair generic type as new topcoat
P == Poor [3] == Flash blast- abrade overall
X == Not recommended [4] == Apply tie/sealer coat
App-8
Appendix
PAINT PROPERTIES CHART
Coal Tar
Product Alkyd Bitumen Chlor. Epoxy
Epoxy
Rubber Ester
(2 pack)
Resistance to UV light Good Chalks Chalks Chalks Chalks

badly
Resistance to Poor Fair in Excellent Excellent Fa ir

Water lmmersion fresh water
'
Resistance to Faírly good Fa ir Fa ir Good Good

:
Mechanical damage '
Not .,
Resistan ce to oils and Fa ir Not resista nt
Good Excellent -·
~
Cutting oilsUl resistant permanently

softened
N
VI -
...->
01
VI
Usually
polyamide o_,
Curíng Agent Oxygen N/A N/ A isocyanate Oxygen f'l
o
•
ora mme ...,.
adduct -::J
..0
o.
Drying Mechanism SE&OX SE SE sE &ce SE&OX 1'!1
rt
.....
lntercoat Adhesion Good with Excellent Excellent Good with
Poor
• (coat on coat) • aged right tie coat (~tweld) (solvent weld) right ne coat
Temperature Resistance Dry
Continuous (cured film) m 90'{ 70')( 70 '( 90"( lOO' e
Chemical Resistance (2l Poor Poor Excellent Good Good

Good Pitch
bleed
Solvent Resistance (aged) Fa ir Poor Poor Good
through can
occur
Resistance to Vapour Permeation Fairly high High Very high Very high High
Minimun Application Temperature 40( 0°( 0°( 10°( ,3: 4D(
Usual! y Usually Blk,

Colour Availabilíty Full range Black & Full range darkbrown, Full range
dark brown dark grey
Drying Mechanism: Notes:

SE == Solvent Evaporation [1] == Reaction with moisture necessary
CC == Chemical Cure [2] == Check with specific manufacturers
OX == Oxidation [3] == lsocyanate cure types down to oac
App-10
Appendix
PAINT PROPERTIES CHART
Pure Pure
Ethyl Grease Silicone Solution Urethane Urethane
Epoxy Urethane (2 pack)
Silicate Coatings Alkyd Vinyl Acrylic
(2 pack) (1 pack)
Very high
Good but Exceptional Very high
low chalking
N/A very high Chalks very low Chalks low Good
- aliphatic
dirt pickup chalking chalklng
grade
Excellent
when Very good Very good Very good Fa ir Very good Very good Very good
sealed
Very good Very poor Excellent Very good Fairly good Very good Out Very good
standing
....u
VI Excellent
but may be Non Excellent Excellent Excellent Good Excellent Excellent
absorbed resistant
.,QJ
"'een Topcoats=
·-.... Usually Moisture
~
o aliphatic
Zinc dust isocyanate from atmo- Aliphatic or
-u
o
and
moisture
N/A polymide
•
ora mme
sphere or
substrate
Oxygen N/A aromatic
isocyanate
isocyanate
Primer=
aromatic
""... adduct (min 35%)
-e::
10 isocyanate
....."" sE & ce (1) SE sE & ce SE 111 SE &OX SE SE&CC sE & ce

N
·-u. Poor
Good with Good with
Excellent right tie coat right tie coat Good
Good (not Good (ind.
Excellent gloss on gloss) gloss on gloss)
120°( (non- 120°( (non

450°( 50°( 110°( thermo plastic)
120°( 80°( thtrmo pla\IIC)
120°(
Poor Good Excellent Very good Good Very good Very good Good
Excellent Good Excellent Very good Good Fa ir Very good Good
Low Very high Very high Fa ir High High low Low
5°( 40( Min 5°C m <00( 40( 0°( <00( <00(
Grey only 1
Full range Full range Full range Full range Full range Full range Full range
primer
- - . - - - . ---- ---······----------···-··--- --- ----------------
Note: The above chart provides a rough indication of paint

properties. Paint formulations vary widely between
different manufacturers.lt is recommended that yo ucheck
these properties with the manufacturer concerned.
App-11
Appendix
PAINT ARITHMETIC
When assessing the cost of painting an estimator needs to take into account
various factors befare arriving at the true cost.
To calculare the total cost or cost per square meter of different paints with
differing vol ume solids for achieving a D.F. T. of 375 microns over an area of
15,000 sq.m.
Paint AEpoxy,vol ume solids 62%- cost per litre f 1.35
Paint BEpoxy,vol ume solids 55%- cost per litre f1.22
Paint e Epoxy,vol ume solids 50%- cost per litre f 1.19 .,

...-·
N
1.1'1-
ealculations for Total eosts ...-cu
)::o
VI
Paint A
Vol ume = 15000 x 375 = 9073 litres x Cost @ f1.35 = f12248.55 o
....-·
10 X 62 lC
a.
{f)
Paint B ....
Vol ume = 15000 x 375 = 10227 litres x Cost @ f1.22 = f 12476.94
10 X 55
Paint e
Volume = 15000x375 = 112501itres x Cost@ f1.19 = fl3387.50
10 X 50
lt can be clearly seen that the vol ume solids affect the material calculation
and the costs. Although initially Paint Cappears cost effective only after
calculation does it beco mes clear that Paint A is the more economic paint
beca use ofits higherV.S.%.
Peripheral factors such as poor quality control, delayed deliveries, poor

technical support and service are subjective, however, they affect choice of
supplier and materials to be used.
App-12
Appendix
Once the estimator has calculated his initial total costthe"Loss Factors"need
to be considered.
Depth of Profile
As ageneral rule optimum surface amplitude is specified at 50 - 75 microns.
Howeve~ higher build materials, i.e. glassflake materials, require amplitude
of 75 to 100 microns. Therefore, more material will be required to fill the
troughs and cover the peaks, since dry film thickness measurements are
usually taken over the peaks.
lrregularity of Sha pe
Jt is difficult to achieve uniform paint application on complex shapes and
fabricated structures and, therefore,losses dueto over-spray or excess paint
build up in corners will inevitably need to be taken into consideration. This
V\
can usually increase the paint consumption rate to plus 30% or more,
~
u
.~
depending on substrate configuration.
<11
"O
en
--reo
ou
Overspray
Even on relatively uncomplicated substrates, this can amount to 5%, even
-o
~
with efficient airless spraying.
-...
«1
ct
,VI Wind loss
....N
·-u. When applying paint in the open in high wind conditions, losses of 20 -
50% can be experienced.
General losses
Exceeding potlife, pilferage, spillage etc, need to be considered in any paint
consumption calculation.
Absorbent Surfaces
Wood surfaces, if not properly sealed, would tend to absorb paint into the
substrate anda factor of 2%-5% should be considered for such surfaces.
General
Even with well trained operatives, "on the job" inspection, good QA/QC
procedures, the paint estimator should add a baseline factor of 25% to his
original paint consumption calculation. All other factors listed above will
then need to be taken into consideration.
App-13
Appendix
When comparing solventless/solvent free, coatings, with normal solvent

bound types, one will invariably find that the former is mueh more expensive
than the latter. However, one must consider that for agiven
•
dry film thickness,
the coverage rate will be mueh higher with the solventless/solvent free type.
The following example illustrates this point.
Paint 1: Solventless materials V. S.= 97.5% @ f4.80 per litre

Paint 2: Solvent free materials V. S.== 100% @ f 4.90 per litre
Paint 3: Solvent bound types V. S.= 50% @ f2.70 per litre
To obtain the coverage for 250 ~ D.F. T. use D.F.T. = V.S.%

W.F.T.
The W.F.T. required for Paint 1 = 250 X 100 == 256.41 J1T1

97.5 .,
-·v.-
~
N
The W.F.T. required for Paint 2 = 250 X 100 = 250 J1l1 ...-
~
100 Ql
"'
The W.F.T. required for Paint 3 = 250 X 100 = 500 J1T1
-
,....
50 -·
::¡
o.
'tl
;;'
Therefore the vol ume required to cover 1m2
with Paint 1 == 256.41 x 100 x 100 ces/mis == 256.41mls

10,000
with Paint 2 == 250 x 100 x 100 ces/mis == 250 mis

10,000
with Paint 3 = 500 x 100 x 100 ces/mis = 500 mis

10,000
Therefore the cost per m1 using; Paint 1 = f4.80 x .25641 = f 1.23

Paint 2 = f4.90 x .250 = f1.22
Paint 3 = f2.70 x .500 = f1.35
In this hypothetical case, the use of solvent free materials (Paint 2),although
more expensive in cost per litre, actually works out cheaper.
App-1 4
Appendix
FORMULAE FOR SURFACE AREAS
Abbreviations
Length == L Width == W Height == H Radius == R
Diameter == D Area == A :re == 3.142 approx.
Con e
(Siant si de== S, Base diameter == D)
Are aof the curved surface of acon e is: H S
A== :rc xDxS

2
D
01\
Cube (Side == L)
+-'
u
.~
Acube has six identical square faces.Total
QJ
"U surface area is six multiplied by the 1 L
~
-....
e
-ro
o
u
square of the length of one side.
o
V\
A== 6 X L2 ' L
-c:c...
tO
Cylindrical Tank
..·-
,V\
N
u.. The surface areaconsists ofthe cylindrical

shell (2 x :re x Rx H) plus the two flat 1 1 1H
ends 2 x (:re R' ). .-
-........;.
R
A== (2 X:re X RX H) + 2( :re X R:)
Domed end of Tan k

(Height of dome== H)
R
A==2x :rc xRx H
Ellipse (Majar axis== O, Minar axis==d) 1

1
d ¡ t- --- -'1 -- ---
A == :rt xDxd 1
1
4
( D )
App-15
Appendix
1Beam
(Piate thickness = C) e
H
A== 2X(2W + H- C) XL
( w )
Pipe ( L )
The surface area of a pipe is calculated 1 '
1 \
by multiplying the diameter by Jt and 1 • l 1 \ D
1 ,1
then multiplying by thepipe length.
A== n xDxL
Ring .,
(Outer radius == R,lnner radius == r) -·
N
~
..->
.,.~
A== n x R2 - n x r2 Cl
"'
o
_,
n
oDJ
Sphere -
......
:::1
.;0
1 '
1 \ o.
The surface area of asphere is calculated ,-- _, .....
., ...... f '
tt>
rd'
by multiplying the square of radius (R)
by n by 4.
-- .- -- . J -- . . -
n
VI
'\ R1 1'
'
A=4x n xR
Trapezium < e>

(Parallel sides length=B&C)
H
A= (8 + C) x H
2 ( B )
Triangle
(Base length=B)
H
A==BxH
2
( B )
App-16

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lntroduction

With any coating failure, a process of elimination shou ld be considered

Section seven illustrates various types of marine fouling and finally, an

Each of these sections have been compiled by coating specialists who

Edited by: RogerWeatherhead and Peter Margan,

We are grateful to the following organisations and individuals that have

Akzo Nobel (lnternational Coatings Ltd)

CONTENTS •.•..••......•..•................•...•...••.•.•..•.......•..•...••. 1-0

WELDING FAULTS .....•................................................... 2-0

SURFACE CONDITIONS .................................................. 3-0

SURFACE PREPARATION ................................................ 4-0

APPEN DIX .....................................................•....••... App-0

Where aprotective coating system is to be applied over aweld, the application

The following section describes various faults in fusion welds in construction

Descri ption: Crack visible at the surface.

Probable Causes: Excessively deep or wide be ad. High current and/or

Repair: Cut out defective weld length plus 5 mm beyond visible

Comment: Protective coatings can maskcracks but rarely successfully

Description: Crater resulting from shrinkage at the end of aweld run.

Probable Causes: lncorrect manipulative technique or current decay to allow

Repair: All such porosities must be appropriately filled prior to

Comment: Coatings rarely bridge pares in a metal substrate and if

EXCESS PENETRATION BEAD

Description: Weld metal normally extends below the parent metal

Probable Causes: lncorrect edge preparation providing insufficient support

Repair: Where sharp changes in contour occur these need to be

Comment: Thorough brushíng in of astripe coat can be effective but

EXCESS PENETRATION BEAD

Description: Weld metal normally extends below the parent metal

Probable Causes: lncorrect edge preparation providing insufficient support

Repair: Where sharp changes in contour occur these need to be

Comment: Thorough brushing in of astripe coat can be effective but

Description: Shrinkage at the weld root resulting in a deep pita long

Repair: Ensure the edges are smooth with no sharp changes in

Comment: All sharp edges must be ground smooth in accordance

< Weld Spatter

Description: Globules of metal which adhere to the meta'l surface,often

Probable Causes: lncorrect welding conditions, such as too high awelding

Repair: Grind or needle gun off all globules to leave a smooth

Comment: Weld spatter can rarely be successfully coated and can

Description: Small hard spots, craters or rough surface featu res.

Probable Causes: Accidental contact of electrode or welding torch with pi ate

Repair: Grind smooth, blast clean or use other appropriate

Comment: The application of a protective coating to rough

Description: Pares visible at the surface of aweld.

Probable Causes: Excessive contamination from grease, dampness or

Repair: All such porosities must be appropriately filled prior to

Comment: Coatings rarely bridge pares in a metal substrate and if

Description: Undercut cavity which results from washing away of the

Probable Causes: Poor welding technique and/or unbalanced welding

Repair: All such undercuts must be appropriately prepared,

Comment: Coatings rarely bridge undercuts in ametal substrate and

INDEX OF SURFACE CONDITIONS

SURFACE PREPARATION ................................................ 3-2

This section includes pictorial examples ofsome typical conditions,from bare

Various photographs areincluded whichshow mili scale on unprepared steel

Whenever grinding is used forre moval of defects,professional advice should

Contamination on surface ....

Oil, grease and other foreign contamination must be removed by solvent

Laminations, Surface Shelling or Hackles

befare application of any coating system.The use of an Ultrasonic thickness

LL. not be applied over welding slag.

Description: Poor design resulting in awell where water can collect.

Comment: This problem should be eliminated wherever possible at