Review of Series

Compensation

Douglas Bowman, P.E.

Research, Development, and
Special Studies
Date: May 20-21, 2014
Contents
1. Series Compensation
2. Series Compensation Types
3. Subsynchronous Interactions (SSI) - Terms
4. Fundamentals of SSI and Series Compensation
5. Forms of SSI
6. SSI and Series Compensation
7. Tools for Assessment of SSI in Series Compensated Networks
8. SSI Mitigation Measures
9. SSI Protection Measures
10. Protective Relay Considerations for Series Compensated Networks
11. Protective Relay Solutions for Series Compensated Networks
12. Project Planning for Implementation
13. Design Studies
14. Concluding Remarks

2
Series Compensation

1. Increases power transfer

capability
2. Improves transient
performance
3. Improves reactive power
balance
4. Improves Voltage Stability
5. Improves power flow
balance on adjacent lines
6. Deferral of major transmission investments
7. Preservation of existing rights of way

Benefits of Series Compensation 3

 Series Compensation

Since transmission lines are

mostly inductive, adding
series capacitance decreases
its total reactance

Reducing XL increases PR

Compensation Level K is defined as the percent of XLoffset by the series capacitor

Example: For XL = 1 ohm, 30% compensation produces XL - XC = .7 ohm

Increases Power Transfer Capability

4
Series Compensation

If A1 > A2, the generator will

return to stability

Series compensation increases

the system stability limits by
reducing the system reactance
between machines as this
directly increases the
synchronizing torque that can be
interchanged between them

Improves Transient Performance

Following Disturbances 5
 Series Compensation

Transmission Line Reactive Reactive Power Balance For A 300 Mile 500kV Line
Power Losses :
Qlosses=I2Xline

Series Capacitor Reactive Power

Output:
Qoutput=I2Xcapacitor

As a transfer across the line

increases, Qoutput partially offset
Qlosses

Improves Reactive Power Balance and

Self-Regulation 6
 Series Compensation

Increasing compensation levels K

provides greater Qoutput capability Effect of Increasing Compensation Levels

Maximum power transfer

capability of the line is increased

Generator reactive power is

made available for voltage
control

Improves Voltage Stability

7
Series Compensation Types
• Continuous current rating
according to the line
• Overvoltage protection
• Zinc Oxide Varistor (MOV)
• Conducts when voltage level
across capacitor reaches
protection level
• Fast Protective Device (FPD)
• For example, an air gap
conducts when energy
absorbed by MOV exceeds
rated values.
• Bypass Breaker
• Damping Reactor

Fixed Series Compensation (FSC)

8
Series Compensation Types
• Two Modules Series Capacitor Series Capacitor

•
Reactor

FSC as previously described

MOV

Damping
Reactor Thyristors

• Capacitor with thyristor controlled, air cooled FPD

MOV

reactor to modulate line impedance Bypass Switch

Damping
Reactor

• FACTS Device Fixed Series Compensation FPD

• Offers Dynamic Power Flow Control Bypass Switch

Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation

• Reactance can be modulated to effectively

mitigate SSI
• Blocked Mode removes reactor from
circuit
• By-Passed Mode removes capacitor
from circuit
• Controlled Mode varies total reactance

Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation(TCSC)

9
Subsynchronous Interactions (SSI) - Terms
• Subsynchronous Interaction – A general term describing the condition
where two or more parts of the power system exchange energy at one or
more frequencies below the fundamental frequency (60 hz).

• Subsynchronous Oscillation - An SSO is a condition where the electric

network exchanges significant energy with a turbine generator at one or
more of the natural frequencies of the combined system below the
synchronous frequency of the system following a disturbance from
equilibrium.

• SSI can lead to SSOs that must be damped before outage or damage to
network equipment occurs

• Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) – A type of SSI where the electric

power system, most often a series compensated transmission line,
exchanges energy with a turbogenerator at one or more natural
frequencies below the fundamental 60hz frequency (three types of SSR)
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Fundamentals of SSI and Series Compensation

• A power system’s natural electrical frequencies are a function of its

inductance and capacitance.
• When new capacitance is added, new natural electrical frequencies
result and the system natural frequency approaches the
fundamental frequency fo

• A generator’s shaft may also

have multiple natural
frequencies of oscillation
• Four natural frequencies
or torsional modes for
the system shown

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Forms of SSI

* Interaction with series compensation does not occur during SSTI 12

SSI and Series Compensation

• SSR – TI (Torsional Interaction)

• When a small disturbance occurs, simultaneous excitation of all
natural frequencies (modes) of oscillation occurs in both the
electrical system and the generator
• If the electrical and mechanical natural frequencies are close to one
another, sustained or growing rotor oscillations can occur resulting
in possible torsional fatigue damage to the turbine generator shaft.
This is classic SSR-TI.
• SSR – TA (Torsional Amplification)
• When a large disturbance occurs, the subsynchronous transient
current frequency may be close to the generator natural torsional
frequency
• Can lead to prolonged generator shaft oscillations with high
amplitude causing increased stress and accelerated loss of life.

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SSI and Series Compensation
• IGE (Induction Generator Effect)
• Purely electrical resonance effect
• Combined generator and electric power system results in a negative
effective rotor resistance at a natural frequency below 60 hz
• If the negative rotor resistance is greater than the apparent stator
plus network resistance, self –excited, subsynchronous current and
electromagnetic torque can result

• SSCI – (Control Interaction) ERCOT 2009 Event

• Event between wind generators and series compensated
transmission line
• 2 pu overvoltage damaged rotor side protection circuits
• Wind farm became radially connected through series capacitor
• 1.5 seconds before capacitor was bypassed
• Resonance between Capacitor and Wind Turbine Converter/Control
• Only Type 3 and Type 4 Turbines Can Be Affected
• See report for ERCOT’s SSI study process for new wind generation
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 Mohave SSR-TI Incident (1970)
• Mohave generator: 1,580 MW coal-fired in NV.
• Gradually growing vibration that eventually
fractured a shaft section.
• First investigations incorrectly determined cause.
After 2nd failure in 1971 cause was identified as
Subsynchronous Resonance.
• An electrical resonance at 30.5 Hz excited a mechanical resonance at 30.1
Hz.
• Problem was solved by reducing compensation and installing a torsional
relay.

D. Baker, G. Boukarim, “Subsynchronous Resonance Studies and Mitigation Methods for Series Capacitor Applications,” IEEE 2005.
D. Walker, D. Hodges, “Results of Subsynchronous Resonance Test At Mohave,” IEEE 1975.
Tools for Assessment of SSI in Series
Compensated Networks
• Frequency Scan Screening
• Calculates apparent impedance from generator from 0 to 60 hz
• Can identify potential IGE, SSR-TI, SSR-TA, and SSCI problems
• Eigenvalue Analysis
• System model linearized, small pertubations examined
• Identifies torsional mode damping characteristics
• Used to study SSR-TI and SSCI problems
• Damping Torque Analysis
• EMT type software used for analysis
• Examines electrical torque response to small change in
generator speed to determine damping characteristic
• Practical for evaluating SSR-TI
• Time Domain Analysis
• EMT type software used for analysis
• Most useful in studying SSR-TA problems
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SSI Mitigation Measures (SSI Prevention)
• Network Based Preventative Measures to Reduce a
Known Risk of SSI
• Operational Procedure
• Alter the network configuration or generation dispatch
• Bypass the Capacitor or reduce its compensation level
• Passive Filter Damping for series resonance network condition
• Shunt or Series
• Shunt and Series
• FACTS Active Shunt Filter Damping
• STATCOM or SVC
• FACTS Active Series Filter Damping
• Thyristor Controlled
Series Compensation (TCSC)
• Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

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SSI Mitigation Measures (SSI Prevention)
• Generator Based Preventative Measures to Reduce
a Known Risk of SSI
• Passive Filter Damping
• Active Filter Damping (FACTS devices such as TCR or STATCOM)
• Supplemental Excitation Control Damping
• Wind Turbine Control Damping
• Type 3 and 4 turbines use VSC as basis for control
• Newer controls since 2009 mitigate SSI

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SSI Protection Measures (SSI Detected)
• Series Capacitor Bypass
• Newer relays developed for SSCI since 2009
• Generator Relays
Relay Signal Input Comments
Torsional Motion Shaft Speed Developed and applied in the late 1970s. Speed is processed by band-pass filters to
(Stress) Relay calculate conditions at particular sub-synchronous frequencies of interest. Torsional
Stress Relays (TSR) have been applied at several generator units and are still
available. Newer torsional motion relays are micro-processor based. Appears to be
the most widely applied measure to protect genertors from the potential of SSI due
to proximity of HVDC or series compensated lines.
S. California Terminal Micro-processor relay that uses exclusive time domain analysis on wave parameters
Edison patent voltage of successive half cycles. More research is recommended as to the application of this
1986 patent, performance information, and current status.
ABB Research Generator Micro-processor based relay developed in the 2011 timeframe.
Ltd. patent Terminal voltage
ERLPhase Generator Micro-processor based relay is used to perform frequency spectrum analysis on the
Power Terminal voltage inputs to compare sub-synchronous frequency components with fundamental
Technologies and currents component.
Relay Armature Micro-processor based relay. Developed in late 2009 and applied in 2010 by AEPSC at
Application current two locations as backup generator protection.
Innovation

Summary of Generator Based SSI Relays 19

Protective Relay Considerations for Series
Compensated Networks
• Voltage and current inversion due to nearby fault
• Measured Impedance of Distance Protection when
series compensation switched in and out
• Subsynchronous Transient Signal Impacts on
apparent impedance
• Adjacent Line Impacts
• Unbalanced Line and Mutual Impedance Impacts
• Automatic Reclosing for Series Compensated
Transmission Lines
• Series Capacitor Switching
• Three Phase Automatic Reclosing
• Single Phase Automatic Reclosing
• Spurious Bypass Operation

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Protective Relay Solutions for Series
Compensated Networks
• Advanced Relays for Series Compensation
Application
• Memory Polarization
• Special Series Compensation Logic
• Sequence Component Impedance for Directional
Discrimination
• Protection Schemes
• Line Current Differential Protection
• Directional Comparison Protection
• Permissive Overreach Scheme
• Underreaching Direct Trip and Direct Transfer Trip Scheme
• Protection Design and Performance Verification
• EMT simulation of various system conditions recommended for
the chosen protection scheme
• See report for various case studies
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Project Planning and Implementation
• Location of Series Compensation – affects effectiveness,
voltage profile, protections settings, future configuration,
operation and maintenance
Mid-Line Installation Line Ends Installation

• Modularity of Series Compensation for staged development

• Design for Future Network Modifications
• Operations and Maintenance Considerations
• FSC - majority of equipment used is already likely found in the system
• TCSC – redundant power electronic modules allows replacement of faulty
modules
• Operations and Reliability
• Remote control functionality 22
Design Studies
• Steady State and Short Circuit analysis
• Transient Stability Analysis

• Harmonics and Subsynchronous Frequency Scans

to identify possible resonance issues
• Short-Term Transient Voltage and Switching
Studies (EMTP type) to determine
• Maximum energy on varistors
• Maximum transient voltage and current on capacitors
• TRV on circuit breakers
• Required size of MOV and damping circuit components
• Small Signal Analysis to determine impact of series
capacitor on current modes of oscillation

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Concluding Remarks
• Series Compensation used worldwide since 1950s
• Series Compensation is a tried and true technology that
continues to grow in popularity as an effective means
of resolving a number of network issues
• The risk of SSI is relatively low; however, the
consequences of an SSI event can be significant. The
risk and consequences must factor into series
compensation design including controls and protection.
• The SSI phenomenon is well understood and effective
mitigations measures are available
• Series Compensation should be included in the
planners’ toolbox and considered as an available
option.
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