 GEOGRAPHY
1. Mainland Greece is a mountainous land almost
completely surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea.
Greece has more than 1400 islands. The country has
mild winters and long, hot and dry summers.
2. The ancient Greeks were a seafaring people. They
traded with other countries around the Mediterranean.
Many cities created settlements overseas known as
colonies.
3. Greek cities were founded around the Black Sea,
North Africa, Italy, Sicily, France and Spain. Many
tales and legends grew up about the strange lands
and creatures that could be found across the sea.
4. The ancient civilization of Greece was located in
southeastern Europe along the coast of the
Mediterranean Sea. The geography of the region
helped to shape the government and culture of the
Ancient Greeks. Geographical formations including
mountains, seas, and islands formed natural barriers
between the Greek city-states and forced the Greeks
to settle along the coast.
5. The region of the Mediterranean where the Greeks
first settled is called the Aegean Sea. Greek city-
states formed all along the Aegean coastline and on
the many islands in the Aegean Sea. The people of
Greece used the Aegean to travel from city to city.
The Aegean also provided fish for the people to eat.
6. The land of Greece is full of mountains. Around
80% of the Greek mainland is mountainous. This
made it difficult to make long journeys by land. The
mountains also formed natural barriers between the
major city-states. The tallest mountain in Greece is
Mount Olympus. The Ancient Greeks believed that
their gods (the Twelve Olympians) lived at the top of
Mount Olympus.
7. The Aegean Sea is home to over 1000 islands. The
Greeks settled on many of these islands including
Crete (the largest of the islands), Rhodes, Chios, and
Delos.
8. The climate in Ancient Greece generally featured
hot summers and mild winters. Because it was so hot, 4. The Greek philosopher Plato once said that "we live
most people wore lightweight clothing throughout most around the sea like frogs around a pond."
of the year. They would put on a cloak or wrap during
the colder days of the winter months.
Regions of Ancient Greece:
The mountains and seas of Ancient Greece formed
several natural regions:
 Peloponnese - The Peloponnese is a large
peninsula located at the southern tip of the
Greek mainland. It is almost an island and only
connects to the main land by a small strip of
land called the Isthmus of Corinth. The
Peloponnese was home to several major
Greek city-states including Sparta, Corinth,
and Argos.
 Central Greece - Just north of the
Peloponnese is Central Greece. Central
Greece was home to the famous region of
Attica and the city-state of Athens.
 Northern Greece - Northern Greece is
sometimes broken up into three major regions
including Thessaly, Epirus, and Macedonia.
Mount Olympus is located in Northern Greece.
 Islands - Major groupings of the Greek islands
include the Cyclades Islands, the Dodecanese,
and the Northern Aegean Islands.
9. The Ancient Greeks spoke the same language and
had similar cultures. They were not one large empire,
however, but were divided into a number of powerful
city-states such as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes.
10. The Greeks set up colonies throughout the
Mediterranean and the Black Sea. This included
settlements in modern-day Italy, France, Spain,
Turkey, and parts of North Africa. These colonies
helped to spread the Greek culture throughout the
region.
Interesting Facts about the geography of the
Ancient Greece:
1. The Greeks called their land "Hellas." The English
word "Greece" comes from the Roman word for the
country "Graecia."
2. Under the rule of Alexander the Great, Greece
expanded into a large empire that included Egypt and
stretched all the way to India.
3. The Pindus Mountain Range runs north to south
along much of mainland Greece. It is sometimes
called the "spine of Greece."
  TOPOGRAPHY dividing plains and valleys. Plains are very small and
you will not see many flat pieces of land in this
1. About four-fifths of Greece is mountainous, country. The mountain ranges divide Greece into nine
including most of the islands. The most important major regions: Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus,
range is the Pindus, which runs down the center of the Central Greece and Euboea, the Peloponnesus, the
Ionian Islands, the Agean islands and Crete. The
peninsula from north to south at about 2,650 m (8,700
Acropolis of Athens is found in the Central Region.
ft) in average elevation. Mt. Olympus (Ólimbos; 2,917
m/9,570 ft) is the highest peak and was the legendary 6. Central Greece is a region of mountains and hills,
home of the ancient gods. small valleys and many small islands. It takes up
about only one fifth or Greece, but is the center of
2. Greece has four recognizable geographic regions. civilization. We will address this in the population
The Pindus range divides northern Greece into damp, section of this page. The large island of Euboea is part
mountainous, and isolated Epirus (Ipiros) in the west of Central Greece and it is found on the east coast of
Athens. The Peloponnesus is a peninsula that lies
and the sunny, dry plains and lesser mountain ranges
close to the tip of the mainland. It is primarily made up
of the east. This eastern region comprises the plains of small valleys and rugged mountains and coastlines.
of Thessaly (Thessalía) and the "new provinces" of The acropolis of Athens is found in Central Greece in
Macedonia (Makedonia) and Thrace (Thraki)—"new" an area called Attica. On the southern edge of Attica
because they became part of Greece after the Balkan lies Athens, the capital city of Greece. A mountain
wars in 1912–13. Central Greece is the southeastern range in the central region is Parnassos.
finger of the mainland that cradled the city-states of  DEMOGRAPHY
ancient Greece and comprises such classical
provinces as Attica (Atikí), Boeotia (Voiotia), Doris, 1. Estimates of the population of ancient Greece are
Phocis, and Locris. Southern Greece consists of the very rough approximations. Population figures are
mountainous, four-fingered Peloponnesus scarce and incomplete, and most existing records
involve taxes or military service, which applied only to
(Pelopónnisos), separated from the mainland by the
adult male citizens. Statistics for women, children,
Gulf of Corinth (Korinthiakós Kólpos). Islands of the foreign residents, and slaves—the people who made
Aegean comprise the numerous Cyclades (Kikládes); up a large portion of the population—simply do not
the Dodecanese (Dhodhekánisos), including Rhodes exist. Even for Athens, which provided a more
(Ródhos); and the two large islands of Crete (Kríti) complete picture than any other city-state*, population
and Euboea (Évvoia). figures are merely estimates.

3. Greek rivers are not navigable. Many dry up in the
summer and become rushing mountain torrents in the
spring.
4. Greece is the southernmost country in Europe. Its
land extends out into the Mediterranean Sea.
Greece’s land area covers 131944 square kilometers.
Greece’s neighbors to the north are Albania,
Yugoslavia and Bulgaria. Its neighbors to the east are
Turkey. The remainder of Greece’s borders is met by
sea. Much of the land in Greece is made of mountain
ranges, plains and valleys. The composition of the soil
is primarily made of limestone. Limestone is a type of
sedimentary rock that is shaly or sandy. The
limestone is either bare or covered with small shrubs.
Limestone is not very porous so it does not hold much
moisture. There is not much precipitation in Greece,
therefore, shrubs are the main vegetation.
5. Mountain ranges divide Greece into many regions.
Mountains run like ocean waves across the country
2. Attica, the region in which Athens was located, may
have had a population of more than 100,000 citizens
during most of the classical* period. At the beginning
of the Peloponnesian War in 431 B.C., the population
of Attica—including women, children, slaves, and
foreigners—totaled more than 300,000 people. The
city-state of Argos had about the same number of
citizens, although fewer slaves and foreigners, and
Corinth had fewer than half that number. The Greek
colonies on the island of Sicily may have had a
population as high as 750,000 people.
3. Because all adult male Roman citizens were
required to register for the census, more complete
population figures are available for Rome. These
figures suggest that there were about 120,000 adult
male Roman citizens in the 400s B.C. This rose to
about 300,000 two centuries later. As the Roman
empire expanded, and certain conquered peoples
received Roman citizenship, the population increased
accordingly. In 70 B.C., after citizenship was granted
to all people of Italy south of the Po River, the figure
reached 900,000.
4. A census of the empire conducted by the emperor
Augustus in 28 B.C. put the figure at about 4 million
citizens. In the first century A.D., the city of Rome had
about a million inhabitants, and the total population of
the Roman empire is estimated to have been more
than 50 million people. (See also Census, Roman;
Greece, History of; Rome, History of.)
5. The demography of Greece is hard to investigate
because of the shortage of statistical data. Owing to
the stress on war in historiography most estimates of
population size relate to the size of campaigning
armies or to the manpower available for military
purposes, i.e. free adult males only. Extrapolations
must be attempted from such information to total
population sizes because women, children, and slaves
were not usually enumerated at all. The Greeks had a
poor grasp of numbers and were prone to
exaggeration, e.g. in relation to the size of Persian
armies. Thucydides (2) was a notable exception to this
rule. (Unfortunately, he does not concern himself with
Athenian naval manpower or recruiting.) Even in
Classical Athens it seems unlikely that there was a
central register of hoplites, in addition to the deme
registers. Greek states did not have taxes payable by
all inhabitants that would have required the
maintenance of records for financial purposes.
Censuses of citizens were rare in the ancient Greek
world.
6. Estimates of ancient population sizes inevitably
involve much guesswork. It is often necessary to use
estimates of carrying capacity based on land areas,
soil fertility, etc. The assumptions underlying such
estimates are usually controversial. Intensive
archaeological field surveys are yielding information
about changes in settlement patterns in ancient
Greece, which are probably connected with population
fluctuations. The general pattern is of a thinly
populated landscape in the 11th–10th cents. bc,
followed by substantial population growth in most
areas from the 9th cent., suggesting that colonization
from the 8th cent. bc onwards was at least partly a
product of population growth. A peak was reached in
the 5th to the 3rd cents.
7. The period of colonization after Alexander 2 the
Great (see colonization, hellenistic) was at least partly
a result of population increase. There was a
substantial decline in the last two centuries bc, which
continued into the early Roman empire. There were
always local variations on this broad pattern.
However, the inference drawn from the field surveys,
namely that Greece was more densely populated in
the Classical period than at any time before or since
until the late 19th cent. ad, correlates with the fact that
even the lowest estimates of the size of the population
of Classical Greece made by modern scholars, on the
basis of the fragmentary literary sources, are
substantially higher than figures derived from census
data for parts of late medieval and early modern
Greece. The total population in the 4th cent. bc may
have been about two million people.
8. Demography is not just a matter of population size.
It is also concerned with the age‐structure of
populations, which is mainly determined by fertility
rates and also by mortality rates. Fertility and mortality
rates are determined by many factors, esp. average
age of marriage for fertility, and disease patterns for
mortality. There is as little information for vital rates in
ancient Greece as for population size.
9. Excavations of cemeteries suggest a high level of
infant and early child mortality in Classical Greece
(c.30 per cent at Olynthus). Physical anthropologists
attempt to determine the age of death of ancient
skeletons. However, their methods suffer from various
sources of uncertainty, esp. in relation to the age of
death of adults. Individuals who survived infancy and
early childhood may have had a reasonable chance of
reaching old age.
10. Moreover, conclusions drawn from cemeteries
about populations, rather than individuals, are often
controversial because it is not certain whether the
individuals buried there were a representative sample
of the whole population. Scholars are suspicious of
ages given in literary sources because there were no
birth or death certificates. (Greek men reported to
have lived to a great age include Gorgias, Isocrates,
Sophocles.) The Greeks in the Classical period
seldom recorded ages or causes of death on
tombstones.
 Role and Importance of Managerial Economics
1. Useful in Business Organization - In any institution
or firm. How should any productionbe done, and for
whom should be produced? The answer to all these
questions remains only with the managerial economy.
Because he plays the most important role in these
tasks.So we can say that managerial economics plays
a very big role and significance in the important
decisions of the business. So this is a very good Role
And Importance Of Managerial Economics In
Choosing Right Decisions of any business.
2. Helping in Chalking Out Business Policies - The art this in order to raise the required data in pricing and
is only in business economics to maximize the profit of get the maximum benefit. So That is the major role of
any institution and minimize cost. And whatever
policies are made from this. It is very useful for any critical. Without this, no business can progress.
business or firm so that every firm and business can
get the maximum benefit. Then we can say that there
is a huge contribution of managerial economics to
profit maximization and determining policies. It also
helps in doing it.
3. Help in Business Planning - Business economics is problems. To maximize profit at low cost
very useful in planning a complete prospect among
the successful operation and production of any
business or firm.Which acts as a balance bridge
between the production tools and operating systems
and where to go. So this is the biggest and important
role of business economics in any business or firm.
4. Helpful in Cost Control - Managerial economics
decides the business is going towards profit or loss.
managerial economics decides which way is good for
the business. And it is only possible when managerial
economics plays a very big and important role in cost
control decisions.
5. Useful in Coordination of Business Activities - The
managerial economics is useful in coordinating the
various activities of a business.
6. Useful in Demand for Casting - The managerial
economics provides useful tools for economics
managers in demand forecasts and is useful in
demanding production planning. The managerial
economy deals with future losseseasily. So that any
business can be protectedagainst future losses.
7. Helpful in Profit Planning and Control - Managerial
economics helps managers to decide on the planning
and control of the benefits.Managerial Economics is
synchronized between the planning and control of any
institution or firm and hence its importance
increases.Thus, It plays a huge role in business
decisions. So its Role And Importance Of Managerial
Economics In taking Right Decisions.
8.Helpful for Business Predictions - It is not known to
anyone about what is going on in business. therefore,
business economics tells us that the business can see
what is troubling in the future. So Then the managerial
economics gives its solutions. So that they can be
avoided and the benefits can be increased.
9. Helpful in Price Determination - Managerial
Economics provides the necessary guidance in
managing the pricing of its business. This proves
managerial economics in the business decision
10. Helpful in solution of Business Taxation Problems
- Managerial Economics provides useful guidance in
solving problems caused by various types of tax done
in business. And contracting of business helps reduce
and minimize business costs.
11. Useful in Understanding the Mechanism of
Economic System - Managerial Economics/Business
economics is useful in understanding the complex
cause of the entire economy. From which business
decisions get help. The entire economy is very
complex but business economics solves it with ease. it
is helpful to understand that in this way. so we can say
that business economics has a very important role
and role in business decisions.
12. Helpful in Analysis of Effects of Government
Policies - Business economics/Managerial Economics
helps in analyzing the effect of the various policies of
the Government in the operation of the business
sector. reducing their bad influence and giving benefit
to the good effect. When The government changes
the day-to-day policy which has a bad effect on
different types of businessmen. But Managerial
Economics exploits this easily and benefits the
business.
13. Attempt to put out the friendly business -
Managerial Economics guides managers to adjust to
suit the external conditions of the business. It may be
the type of external environment. such as government
policies or business cycles, and many other conditions
which affect the business. and give security business
economics.
14. Supporting the Manufacture and use of models -
Managerial Economics creates an economic model for
managers to inspire their use in business. In order
to maximize production and maximum profit, at least
cost can be paved. Thus, Business economics only
tells how to manage everything in a way that
everything should be corrected in order to maximize
profits.

15. Useful in showing the path of economic well being

- Managerial Economics inspires managers to
operate the business in such a way that the path
ofmaximum economic welfare is paved.

16. Gives the right direction - Inside the business,

managerial economics has a very big role because it
handles that business. Shows the right path to every
member of the business, and also gives the right
direction of what his duty and job.

17. Maintains of Cost - It is the job of managerial

economics to say how much to spend in business and
how to spend those expenses so that it can get more
profit at lower costs and increase business growth.

18. Distribute profit - Inside any business, managerial

economics tells us how to distribute the profits and
invest in where to make the business more profitable
in the coming time and more growth in the business
field.

19. Measurement of the efficiency of the firm -

Managerial Economics provides useful tools for
managers in measuring the efficiency of the business
firm. Managerial Economics plays big salient features
and significance of managerial economics In
Choosing Right Decisions in helping business in many
ways. It shows the firm’s successful operation
1. demand forecasting, 2. Business planning and profit
maximization and economic well-being.