Why are many desert environments favourable for concentrations of mineral resources?

Deserts are climates known for their arid environment. As a consequence, processes in
arid environments can affect mineral deposits. One such process is the leaching of minerals due
to groundwater, which concentrates the minerals as ore. Evaporation in arid climates can also
affect the mineral accumulation of lakes; evapotranspiration in closed basins can cause
minerals (e.g. gypsum, salts, and borates) to precipitate.
An example of evaporite resources located in an arid desert climate is the Great Basin
Desert in the United States of America. Minerals located in and extracted from Death Valley (e.g
borax and borate) were essential to many industrial processes responsible for the creation of
glass, ceramics, enamel, agricultural chemicals, water softeners, and pharmaceuticals.

What are the environmental challenges associated with mining and how can these be
mitigated?

Mining is a complicated process. The minerals extracted from the Earth come in the form
of ore. As ore is not a pure concentration of minerals, but rather a mixture, it must be processed
by actions of crushing, separating and/or concentrating in a step known as beneficiation.
However, beneficiation results in the creation of waste product called tailings which tend to
negatively affect the environment. An example would be the byproducts formed from milling and
leaching: forms of beneficiation. Milling grinds the ore into fine particles, however, the material
must be concentrated in a process known as flotation. After the metal bearing minerals have
been floated off, minerals that don't contain valuable metals are left in water as a waste product
called tailings. Tailings are disposed of by being pumped into large ponds called impoundments.
Leaching concentrates certain metals by dispersing solutions of either sulfuric acid or sodium
cyanide in water onto large piles. The solutions dissolve the desired ore which accumulate near
the bottom. Instead of producing tailings, leaching results in large, metal-depleted piles which
may contain residual chemicals. Both milling and leaching, if not managed properly can
negatively impact the surrounding environment.
One potential impact associated with mining is the physical disturbance of the nearby
landscape. For example, tailing impoundments can cover thousands of acres and be up to
several hundred feet deep while also presenting a reclamation challenge comparable to that of
waste rock. On the other hand, leach piles and cover tens to hundreds of acres and reach
hundreds of feet.
Another impact is the acidification of soils and water. Tailings produced from the milling
process of certain materials consist of fine particles and can contain higher concentrations of
pyrite compared to waste rock. These two characteristics of pyrite-rich tailings increase the
potential to develop acidic condition in affected areas. A common way to mitigate these effects
is to saturate the tailings with water, however, if not properly maintained, acidic waters can seep
out. Moreover, seepage can continue indefinitely if surface water form ponds on tailing surfaces.
This can be prevented by first placing an impermeable barrier (e.g clay) at the base and using
reclamation methods that facilitate runoff, preventing the ponding of surface waters. Such
measures prevent tailings from impacting stream habitats and groundwater, but the reagents
used in the beneficiation process also help reduce the acidity of the tailings.
Erosion of tailings by wind and water can also impact the environment. Since tailings
consist of very fine particles, they can easily be transported by wind. Fugitive dust can pose
health risks to people and/or wildlife if breathed in. On the other hand, surface water can also
erode tailings and later enter streams. Mismanaged tailings have led to catastrophic
contaminations of nearby water sources in the past, as they were disposed directly into
streams/other water bodies. Though no longer performed, this practice still has lasting effects
that can be observed to this day.
Finally, an impacts on the environment can be caused by leach piles containing residual
chemicals. Cyanide solutions that are mismanaged during the leaching process can degrade
rapidly in the presence of sunlight, oxygen and rainfall leading to potential toxicity problems. In
order to mitigate such occurrences, a combination of impermeable liners and leak detection
monitors are used. Furthermore, rinsing, physical isolation, and detoxification of heap leach
pads is done before leach piles are reclaimed.

While beneficiation concentrates the valuable minerals within ores, metallurgy

concentrates the metals within, by separating them from their parent minerals. During the
smelting process, the concentration of ores is mixed with different fluxes. The metal-bearing
minerals sink, while other constituents float to the top and are removed, forming a substance
called slag. Slag can contain remnants of minerals that can be a potential source of metal
release within the environment. The most significant problem with slag is the physical/aesthetic
disturbance of slag piles, which can not support vegetation.
Smelting can also produce harmful gases that must be treated, otherwise they may pose
a threat to nearby environments. Fortunately, modern smelters use processes that significantly
mitigate the amounts of particulate and sulfur dioxide emissions. The reduction of sulfur dioxide
emissions is especially important is it is known to react with atmospheric water vapour and form
acid rain.

A crucial part of mitigating the environmental impacts of metal mining is the prevention of
the oxidation of sulfide minerals. If left on its own, the oxidation of sulfide minerals can cause
the acidification of nearby environments, drastically changing them in the process.
Reclamation can also help prevent further impacts to the environment by re-establishing
areas near mine sites with viable soils and vegetation. The addition of lime and other materials
can neutralize acidities, creating a buffer solution. Slopes and other surfaces can also be
modified to better support vegetation and stabilize soil material. However, despite its simple
approach, reclamation approaches can be expensive, costing close to $1000 per acre and
increasing up to $10000 per acre for more severely affected areas.
Since mining can be related to the increasing acidity of the soils, one method to reduce
environmental impact is to move contaminated soil to specifically designed repositories. Despite
being a expensive and controversial approach, it is sometimes necessary. Improvement on this
method in the future will depend on better understanding of the risks of metals in waste mines
and lead to improved approaches such as using chemical methods to stabilize metals in soils.
 Mining can also affect nearby water sources. A common method to mitigate such
occurrences is the addition of a neutralizing material (e.g lime) to create a buffer solution and
reduce acidity. This approach will usually require a water treatment facility and
construction/maintenance of such a facility is quite expensive. They can also generate sludge
which must be disposed of. Alternative methods include using a more passive wetland system
to treat the water for smaller, less acidic volumes.
Acid rock drainage can also present several challenges when trying to protect water
quality. Current methods for treatment of acid rock drainage is similar to those mentioned
previously and further methods could include flooding older, underground mines to prevent the
access to oxygen.
Smelters emissions can also be reduced with new technology such as the modern
smelter built by Kennecott Utah Copper which has reduced emissions by up to 95% of previous
permitted levels. As one of the cleanest in the world, the modern smelter captures almost 99.9%
of the emitted sulfur.
Finally, a way to mitigate the environmental impacts of mining is to recycle. Recycling
can be an alternative source of metals and reduce the need for new mines. The value of
recycled metals in 1990 totalled $7 billion; only $2 billion less than that of mined metals.
However, despite being an important source of metal, there is a limit to how much can be
recycled which vary depending on the metal. And while it is important, mining and production
will still be just as essential in order to meet demands.