CHAPTER 4

Congruence Classes

Idea. As in the previous section, when we calculate mod 7, say, the integers 2, −5
and 17 are considered to be identical, as are 3, −4 and 18. Thus is makes sense to
collect together all those integers that are considered to be identical modulo 7 to form
a congruence class mod 7.

Goals. We will show that there are exactly m conguence classes mod m. Thus the set
of these classes is finite. This set is denotes Zm . An important objective of this chapter
is to show that Zm comes equipped with operations + and ×. Thus, Zm is a completely
new example where arithmetic is defined on a finite set. We will also introduce the subset
Z∗m of Zm . The set Z∗m has only one operation, ×, but this multiplicative structure is
extremely important in modern applications, e.g., cryptography.

4.1. Definition. (PJE definition 21.1.1)

The congruence class mod m of a ∈ Z is the set of integers congruent to a mod m,

[a]m = {b ∈ Z : b ≡ a mod m} .

4.2. Example. With m = 3 we have

[0]3 = {.., −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, ...} ,

[1]3 = {.., −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, ...} ,
[2]3 = {.., −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, ...} .

Recall from Proposition 3.3 that congruences are reflexive, so a ≡ a mod m and thus
a ∈ [a]m for all a ∈ Z. (That is, an integer is an element of the class labelled by that
element.)

Note that in the example above all the integers appear in these classes, and these classes
are disjoint. We could go on, for instance

[−5]3 = {... − 11, −8, −5, −3, 1, ...} .

35
 Congruence Classes 36

But this is not disjoint with [1]3 , and in fact it equals [1]3 . In general we have the
fundamental result

4.3. Proposition. (PJE proposition 21.1.3)

For integers a, b,

i) If a ≡ b mod m then [a]m = [b]m ,

ii) If a 6≡ b mod m then [a]m ∩ [b]m = ∅.

Since we have exactly one of a ≡ b mod m or a 6≡ b mod m we deduce that two

congruence classes are either identical or disjoint.
Proof The proposition will follow from a more general Theorem 5.10 below.

4.4. Definition. (PJE definition 21.1.5)

We write Zm for the set of congruence classes mod m, i.e.

Zm = {[a]m : a ∈ Z}.

4.5. Proposition. (PJE proposition 21.1.6)

The set Zm is a finite set of cardinality m. The m elements of this set are given by

Zm = {[r]m : 0 ≤ r ≤ m − 1} = {[0]m , [1]m , . . . , [m − 1]m }.

Proof Our proof differs from PJE p.253.

By Proposition 3.7, each residue class contains a remainder mod m — that is, one of
0, 1, . . . , m − 1. Hence by Proposition 4.3, every congruence class coincides with one of
the [0]m , [1]m , . . . , [m − 1]m , as claimed. 

4.6. Example.
Z3 = {[0]3 , [1]3 , [2]3 } .
But we could equally have written

Z3 = {[3]3 , [7]3 , [11]3 }

since [3]3 = [0]3 , [7]3 = [1]3 and [11]3 = [2]3 .

Furthermore, Z5 = {[0]5 , [1]5 , [2]5 , [3]5 , [4]5 } .

Idea. Since we can add and multiply elements of Z, we can define the operations of
addition and multiplication on the finite set Zm .
 Congruence Classes 37

4.7. Definition. (PJE definition 21.2.1)

For a, b ∈ Z define

(1) [a]m + [b]m = [a + b]m ,

and

(2) [a]m × [b]m = [a × b]m .

4.8. Example. In Z10 ,

[7]10 + [8]10 = [15]10 = [5]10

[7]10 × [8]10 = [56]10 = [6]10
[2]10 × [0]10 = [0]10 and [2]10 × [5]10 = [0]10
[2]10 × [1]10 = [2]10 and [2]10 × [6]10 = [2]10

etc.
This definition of addition and multiplication on Zm might seem to depend on the choice
of labels for the classes. The next result shows this is not the case. The following result
is, in fact, simply a reinterpretation of the earlier Theorem on Modular Arithmetic.

4.9. Theorem. (PJE proposition 21.2.2)

Addition and multiplication on Zm are well-defined.
That is, if [a]m = [a0 ]m and [b]m = [b0 ]m then
 0
a m + b0 m
 
[a]m + [b]m =
= a0 m × b0 m .
   
and [a]m × [b]m

Thus it does not matter what label we choose for a class.

Proof PJE p.256. Since different labels for the same congruence class mod m are
congruent mod m we have

[a]m = a0 m =⇒ a ≡ a0 mod m
 

[b]m = b0 m =⇒ b ≡ b0 mod m.
 

The earlier Theorem on Modular Arithmetic implies a + b ≡ a0 + b0 mod m which in

turn implies [a + b]m = [a0 + b0 ]m . Then

[a]m + [b]m = [a + b]m by (1)

= a0 + b0 m
 

= a0 m + b0 m again by (1) .
   
 Congruence Classes 38

Similarly, Modular Arithmetic implies a × b ≡ a0 × b0 mod m which in turn implies

[a × b]m = [a0 × b0 ]m . Then

[a]m × [b]m = [a × b]m by (2)

= a0 × b0 m
 

= a0 m × b0 m again by (2) .
   


If we express the result of addition or multiplication as a class [r]m with label 0 ≤

r ≤ m − 1 we can write all results in a multiplication table (even if the operation is
addition!).

4.10. Example.

+ [0]4 [1]4 [2]4 [3]4 × [0]4 [1]4 [2]4 [3]4

[0]4 [0]4 [1]4 [2]4 [3]4 [0]4 [0]4 [0]4 [0]4 [0]4
(Z4 , +) [1]4 [1]4 [2]4 [3]4 [0]4 (Z4 , ×) [1]4 [0]4 [1]4 [2]4 [3]4
[2]4 [2]4 [3]4 [0]4 [1]4 [2]4 [0]4 [2]4 [0]4 [2]4
[3]4 [3]4 [0]4 [1]4 [2]4 [3]4 [0]4 [3]4 [2]4 [1]4

Aside In the latter table we see something never seen in (Z, ×), namely that we can
multiply two non-zero objects and get zero! For example [2]4 × [2]4 = [0]4 . Here, [2]4 is
an example of divisors of zero.

Example. (Z8 , ×) Not given in the lectures because of size

× [0]8 [1]8 [2]8 [3]8 [4]8 [5]8 [6]8 [7]8

[0]8 [0]8 [0]8 [0]8 [0]8 [0]8 [0]8 [0]8 [0]8
[1]8 [0]8 [1]8 [2]8 [3]8 [4]8 [5]8 [6]8 [7]8
[2]8 [0]8 [2]8 [4]8 [6]8 [0]8 [2]8 [4]8 [6]8
[3]8 [0]8 [3]8 [6]8 [1]8 [4]8 [7]8 [2]8 [5]8
[4]8 [0]8 [4]8 [0]8 [4]8 [0]8 [4]8 [0]8 [4]8
[5]8 [0]8 [5]8 [2]8 [7]8 [4]8 [1]8 [6]8 [3]8
[6]8 [0]8 [6]8 [4]8 [2]8 [0]8 [6]8 [4]8 [2]8
[7]8 [0]8 [7]8 [6]8 [5]8 [4]8 [3]8 [2]8 [1]8

Again we have divisors of zero, i.e. [2]8 , [4]8 and [6]8 .

Notation If, in a problem, we are working throughout with one modulus m we may
drop the [..]m and write simply r in place of [r]m . See section 21.3 of PJE for a discussion
of the map [r]m 7−→ r. If we want to be reminded of the modulus we can write r1 +m r2
and r1 ×m r2 in place of [r1 ]m + [r2 ]m and [r1 ]m × [r2 ]m respectively.
 Congruence Classes 39

4.11. Example. We have not given the table for (Z8 , ×) because it is too large. But
consider the subset {[0]8 , [2]8 , [4]8 , [6]8 } ⊆ Z8 . The multiplication table modulo 8 for
this subset is
× [0]8 [2]8 [4]8 [6]8
[0]8 [0]8 [0]8 [0]8 [0]8
[2]8 [0]8 [4]8 [0]8 [4]8
[4]8 [0]8 [0]8 [0]8 [0]8
[6]8 [0]8 [4]8 [0]8 [4]8
We can fill in this table using the elements from the set {[0]8 , [2]8 , [4]8 , [6]8 } because
the product of two even integers is even.

We say that the set {[0]8 , [2]8 , [4]8 , [6]8 } is closed under multiplication modulo 8.

Remark. The set {[2]8 , [4]8 , [6]8 } is not closed under multiplication modulo 8. For
example, [2]8 × [4]8 = [0]8 which is not in the set. That is, we cannot complete the table

× [2]8 [4]8 [6]8

[2]8 [4]8 ? [4]8
[4]8 ? ? ?
[6]8 [4]8 ? [4]8

Example. The set {[2]10 , [4]10 , [6]10 , [8]10 } is a closed subset of (Z10 , ×) .

Verification
× [2]10 [4]10 [6]10 [8]10
[2]10 [4]10 [8]10 [2]10 [6]10
[4]10 [8]10 [6]10 [4]10 [2]10
[6]10 [2]10 [4]10 [6]10 [8]10
[8]10 [6]10 [2]10 [8]10 [4]10

4.12. Definition. (PJE definition 21.4.3)

• An element [a]m of Zm is an invertible element if there exists [a0 ]m such that

[a]m a0 m = [1]m .
 

• We say that [a0 ]m is the inverse of [a]m and write [a0 ]m = [a]−1
m .

4.13. Definition. Not in PJE

Z∗m is the set of all invertible elements in Zm .

 Congruence Classes 40

Example. In the last section we found that 56 had inverse 5 modulo 93. Thus [56]93 ∈
Z93 is invertible with inverse [5]93 , i.e. [56]−1 ∗
93 = [5]93 . Hence [56]93 ∈ Z93 . Similarly
[5]93 ∈ Z1∗93 .
Question What does Z∗m look like?

4.14. Proposition. [a]m is invertible if, and only if, gcd (a, m) = 1.

Proof. This is exactly Proposition 3.14 proved earlier. 

So we can write
Z∗m = {[r]m : 0 ≤ r ≤ m − 1, gcd (r, m) = 1} .

Note The set Z∗m is not discussed in PJE.

4.15. Example. Z∗5 = {[1]5 , [2]5 , [3]5 , [4]5 } and the multiplication table for (Z∗5 , ×) is

× [1]5 [2]5 [3]5 [4]5

[1]5 [1]5 [2]5 [3]5 [4]5
[2]5 [2]5 [4]5 [1]5 [3]5
[3]5 [3]5 [1]5 [4]5 [2]5
[4]5 [4]5 [3]5 [2]5 [1]5
It is easy to read off inverses from a table, so

[1]−1 −1 −1
5 = [1]5 , [2]5 = [3]5 , [3]5 = [2]5 and [4]−1
5 = [4]5 .

4.16. Example. Z∗8 = {[1]8 , [3]8 , [5]8 , [7]8 } and the multiplication table for (Z∗8 , ×) is

× [1]8 [3]8 [5]8 [7]8

[1]8 [1]8 [3]8 [5]8 [7]8
[3]8 [3]8 [1]8 [7]8 [5]8
[5]8 [5]8 [7]8 [1]8 [3]8
[7]8 [7]8 [5]8 [3]8 [1]8
This time we see that every element is a self inverse. So in some fundamental way the
tables for (Z∗8 , ×) and (Z∗5 , ×) are different.
Aside What of the tables for (Z∗5 , ×) and (Z4 , +), written as

× [1]5 [2]5 [3]5 [4]5 + [0]4 [1]4 [3]4 [2]4

[1]5 [1]5 [2]5 [3]5 [4]5 [0]4 [0]4 [1]4 [3]4 [2]4
[2]5 [2]5 [4]5 [1]5 [3]5 and [1]4 [1]4 [2]4 [0]4 [3]4
[3]5 [3]5 [1]5 [4]5 [2]5 [3]4 [3]4 [0]4 [2]4 [1]4
[4]5 [4]5 [3]5 [2]5 [1]5 [2]4 [2]4 [3]4 [1]4 [0]4
 Congruence Classes 41

do they not have the same “form”? As an advert for future courses on Algebraic Struc-
tures, they look at different algebraic structures on sets, attempting to answer difficult
questions such as how many are there on a given set and how to recognise if two given
structures are the same or different.

4.17. Theorem. For all m ∈ N, (Z∗m , ×) is a closed subset of (Zm , ×) .

Proof. Let [a]m and [b]m ∈ Z∗m . This means they have inverses, i.e. there exist [a]−1
m
and [b]−1
m ∈ Z∗ for which [a] [a]−1 = [1] and [b] [b]−1 = [1] . Consider
m m m m m m m
   
−1 −1
([a]m [b]m ) [b]m [a]m = [a]m [b]m [b]m [a]−1
−1
m

= [a]m [1]m [a]−1

m

= [a]m [a]−1
m = [1]m .

Thus [a]m [b]m has an inverse [b]−1 −1

m [a]m , and is therefore invertible. Hence [a]m [b]m ∈
Z∗m .