BASIC PHYSICS FOR

POWER PLANTS
Power Plant Basics
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

2.0 FORCES 1
2.1. Measurement Systems 1
2.2 Gravitational Force 2
2.3 Weight vs Mass 3
2.4 Center of Gravity 4
2.5 Equilibrium 7
2.6 Action Forces 9
2.7 Working Forces 11

3.0 MOTION 14
3.1. Gravity 15
3.2 Velocity 16
3.3 Acceleration 17
3.4 Principles of Motion 19
3.5 Newton's Laws of Motion 20
3.6 Linear Motion 24
3.7 Circular Motion 25
3.8 Rotary Motion 25
3.9 Relative Motion 26
3.10 Harmonic Motion
26

4.0 SUMMARY OF FORCE AND MOTION 27

5.0 WORK 29
5.1 Power 31
5.2 Energy 33
5.2.1 Kinetic Energy 34
5.2.2 Potential Energy 35
5.3 Transformation of Energy 36
5.4 Other Energy 37
5.5 Collision and Conservation of Momentum 38
 5.5.1 Imperfect Elastic Collision 40
5.5.2 Perfect Elastic Collision 40
5.5.3 Perfect Inelastic Collision 41

6.0 SUMMARY OF WORK AND ENERGY 41

7.0 SIMPLE MACHINES 42

7.1 Machines and the Principle of Work 43
7.2 The Lever 44
7.3 The Inclined Plane 49
7.4 The Screw 50
7.5 The Wedge 51
7.6 The Cam 51
7.7 The Wheel and Axle 52
7.8 Pulleys 55
7.9 The Screw Thread 57

8.0 SUMMARY OF SIMPLE MACHINES 58

9.0 USEFUL WORK 59

9.1 Types of Power 59
9.2 Mechanical Efficiency 61
9.3 Compound Machines and Gearing 63
9.4 Selecting a Crane Reducer 65
9.5 Finding Gear Ratios and Work Forces 66
9.6 Determining Work Done by a Crane Hook 67
9.7 Work Done Tightening a Bolt 70
9.8 Work and Speed of a Forklift Truck
70

10.0 SUMMARY OF USEFUL WORK 72

11.0 AREA AND VOLUME MEASUREMENT 72

11.1 Units of Measurement 73
11.1.1 Linear Measurements 74
11.1.2 Mass 75
11.1.3 Liquid Measure 75
 11.1.4 Time 75
11.2 Area 76
11.2.1 Finding an Area within an Area 78
11.3 Volume 79

12.0 SUMMARY OF AREA AND VOLUME MEASUREMENTS 81

APPENDICES

A. DETERMINING AN AREA WITHIN ANOTHER AREA

B. FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING AREA
C. FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING VOLUME
D. ABBREVIATIONS
1.0 INTRODUCTION

This lesson is designed to give the student a fundamental knowledge of power plant physics which he will
use in the performance of his everyday duties. By fully understanding the concepts presented in this
lesson, the student will be able to minimize the efforts required to perform simple tasks. This information
will also enable the student to understand the fundamental forces that allow useful work to be
accomplished.
2.0 FORCES

Understanding the effects of force on an employee's work and the equipment used to accomplish this work
helps him to perform a task with less effort and more effectiveness. Examples of force include opening a
locker door, picking up a toolbox, or using a wrench to tighten a bolt. Forces are exhibited in two ways:
their effect on stationary objects and their use accomplishing and simplifying work.

2.1 MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

Measuring systems vary throughout the world. As American companies continue to import equipment
from abroad, knowledge of the system of measurement used in other countries is essential. Primarily, there
are two systems of measuring in the world -- the ENGLISH system used principally in the United States,
and the METRIC system used almost everywhere else.

There are many different physical characteristics that can be measured, but we will discuss only the
fundamental ones of LENGTH, WEIGHT, and TIME.

The units for measuring these characteristics in the English system are: LENGTH - Feet, WEIGHT -
Pounds, TIME - Seconds. However, in the metric system the units are: LENGTH - Meters, MASS -
Kilograms, TIME - Seconds.

All calculations have been converted from the English system to metric system. Conversions are contained
in parentheses.

Refer to appendix D for abbreviations.

The lesson on Measuring and Gagging covers this subject in detail and should be referred to for more
in-depth knowledge.

Multiples of the basic units of measurement are used for expressing other physical characteristic such as
area and volume. The measurement of area is expressed in square inches (centimeters), square feet
(meters), or square miles (kilometers). The units for describing volume are cubic inches (centimeters),
cubic feet (meters), and so on.
2.2 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

Most people think of force as something that does work. Force is the push or pull that is exerted upon
some object. This might be the force required to tighten a bolt or the force of some gears or V-belts used
to drive a conveyor. The most familiar forces are those which are experienced through the use of an
individual's own muscles. A force is also an action by one object or another that changes the state of
motion or position of the aforesaid object. An example would be a loaded cart pulled by a tractor or a
forklift truck picking up a pallet of material.

Every object on the surface of the earth is pulled toward the earth by gravitational attraction, as shown in
Figure II-1. The pull of the earth on a standard one pound mass is called a force pound (lb), or more
simply a pound (meaning weight).

2.3 WEIGHT vs MASS

Knowledge of the difference between weight and mass is important in this lesson. The weight of an object
is the gravitational force or pull on the object. Its value depends on the location. It is a known fact that a
man weighs more at the North Pole and less at the equator or on top of a high mountain. These changes in
weight are not great, but they can be detected readily with sensitive instruments. On the other hand, even
though the weight of an object will vary depending on its location, mass is the same at all points in the
universe. It is sometimes said that mass is the quality of matter in an object. An object has mass whether
or not it is near enough to the earth to have observable weight. The larger the mass of an object, the harder
the earth pulls on it. Therefore, the weight of an object at any place is directly proportional to its mass.
Confusion between weight and mass can be avoided by remembering that the weight of an object is a force
represented by the pull of the earth, while mass represents the inertia of the object and is a property which
determines how much force is required to move the object.

Every part of an object possesses weight, and the pull of the earth (gravity) on the body is composed of a
large number of forces directed toward the center of the earth. A toolbox is a good example of this. The
flat bottom presents a smooth surface which allows gravity to act on the entire surface. When a toolbox
rests on top of a bench, the force of gravity still acts the same way on the toolbox; however, these forces
are then transferred to the legs on the bench. For an object of ordinary size, these forces are essentially
parallel to one another.

2.4 CENTER OF GRAVITY

Many objects exert a single downward force because of the gravitational pull on their mass. A piece of
shafting used as a sling and a wrecking ball on a crane are examples of this. The force of weight passes
downward though a point in the object called its center of gravity.

The center of gravity of an object is the point at which the object can be lifted or suspended and still
remain in balance. To lift a shaft 10 ft (3m) long, it must be fitted at the center to keep it in balance, as
shown in Figure II-2A. If gears and bearings are mounted on the shaft, however, the added weight would
prevent it from being lifted at the same point and keeping balance. See Figure II-2B.
As a further example, the center of gravity of the forklift truck in Figure II-3 is located just ahead of the
rear wheels when the truck is empty. But it moves ahead toward the front wheels as more and more weight
is picked up with the forks. To pick up more weight than the truck is designed for can lift the rear wheels
off the ground. The same incident can occur if a heavy load is hoisted too high without tilting the mast
back. In fact, the truck may tip over.
If the object has a uniform shape, such as a sphere or a cube, the center of gravity is its geometrical center.
If the object has a shape that can be broken down into several smaller shapes, each one can be treated
independently and the different centers can then be combined to form a single center of gravity by simple
mathematics. If an object is irregularly shaped, like the brace in Figure II-4, its center of gravity is located
by suspending it from several different points and using a chalked string with a bob or weight to mark a
vertical line on it from each point. The center of gravity is where the lines intersect.

2.5 EQUILIBRIUM

Up to now gravity and the center of gravity have been discussed. These forces of gravity that act on an
object at rest are known as STATIC FORCES. An object balanced while at rest is said to be in STATIC
BALANCE. A mechanic must understand the conditions which affect the balance and stability of moving
or stationary parts in order to know if the work is properly anchored. If an object is balanced, it must be in
EQUILIBRIUM.

If an object is to be in a state of equilibrium, the effect of all forces acting on the body must be zero. As an
example, the hook on an overhead crane will be in equilibrium when it is hanging motionless, Figure II-5.
The minute the crane operator raises or lowers the hook, a force acts on it, and it is no longer in
equilibrium. The same is true if the load the crane is lifting is not centered and starts to swing unbalanced.
When someone relocates the slings to center the load, it will then be in equilibrium.

While working on various kinds of equipment, different types of equilibrium are relied upon
subconsciously. For instance, a roller or a piece of shafting layed down on a flat surface will probably
remain stationary. In this position the shaft is said to be in a state of NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM. As
shown in Part A of Figure II-6, its entire weight is concentrated downward on the support on which it is
resting. However, it can be rolled or even roll away of its own accord if the flat surface is not level.

When a pillow block bearing is set on its base, as in Part B of Figure II-6, it is in a state of STABLE
EQUILIBRIUM. Its weight is concentrated downward, and only a great amount of force can move it to
one side. If the same pillow block is inverted, or placed on its curved surface with the base upward as in
Part C of Figure II-6, it is in UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM. Just a small force applied to one edge is
sufficient to disturb the balance and tip it to either side.
Depending on its state of equilibrium, an object at rest reacts in different ways to an external force applied
to it. When an object in neutral equilibrium is moved, it will not return to its original position but will
remain in its new location. If an object is in a stable equilibrium, it can be lifted; however, it will return to
its original position when the lifting force is removed. If it is in an unstable equilibrium, it will tip when an
external force is applied to it.

2.6 ACTION FORCES

In learning how gravity and forces at rest work, each of the objects was considered as a single item. Such
conditions, however, are not always possible. For example, a piece of equipment should be treated as a
combination of a large number of elements. The size of the equipment will have to be taken into
consideration, as well as the fact that forces have different points of application. A reducer for a 1/4
horsepower motor having an output speed 1/3 of the input speed will be much different in size and shape
than the reducer for a 10 horsepower motor having an output speed 1/10 of the input speed. Therefore, the
forces acting on each reducer will be different.

Most of the objects considered in this lesson are assumed to be rigid or those which do not deform.
Machines, however, are never absolutely rigid and deform under the forces to which they are subjected.
The forces acting on rigid bodies may be separated into two groups: external forces and internal forces.
The EXTERNAL FORCES represent the outside force of other objects on the rigid object under
consideration. These forces will either cause objects to move or remain at rest.

INTERNAL FORCES are the forces which hold the particles forming the rigid body together. If the rigid
body is structurally composed of several parts, the forces holding the component parts together are also
defined as internal forces.

When two or more forces act upon an object and the lines of force pass through a common point, the forces
are said to be CONCURRENT. The line of force is simply the line along which the force acts extended
indefinitely in both directions. For example, consider the crane hook shown in Figure II-7. When the
hook is hanging at rest, there are two forces acting on it: the pull of gravity downward on the hook
(weight) and the pull of the cable upward on the hook (tension). The two forces in question are concurrent
since they act along lines which pass through a common point.

Quite frequently in maintenance duties, a piece of equipment must be placed in a tight spot where power
hoisting machinery is of no help. In that case two or more workers will get together and push. When this
happens, the workers are acting as PARALLEL FORCES in the SAME DIRECTION, Figure II-8.
Another example of parallel forces only in the OPPOSITE DIRECTION would be similar to the above
except one man would be holding against the push, so that the object could be guided in place gently,
Figure II-9. Opposite direction forces are frequently used when installing or working on equipment.
Usually, not much thought is given to these forces, but they are present.

2.6 WORKING FORCES

Now, let us progress to working forces and their use. Most maintenance workers think working forces are
the only forces that they use. As was pointed out, the basic static forces (non-moving) are put to use just as
frequently.

As stated earlier, a "force" is a push or pull to change the position or motion of an object or to prevent
other forces from making such changes. Every force produces a stress in the part on which it is applied.
Forces may be produced by an individual using muscular action or by machines with mechanical action.
WORK is done when motion results from the application of force.

Basically there are four major working forces of concern for the maintenance worker. These are
TENSION, COMPRESSION, TORQUE, and SHEAR. The bolted connection shown in Figure II-10
clearly illustrates how all four of these forces can be at work at the same time. Notice that even though the
bolt is compressing the two plates together, it still would be subjected to a shearing force by the action of
the plates. (Whether the action of the plates is in the same or opposite directions, the fastening device will
be in the shear.)

Where does tension come into the work of a maintenance craftsman? Naturally, the bolt in Figure II-10 is
in tension, but what about a crane beam, or the forks on a forklift truck, Figure II-11? They are also in
tension. Every time the crane or forklift truck picks up a load, the members that support the load are in
tension. Tension loading of supporting members also creates bending, as well as tension, in the member.
Whenever a force is applied to an object that would make it stretch, the object is in tension.
Compression? That is an easy one. The crane rails, or the forklift truck wheels in Figure II-11 are in
compression. As opposed to tension, compression occurs whenever a force is applied to an object that
would make the object squeeze together, or compress.
Most maintenance workers are very familiar with torque and its many applications. The most common
usage of torque occurs when working on machinery that requires bolts to be torqued or tightened to certain
limits. Another common example is that of a gear on a shaft, Figure II-12. The torque on the shaft is equal
to the amount of force on the gear teeth (in pounds) multiplied by the LEVER ARM or the distance of the
shaft to the teeth (in feet). Under these conditions, the torque is expressed in foot-pounds.

Using Figure II-12 again as the example, notice the points of shear that are present. Shearing (cutting or
sliding) effect on materials, such as keys and gear teeth, is one source of a maintenance man's problems.
Obviously when someone overloads a machine or a conveyor and breaks off a tooth in the reducer, this
creates another job.
The grouping of working forces depicted in Figures II-11 and II-12 (tension and compression, and torque
and shear, respectively) does not occur frequently. Usually, several forces will be at work at one time.

Occasionally, only one force will be acting. For example, a V-belt drive includes torque, shear, tension,
and compression all at once. The V-belts are put in tension when the slack is removed from them. The
tension exerted by the V-belts acts as a compressive force by keeping the belts in contact with the sheaves.
The sheaves transmit torque to the shaft through the shearing force of the shaft key and keyways.
3.0 MOTION

Understanding the basic principles and laws of motion is important to all maintenance workers. Adding
this information to the knowledge of the basic principles and types of forces will help in understanding
work and energy.

3.1 GRAVITY

Even after learning how gravity attracts or pulls objects, it is necessary to discuss gravity under the heading
of motion. It is obvious what would happen if a toolbox that was resting on the ground was lifted several
feet in the air and then released. The gravitational force acting on it would pull it back to earth. This
would be motion caused by gravity.

This gravitational pull would not be of great concern; however, the gravitational forces involved in setting
up a gravity-feed system to a machine must be considered. In this case it would be important to try to
regulate the speed at which the parts were fed by changing the angle of the feed chute, or adding friction to
slow the parts down.

Knowledge of gravitational forces is important in setting up a roller or skate wheel conveyor between two
floors. If the angle is too steep, the parts will come down too fast, or they will start to tumble. To prevent
this from happening, it is necessary to know how gravity creates motion in an object.

Many years ago Galileo, and later Sir Isaac Newton, defined the laws of gravity and moving objects. The
distance an object rolls down an INCLINED PLANE in any given amount of time is equal to the distance it
rolls in one second multiplied by the square of the time travelled.

The formula for distance is:

2
S = at
where S = distance (or space), feet
2 2
a = acceleration = 32.16 ft/sec (9.8m/sec )
2
t = time, seconds (t = t * t)
This calculation does not take into account air resistance and frictional losses.

For further explanation, refer to Figure III-1. In 1 second the box on the conveyor travels a distance of 5 ft
(1.5m) from point 0. The box takes 2 sec. to go from point 0 to point B. To find the distance from point 0
2
to point B, multiply 5 ft (1.5m) times (2 sec.) . That is 5 feet (1.5m) times 2 sec. times 2 sec. equals 20 ft
(6m). The time from point 0 to point C is 3 sec. The distance from point 0 to point C is 5 ft (1.5m) times
2
(3 sec.) which equals 45 ft (13.5m).

Remember that the example does not take into account any frictional losses, and friction losses play an
important part in the design of all equipment. These forces will be discussed later in this unit. In addition,
the angle of the inclined plane affects the acceleration rate of the moving object.

3.2 VELOCITY

VELOCITY is described as the distance an object travels in a given amount of time. The velocity of an
object is more commonly known as its speed. However, to relate it properly to other mathematical
problems it is easier to use velocity as the identifying term. The formula for velocity is:

V = s/t
where V = velocity
 s = distance
t = time

To determine the velocity of an object, divide the distance that the object travels by the time that elapses.
For instance, a conveyor belt travels at a speed of 300 ft (91.4m) per minute. Its velocity is 300 ft (91.4m)
per minute, or divided by 60 sec. per minute, the velocity is 5 ft (1.5m) per sec. If the conveyor speed is
120 ft (36.6m) per minute, the velocity is 120 ft (36.6m) per minute or 2 ft (.6m) per sec. [120 ft (36.6m)
divided by 60 sec.]. Velocity is important in V-belt drive calculations. In most V-belt applications, the
maximum velocity at which the belt can run is very critical to the operation of the drive.

3.3 ACCELERATION

An additional factor that should be discussed before learning about motion is ACCELERATION.
Acceleration is described as the change in velocity or speed of an object. An increase in velocity is usually
spoken of as acceleration, and a decrease is considered negative acceleration or DECELERATION.

What do acceleration and velocity or speed have to do with the job of a maintenance craftsman? With all
the automated and power-actuated equipment being used today, it is necessary to understand what effect
actuating devices (hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders) have on objects. It is also important to be concerned
with acceleration times of conveyors, forklift trucks, and many other types of powered machinery.

As an example, if a conveyor line is traveling at a speed of 60 ft (18.3m) per minute [1 ft/sec (.3m/sec.)
velocity] and the speed is increased to 300 ft (91.4m) per minute [5 ft/sec. (1.5m/sec.) velocity], the change
of velocity would be 4 ft/sec. (1.2 m/sec.). If this increase in velocity takes 16 sec., the acceleration would
2 2
be 1/4 ft/sec. (.075m/sec. ). In mathematical terms this works out to 4 ft/sec. divided by 16 sec. which
2 2
equals 1/4 ft/sec. , or 1.2 m/sec. divided by 16 sec. which equals .075 m/sec .

As another example of acceleration, the hydraulic cylinder in Figure III-2 pushes the boxes at the conveyor
transfer point a distance of 2 ft. (.6m). The time it takes to accomplish the transfer is 1 second. The final
velocity of the boxes is 2 ft/sec. (.6 m/sec.); the initial velocity is 0 because the boxes were at rest. The
difference in the velocity is 2 ft/sec (.6m/sec). If this is divided by the 1 sec. it takes to accomplish the
2 2 2
transfer, the acceleration is 2 ft/sec. (.6 m/sec./sec.). This can be shown as 2 ft/ sec or .6m/sec .
3.4 PRINCIPLES OF MOTION

The term MOTION is defined as a changing of position of displacement. If a person moves his hand, its
position changes even though it is still connected to his arm. When a shaft turns, it has motion even
though it does not go anywhere. The two types of motion dealt with are LINEAR (straight line) and
ROTARY (circular) motion, Figure III-3. Both of these are classed as ABSOLUTE motions where a fixed
reference point is used to determine position change. Linear and rotary motion can be combined to form an
irregular or cam-shaped motion, but this is not considered a separate type of motion.
 LINEAR

ROTARY

FIGURE III-3 TYPES OF MOTION

RELATIVE and HARMONIC motion will also be discussed. Relative motion deals with motion between
two objects, Figure III-4, as opposed to absolute motion. Harmonic motion deals with elasticity found in
springs and the simple back-and-forth motion found in a pendulum. Each type of motion will be discussed
individually. The physical laws that are the basis of motion will be covered.
Sir Isaac Newton went one step further with Galileo's early discoveries and defined certain laws
concerning gravity and moving objects. Newton introduced the element of force and formulated three
basic laws of motion. These three laws form the base for many principles of mechanics and motion found
in industry today.

3.5 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

The first law of motion is stated as follows: A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will
continue in motion with undiminished speed in a straight line, as long as no unbalanced external force acts
upon it.

An object is in equilibrium when all forces acting on it are zero. The first law of motion applies here.
When a body is at rest it will remain at rest, Figure III-5. For instance, a hammer on a bench will stay there
until someone picks it up.
Whether a body is in motion or at rest, it has INERTIA. This is the property that keeps the object moving
or standing still. Inertia is directly related to mass. If there is a level roller conveyor and someone starts a
box moving, theoretically it will continue moving until some force stops it. Actually, friction will slow
everything. Even some objects that are large but do not weigh much will not travel down a decline easily.

Newton's second law of motion is stated as follows: If an unbalanced force acts upon a body, the body will
be accelerated. The amount of acceleration is directly proportional to the amount of the unbalanced force.
The direction of the acceleration will also be in the same direction as the unbalanced force.

This can be explained more clearly by the following example. Suppose a box of metal parts has to be
moved. (The total weight of the box is not important at this point.) By pushing on the box, an unbalanced
force of 5 pounds (22.25 Newtons) is applied to the box as in Figure III-6. This causes it to accelerate at
2 2
the rate of 1 ft/sec. (.3m/sec. ). By increasing the unbalanced force to 15 pounds (66.75 Newtons), the
2 2
box will then accelerate at the rate of 3 ft/sec. (.9m/sec. ). Note that the acceleration ratio between the
first and second examples is the same as the unbalanced force ratio acting on the box. Both force and
acceleration of the second example are three times greater than the first.
Applying this law to maintenance work helps one to understand how objects act when one applies force to
them. A forklift truck lifts slowly unless the engine runs faster. (More force, more acceleration.) But
remember, with the application of too much power, something has to give. For example, if a chain drive is
designed to operate with a one horsepower motor, a five horsepower motor will cause it to have a much
shorter life span.

The third law of motion is stated as follows: Whenever a body exerts a force on a second body, the second
body exerts an equal force in the opposite direction on the first body.

This third law is defined very simply by saying that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
An example is the forward motion of the forklift truck in Figure III-7. The forward motion is actually
created by the backward force of the wheels pushing against the floor. Another example is a belt
conveyor. The forward motion created by the drive has to overcome the inertia of the material on the belt.
3.6 LINEAR MOTION

LINEAR MOTION deals with motion that travels in a straight line. Linear motion can be the traversing of
a lathe carriage, the travel of a forklift truck through a plant, or the vertical motion of a hydraulic or
pneumatic cylinder. Linear motion is frequently called RECTILINEAR MOTION.

When working with motion or when moving an object from one place to another, consideration must be
given to the time it takes to move the object and the speed at which it can be moved. To calculate
movement or motion, one must consider the velocity and acceleration as discussed earlier. For objects of
relatively large size traveling any amount of distance, the velocity can more easily be given as speed. For
small objects, such as cylinders, solenoids, and other short stroke items, the velocity is usually stated in
ft/sec and can be converted to speed in feet-per-minute (fpm) for proper timing between the two different
components.

So far this lesson has covered acceleration and velocity. How can one calculate an object's stopping rate,
or deceleration? Usually a stopping force is applied constantly to an object until it comes to rest. The
deceleration is determined by dividing the square of the speed of the object by twice the distance it takes to
stop the object. This is given in the formula:

2
a = V /2s
where a = negative acceleration or
deceleration, ft/sec/sec
V = velocity, ft/sec
s = stopping distance, ft

Using the conveyor example, if 5 pounds (7.4 Kg) of coal is handled on each foot (meter) of conveyor
traveling at 5 ft/sec (1.5m/sec), the belt would discharge 25 pounds (11.2 Kg) of coal every second (5 ft/sec
x 5 lbs/ft or 7.4 Kg/meter x 1.5m/sec) over the end of the conveyor. If a hopper or a chute were being
filled with coal, certain timing limitations would have to be placed on the conveyor to prevent overloading
the hopper or chute.

Suppose that after a certain level was reached, the hopper could hold 100 lbs (56.4 Kg). This would allow
the conveyor to run 4 seconds after the initial signal was sent for the conveyor to stop. With the conveyor
traveling 300 fpm (91.4 mpm) or 5 ft/sec (1.5m/sec) the deceleration rate would be 5 ft/sec (1.5m/sec)
times 5 ft/sec (1.5m/sec) divided by 20 ft (6.0m) [4 sec x 5 ft/sec (1.5m/sec)] multiplied by 2. This works
2 2
out to 25 ft/sec (2.25m/sec) divided by 40 ft (12.2m) and equals 0.625 ft/sec (0.185 m/sec ) deceleration
rate.

3.7 CIRCULAR MOTION

CIRCULAR MOTION or CURVED MOTION is similar to linear motion. For example, a forklift truck
turning a corner has circular motion. The main difference between circular and linear motion is the
direction of motion the object takes and the forces acting on the object. These forces are CENTRIPETAL
(inward) and CENTRIFUGAL (outward) force. Centrifugal force is what tends to overturn a car when it
turns a corner too fast. Formulas for these forces will not be discussed in these lessons, but they do exist.
For now, be concerned with the method of calculating velocity and acceleration for circular motion. These
values are then added to other formulas to determine the direction and the amount of force acting on the
object.
3.8 ROTARY MOTION

ROTARY MOTION is defined as motion about an axis, such as flywheels, gears, electric motor armatures,
and lathe chucks. Rotary motion is a fixed or restricted motion about a given point. Although it may seem
that the wheels of a forklift truck travel in other than rotational motion because the forklift truck itself
travels a linear path, this is not the case. The truck moves in a linear path because of the wheel's reaction to
the floor.

The rate of rotation of an object is expressed in several ways including rpm (revolutions per minute), and
rps (revolutions per second); for example, 120 rpm equals 2 rps. The rate of rotation is determined by the
frequency that a spot on the object passes through a certain point in a given amount of time.

3.9 RELATIVE MOTION

RELATIVE MOTION is the difference between the motions of two objects. A simple illustration of
relative motion is stones or pebbles being handled on an inclined conveyor. If the conveyor travels upward
at 200 ft/min (61m/min), and the stones roll back at 50 ft/min (15.2m/min), the actual speed of the stones is
150 ft/min (45.7m/min) relative to a fixed point. If the conveyor were declined (pitched downward), the
stones will travel at 250 ft/min (76.2m/min).

3.10 HARMONIC MOTION

HARMONIC MOTION can best be described using the example of springs on a vibrating conveyor, or a
clock pendulum. A spring, or pendulum, is normally in a state of EQUILIBRIUM (rest) until an external
force is applied to start it in motion as in Figure III-8. If there were no restrictions to its movement after it
was started, this motion would continue indefinitely. This would be perpetual motion. However, because
there are outside forces (gravity and friction) acting on objects having harmonic motion, they will always
slow down and stop after a period of time.

When the external force is applied to start the motion, the object obtains a displacement from its point of
equilibrium to the new position. When released, the object travels past its original point of equilibrium to a
position of the same displacement on the opposite side of equilibrium. (Points A to B, Figure III-8) This is
known as its AMPLITUDE or vibration distance. The FREQUENCY is the number of complete vibrations
for a specific unit of time, usually described as cycles per minute or cycles per second. An example is the
pendulum in Figure III-8. The amplitude is the distance from C to D, and the frequency is the swings per
minute.

4.0 SUMMARY OF FORCE AND MOTION

Force acting on an object gives it energy to do work. Force also applied to an object gives the object
motion or maintains it at a position of rest.

The amount of force applied to an object is measured in terms of length, weight, and time. These elements
are expressed as feet, pounds, and seconds, respectively, in the English system. Another unit of measure
has been established for describing an angle or segment of a circle. An angle is expressed in terms of
degrees, minutes, and seconds.
Gravity and its pulling force on an object gives the object weight. The weight of an object is proportional
to its mass or the amount of matter in the object. The weight of an object will change as it travels further
away from the earth's surface, but its mass will remain constant. The gravitational force or pull on an
object passing through a single point of an object will be at the center of gravity.

The force of gravity and the center of gravity that act on an object at rest are known as static forces and
give an object equilibrium. Gravitational forces that act on elevated objects are discussed in Section II.
Other forces that act on an object are internal and external forces. Internal forces hold the object together,
while external forces hold the object at rest or give it motion.

The forces that work on an object to accomplish work are tension, compression, shear, and torque. These
forces can work independently or in combination with other forces.

In all cases, force has to be applied to an object before any work can be done. This force can be applied
mechanically (such as drive machinery) or manually (working on equipment). Force is also applied to an
object to hold it in position (such as gravitational force), or maintain equilibrium. Understanding these
forces will enable the maintenance craftsman to work more easily and safely.

As previously noted, motion is not a difficult subject to understand. Usually motion and forces related to
motion are classified as a part of physics. Although this lesson has not covered the physics of motion in
any depth, the important basics have been presented.

As stated, motion is based on the effects of gravity and other unbalanced external forces. Whether the
motion is absolute, relative, or harmonic, its speed, acceleration, and action can be calculated
mathematically .

Referring to this lesson will aid in remembering the fundamentals needed to calculate the speed,
acceleration, or motion of an object. Furthermore, from dealing with some of the problems of motion and
force and how they relate to maintenance work, other examples at your own plant will be easily
recognizable.
5.0 WORK AND ENERGY

Force and motion are combined to produce work. During the course of the day the maintenance worker
comes across many situations where work is being done. When a crane hoists a load, or a machine tool
makes a part, work is being performed. Furthermore, the motor turns some gears or V-belts to turn the
lathe chuck or the crane hoisting drum, creating action that does something. Even all the repairs are the
result of work performed.

Understanding the relationships between force, motion, and work increases one's knowledge and
awareness of the equipment used in the plant, and the reasons why it operates in a certain way. This
knowledge in turn helps one to perform work more easily and efficiently.

The items covered in this lesson include the different kinds of work, plus the way work is calculated and
measured. Both of these factors are important to the understanding of machines and knowledge of what
makes them go.

The word "work" is used to describe many different things. The simplest definition of work is the result of
a force moving an object. Work is the product of the distance an object is displaced and the amount of
force required to do the displacing. Simply stated, this means that work equals force times distance. As an
example, if a force is applied to a gear reducer resting on the floor, as shown in Figure V-1, and moved a
certain distance, work is done in the direction in which the force is applied. If the force does not move the
object, no work is done because no movement takes place.
If an object is raised or hoisted instead of being pushed, the same amount of work is done. The difference
is that the direction of force is vertical instead of horizontal.

An example of work done vertically is shown in Figure V-2. A piece of angle iron weighing 60 lbf (267
Newtons) is too heavy for one man to carry, so two men pick it up, one on each end. If the men raise it
three feet off the floor, they do 60 lbf (267 Newtons) times 3 ft (.9m) or 180 foot-pounds (240.3 Joules) of
work. Each man does 90 foot-pounds (120.15 Joules). If they carry the piece 200 ft (61m) to the other end
of the shop, they do 60 lbf (267 Newtons) times 200 ft (61m), or 12,000 foot-pounds (16,287 Joules) of
work in a horizontal direction; each man does 6,000 foot-pounds (8,143.5 Joules) of work.
Work is accomplished by multiplying force by displacement or distance. As stated in an earlier lesson, the
English system measures force in pounds (Newtons) and displacement in feet (meters). The resulting unit
of work accomplished is expressed in foot-pounds (Joules). One foot-pound (Joule) is done when a force
of one pound (Newton, N) acts through a distance of one foot (meter). Refer to Figure V-2, and assume
that the force is 25 pounds (111.25 Newtons) and the distance is 4 ft (1.2m). This equals 100 foot-pounds
(133.5 Joules) of work.

5.1 POWER

Power is defined as the amount of work done in a given amount of time. It has just been stated that work is
the product of force and distance. Therefore, it can be said that power equals work (force times distance)
divided by time. As in all previous calculations, time is expressed in
seconds. Work is expressed in foot-pounds (Joules). Power, therefore, is expressed in foot-pounds per
second (Joules/sec or watts).

As an example, refer to Figure V-2. Suppose the crane is hoisting a 200 lb (890 N) load 10 ft (3m). This
equals 2,000 ft-lb (2,670 Joules) of work [200 lb x 10 ft (890 N x 3m)]. If it takes 5 sec to hoist the load,
the power exerted would be 400 ft-lb/sec (534 Joule/sec or 534 watts) which is 2,000 ft-lb divided by 5 sec
(2,670 J ÷ 5 sec). If the load is doubled, the crane would lift 400 lb (1,780 N) 10 ft (3m) or 4,000 ft-lb
(5,340 Joules). If this also took 5 seconds, the work being done would be 850 ft-lb/sec or 1,068 watts (W).
For this power (work being done) to be meaningful, there must be something with which to compare it.
The best common unit of measure is HORSEPOWER. One horsepower is equal to 550 ft-lb (734.25
Joules) of work done in one second. In comparison with the previous examples, the amount of power done
in the first example (400 ft-lb/sec or 534 W) would be a little less than one horsepower. The second
example (800 ft-lb/sec or 1,068 W) would be slightly more than one horsepower.

An example of how to calculate horsepower is shown in Figure V-3. Suppose the crane picked up a 550 lb
(2,447.5 N) load and raised it 10 ft (3m). This would be 5,500 ft-lb (7,342.5 Joules, J) of work. If this
work were done in 5 sec, divide 5,500 ft-lb (7,342.5 J) by 5 sec. to get the power per second. This would
equal 1,100 ft-lb (1468.5 W) of power. By dividing the 1,100 ft-lb.sec (1,468.5 W) by the 550 ft-lb/sec
(734.25 W), the result would be 2 horsepower. Another way to calculate this would be to multiply the 550
ft-lb/sec (734.25 W) by the 5 sec time. This product [2,750 ft-lb (3,671.25 J)] could then be divided into
the power [5,500 ft-lb (7,342.5 J)]. The result would be 2 horsepower. If the work were done in 1 second
of time instead of 5, the result would be 10 horsepower [5,500 ft-lb/sec ÷ 550 ft-lb/sec (7,342.5 W ÷
734.25 W)].

Sometimes when calculating power or horsepower the time in which the work is done will be measured in
minutes and not in seconds. In this case, add an additional factor into the calculations. The foot-pounds
(Joules) of work remain the same, but in place of the 550 ft-lb/sec (734.25 W) substitute the value of
33,000 ft-lb (44,055 J) [550 ft-lb/sec multiplied by 60 sec (734.25 W x 60 sec)]. This value would then be
multiplied by the time in minutes. This would then give the answer in horsepower, as before.
5.2 ENERGY

What are the results of work once it is created and converted into horsepower? Some of the results of work
have been mentioned in previous lessons. For example: work done by an accelerating force increases the
speed of an object; work done against friction produces an increase in the temperature of an object; and
work done in lifting objects changes the height of the object with respect to its original position. Not all of
the work produced is actually used. Some portions are used to accomplish other things. These will be
discussed later in this unit. The functioning of an overhead crane provides a good illustration of all three
types of work. The hook lifts the load, and the crane shuttles back and forth, while the bearings work
against the friction of the shafts. In each case the work done produces some change in the object or system
on which the forces act.

Another way to define changes created by work would be to say that work produces a change in the energy
of an object. It is important to remember that the amount of change in energy is equal to the amount of
work done. A hammer can strike a soft or hard blow depending on how much energy is used when the
blow is struck.

Two types of mechanical energy exist: (1) kinetic energy that results from motion, and (2) potential energy
stored in a body at rest. Matter can be transformed into energy, and energy, when expended, is capable of
producing matter. In fact, matter and energy are interchangeable; they are not separate and distinct as
scientists once thought. The total amount of matter and energy in the universe is constant.

Work can be done by various forms of energy. In a power plant the heat energy of coal produces steam in
a boiler; the steam propels a turbine connected to a generator; the generator provides electricity for
machinery in a mine; and the mine produces coal to burn in the power plant. Some of the energy released
in this cycle is dissipated as heat and other losses, but most of it is utilized in doing useful work.

5.2.1 Kinetic Energy

An object in motion is said to have kinetic energy. When an object is at rest, it has no kinetic energy.
However, when a force is exerted on an object at rest, motion occurs. This motion resulting from the force
exerted against the object traveling through a distance equals work. Consider that the change in energy is
the loaded cart in Figure V-4. An external force applied to the cart accelerates it from a position of rest
speed of [0 fps (0 mps)] to 600 fpm (183 mpm) which equals 10 fps (3 mps). If the weight (mass) of the
cart is known, its kinetic energy, at a speed of 600 fpm (183 mpm), can be calculated.

Mathematically, the energy of the cart is equal to one-half its weight (mass) times the square of its velocity
in feet per second (meter per second) divided by the acceleration of a free falling body. This acceleration
2 2
is constant 32 ft/sec (9.8m/sec ). Substituting the cart weight of 500 lb (227 Kg) and its speed of 10 fps
(3 mps) in the factor in Figure V-4, the kinetic energy of the loaded cart is determined to be 78 ft-lbs
(102/Joules).

To convert kinetic energy to horsepower, divide it by 550 ft-lbs (734.25 W). In the preceding example, the
781 ft-lb (1021 J) energy of the cart is equal to a little less than 1-1/2 horsepower when divided by 550
ft-lb (734.25 W).

5.2.2 Potential Energy

The other type of mechanical energy is known as potential energy. Potential energy is established when an
object or mass is lifted above the surface of the earth. When the maintenance worker picks up a tool box, it
has potential energy until it is set back down. Also, when a crane picks up a load, the load then has
potential energy until it is set back down. This energy is calculated by multiplying the amount of weight
being lifted by the distance it is raised.

As a example, if a crane lifted a load weighing 2,500 lb (11,125 N) 10 ft (3m) high, the potential energy
would equal 25,000 ft-lbs (33,375 J). Note that the potential energy is expressed (and calculated) in the
same manner as work. Actually, work is done in hoisting the load.

So far, potential energy has been discussed in terms of lifting objects to establish this energy. It should be
remembered that if the tool box is placed on a bench, it has potential energy because it is above the earth's
surface, and it is not held in its position. Another example of potential energy (and also a potential safety
hazard) is a wrench, hammer, or other tool left on top of a ladder or other raised object. It takes work to
get the item up there but, once there, it retains its potential energy status until it is brought back down or
falls.

5.3 TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY

In describing the way potential energy is formed, note that if the object is placed back on the earth's
surface, potential energy is neutralized. In some instances of potential energy, this neutralization does not
take place. The potential energy in these instances is converted into kinetic energy.

A spring is one common example of an object that accepts potential energy and then converts it to kinetic
energy. Almost every plant uses springs of one sort or another to store and release energy. These springs
will be used in door closures, shaker tables, isolation pads, etc.

To show this more clearly, refer to Figure V-5. When the spring is compressed or extended, it acquires
potential energy. This potential energy converts to kinetic energy as it passes through the midpoint of the
length of travel. As it goes through the midpoint and continues on to its outer points of travel, it converts
back to potential energy.
5.4 OTHER ENERGY

As stated earlier, this is an introduction to only two types of mechanical energy. There are other types of
energy commonly used in industry which will only be mentioned here. A few of these are: heat and
thermal energy, electrical and magnetic energy, radiant energy, chemical energy, and nuclear energy.
Some of these forms of energy will be covered in detail in other units in these courses.

5.5 COLLISION AND CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

There are many cases in a plant where machines use forces that act for a very short time. Even so, during
this short time they produce changes in the motions of objects. Two examples of this change in motion
would be the action of a shear or press brake, and a pneumatic chipping hammer. There undoubtedly are
many other examples in a plant, such as changes in motion exhibited by stamping machines, punch presses,
etc. In these examples it is very difficult to evaluate the accelerations or speeds of the working parts. A
great deal of information can be obtained by viewing these motions or speed of the working parts
differently. In place of acceleration, consider the changes in momentum that take place in each case. The
term momentum is defined as the product of the mass of the object and its velocity. Momentum is also
referred to as impact when it occurs during a collision.

The momentum of a large forklift truck in Figure V-6 would be greater than a small forklift truck, even
though both were traveling at the same velocity (speed). Similarly, if two belt conveyors were handling the
same product and one was running faster than the other, the product on the faster conveyor would have
more momentum.

After achieving a general understanding of momentum and how momentum is affected by velocity and
mass, consider the problem of two objects that collide with each other. The objects would exert forces on
each other from the changes in momentum which are produced by this collision.

The rule governing this is defined in Section II, under the laws of motion. Newton's third law of motion
states that whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exerts an equal force in the
opposite direction. From this one could say that the change in momentum experienced by one body is
equal in quantity and opposite in direction to that experienced by the other body.

When two objects collide, the momentum of the first is transferred to the second. This principle is known
as the CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM because the energy from one body is transferred to another
and not lost. In actual practice, the full amount of momentum or energy is not transmitted. Some of the
energy is converted into other types of energy. Strike something with a hammer, and this is a collision
between two objects. Sometimes the part being struck moves quite a distance, while other times it hardly
moves. In this instance, the momentum would be treated as impact. However, the conservation of
momentum is still present.

There are three types of collisions that occur between objects. In all the collisions, the laws or principles of
the conservation of momentum can be applied. A brief description of each type of collision has been
included to explain how momentum and collisions affect work. There are means of calculating the results
of collisions and the conservation of momentum, but these will not be covered here. For now, it is only
important to understand what happens.

5.5.1 Imperfect Elastic Collision

In this type of collision, the first object strikes the second object, causing energy to be transmitted to the
second object. In the case of imperfect elastic collisions, the objects always remain as individual parts. If
some bolts are thrown back into the bin from which they came, the result of the collision will be that some
bolts in the bin will bounce around, creating other collisions. Dropping a wrench off a work bench onto
the floor is another example. It will bounce at least once before it will come to rest. All of these are
examples of imperfect elastic collisions.

5.5.2 Perfect Elastic Collision

This type of collision takes place only in very small objects such as particles of matter where there is a
complete transfer of energy and momentum with no loss to friction, heat, etc. An example of a perfectly
elastic collision would be the generation of electricity, but this occurs without any noticeable loss of
momentum of energy. An atomic reaction and burning of fuel (gas, oil, or coal) are examples of other
perfectly elastic collisions. Here the changing of energy is complete. From these examples, however, one
can see that in a collision between large parts or objects, the full amount of energy cannot be transferred.
Therefore, a perfectly elastic collision cannot occur.

5.5.3 Perfect Inelastic Collision

In this type of collision, the two objects that collide stay together but remain as two separate objects. An
example of a perfectly inelastic collision would be the use of a stud setting tool. These tools use a high
amount of energy to fix or set a stud of bolt in concrete or wood. After the tool completes its work, the
stud remains set in the concrete or wood even though it is still a separate object.

6.0 SUMMARY OF WORK AND ENERGY

In review, work is the product of a certain amount of force acting through a distance. If a force does not
move the object, no work is done. Force measured in pounds multiplied by the distance the object travels
in feet equals work expressed in foot-pounds. Work does not always equal the input of force on the object.

Power is equal to the amount of work performed divided by the time it takes to do the work. Usually this
time is stated in seconds, but it can also be stated in minutes. The amount of power required to perform a
task can be converted to horsepower.

Section V outlined the two types of mechanical energy that are a part of every machine. This section also
showed how power or work applied to an object at rest transforms the neutral state of mass into kinetic
energy and how potential energy can be transformed into kinetic energy under certain conditions.

Another item covered was momentum and how momentum affects the speed of objects and their collision
or impact results.

In most of the information covered, individual problems were used to show how work, power, and energy
can be calculated. These calculations or formulas are not hard to understand. Other formulas are used to
calculate some of the more complex problems. For now, it is only important to understand the general
approach.

The following sections will help tie together the information covered thus far to further increase one's
knowledge of why things happen and how to apply these principles to make work easier.
7.0 SIMPLE MACHINES

Simple machines form the basic components of many complicated machines. Simple machines are used
every day to accomplish work. Machines are used in many ways to change an amount of force, vary the
direction of travel, or change the speed of an operation. The most complicated machine in a plant is
actually a combination of many simple machines arranged to perform work for certain requirements or
conditions.

This lesson explains the different classes of levers and describes how levers are used to obtain the greatest
amount of work from the effort applied. It also explains how wheels, axles, and pulleys act like levers and
how their performance can be predicted or calculated. The inclined plane and its uses are also explained,
and the wedge and the screw are presented as special forms of the inclined plane.

By understanding simple machines and knowing how their principles can be applied to maintenance
situations, the maintenance worker will be more capable of doing his job safely, easily, and effectively.

Simple machines are used by maintenance mechanics every day. Frequently several varieties of tools and
equipment are used without anyone even thinking of them as machines. For example, a form of the simple
machine is used when a lid is pried from a can or a load is raised with a pulley. Some common operations
employ more than one machine principle. When a bolt is tightened, the wrench serves as a lever and the
bolt threads act as an inclined plane. A jack easily lifts an automobile, and a crowbar serves to lift a heavy
load and move it into a cramped place. These devices, upon which work is done, perform work on another
object; any device that operates in this manner is technically called a MACHINE. A machine, then, is a
device for converting available energy into a useful form of power.

The complex machines used in industry are combinations of simple machines. There are only SIX simple
machines. These are the LEVER, the WHEEL and AXLE, the PULLEY, the INCLINED PLANE, the
WEDGE, and the SCREW. The wheel and axle and the pulley are modified levers. The wedge and the
screw are modified planes.

A machine is used to lessen the force required to do a certain job. For example, a piece of equipment
weighing 5,000 lbs (2,200 N) must be lifted into place. A machine is used to exert this amount of force
upon the equipment while the person operating the machine exerts a smaller force, say only .50 lb (2.2 N).
It is thus possible to obtain a larger force from a machine than that which is exerted on it. Note that this
statement applies to force and not to energy. More work CANNOT be obtained from a machine than the
energy supplied to it. This is evident because work is equal to force times distance. Therefore, when the
machine operator exerts a smaller force than does the machine, he must exert the smaller force through a
correspondingly greater distance.

7.1 MACHINES AND THE PRINCIPLE OF WORK

The purpose of the machine is to change the amount of force, the direction of the force, and the speed of
the reaction to the force. It sometimes appears as though a machine is delivering more work than is put
into it. Calculations show this is not so. For example, a man raises an automobile with a jack. The man is
expending a small force (effort) over a great distance, while the automobile is moved against a large force
(gravity) over a short distance.

Machines work according to the law of the conservation of energy. That is,

Work input = Work output

Effort x its distance = resistance x its distance

This is called the PRINCIPLE OF WORK.

Effort means the force brought to bear upon the machine, and resistance means the force to be overcome
by the machine. For example, in the case of the jack, the effort is the force expended by the man; the
resistance is the weight of the automobile which is a gravitational force.

7.2 THE LEVER

A lever is a simple machine because it is a device for overcoming a resisting force at one point by applying
force or effort at some other point. A bar for prying open the lid of a can, pliers for gripping, and tin snips
for cutting sheet metal are all levers. A lever is usually a bar with which work can be accomplished by
using less effort or more speed. In operation, the lever is pivoted at one point called the FULCRUM. The
effort acts at a second point and the resistance at a third. This produces a rotation about the fulcrum as
illustrated in Figure VII-1.

The three points of a lever can be arranged in three different ways to obtain a FIRST class lever, a
SECOND class lever, and a THIRD class lever. The two arms of a lever are the distance from the effort to
the fulcrum and the distance from the fulcrum to the resistance. In each class of lever, there is a gain in
either force or distance.
The distance that either the effort or resistance moves, and the speed with which it moves
depend on the position of the fulcrum. In the first class lever, a small force or effort
moves a larger force. The distance through which the effort moves is greater than the
distance through which the resistance moves.

The effort arm A, illustrated in Figure VII-2, is longer than the resistance arm B; so, the
resistance moves a shorter distance than the effort arm. The speed of the effort arm is
greater than that of the resistance arm because the effort arm moves farther in the same
amount of time. This is further illustrated by the formula and problems in the following
two paragraphs.
The amount of effort (E) required to move the resistance (R) can be calculated by using
the formula:
RxB=ExA

Assigning values to Figure VII-2, R = 100 lbs (445 N) B = 2 ft (.6m); A = 10 ft (3 m); the
effort E = ?
RxB=ExA
English Metric

100 lbs x 2 ft = E x 10 ft 445 N x .6m = E x

3m
200 ft-lbs = E x 10 ft 267 N-m (Joules) =
Ex3m
E = 200 ft-lbs/10 ft = 20 lbs E = 267 N.m /3m =
89 N
In this example, it requires an effort of only 20 lbs (89 N.) to move a resistance of 100 lbs
(445 N) using a first class lever.

The ratio of the distance the resistance travels to the distance the effort travels (Figure
VII-2) and the speed of the lever is calculated by using the formula:

E x WX = R x YZ or
Resistance/Effort = WX/YZ

The resistance was lifted 3 in. (.25 ft) or 7.6 cm (.076m) How far did the effort travel?

100 lbs/20 lbs = WX/0.25 ft 445 N/89 N =

WX/.076m
5 = WX/0.25 ft 5 = WX/.076m
WX = 5 x 0.25 ft = 1.25 ft WX = 5 x .076m =
.38m

The resistance moves 3 in (7.6 cm) while the effort moved 1.25 ft (38 cm).

The second class lever has the fulcrum at one end, Figure VII-1. The resistance is
between the fulcrum and the effort. The resistance and the effort move in the same
direction. When using a second class lever, always lift one end. The wheelbarrow
illustrated in Figure VII-3 is an example of a second class lever. The fulcrum is at the
center of the wheel, effort is applied to the handles, and the load is placed on the wheel.
This allows the wheelbarrow to be raised by the handles with a small amount of effort.
The second class lever provides a gain in force.
In the third class lever the effort is between the fulcrum and resistance (See Part C of
Figure VII-1). The third class lever is used to gain speed or distance. In machines, third
class levers are used to obtain travel. The effort and resistance move in the same
direction. The shovel illustrated in Figure VII-4 is a third class lever when used to lift
dirt. The dirt lifted is the weight or resistance. The hand holding the handle of the shovel
is the fulcrum and the hand that lifts the shovel is the force of effort.
7.3 THE INCLINED PLANE

When loading a truck, it is easier to roll the barrels up an inclined plane than to lift them
vertically. (In fact, sometimes they may not be lifted at all because of their weight.) The
effectiveness of an effort can be increased by using the machine called an INCLINED
PLANE (see Figure VII-5). The mechanical advantage is easily calculated by the
principle of work. When the resistance R is raised from the bottom to the top of the
inclined plane, a vertical distance H, the work done equals R x H. Meanwhile, the effort
E moves through the distance L, the work being E x L. Because input equals output,

RxH=ExL
and
mechanical advantage = R/E = L/H

The greater the length of the plane in proportion to its height, the greater the mechanical
advantage.

On steep mountains, the highways are built to wind about to make the climb more
gradual. This increases the length and therefore the mechanical advantage, so traffic is
able to ascend the GRADE easier. Today's long, straight grades permit traffic to move
rapidly because the ascent is more gradual. These grades or vertical inclines are
measured in percent. For example, a 2 percent grade is one that rises 2 ft (.6m) vertically
for every 100 ft (31m) horizontally. Grades seldom exceed 3 percent, thus permitting
heavy loads to be raised with about 1/30 the effort it would take to raise them vertically.
The smaller the grade, the less effort is required, but the longer the distance the load must
be pulled. Remember, where friction is involved there is actually a loss of useful work in
using the inclined plane or any machine. The advantage of using the inclined plane is
that it allows a load to be raised that perhaps could not be lifted vertically at all.
7.4 THE SCREW

The screw is a spiral inclined plane. The greatest mechanical advantage of all inclined
planes is attained by the screw. The screw is turned by a lever in the form of a rod or
wrench. One complete revolution raises or lowers the screw a distance equal to that
between two successive threads. This distance is called the PITCH of the screw. The
effort moves in a circular path, while the resistance acts in a straight line through one
pitch. If the pitch of the screw is very small and the lever is long, the mechanical
advantage can be made very great. The friction a screw encounters is considerable but
desirable. The friction prevents the screw from slipping when no effort is being applied.
When a friction device is used to raise a piece of machinery, the friction is an advantage
because it prevents the load from slipping back to its original position.
7.5 THE WEDGE

The wedge is a double inclined plane. Wedges are usually illustrated as triangles but
their shapes vary. The blade of a knife or axe, the teeth of a saw, a chisel, and a drill bit
or auger are forms of the wedge. Wedges are used on tools and mechanical equipment as
separating or holding devices. The wedge is also used for its holding power. A hammer
handle is held in the hammer head by a wedge driven into the end of the handle, forcing
the wood against the sides of the head. The nail is a wedge also. Its point, driven into
wood, separates the fibers. Because the wood fibers offer resistance to being separated,
they grip the nail for holding power. The wedge is therefore a separating device. A shim
is a useful wedge for leveling machines, plumbing door jambs, leveling floor joists, or for
just holding equipment in place until it can be properly secured.

7.6 THE CAM

The CAM is a movable wedge combining rotary and linear motion. If a cam were laid
out in a straight line, it would appear similar to a wedge. Figure VII-6 illustrates the
resulting effort of an input force on a cam or wedge profile. As the ratio of the height to
the length is decreased, the resulting work is decreased. For example, the height of a
wedge is 1 inch, and the length is 10 inches. The ratio is therefore 1 to 10. If a force of
100 lbs (31 N) is applied to the end of the wedge, the result is 10 x 100 or 1000 lbs (304
N). Changing the ratio also changes the output proportionally.
7.7 THE WHEEL AND AXLE

Except for levers, the WHEEL AND AXLE is the most common of all the simple
machines in industry. Old time machine shops had overhead line shafts and many flat
belts and pulleys driving the different types of machinery. The pulleys and shafts were
actually wheel and axle machines. These have been replaced with individual machines
having their own power source. Because a machine cannot run at the high speed of the
motor, some means must be used to slow the speed down. Originally, the line shafts and
wheels did some of the speed reducing that was required, with a few final speed changes
done at the machine. Now gears incorporated into each machine do all of the speed
changes. Gearing, actually, is a modified wheel and axle machine.

The wheel and axle utilizes circular motion to accomplish two basic functions. The first
is to transmit force, and the second is to change speed. Figure VII-7 shows a simple
V-belt drive arrangement. From this it can be seen that speed change can be either an
increase or a decrease, depending on which pulley (or wheel) is the driver and which is
the driven. To calculate any change in speed, the speed of one of the pulleys and the
diameter of both must be known, or their RATIO (numerical value of size proportion,
such as 3 to 1, 4 to 1). The speed ratio is equal to the ratio of the diameters of the
pulleys. For example, if one of the pulleys is 7 inches in diameter, and the other pulley is
21 inches in diameter, the ratio will be 3 to 1. The speed will then be in the same
proportion. If it is not possible to measure the DIAMETER (distance across a circle) of
the pulleys, one could measure the CIRCUMFERENCE (the distance around the outside
of the circle). The ratios would be the same and could be applied to determine the speed.
If only the measurement of the diameter of one pulley (or wheel) and the circumference
of the other were available, the circumference of the one pulley (or wheel) could be
calculated by multiplying the diameter by 3.1416 or π (a Greek letter spelled "pi," and
pronounced "pie"). To find the diameter when the circumference is known, divide by
3.1416.

To determine the amount of force that can be transmitted through two wheels (pulley or
gears), refer to the illustration and formulas in Figure VII-8. This illustration shows two
different diameter wheels mounted on a common shaft or axle. By applying a force at
either wheel, the resulting force on the other wheel can be seen. Suppose a force of 25
lbs (7.6 N) is applied to the larger wheel. If the wheel is 24 in. (.6m) in diameter, the
force is then applied at a distance of 1 ft (.3m) from the center of the axle. This length is
called the LEVER ARM. The multiplication of these two figures together results in a
force of 300 in-lbs (2.28 J) at the center of the axle. If the lever arm of the smaller wheel
is 3 in (.08m) divide the 300 in-lb (2.28 J) by the 3 in (.08m). This equals a 100 lb (28.5
N) force at the outer edge of the smaller wheel.

Another method of calculating this force is to use the ratio of the two wheels and
multiply or divide (as the case may be) by the force. For example, the ratio of the two
wheels just discussed is 4 to 1. By multiplying the 25 lbs (7.6 N) by 4, the answer is a
100 lb (30.5 N) force on the smaller wheel. Or if a force of 100 lbs (30.5 N) is applied to
the smaller wheel, divide by 4 to get the result of 25 lbs (7.6 N) at the larger wheel.

It should be noted that, in the case of wheels as well as levers, when the advantage of
force is increased, the advantage of speed or distance is decreased. Both distance and
force cannot be increased or decreased at the same time. The ratio of speed is equal to
the force ratio, but in the opposite direction. (When the distance ratio is 5 to 1, the force
ratio is 1 to 5.)

7.8 PULLEYS

Pulleys are closely related to the wheel and axle. In the previous section on wheels and
axles, pulleys were mentioned. This, however, only related to drive-type pulleys and not
to the work, or hoisting-type, pulleys that are explained in this section. Work pulleys and
systems are concerned with changing the amount and speed of forces. They are also used
to change the direction of the force.

There may be many times when the maintenance worker must hoist or pull something
into place that requires a little extra effort. Much work can be done with a small amount
of effort by using a small rope pulley or similar piece of equipment. The pulleys are
usually called "sheaves" and are designated by the number of grooves that are cut in
them.

Pulleys fall into two classifications: FIXED and MOVABLE. A fixed pulley can be
compared to the hoisting drum of an overhead crane. It remains in the constant position,
with the cable wound around the drum. In the case of a movable pulley, the pulley
sheave moves with the load, such as on the hook of the crane. As illustrated in Figure
VII-9, a fixed pulley changes the direction of the force, but does not offer any mechanical
advantage. A movable pulley gives a mechanical advantage and a change of direction to
the force.
For example, suppose an effort is made to lift a 50 lb (15 N) load using the fixed pulley
in Figure VII-9. A force of 50 lb (15 N) on the other end of the rope is required to hoist
the 50 lb (15 N) load because there is no mechanical advantage. [The total force on the
pulley, however, is 100 lb (30 N)]. If the fixed pulley is attached to the load, it would
become a movable pulley. In this case, each rope will hold 25 lb (7.6 N) or one-half the
load because of the mechanical advantage caused by each rope working. If the pull on
each rope is 50 lb (15 N) then the total lift would be 100 lb (30 N).

To better understand the mechanical advantage of pulleys, look at Figure VII-10. It

illustrates two sheave and rope arrangements. At first glance it may seem that the
arrangements are different, but they are not. In actual application, the sheaves usually are
of the same size and turn on the same shaft or axle. Pulley assemblies of this type are
usually referred to as BLOCK-AND-TACKLE. The way to determine the amount of
effort gained is to count the number of reeves or passes the rope or cable makes. In
Figure VII-10, there are four reeves of rope being used to hoist the object. This does not
count the end pulled on, because the last pulley is considered a fixed pulley, and it has no
mechanical advantage. Therefore, with the four reeves of rope being used to hoist the
load, the mechanical advantage is 4 to 1.

There are other types of hoists and chain falls that may be used. Some of these are
geared types and others are differential pulley types. In any case, all offer some sort of
mechanical advantage.

7.9 THE SCREW THREAD

Tightening a bolt or screw is actually working with a simple machine. The SCREW
THREAD is probably one of the most practical everyday applications of a simple
machine. Actually, the screw thread is a combination of the inclined plane, wedge, and
the wheel and axle.
Screw threads have more uses than one would think, such as transmitting motion or
applying and transferring force.

Screw threads are measured by their diameter and the number of threads per inch. The
PITCH of the screw is the distance from the point on one thread to a corresponding point
on the next thread. The LEAD is the distance the screw travels in one complete turn. If a
screw thread were laid out on a straight surface, it would form an inclined plane. The
wedge action comes from the direction that the pressure or force is applied. The wheel
and axle motion comes from the rotating or turning of the screw to advance it along the
screw threads.

Screw threads are used often to assist in doing a job: for example, aligning motors or
bearings with jacking screws, leveling machines, or lifting a piece of equipment with a
screw jack. Suppose a screw jack has four threads to the inch (1.5 threads per cm). The
lead in this case is 1/4 inch (.6cm). If the jack uses a lever handle 20 inches (.5m) long,
proceed as follows. First, multiply the handle length by 2 to get the diameter of the circle
the handle forms. Then multiply the diameter of the circle by "pi" (3.1416) to get the
circumference. This equals about 125 inches (320cm). Next, multiply the circumference
by the number of threads per inch (cm). The product of 125 inches (3.2m) x 4 (1.5)
equals 500 inches (4.8m or 480cm). If a force of 10 lb (44.5 N) is applied to the end of
the jack handle, the force on the load is 500 x 10 (4.8 x 44.5) or 5,000 in-lb. (213.6 J).
Remember that this force does not include any frictional losses.

8.0 SUMMARY OF SIMPLE MACHINES

Simple machines are basic devices designed to change the speed, amount of force, and
the direction of travel. It is impossible to have an increase in both force and speed at the
same time on simple machines.
The lever, a form of simple machine, is a rigid bar that is free to pivot around a fixed
point called the fulcrum. Levers produce an increase or decrease in force, movement,
and speed depending on the amount of effort or resistance and the length of the effort and
resistance arms. There are basically three classes of levers:

• In first class levers the fulcrum is located between the effort and
resistance.

• In second class levers the resistance is located between the fulcrum and
effort.

• In third class levers the effort is located between the resistance and
fulcrum.

In any class of lever, the effort times the effort arm equals the resistance times the
resistance arm.

A simple machine called the wheel and axle is a variation of the lever. The principle of
the wheel and axle is used in industrial operations to transmit force and change speed.
When there is a gain in force, there is a loss in speed. Sometimes the wheel and axle is
combined with a screw to produce a greater mechanical advantage.

An inclined plane is useful when a large resistance must be moved vertically by a small
effort. The larger the angle of the inclined plane, the greater the effort must be to
produce the same amount of work. The wedge is a common type of inclined plane used
as a separating and holding device.

A screw thread combines two simple machines: the inclined plane which forms the helix
angle, and the contacting surfaces of the teeth which are like wedges. The screw threads
serve to change rotary motion to straight line motion. They are commonly used to
increase force, fasten parts together, and make adjustments. The helix angle of a screw
thread determines its holding power so long as the strength of the material is not
exceeded.

The pitch of a single screw thread is the distance from one point on one tooth to the same
relative point on the next tooth. The pitch is the reciprocal of the number of threads per
inch; that is, the pitch is 1,000 divided by the number of threads per inch (cm). The lead
of a screw is the linear distance the screw moves while turning one complete revolution.
9.0 USEFUL WORK

9.1 TYPES OF POWER

Extra power is often needed to accomplish the job when working with machines. Usually
hooking up an extra electric motor and continuing with the work is sufficient. Sometimes
it is necessary to use some other source of power when electricity is not available, or
cannot be used for safety reasons.

Most industrial plants have one or more types of extra power sources available for
emergency purposes. A maintenance craftsman is probably familiar with the different
types available in a plant and knows how to install them.

This lesson will outline some of the requirements for determining the type and size of
power equipment needed to accomplish a job. This lesson will complement any previous
experience in this area.

There are several different types of power available to operate equipment. In the
industrial plant today, electrical energy or power accomplishes many tasks, such as
heating, welding, melting, etc., as well as running motors and lighting. Power sources
that frequently use electrical energy will be covered in a later section.

Other power sources used in industrial plants include pneumatic, hydraulic, steam, and
internal combustion engines (gasoline or bottle gas fueled). Pneumatic and hydraulic
power sources installed in industrial plants are usually driven by electric motors. When
they are mounted in portable units, they may be powered by internal combustion engines,
or other prime movers.

Steam turbine generators are one of the major methods of producing electrical energy. In
a steam turbine generator high pressure is generated by a boiler (coal, oil, or gas fired) or
by a nuclear reactor. The steam drives a large turbine which is directly coupled to an
electrical generator. Electricity can also be produced by driving the generator with an
internal combustion engine or a gas turbine. Where water power is available,
hydro-electric turbines are used.

Internal combustion engines are quite useful for producing power. Since they are not
dependent on other utilities, they are usually self-contained. They can be run by
gasoline, natural gas, or diesel fuel. They are either connected directly to the work or
connected through a speed reduction mechanism. They can also be used in isolated
locations to drive air compressors, hydraulic pumps, and other specific pieces of
equipment.

While pneumatics and hydraulics are usually thought of in terms of operating power
cylinders and other linear-motion equipment, air and hydraulic motors are used where
electric motors are impractical or hazardous. Air motors are used in air wrenches, drills,
and other similar applications. Quite frequently hydraulic motors are used in
construction machinery as the driving power to the wheels.

9.2 MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

In every piece of equipment there is an efficiency factor. The mechanical efficiency is

determined or calculated by dividing the amount of energy output by the input. The
operating efficiency of different equipment may range from higher than 95 percent down
to 50 percent or less.

As an example, Figure IX-1 is a schematic layout of a large complex machine driven by

an electric motor. The power is transferred from the motor to a fluid coupling and then to
a speed reducer. On the ouput side of the reducer, a chain drive is connected to four
separate shafts. Each shaft operates a different cutting station on an assembly line. If
each step the power passed through were 95 percent efficient, or only lost 5 percent, the
power at the cutting station would be approximately 75 percent of the input.

The various types of equipment have different rates of efficiency depending on how
many moving parts they have and also on how their power or work is accomplished.
While an electrical wire carrying a current may be 99 percent efficient, the turbine that
turns the generator may have an efficiency of only 85 percent. Furthermore, the boiler
that generates the steam may only be 70 percent efficient.

Efficiency losses in a piece of equipment are caused by different factors. Friction is the
greatest factor. Other causes are heat, slippage, and the requirement to drive other
equipment such as pumps, fans, gear trains, etc.

In an earlier section it was stated that power equals work divided by time and that 550
ft-lb/sec (734 W) equals 1 hp. If the 550 ft-lb/sec (734 W) is reduced by 50 ft-lb/sec
(66.7 W) (or about 10 percent), obviously the amount of work developed is affected by
efficiency. Therefore, if portable or temporary drive equipment must be rigged, it should
be kept as simple as possible to obtain the most efficiency from the equipment. One
further word of caution concerning the selection of drive equipment - do not overpower.
Too much power is as bad as too little because it overworks all the machinery
components.

9.3 COMPOUND MACHINES AND GEARING

COMPOUND MACHINES are simple machines used in combination. Many examples

of compound machines are found in an industrial plant; materials handling equipment
and machine tools are typical. To illustrate a compound machine more clearly, Figure
IX-2 shows an object being pulled up an incline with a block and tackle. Both the pulley
system and the inclined plane are classified as simple machines, but used together they
form a compound machine.
Simple gears (single gears mounted on single shafts) were also described as simple
machines under the wheel and axle category. Several gears mounted on a common shaft
would constitute compound gearing as in Figure IX-3. In this case, a large number of
gear changes can be accomplished with a small number of gears. This is done by having
several gears meshing in combination at the same time. It is well known that machine
tools use compound gearing. Less commonly known is the fact that speed reducers use
compound gearing to accomplish speed reduction.

Another type of compound machine frequently used in speed reducers is the WORM
GEAR type of reducer. The worm gear reducer uses a combination of the inclined plane
and the wheel and axle. The worm gear is very similar to the screw thread. The wheel
and axle is represented by the driven gear in the set. The use of worm gears permits the
drive to reduce speed, transmit positive motion, increase force, and change the direction
of force.

Calculating the gear ratio for a worm gear set is similar to calculating the gear ratio for
spur gears. In spur gearing, the number of teeth on the smaller (usually the driver) gear is
divided into the number of teeth of the larger (driven) gear. The resulting answer is the
ratio. For a worm gear, count the number of teeth on the driven gear and divide this by
the teeth on the worm gear. Usually the worm only represents one tooth. However, some
worms are made in double and triple threads. For instance, if the driven gear has 50
teeth, and the worm has one tooth, the ratio is 50 to 1 (or 50:1). If the worm has double
threads, or two teeth, the ratio is 25:1. As an example, if the worm rotates at 300 rpm,
the reducer output speed using the first gear ratio would be 6 rpm. The reducer output
speed using the second gear ratio would be 12 rpm.

To this point, isolated cases of forces and equipment along with the conditions affecting
different objects have been discussed. Some of these conditions will be combined to
determine the net effect on work performed.

9.4 SELECTING A CRANE REDUCER

A traveling crane is a good example for a demonstration because of the variety of work it
can do. Figure IX-4 shows a top view of a crane. Cranes vary in design and
construction, and the one shown may have features that are not on all cranes. Note that
each action of the crane is controlled by a separate motor. Frequently drive motors are
used to do more than one job. For this problem, the variable speeds of the hoisting and
traversing mechanism will not be considered.
The right-hand portion of Figure IX-4 is an enlarged view of the bridge drive machinery.
Assume that the bridge travels at 200 fpm (61 mpm), an easy walking pace, and that the
reduction ratio between the reducer and line or drive shaft is 5 to 1. If the wheels are 2 ft
(.6m) in diameter and the motor turns at 1,750 rpm, what would be the approximate
reducer ratio?

The wheels have a circumference (distance around) of 6 ft (1.8m) 2 ft x pi = 6.00 (.6m x

pi = 1.8m). Dividing the 200 rpm travel by the 6 ft (1.8m) circumference of the wheel
means the wheel turns at 33 rpm (feet per minute ÷ feet per revolution = revolutions per
minute). As outlined, the reduction gears on the drive shaft have a ratio of 5 to 1.
Therefore, the reducer output shaft would have to turn at 165 rpm (33 rpm x 5 to 1 ratio =
165 rpm). With the motor turning at 1,750 rpm, the gear reducer ratio is found by
dividing the 1,750 rpm by 165 rpm, or 10.5 to 1 ratio.
9.5 FINDING GEAR RATIOS AND WORK FORCES

Finding the gear ratios of compound gears is similar to finding the gear ratio of simple
gears. For instance, if a pair of simple gears has 10 teeth in the driver gear and 40 teeth
in the driven gear, the ratio is 4 to 1. Compound gear ratios are determined as individual
simple gear sets and then multiplied together. As an example, to find the gear ratio of a
compound gear, start by counting the number of teeth on each gear of the first set.
Divide the driven gear by the driver gear.

Refer to Figure IX-3. If gear A is the driver and has 24 teeth, and gear B is the driven
gear and has 48 teeth, then this would be written 48/24, or a ratio of 2 to 1. Next, go to
gears C and E and do the same. If gear C has 12 teeth and gear E has 36 teeth, they
would be written 36/12, or a ratio of 3 to 1. This ratio set would then be multiplied by
the first ratio set as follows: 48/24 x 36/12. The last set of gears (F and H) would also be
shown and multiplied by the first two ratios. If they have 12 and 24 teeth, respectively,
the total equation would be:

48/24 x 36/12 x 24/12 = ratios

2/1 x 3/1 x 2/1 = 12 to 1 ratio

If the input speed is 1,200 rpm, the output speed would be 100 rpm.

The mechanical advantage of the gears is the same as the gear ratio (12 to 1). An input
force of 100 lb (445 N) on gear A results in a force of 200 lb (890 N) on gear B, and so
on. A force of 1,200 lb (5,340 N) finally acts on gear H. Conversely, the output speed is
100 rpm compared to the input of 1,200 rpm. Note that, although the mechanical
advantage is the same ratio as the speed reduction, it is in the opposite direction. Any
input speed is reduced in proportion to the gear ratio, and any input force is increased in
proportion to the ratio.
9.6 DETERMINING WORK DONE BY A CRANE HOOK

Using a crane hook, Figure IX-5, as another example, calculate the weight that can be
hoisted with a 100 lb (445 N) pull at the hoisting drum. Before deciding it is 400 lb
(1,780 N), take a good look at the sheave arrangement. Notice the additional mechanical
advantage gained at the last reeving of the cable before it is wound around the drum.
There are five reeves of cable. This gives a mechanical advantage of 5 to 1 and will
enable the hook to lift 500 lb (225 Kg).

One additional point should be made about the hoisting characteristics of the
multi-reeved pulley arrangement shown in Figure IX-5. Pulleys have mechanical
advantages and speed ratios similar to those of compound gears. On this basis, the
mechanical advantage of 5 to 1 for the pulley described above will also have a hoisting
ratio of 5 to 1. Taking up or winding 10 ft/(3m) of cable around the drum will lift the
load 2 ft (.6m).

So far outside force has not been considered in working with gear ratios for hoisting and
traversing mechanisms. Now figure the Horsepower required to hoist the 500 lb (2,225
N) load, previously outlined, 2 ft (.6m). If the load were hoisted in 10 seconds, the work
done would be 100 ft-lb/sec (133.5 W) or .2 hp (500 lb x 2 ft ÷ 10 sec = 100 ft-lb/sec ÷
550 ft-lb/sec.).

What effect does the mechanical advantage have on the horsepower requirements? To
help calculate this, say the drum winds the cable at a rate of 60 fpm (18 mpm) or 1 fps (.3
mps)[60 fpm 60 sec = 1 fps (18 mpm ÷ 60 sec = .3 mps)]. Using the mechanical
advantage of 5 to 1, the pull on the drum is 100 lb (445 N). The amount of cable taken
up to lift the load 2 ft (.6m) is 10 ft (3m), based on a 5 to 1 ratio. Multiplying 100 lb (445
N) by 10 ft (3m) and dividing by the 10-second time, equals 100 ft-lb/sec (133.5 W).
This figure divided by 550 ft-lb/sec (734 W) equals about .2 hp as before.

To calculate the horsepower where one is required to slide the 500 lb (2,225 N) load 20
feet across the floor, the calculations would have to include a friction factor. The total
work done would equal the 500 lb (2,225 N) multiplied by a friction factor
(approximately 1.15 to 1.30) times the 20 ft (6.1m) and divided by 5 seconds. The total
work would then be divided by 550 ft-lb/sec (734 W) to determine the horsepower
requirements.

The horsepower required by the crane to move a 500 lb (2,225 N) suspended load 20 ft
(6.1m) is quite different. The horsepower is not calculated on total work (force x
distance) but on total weight (load + crane) times a factor for overcoming inertia and
starting the crane to move. In addition, the rolling friction or contact of the wheels
increases the required horsepower. The actual horsepower required to move the crane
and load is approximately 15 to 20 percent of the total load calculations.
9.7 WORK DONE TIGHTENING A BOLT

The amount of work done when tightening bolts can also be calculated, as well as the
force the screw thread applies by forming a clamping action between the two parts being
bolted. For example, suppose someone was tightening a bolt holding a plate onto another
surface, as in Figure IX-6. If the bolt were 3/4 in. (1.9cm) in diameter and had 10
threads/in. (4 threads/cm), how much work will be done by the clamping action of the
plate? If the bolt is tightened using a 10 in. (25.4cm) long wrench and applied 50 lb
(222.5 N) force, 500 in.-lb (56.5 N-cm) of torque will be applied [10 in. x 50 lb = 500
in.-lb (.25m x 222.5 N = 56.5 N-m).

To determine the clamping force, proceed as follows. First determine the circumference
of the circle the wrench forms. Next multiply this by the number of threads per inch to
determine the mechanical advantage. The mechanical advantage is then multiplied by the
force applied to the wrench to calculate the amount of force applied to clamping the plate
down.
To calculate the clamping force on the plate, use the previous examples of 50 lb (222.5
N) and a 10 in. (25 cm) wrench. The circumference would be 63 in. (1,600 cm)
multiplied by 10 threads/in. (4 threads/cm), or a mechanical advantage of 630 (6400).
This times the 50 lb (222.5 N) force would equal 31,500 in.-lb (1,424,000 N-cm)
clamping force.

9.8 WORK AND SPEED OF A FORKLIFT TRUCK

Figure IX-7 shows a forklift truck moving a load. There are a variety of load hoisting
mechanisms found on forklift trucks including hydraulic, mechanical (chains and cables),
and electric. For this example problem, a hydraulic system can be chosen. If the load is
1,500 lb (6,675 N) and it is lifted 2 ft (.6m) in 2 seconds, the work done would be 1,500
ft-lb/sec (2,000 W) about 3 hp.

However, how is the velocity rate of the hoisted object found? Refer back to the method
of determining velocity. Note that velocity is determined by dividing the distance
traveled by the time. The velocity, therefore, is equal to 2 ft (.6m) divided by 2 seconds,
or 1 ft/sec (.3m/sec).
The acceleration of the forklift truck as it accelerates to a given speed can be determined.
For example, what would be the average acceleration in
ft/sec if the truck accelerates from a standing position to a speed of 10 mph (16 Kmph)
[880 fpm (266 mpm)] in 4 sec? [880 fpm = 14.7 fps (4.4 mps)]. To find the average
acceleration, divide the 14.7 fps (4.4 mps) velocity by 4 seconds. The answer is about
2 2
3.7 fps (1.1 mps ).

14.7 ft/sec ÷ 4 sec = 3.7 ft/sec2 or 4.4 m/sec ÷ 4 sec = 1.1 m/sec2

Suppose the forklift truck is traveling along at a speed of 10 mph (16 Km) and has to be
stopped in 25 ft (7.6m). How is the deceleration rate found? Remember the formula for
deceleration is the velocity [in ft/sec (m/sec)] squared divided by 2 times the distance.
Reducing the 10 mph to fps would be: No example required - will be done by student.

The velocity of an object traveling down an inclined plane at a constant rate of

acceleration is determined by multiplying the acceleration by the time (V = a t). For

example, if an object has a uniform acceleration of 10 ft/sec2 (3m/sec2) and travels for 6
sec, the velocity would be 60 ft/sec (18 m/sec) or 3,600 fpm (1,080 mpm). If the

acceleration is 6 fps2 (1.8 mps2) the velocity would be 36 ft/sec (10.8m/sec) or 2,160
fpm (648 mpm).

10.0 SUMMARY OF USEFUL WORK

This lesson has covered the different kinds of power used in industry. Electricity is the
major source of power, but other types of power sources, such as pneumatics and
hydraulics, have been reviewed.
The lesson also provided several chances to work power requirement and ratio problems.
Solving the problems in this lesson aids in understanding equipment components and in
making general decisions about them.

Some of the subjects that were covered dealt with physics and may seem a little
complicated, but with practice can be understood.
11.0 AREA AND VOLUME MEASUREMENT

Previous sections in this unit have explained how to calculate force, power, acceleration,
and other mechanical fundamentals. All of this information can be applied to helping the
maintenance worker do a better job.

Of particular importance to a maintenance worker is knowing how to measure different

shaped areas and volumes. This includes circles, squares, rectangles, spheres, pyramids,
and other shapes. This knowledge is needed frequently; therefore, the procedures and
formulas for calculating the areas and volumes of bodies should be known. The formulas
require the use of some mathematics, but they are quite easy to follow.

11.1 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Although not thought about, individuals probably calculate area and volume quite often.
For example, each time a box is needed for parts or tools, one of proper size must be
selected. This is done mentally and only in rough figures, or by eye, but it still is a form
of calculating.

Another example of figuring the volume of a container is when the oil must be drained
from a reducer or an oil sump. In this case there is a concern with the amount of space a
liter of liquid will require. Usually, how many liters of liquid are in the equipment
worked on is known, so obtaining a container close to the required size is not difficult.

Before actually calculating the area and volume, the different basic forms of
measurement must be reviewed and understood. These include distance, time, mass, and
dry and liquid measure. Some of these have been discussed in earlier lessons, but only in
general terms. In this lesson, the discussion will include more specific divisions or parts
of measure.
An object must be measured to determine its size or quantity. Measuring is actually a
process of comparing the item to be measured with a predetermined standard of
measurement called a unit of measure. Table B shows the standard units of measure and
conversion factors.

Standard units of measure are used for measuring physical characteristics such as mass,
length, and time. The basic units for measuring these are the kilogram, meter, and
second. The unit for temperature measurement is the degree. The volt is used for the
unit measurement of electrical potential. Area is measured in square units such as square
meters. Volume is always given in cubic units.

A brief review of the different units of measurement normally used follows.

11.1.1 Linear Measurements

The length of span of a body is generally measured in linear units such as centimeters and
meters.

Parts of a meter are expressed in centimeters or millimeters (10 millimeters = 1

centimeter) as shown in Figure XI-1.
For more precise measuring, a meter is divided into 1,000 parts. Each part is called a
millimeter. If the measurement were shown as .010 or .015 it would be spoken as ten
thousandths or fifteen thousandths of a meter. The instrument frequently used for
precision measuring is called a micrometer, shown in Figure XI-2.
11.1.2 Mass

Mass is measured in kilograms. The smaller division of a kilogram is a gram or a

milligram. Remember, mass is not the same as weight. It is constant for each body
regardless of gravitational pull.

11.1.3 Liquid Measure

Liquid measure is usually specified in liters. The larger unit of measure for the liter is

the meter 3. Dry measure of material is usually defined in terms of the meter3.

11.1.4 Time

Most people are familiar with the standards of time measurements (hours, minutes, and
seconds). However, they should also be aware of the divisions of seconds that are used
in the electronics world today. Until about 10 years ago, the second was considered a
short space of time. With the advent of new electronic equipment, seconds were divided
into hundredths, thousandths, and finally millionths. While a millionth of a second
would seem the ultimate in speed, new computers complete some steps of work in
billionths of a second.

11.2 AREA

At some time or another an area in the plant might need to be measured to determine if
there is adequate work space. This area could be measured in centimeters or meters.
Area is always used to describe a surface and is expressed in square measure (square
centimeters, square meters etc.). To determine the total surface area of a rectangular
tank, figure each side independently and then add them together.
When a number is squared, it is multiplied by itself. When an area of a surface is
measured, the result in square units simply means that two known dimensions have been
multiplied. An example of this is shown in Figure XI-3.

An area 1 cm long and 1 cm high is equal to 1 sq. cm. Given that 100 cm equals 1 meter,
therefore an area 100 cm long by 100 cm high is equal to 1,000 sq. cm, or 1 sq. meter.
This can be carried out until square kilometers are reached.

Of course, the term "square" is only a unit of measure and does not necessarily mean the
object is square in shape. Square units are used to express the area of a circle, triangle,
rectangle, parallelogram, and multi-sided, or irregularly shaped objects.

Because area is usually determined mathematically, the methods of calculating area

usually follow established formulas. There are some surfaces, such as irregular shapes,
that cannot be calculated exactly. These could be approximated to a fairly close measure
if required.
Section XIII contains a list of the more common formulas for determining the area of an
object. Take a few minutes to study them. Then work through a few sample problems.

Finding the area of a triangle is really quite easy. This is a very handy formula because
many area problems can be solved by using triangles instead of other complicated
formulas. Refer to the formula for a triangle and insert the following figures. Assume
the base is 4 meters and the height is 6 meters. Multiplying them equals 24 square meters
(meters times meters equals square meters). Dividing 24 square meters by 2 equals 12
square meters area.

A figure called a trapezoid is another good sample problem to solve, because most areas
will not be regular in shape. By referring to Table B, notice that a trapezoid is a four
sided figure having two sides parallel and usually no square corners. Following the
formulas for the area of a trapezoid, using the 4 meters from the previous example as the
lower base length (L), and adding an assumed upper base length (L) of 3 meters, the total
base length will be 7 feet. This total length is then multiplied by the height of the object.
Taking 6 meters from the previous example, the total area will be 42 square meters. This
can be divided by 2 to equal a corrected area of 21 square meters.

11.2.1 Finding An Area Within An Area

Every so often work must be layed out in a given area. It is not too much of a job
because the diameter of the circle will be equal to a side of the square. However, if a
square must be layed out in a circle, the problem will be a little harder.

The diameter of a circle is equal to the distance across the corners of a square. To find
the length of the sides refer to the formulas in Chapter 13.

As a sample problem, assume that a maximum size of square tubing is placed inside a
pipe to strengthen it. Assume the inside diameter of the pipe is 10 cm. By referring to
Table A in Section XIII notice the diameter across the corners of the square (twice the
radius) is also 10 cm. The distances for the sides of the triangle (and the sides of the
square tubing) will be equal to 10 cm multiplied by the factor of .707 (from Table A).
The side of the triangle or the tube will be 7.07 cm. By using the radius of the pipe the
side will be multiplied by 1.414.

To calculate the area of the square, multiply the diameter of the circle squared (6 cm x 6
cm) by .500 as shown in Table A. This will equal 100 square centimeters (10 cm x 10
cm = 100 x .5 = 50 square cm). Or multiply one side of the square (7.07 cm) by the other
side. This will equal 49.98 square cm.

Another way to determine the area of a square within a circle would be to multiply the
area of the circle by the factor .637 as shown in Table A. In this case, the area of the
circle you were working on would first have to be determined. To determine the area of
a circle, use the formula from Table B in Section XIII. Using the 10 cm diameter circle,

the area will be 78.54 square cm (A = pi x 52 = 3.1416 x 25).

Multiplying 78.54 by .637 equals 50.02 square cm, or the area of the square in the circle.
Notice how close the threee answers are for the three different ways used to calculate the
area.

11.3 VOLUME

When speaking about the volume of an object, consider the amount of space an object
occupies or has for storage. Most bulk materials are specified in terms of pounds/cubic
foot. Using this determine how many pounds of material stored in an object if its volume
is known. To find the volume, start by using the same basic measurements for area
(length and height) and multiply this by the width (or depth) of the object.
A maintenance craftsman will probably be involved in building or selecting a storage
container of some type. This container may be a wood box to hold spare parts, a storage
bin with several shelves, or a tank to hold a liquid. Whatever the object is, it will have
three dimensions - length, height, and width. Some of the more commonly used formulas
for figuring volume are shown in Table C of Section XIII.

Storage hoppers are a frequent requirement in a plant. Usually these will be made with
sloped sides and will look like a pyramid or cone turned upside-down (or inverted). As
both figures use the same formula for volume, figure out a sample problem.

Suppose the hopper in Figure XI-4 is 4 meters square at the base, and 7 meters high. The
base area is 16 square meters (4 meters x 4 meters) multiplied 7 meters equals 112 cubic
meters. Dividing the 112 cubic meters by 3 equals 37-1/3 cubic meters of volume. If a
small tip is cut off of the cone, a small amount of storage will be lost, but it will be
negligible. Add a vertical portion as shown, and the volume will be determined by
multiplying the base (16 square meters) by the vertical height.
Another example may involve finding the volume of a compressor receiver or a water
tank in Figure XI-5. In this instance, the volume of the long cylinder portion of the tank
is calculated first. The volume of the spherical end segments is calculated next and
added to the volume of the cylinder. The total volume (in cubic meters) of the tank can
then be converted into liters or any other capacity figure required.
To determine the volume of an irregularly shaped body that cannot be calculated
mathematically, use the displacement method. Just fill a container with water to a certain
level marked on the container, and figure the volume of the water. Then immerse the
body in the water, and mark the level to which the water rises. The difference between
the marks represents a volume of water that is equal to the volume of the irregular body.

In order to find the volume of an irregularly shaped tank or cylinder, the capacity method
is frequently used. Just fill the tank with water, and count the number of liters needed.
Do this either during the filling or as the tank is emptied after filling. If the water cannot
be measured in liters, then weigh the tank empty, fill it with water, and weigh it again.
The difference in weights is the weight of the water. Divide the difference by 62.5
pounds (the weight of a cubic foot of water) to find the volume in cubic feet. Then
convert from cubic feet to cubic meters.
12.0 SUMMARY OF AREA AND VOLUME MEASUREMENTS

Frequently the need arises to figure out how much material can be put into a space or
how much space a body occupies. As pointed out in this lesson, most of these problems
can be calculated mathematically with the use of established formulas.

To determine the area of a surface, two dimensions, usually length and width or height,
must be known or measured. They are multiplied together and the result is area in square
units.

To determine the volume of a solid, three dimensions must be known or measured:

length, width, and height. Because length times width is area in square units, it is only
necessary to multiply the area by the height to find the volume, which is expressed in
cubic units.

The displacement method of determining volume is used by noting the volume of water
displaced by a body when it is completely immersed in a known volume of water.

The capacity of a tank or other container can be determined by noting the quantity of
water required to fill the tank.

All of these formulas can be used for reference to help you whenever you need to know
the area or volume of a body.
 APPENDIX A

DETERMINING AN AREA WITHIN ANOTHER AREA

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 APPENDIX B

FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING AREA

APPENDIX C

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 FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING VOLUME

APPENDIX D

ABBREVIATIONS

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 centimeter cm
feet per minute ft/min fpm
feet per second ft/sec fps
foot ft
horsepower hp
inches in
Joule J
kilogram kg
kilometer Km
meter m
meter per minute m/min or mpm
meter per second m/sec or mps
miles per hour mph
minutes min.
Newton N
pound lb
second sec
Watt W

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