Etoos India

THE LIVING WORLD
Contents
Topic Page No.
Exercise
The Living World 01 - 06
Notes 07 - 07
Plant Taxonomy 08 - 08
Nomen Clature (Binomial)
10 - 10
Tri-Nomial Nomenclature
11 - 11
Type-Specimen (Herbarium Shut)
12 - 12
Taxonomic Hierarchy
13 - 13
Taxon
14 - 14
Species Concept
15 - 16
Taxonomical Aids
Syllabus
THE LIVING WORLD
Plant Taxonomy, Nomen Clature (Binomial), Tri-Nomial Nomenclature,
Type-Specimen (Herbarium Shut), Taxonomic Hierarchy, Taxon, Species
Concept, Taxonomical Aids
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SURFACE CHEMISTRY_ADVANCED # 1
Topic 1 THE LIVING WORLD
LEVEL - I
1. Basis of life is C secrate of life.

(A) Lipid (B) Protein (C) Nuclic acid (D) Nucleoprotein
2. Binomial nomenclature given by.

(A) Linnaeus (B) Darwin (C) Lamarck (D) Hackel
3. ICBN shows
(A) International council for Batonical nomenclature
(B) Internation code of botanical nomenclature
(C) Indian code of botanical nomenclature
(D) None of these
4. Listing of flora based on -

(A) Practical classification (B) Artificial classification
(C) Emperical classification (D) Natural classification
5. Economical importance based classification -

(A) Artificial (B) Practical (C) Natural (D) Numerical
6. Plant classification based on alphabetical order -

(A) Rational (B) Emperical (C) Numerical (D) 1 & 2
7. Phylogenic term given by -

(A) Lamarck (B) Linnaeus (C) Darwin (D) Haeckel
8. Phylogemic concept given by -

(A) Linnaeus (B) Hackel (C) Lamarck (D) Darwin
9. Taxonomic categones number is -

(A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 5 (D) 8
10. Taxonomic name for plant given by -

(A) H. J. Lan (B) Adolf Mayer (C) Lan & Mayer (D) Hooker
11. Suffix-Phytina use for -

(A) Class (B) Division (C) Sub division (D ) Family
12. Species concept given by -

(A) Mayer (B) Lamarck (C) Linnaeus (D) John ray
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13. Smallest Taxonomic graph is -
(A) Geuus (B) Species (C) Tribe (D) Division
14. Taxonomic tools whice based on centrasting charaetristics -

(A) Key (B) Herbaria (C) Botanical garden (D)
15. Taxonomy related with -

(A) Plant taxonomy (B) A affinities
(C) Plant nomenclature (D) All of above
16. Duplicate of holotype is -

(A) Isotype (B) Syntype (C) Neotype (D) Paratype
17. Standard size of harabarium swet -

(A) 11.5'' 17.5'' (B) 10.5'' 16.5'' (C) 11.5'' 16.5'' (D) 11.5'' 18.5''
18. Binomen elature based book is -

(A) species plantarum (B) Genera plantanim
(C) Pinax Theatre botanica (D) 1 and 3
19. Correct name is -

(A) Mangitera mangitera (B) Naza Naza
(C) Isoetes Isoetes (D) Naza naza
20. Which option mismatch -

(A) species (B) class (C) Phylum (D) Glumawe
Answer Key
1. C 2. A 3. B 4. C 5. B 6. B
7. A 8. B 9. B 10. A 11. C 12. D
13. B 14. A 15. D 16. A 17. C 18. D
19. D 20. D
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LEVEL - II
1. Term new systematics given by -

(A) Huxley (B) Linnaeus (C) Bentnam (C) Huchinsan
2. Most approved concept for speeies -

(A) Static cocept (B) Biological concept (C) Genetical concept (D) Typological concept
3. First step of Taxonomy -

(A) Identification (B) Namenclature (C) Taxonomy (D) Affinities
4. When we lost Holotype, see on holotype from originae plant is know as -

(A) Leetotype (B) Neotype (C) Paratype (D) Syntype
5. Species belong to different geographical arcas is known as -

(A) Allochronic (B) Siblings (C) Allopatric (D) Siblings
(A) Solanum tubrosum (B) Solanum Tuberosum
(C) Solanum tuberosum Linn. (D) All the above
7. Morphological same but reproductive isolated species are known as -

(A) Sibling (B) Microspecies (C) Sympatric (D) All ochromic
8. Cauli hawer cabbage & knol-knol are -

(A) Ecades (B) Ecotype (C) Biotype (D) All of these
9. Species are continous changable according -

(A) Static concept (B) Biological concept (C) Dynamic concept (D) Typological concept
10. Development in systematic order is known -

(A) Phylogeny (B) Genology (C) Phenology (D) All of above
11. Taxonomy based on morphology, origin & development -

(A) -taxonomy (B) -taxonomy (C) Omega taxonomy (D) cyto taxonomy
12. Enquiry in to plants books written by -

(A) Throphrastus (B) Linnaeus (C) Aristotle (D) Hooker
13. Linnaeus book not -

(A) Systema nature (B) Gevera phantarum
(C) Species plantanum (D) Historia plantarum
14. Theories elementaire de la Batanique written by -

(A) Linnaeus (B) Bantram (C) A.P De Candolle (D) Theo-phrastus
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15. ‘Cohort’ use for -
(A) Species nalated graph (B) upper position
(C) Between species & order graph (D) All the above
16. Taxen given in following -

(A) Gevera (B) Family (C) Genuv (D) None of above
17. Linnalus plant classification is -

(A) Artificial (B) Natural (C) Phylogentic (D) None
18. Plant phylogenetic classification given by -

(A) Linnaev (B) Huchinsan (C) Menta (D) Hooker
19. Binomial nomenclature based on -

(A) First name genus see and species
(B) Genus first cetter in capital & small calter in species
(C) Variety name given after species name
(D) All of above
20. Bringil, pottato, Ginger related -

(A) Chemical composition of cytoplasm (B) Cell organells
(C) cytochrame (D) Cell shape & size
Answer Key
1. A 2. D 3. A 4. A 5. C 6. C
7. A 8. C 9. C 10. B 11. A 12. A
13. D 14. C 15. D 16. D 17. A 18. B
19. D 20. C
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LEVEL - III
1. Smallest taxon is -
(A) Class (B) Order (C) Genue (D) Species
2. Taxon is -
(A) Group of same species
(B) Texonomical hieraracly any series
(C) group of same genus
(D) Name of above
3. Taxonomy natural system based on -

(A) Morphology (B) Phylogeny (C) Morphology & Affinities (D) Ontogany
4. Nicotiana is a -
(A) Variety (B )Subspecies (C) Species (D) Geneus
5. Cohort related group of -

(A) Species (B) Gevra (C) Family (D) Order
6. Word ‘cladistics’ of plant taxonomy related with -

(A) Phylogenic classification (B) Artificial classification
(C) Natural classification (D) Sexual classification
7. Specific properties of plant which absent in animals -

(A) Metal bolism (B) Sexual reproduction (C) Autotropny (D) Asexual reproduction
8. Binomial classification of plant effective from -

(A) 1-8-1758 (B) 1-5-1753 (C) 1-8-1736 (D) 1-5-1758
9. Selecty correct option -

(A) Apsi indica (B) Trypasoma (C) Ficus Bengalensis (D) Mangifera indica
10. Organnism with highest number -

(A) Genus (B) Family (C) Phylam (D) Class
11. Two similar holotype know as -

(A) mesotype (B) Meotype (C) Syntype (D) Isotype
12. Systema naturae written by -

(A) Lamarck (B) Aristotle (C) Linnaeus (D) Hacale
13. ‘Biological Nomenclature’ interanatical apply for -

(A) Plants (B) Animal (C) Both plant & Animal (D) None of the above
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14. Animal classification related term phylum given by -
(A) Haukel (B) John ray (C) Quiver (D) Linnaeus
15. ‘Systematics’ derved from -

(A) Greek word (B) Latin word (C) Both (D) none
16. Polytypic species related with -

(A) Biotype (B) Ecotype (C) Ecades (A) All
17. All living related with mostly -

(A) Ecades (B) Biotype (C) Ecotypes (D) Linnean species
18. Select correct order of Taxonomic categeries

(A) Class - Genus - class - order - division
(B) Species - Genus - class - order - division
(C) Division - order - class - species - Geneus
(D) Division - class - order - family - geneus - species
19. ‘Theory of special cration’ given by -

(A) Linnaeus (B) Joyn ray (C) Lamarck (D) Aristotle
20. Morphological same but reproductively isolated species is -

(A) Sibling (B) Sympatiric (C) Allopatric (D) Microspecies
Answer Key
1. D 2. B 3. C 4. D 5. C 6. A
7. C 8. B 9. D 10. C 11. D 12. C
13. C 14. C 15. A 16. D 17. A 18. D
19. A 20. A
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PLANT TAXONOMY
PLANT TAXONOMY :
The word was proposed by A.P. de Candole in his book "Theories elementaire de la botanique"
(Theory of elementry botany)
Taxonomy includes study of following 4 points
(1) Identification - Identification of living organism
(2) Nomenclature - Nomenclature of living organism
(3) Classification - Classification of living organism in groups
(4) Affinities - Study of inter relationship between living organism
Systematics :- (Branch related with taxonomu)

(1) The term "Systematics" was proposed by Linnaeus
(2) Its includes description of morphological character of plants or living organism.
e.g. Morphological character of Root, Stem, Leaves, Flowers
(3) This description is used to know inter relationship between living organism.
New systematics or Neo systematics or Biosystematics :-

(1) Neo - systematics - A new branch - Name given by J.Huxley
(2) It includes description of all the characters including morphological characters of plants or living
organism.
e.g. Anatomical character , Histological characters
Embryological characters , Cytological characters
(3) It is used to know the inter relationship between living organism,
Significance of taxonomy :-
(1) With the help of taxonomy diversity of living being can be studied easily.
(2) At present, 300 lakh (30 million) type of living organism are found on our earth.
(3) 17 lakh (1.7 million) type of living organism have been discovered still now. Out of them 12 lakh are animal
and 5 lakh type are plant.
(4) Maximum diversity of living beings are found in tropical rain forest.
 These forest have heavy rain fall whole year.
 In india maximum tropical rain forest are found in Andman & Nikobar and in all eastern states of India
(Assum, Meghalaya, West Bengal etc.)
 In india maximum tropical rain forest are present (Tropical country)
(5) After tropical rain forest the second maximum diversity is found in corel reefs (oceans)
Note :- The no. of living beings that have extincted are 50-100 time that of the living beings. Scientists discover near
about 15000 type of living organism every year.
Practical significance of taxonomy :-

Practical significance of taxonomy is  Identification
Identification is amied at finding the correct name and the proper position of an organism in the
already established plan of classification. This is done by examining its morphological (external) and
anatomical (internal) characters. Identification is accomplished with the help of biological keys. Use of a
biological key is given later in this chapter.
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NOMEN CLATURE (BINOMIAL)
BINOMIAL SYSTEM :
(1) Binomial system first proposed by Gaspard Bauhin in his book - "Pinax Theatre Botanica"
(2) Carolus Linnaeous :- Linnaeus used this nomenclature system firstly on large scale and proposed scientific
name of all the plants and animals.
 Linnaeus is founder of binomial system.
 Linnaeus proposed scientific name of plants in his book "Species Plantarum". It was published on
1 May 1753. So this was the initiation of binomial system for plants. So any name proposed (for
plants) before this date is not accepted today.
 Linnaeus proposed scientific name of animals in his book "Systema Naturae" (10th edition.)
 The 10th edition of Systema naturae was first published on 1 August 1758. So initiation of binomial
system for animals is beleived to be starts on 1 Aug. 1758.
Principle of Priority :-
The nomenclature is done by principle of priority. If the two names are proposed for any plant after the 1753,
the valid name is the earlier name proposed just after 1 may 1753.
ICBN :- "International code for botanical Nomenclature"

ICBN - Book of Rules of Nomenclature
(1) Collection of rules regarding scientific - nomenclature of plants is known as ICBN.

(2) ICBN was firstly proposed by -
Sprague, Hitchcock, Green (1930)
(3) ICBN was first accepted in 1961.
(4) 12th international congress, Leningrade revised ICBN in 1975.
(5) After revision it was repulished in 1978. So that ICBN published two times
(1) 1961 (2) 1978
Main rules of ICBN :-

(1) According to binomial system name of any species consists of two names -
(i) Generic name - Name of genus
(ii) Specific name - Trival name
e.g. Solanum tuberosum (Potato) Mangifera indica (Mango)
   
Generic name specific name Generic name Specific name
(2) Generic names of different genus should not be same in any one kingdom.
e.g. Potato can not be named as Mangifera
However they can be repeated in different kingdoms,
e.g. Bougainvillea - It is name of a plant and also it is name of an animal
(3) Specific name can be repeated on one kingdom.

e.g. Saraca indica, Mangifera indica
(4) In plant nomenclature (ICBN) tautonyms are not valid i.e. generic name and specific name should not be
same in plants.
e.g. Mangifera mangifera
But tutonyms are valid in animal nomenclature (ICZN) - International Code for Zoological Nomenclature)
e.g. Naja naja (Indian cobra), Rattus rattus (Rat)
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(5) Length of generic name or specific name not be less than 3 letters and not more than 12 letters.
e.g. Mangifera indica
Exception :- Riccia pathankotensis - More than 12 letters
According to ICBN this name is not valid but this name was proposed before 1961, so it is valid.
(6) First letter of generic name should be in capital letter and first letter of specific name should be small letter.
But if specific name is based on the name of some person, its first letter will be in capital letter.
e.g. Chaetomium Subramaniella
(7) When written with free hand or typed, then generic name and specific name should be separately underlined.
But during printing name should be italized.
(8) Name of scientist (who proposed nomenclature) should be written in short after the specific name
e.g. Mangifera indica Lin.
(9) Name of scientist proposed wrong name then his name should be written in bracket and the scientist who
corrects the name will be written after the brackets.
e.g. Tsuga canadensis (Lin.) Salisbury
Note : Linnaeus named this plant as Pinus canadensis
(11) Scientific names should be derived from latin or greek language because they are dead language.
(12) Type specimen (Herbarium Sheet) of newly discovered plant should be placed in herbarium (Dry garden).
Binomial Nomenclature :-
Common names of any organism are always problematic since, many species have more than one common
name and a common name can describe more than one species. When writing a scientific documents, it is
the convention to use binomial nomenclature. Carolous Linnaeus (1758) introduced a shorthand designation,
binomial (binomial two name) nomenclature for each organism, in which the first name indicates genus while
second name indicates species. Genus always starts with capital letter while species with small latter and
written in italics. For example, red alder, Alnus rubra; Alnus is the genus and rubra is the specific epithet.
There are many species in the genus Alnus but only one Alnus rubra. A species may be further described
according to sub-species or variety. For example Ponderosa pine, Pinus ponderosa var ponderosa or lodgepole
pine, Pinus contorta sub-sp. latifolia. A sub-species is a morphologically distinct, often geographically separate
population of a species. A variety is also a morphologically different population which may be associated with
a geographic region or particular site conditions but less distinct than a sub-species. The species name
should always be used in conjunction with common names so that anyone reading the document can know
exactly which species you are referencing.
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TRI-NOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
TRINOMIAL SYSTEM :
(1) Proposed by Huxely and Stricklandt.
(2) According to this system name of any plant of species is composed of three names :-
(i) Generic name
(ii) Specific name
(iii) Subspecific name (Name of variety)
(3) When members of any species have large variations than trinomial system is used. On the basis of
dissimilarities this species is classified into sub species :-
e.g. Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (Cauliflower)
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage)
Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa (Knol-Khol)
Trinomial Nomenclature
Sometimes three words are also used for naming the organism, especially the animals. These include
generic, specific and sub-specific parts. For example, modern man is called Homo sapieus sapiens and
Gorilla as Gorilla gorilla gorilla.
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TYPE SPECIMEN (HERBARIUM SHUT)
TYPE SPECIMEN (HERBARIUM SHEET) ARE OF DIFFERENT TYPE
Holotype - Herbarium sheet on which the first description of plant is based.
Lectotype - In case the holotype is lost, second herbarium sheet prepared from the original plant is
called lectotype.
Neotype - In case the holotype and original plant is lost, then herbarium sheet prepared from some
other plant of same species is called neotype.
Syntype - In case the holotype and original plant is lost then many herbarium sheet prepared from
many plants of same species is called syntype.
Isotype - Duplicate of holotype - In presence of holotype a second herbarium sheet prepared from the
original plant is called isotype.
Pratype - Nomenclature is invalid in absance of type speciemen.
Types of specimen
Holotype Nomenclature type
Isotype Duplicate of holotype
Paratype Any other specimen described along with holotype
Syntype Any one of the two or more specimens cited by author, when there is no holotype
Lectotype Specimen selected from original meterial to serve as nomenclature type, where there is no
holotype
Neotype New nomenclatural type, when the original material is missing.
Topotype A specimen collected from the same locality from which the holotype was originally collected.
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TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY
TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY
Desending order / arrangment of taxonomic categories is known as heirarchy
There are 7 main categories
1. Kingdom - Largest unit
2. Division / phylum
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
7. Species - Smallest / basic unit
Humen Houslehy Mango Wheat

1 Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Plantae
2 Division/phylum Cherdata Artuopoda Angiospermae Angiospermae
3 Class Mammalia Iusecta Dicotyledoneae Monocotyledonae
4 Order Primata Diptera Sapindales Poales
5 Family Hominidae Muscidae Anacardiaceae Poaceae
6 Genus Homo Musca Mangifera Triticum
7 Speecies Sapiens Domestica Indica Aestivum
Taxonomic Hierarchy
It is the grouping of the species into higher categories on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities,
complexity and simplicity and hence, evolutionary relationships.
Species
It is the basic unit of classification. It is a group of individuals which are alike morphological and reproductive
characters so that they are able to interbreed freely and produce fertile offspring.
Genus
A group of species having common characteristics is called genus. It is first higher category above the
species level.
Order
A group of families which share a number of common characteristics. The family-Felidae (Lion, leopard, tiger,
cats) and Canidae (Dog, wolf, fox) are included in the same order Carnivora.
Class
A group of related orders is class. For example, all the insects are included in class-Insecta. They are
characterized by the presence of three pairs of Jointed legs and trachea. Similarly, members of class-Aves
(birds) are characterized by the presence of feathers which are modified forelimbs.
Phylum
Classes having atleast a few characters in coomoon, collectively constitute a phylum. For example, Nereis,
Pheretima and Hirudinaria belong to different classes but have been grouped in a single phylum-Annelida.
Kingdom
It is the highest category in taxonomic system and includes phyla (or Divisions in plants) which are related
atleast in one character. Linnaeus system of classification includes only two kingdoms-Animalia and Plantae.
But Whittaker's system of classification includes five kingdoms-Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
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TAXON
TAXON
Taxon is a unit of classification which may represent any level of grouping of organisms. The term was
introduced by ICBN (International Code of Botanical Nomenclature) during 1956. Mayr (1964) has
defined taxon to be a taxonomic group of any rank that is sufficiently distinct to be worthy of being
assigned to a definite category. Simpson (1961) recognizes taxon to be a group of real organisms
recognized as a formal unit at any level of hierarchical classification.
Taxon - Plant or animal groups included in categories are called as taxon.

Mayer - First proposes the term taxon for animal
H.S. Lan First proposes the term taxon for plants
Suffix for taxon
1. Kingdom - x
2. Division - phyta
3. Class - opsida / phyceae / ae
4. Order - ales
5. Family - aceae
6. Genus - x
7. Species - x
Species - smallest taxonomic categories
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SPECIES CONCEPT
SPECIES CONCEPTS
Species is the fundamental or smallest unit of classification. The term species was recognized from genus
by John Ra.y Ernst Mayr defined species as. A group of potentially inter-breeding natural populations of
closely resembling organisms. Carlous Linnaeus proposed static concept of species or morphological
concept of species. He considered species as a fixed and iminutable entity.
1. Dynamic concept of species was proposed by Lamarck, who considered species as a mutable and
dynamic entity.
2. Biological concept of species was proposed by Ernst Mayr. According to this concept, a species is a
group of individuals who resemble each other in morphological, physiological biochemical and behavioural
characters and capable in interbreeding.
3. Morphospecies are the species erected on the basis of morphological characters only.
4. Taxonomic species are the species having a binomial name.
5. Sibling species are true species which do not interbreed but are otherwise difficult to separate on the basis
of morphological characters alone.
6. Allopatric species Two or more species which are inhabitive different area or geographical condition.
7. Sympatric species are species having overlapping areas of geographical distribution.
8. Parapatric species are species with adjacent geographic ranges meeting in a very narrow zone of overlap.
9. Neontological species are living species.
10. Allochronic species are species belonging to different time periods.
11. Polytypic species are species, which have more than one ideal types according to their geographical
isolated areas.
12. Linnaean species is a taxonomic species distinguished on morphological grounds.
13. Biospecies is a species erected on the basis of reproductive and genetic isolation of a natural population.
14. Macrospecies is a large polymorphic species with several sub-divisions.
15. Microspecies or Jordan's species is a true breeding genetic unit below the rank of species.
16. Agamospecies is a species reproducing only asexually, e.g., Euglena and Amoeba.
17. Gamospecies are sexually reproducing species.
18. Palaeospecies are species know from fossils only.
19. Monotypic species are species without differentiation of sub-species or varieties.
20. Keystone species is a species that plays a key role or central role in the ecology of a place.
21. Mule, Hinny, Tigon and Linger are exception to biological species concept. Mule is the offspring of male
donkey and female horse and hinny is the offspring of female donkey and male horse. Both Mule and Hinny
are sterile. Tigon is the offspring of male tiger and female lion and linger is of female tiger and male lion.
Both tigon and linger are fertile.
22. Synchronic species are species belonging to a same period or time.

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TAXONOMICAL AIDS
TAXONOMICAL AIDS
Taxonomical aids are techniques and produces to store information as well as speciman or identification and
classification of organism -
All the information is used in classification of an organism
Important Taxonomical Aids

1. Herbarium 2. Botanical gardens 3. Museums
4. Zoological park 5. Key 6. Hora
7. Manograph 8. Mammals & catalogus
(A) Herbarium
(i) Herbarium is a store house of collected plant speciman's that are dried, lonessed & pressened an sheets.
(ii) Standard size of herbarium shut is 11.5 × 16.5"
Uses of herbaria
(i) used for identification of plant
(ii) Help in knowing the morphological variations Found in species
(iii) Herbaria useful for research in plant taxonomy
(iv) useful for locating wild varietes
(III) = Form of harbarium shut
(i) Collecting date
(ii) Collecting place
Plant
(iii) English name
(iv) Local & scientific name
Label
(left side) (v) Family of plant
(vi) Name of collecting reason
Botanical garden
(i) Living plant collecting in botanical garden
(ii) Plant species identify in B.G.
(iii) Tegging a label with plant label given information name of family & plant botanical name
(iv) Important botanical garden
(A) Royal botanical garden - kew (london)

(B) Indian botanical garden - Hawra (India)
(C) National botanical research institute - Lucknow (India)
Museums
(i) Museums is place for collections of preserved plants and animals speciman for study
(ii) Universities & educational institute manage their museums
(iii) Dead organism are placed in museum
Zoological park
(i) Wild living animal must be placed.
(ii) Zoological parks provide natural habitat to the animal
(iii) 200 zoological park in india
(iv) The zoos are managed by the central zoo authority of india
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Key
(i) Key is also a taxonomical aid used for identification of plants & animal based on the similarites & dissimilarites.
(ii) Key help identification of plant & animal by selecting & eliminating the characters according to their presence
or absence in the organism under study
(iii) The keys are generally use two contrasting characters
(iv) One contrasting character accepted other contrasting character rejected.
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BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Contents
Topic Page No.
Exercise 02 - 7
Notes
Five Kingdom classification 08 - 08
Monra 09 - 14
Protista 15 - 19
Fungi 20 - 21
Lichim 22 - 24
Virus 25 - 27
Viroids 28 - 28
Syllabus
Five Kingdom classification, Monra, Protista, Fungi, Lichim, Virus, Viroids
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LEVEL - I
1. Golden dlgoe is -
(A) Desmids (B) Dinoflogellate (C) Ceratium (D) Noctiluca
2. Mycetozoa is -
(A) Euglenoids (B) Slime moulds (C) Amoeboid Protozoa (D) All of these
3. Plagellated protozoa is -
(A) Trypanosava (B) Euglena (C) Vortcella (D) None
4. Sporozoan Hagellata is -
(A) Paramecium (B) Euglena (C) Plasmodium (D) None
5. Red tide repansible protista is -

(A) Chrysophyte (B) Dianohagellate (C) Sliwe mould (D) All
6. Pelicle absent in -
(A) Parameeium (B) Amoeba (C) Trypanosama (D) Plasmodium
7. Chlerophyll absent in -
(A) Euglenoids (B) Algal (C) Diatoms (D) Slime mould
8. Photo syntwlic protoista is not -

(A) Diatams (B) Golden algae (C) Dinoflagellate (D) Slime mould
9. Censumr dieamposer protista is -

(A) Slime mould (B) Eugbnoid (C) both (D) None
10. Which character not match with eugbnoid -

(A) pnesence of pellicle (B) Two flagella
(C) Mixotrophic Nutritian (D) Absence of paramylan
11. Dinoflogellate is -
(A) Desmid (B) Gonyaulax (C) Diatoms (D) Amueba
12. PPLO is -
(A) Diatoms (B) Archae bacteria (C) Mycoplasima (D) Archar bacteria
13. Water bloow cause by -

(A) BGA (B) Myloplasma (C) Sporozoa (D) All
14. Phycomyatis fungi is not -

(A) Aspergillus (B) Albugo (C) Rhizopus (D) pytuie
15. The sexual cycle involves in fungi -

(A) Plasmogamy (B) Plasmogany, Kaeyogawg
(C) Plasmogamg. Kaeyogawy, Meiosis (D) None
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16. Fungi shown type of Nutrition -
(A) Parasites (B) Saprotropus (C) Symbiotic association (D) All
17. Plant virus is -

(A) TMV (B) mums virus (C) rhinovirus (D) Small Pox virus
18. Bacterial virus is -

(A) f-phase (B) mumps virus (C) Rhino virus (D) TMV
19. Banana bunchy top cause by

(A) Bacteria (B) Virus (C) Mycoplasma (D) Fungi
20. Vivoids carlais -

(A) DNA (B) RNA (C) Capsid (D) dileroplast
Answer Key (Level - I)
1. A 2. B 3. A 4. C 5. ? 6. B
7. D 8. D 9. A 10. D 11. B 12. C
13. A 14. A 15. C 16. D 17. A 18. A
19. B 20. B
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LEVEL - II
1. Eukaryotic, multi callular, with a cell wall & nuclear mumbrance showing hcterotrophic nutrition can be placed
under the kingdam -
(A) Monera (B) Protista (C) Plantae (D) Animalia
2. In five kingdam system of classification how many kingdoam cantain in karyotes -

(A) 4 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3
3. Archae bacteria differ from eubacteria in -

(A) cell membaraqe structure (B) cell shope
(C) mode of nutrition (D) mode of reproduction
4. Bacteria differ from plants in that they do not have -

(A) DNA (B) RNA (C) Cell wall (D) well defined mucleus
5. Which is present in deep sea water -

(A) Archae bacteria (B) Eubacteria
(C) Blue green algae (D) Saprophytic fungi
6. Euglevoids is -
(A) Movera (B) Protista (C) Plantoe (D) Fungi
7. The cyauo bacteria are also referred to as -

(A) Protists (B) Golden algae (C) Slime moulds (D) Blue green algae
8. Moximum nutritional diversity is found in the group -

(A) Fungi (B) Animolia (C) Monera (D) Plantae
9. Spiro chaete is/are -

(A) A class of insect (B) A class of vimses (C) Bacteria (D) Fungi
10. Gram-ive bacteria is -

(A) E-coli (B) Bacillus subtilis (C) Streptomycetes (D) none
11. Teichoic acid is present in -

(A) Cell wall of Gram-ive bacteria (B) Cell wall of Gramtive bacteria
(C) Capsid of virus (D) Protoplasm of mycoplasma
14. According five kingdom classification bacteria belong to -

(A) Protista (B) Monera (C) Plantae (D) Archere
15. Speciallised cells called wterocysts are present in -

(A) dinoflag cllates (B) Chrysophytes (C) archae bacteria (D) Euglenoids
16. Bacterial disease is -

(A) Rust of wheat (B) Potato leaf roll (C) Sugar cane mosaic (D) Brown not of potato
17. Select incorrect pair -

(A) Profera - Chanocytes (B) Annelida - Segen tafia
(C) Coelentrata - Eukaryose (D) Monera - Eukaryose
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18. Virus multiple in -
(A) soil (B) dead tissue (C) living tissue (D) Culure medium
19. Virus carsist of -

(A) Nucleci acid (B) Protein (C) 1 & 2 (D) None
20. Which one having SRNA -

(A) TMV (B) T2 bacteriophase (C) Rcoviru (D) eMV
21. HIV has a protein coat and genetic material -

(A) SS-RNA (B) ds-RNA (C) SS-DNA (D) ds-DNA
22. Potato spindle tuber disease is caused by -

(A) Nematode (B) Virus (C) bacterium (D) Viroid
Answer Key (Level - II)
1. D 2. A 3. A 4. D 5. A 6. B
7. D 8. ? 9. C 10. A 11. B 12. B
13. C 14. D 15. D 16. C 17. C 18. A
19. A 20. D
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LEVEL - III
1. TMV based cantain is -

(A) DNA (B) KNA (C) both 1 & 2 (D) None
2. Pollution indicator is -
(A) Algae (B) Fungi (C) Liclvn (D) Volvox
3. Smut fungi is -
(A) Ustilago (B) Puccinia (C) Neuro spora (D) None
4. Biochemical & cenilical experiments is use in -

(A) Ustilago (B) Neurospora (C) Puccinia (D) None
5. Imperfect fungi is -
(A) Ustilago (B) Altervaria (C) Yeast (D) Aspergillus
6. Bread fungi is -
(A) Rhizopus (B) Yeast (B) Albugo (D) None
7. Toad stool is -
(A) Algae (B) Fungi (C) Bzyo puyte (D) None
8. Sac fungi is -
(A) Phycomy cetes (B) Ascomyates (C) Basideomyates (D) None
9. Penecillium belong with -

(A) Phyco my ates (B) Asco my ates (C) Basideo my ates (D) Deutro my ates
10. Photo syntetic protista is -

(A) Chryosophyta (B) Diawoflagellate (C) Euglenoid (D) All of these
11. Red tide shows by -

(A) Monera (B) Protista (C) Fungi (D) None
12. Plasmodium show by -

(A) slime mould (B) Eugenoid (C) Dianoflagellate (D) Chrysophyte
13. Organism who survive without oxygen -

(A) Mylophasma (B) Euglena (C) Desmid (D) Diatoms
14. Smallest living cell -

(A) Desmid (B) Mycoplasma (C) Desmid (D) Diatoms
15. Xlen parasite protozoa is -

(A) plasmodium (B) Trypanosoma (C) Entamoeba (D) Para mecium
16. Hallophy bacteria is -

(A) Eu bacteria (B) Ardvi bacteria (C) BUA (D) None
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17. Meso some present in -
(A) Virus (B) Vivoids (C) Bacteria (D) All
18. Heterocyst presence shows -

(A) Thermo acidophillus (B) Cyanobacteria
(C) Desmid (D) Metanogen
19. Nitrogen fixation shown by -

(A) Mycoplasma (B) Metnawogene (C) Nostoe (D) None
20. Eenjugation neproduction method show by -

(A) Protista (B) Plantae (C) Mavera (D) None
Answer Key (Level - III)
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. B 5. B 6. A
7. B 8. B 9. B 10. D 11. B 12. A
13. A 14. B 15. D 16. B 17. C 18. C
19. C 20. C
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1
FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
Biological classification is the scientific prodedure of arranging organisms into group and sub-group on
the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities and then placing the group in hierarchical categories.
RH Whittaker (1969) classified the organisms into five kingdoms which was most widely accepted.
He classified living organisms on the basis of :
* complexity of structure and body structure * ecological lifestyle including mode of reproduction
* mode of nutrition * phylogenetic relationship
C h a r a c te r s K in g d o m - M o n e ra K in g d o m - P ro tis ta Kin g d o m -F u n g i K in g d o m - P la n ta e K in g d o m - A n im alia

C e ll ty p e P ro k a ry o tic Eu k a ry o ti c E u k a ry o tic E u k a ry o ti c Eu k a ry o tic
C o m p le x ity U n ice llu la r to U n ice llu la r to
of body m u ltice llu la r U n ice llu la r m u lti ce llu la r M u lti ce llu la r M u ltice llu lar
T is s u e s y s te m A b se n t A b se n t A b se nt P re s e n t P re se n t
P ro d u ce rs /
P ro d u ce rs / D e co m p o s e rs /
E co l o g ica l ro le D e co m p o s e s C o n s u m e rs D e co m p o se r P ro d u ce s C o n s u m e rs
N o n -ce llu lo s ic a n d
C e ll w a ll p e p tid o g ly can P re s e n t o r a b s e n t C h itin C e llu lo s e A bse nt
C h l o ro p la s t P re s e n t P re s e n t o r a b s e n t A b se nt P re s e n t A bse nt
N u cle u s In ci p ie n t W e ll o rg a n is e d W e ll o rg a n is e d W e ll o rg a n is e d W e ll o rg a n is e d
H e te ro tro p h ic
A u to tro p h i c o r A u to tro p h i c o r H e te ro tro p h ic A u tro tro p h ic (h o lo zo ic o r
N u triti o n h e te ro tro p h ic h e te ro tro p h ic ( s a p ro p h y tic) (p h o to s y n th e tic p a ra s it ic)
P re s e n t ( fla g e lla ) o r P re s e n t ( fla g e lla P re s e n t (fla g e lla P re s e n t ( fla g e ll a P re se n t ( fla g e lla
M o tility ab se n t 9+9) 2+9) 2+9) 2+9)
A s e x u al, b y
A se x u al an d v e g e ta tiv e m e an s
A s e x u a l (fis s io n ) o r s e x u a l ga m e tic o r A se xu al an d a n d s e x u a l ( sp o re A s e x u a l a n d
R e p ro d u ctio n co n ju g a tio n zy g o tic s e x u a l zy g o tic o r z y g o ti c) se x u a l (g e m e tic)
P ro to z o a
(A m o e b a)
P o rife ra ( s p o n g e s )
C o e le n te ra ta
(je l ly fi s h )
A rch a e b a cte ria P la ty h e lm in th e s (t
(m e th a n o g e n s, C h ry s o p h y te s P h y co m y ce t e s a p e w o rm )
h a lo p h ile s an d (d iato m s an d (M u co r, R h izo p u s A s ch e lm in th e s
E x am p le s th e rm o a ci d o p h i le s ) d e s m id s ) a n d A lb u g o ) A lg a e ( ro u n d w o rm )
* B ry o p h y te s
* D in o flag e llate s * A s co m y ce te s ( liv e rw o rts )
( G o n y a u la x ) S l im e ( P e n i ci lliu m ,
m oulds S a cch a ro m y ce s ,
A s p e rg illu s ,
N e u ro s p o ra ,
* E u g le n o id s C lav ice p s , e tc)
(E u g le n a)
P ro to z o a n s
(i) A m o e b o id
p ro to z o a n s * B as id io m y ce te s
(A m o e b a an d ( A g a ricu s ,
En ta m o e b a) U s tilag o , P te rid o p h y te s A n n e lid a
(ii) F lag e llate d P u ccin ia, e tc) ( fe rn s ) ( e a rth w o rm )
p ro to z o a n s G y m n o s p e rm s A rth ro p o d a
( T ry p a n o s o m a ) * D e u te ro m y ce te ( C y ca s, P i n u s, ( co ck ro a ch )
(iii) C ilia te d s ( A lte rn a ri a , e tc) M o llu s ca ( s n a i l)
p ro to z o a n s C o lle to tri ch u m A n g io s p e rm s Ech in o d e rm a ta
Eu b a cte ri a ( P a ra m e ciu m ) a n d T rich o d e rm a ) ( H e lia n th u s a n d (s tar fis h )
( C y a n o b a cte ria , ( iv ) S p o ro z o a n s Zea) C h o rd a ta
M y co p la s m a s , e tc) (P las m o d iu m ) ( v e rte b ra te s )
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1
KINGDOM MONERA
The kingdom-Monera includes all prokaryotes such as bacteria, mycoplasma, Actinomycetes and
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).
The characteristic features of kingdom-Monera and given below
(i) They are simplest or most primitive, unicellular prokaryotes.
(ii) The cell wall contains peptidoglycan or murein (no cellulose) and the membrance bound cell
organelles are not present.
(iii) They have various types of nutrition like saprophytic, parasitic, chemoautotrohic,
photoautotrophic and symbiotic.
(iv) DNA is naked. It lies inside the cytoplasm in coiled form. This is called nucleoid.
(v) The flagella, if present are single-stranded instead of being 11 stranded as in eukryotes.
These contains a protein called flagellin.
(vi) Reproduction is by asexual methods. Gametes are not present.
(vii) Mitotic spindle is absent.
(viii) Some of the monerans have the ability to fix-nitrogen into useful nitrates.
Bacteria
The term Bacteria was proposed by Ehrenberg in 1829. They have widespread distribution be it air,
water or soil. They can survive in extreme range of temperature like upto 78o C and –190o C.
Important characteristics of bacteria are
(i) Bacteria are found in all kinds of habites.
(ii) They are prokaryotic microorganisms.
(iii) They are unicellular.
(iv) Cell wall contains peptidoglycan.
(v) An organised nucleus in absent.
(vi) Extrachromosomal self replicating DNA segments called plasmids occur in most of
the bacteria.
(vii) Mitochondria, plastids, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum and other membrane
covered cell organelles are absent.
Size
The size of bacteria cell ragne from1-10m in length and from 0.7-1.5 m in width.
Shape
The bacteria posses the following forms
(i) Coccus (Pl. cocci) bacteria are oval or spherical cells without flagella. The spheres occur as
single cells (Monococcus), a pair of cells (Diplococcus), in group of four cells (Tetracoccus),
as chain of cells (Streptococcus) or in sheets (Staphylococcus).
A few cocci may also occur in cube-like arrangements of 8 or more cells (Sarcina).
(ii) Bacillus (Pl bacilli) bacteria are rod-shaped cells which many occurs singly (Monobacillus),
in pairs (Diplobacillus), in chains (Streptobacillus) or as a layer (Stack) with many cells called
Plaisade bacillus.
(iii) Spirillus (Pl. spirilla) bacteria are cells, which are twisted, like a screw. They occur as free
single cells, e.g., Spirillum, Spirochaete, etc.
(iv) Vibrio are cells which are curved, C-shaped or comma-shaped, e.g., Vibrio cholerae.
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1
Bacteria were discovered by Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). He observed bacteria in 1675.
Louis Pasteur laid the foundation of Bacteriology by developing culture techniques.
Structure
A bacteria cell is covered by mucilage. It is differentiated into cell wall, plasma membrance, cytoplasm,
nucleoid, plasmids, inclusion bodies flagella, pilli and fimbriae. Membrane bound organelles are absent.
Nutrition
Bacteria show both autotrophic and heterotrophic mode of nutrition, i.e., mixotrophic.
On the basis of mode of nutrition, bacteria are of two types.
Autotrophic Bacteria
These are of following two types
(a) Ph otosynth etic These bacteria hav e green sunli ght t rappi ng pi gment cal led
bacteriochlorophyll.
These are found at the bottom of ponds and lotus. Bacteria photosynthesis does not release
oxygen.
(b) Chemosynthetic These bacteria are able to synthesise organic food from inorganic raw
materials with the help of energy derived from exergonic chemical reactions. Examples Nitrifying
bacteria. (Nitrosomonas), iron bacteria (Ferrobacillus ferroxidants), sulphur oxidising bacteria
(Beggiatoa).
Heterotrophic Bacteria
These bacteria obtain food from different sources. These may be of following types.
(a) Saprophytes These are called decomposers, detrivores or transformers. These obtain food
by decomposing dead-bodies, excreta of animals, dead plants and their parts.
(b) Parasites These are disease causing bacteria called as pathogens, e.g.,Salmonella
typhimurium, which causes typhoid in human.
(c) Symbionts These bacteria live in mutually beneficial association with other organisms, e.g.,
Rhizobium and Bacillus, species from nodules in root of leguminous plants.
Reproduction
Bacteria reproduces by asexual and sexual (parasexual) process.
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Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction occur by binary fission and endospore formation.
(a) Binary Fission It is a simple cell division in which bacterial cell divides in two parts. A constriction
appears at the centre of the cell, deepens further and grows from margin to centre and finally
two cells are produced.
(b) Endospore Formation Endospores are perennial structures which help in survival even during
harsh environmental conditions, e.g., in Clostridium and Bacillus. The endospore has many
wall layers. It has heat resistant chemicals called sialic acid and dipicolinic acid.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction occures by a parasexual process actually called genetic recombination.
The three methods involved are as follows
(a) Conjugation The male cell (donor cells) has fertility plasmid or F-factor, which connect itself
to cell wall of female cells (receipient cells).
(b) Transformation The process was discovered by Griffith in 1928. It is a process where
segments of DNA are transferred from one bacterial cell to another via the liquid medium.
(c) Transduction During this process, the segment of DNA are transferred from one bacterium to
another by the viruses (bacteriophages).
Use of Bacteria
Bacteria is useful in the following ways
(i) Bacteria are natural scavangers. They obtain their nutrition by decomposing dead bodies,
dead plants and animal excreta.
(ii) These are used in fermentation process for vingera manufacturing, yogurt making, etc.
(iii) Some bacteria help in retting of jute and coconut plant fobres. The separated fibres are used
in making ropes or gunny bags.
(iv) The genus streptomyces has many species used to produce different antibiotics.
Some important antibiotics using various bacteria are neomycin, chloromycetin, streptomycin,
gramicidin, bacitracin.
(v) Bacteria play important role in different steps of nitrogen cycle. Some important bacteria in
nitrogen cycle, e.g., Clostridium, Azotobacter (soil bacteria), Rhizobium leguminosarum,
Bacillus radicicola (in nodules), Nitrosomonas, Nitrosobacter, Pseudomonas etc.
Harmful Effects of Bacteria

Bacteria is harmful in the following ways :
(i) Some saprophytic bacteria like Lactobacillus spoil milk and milk products.
(ii) Food poisoning occurs due to the production of toxins by some bacteria like Clostridium
botulinum. They cause botulism, which can kill humans by respiratory paralysis.
(iii) Bacteria are responsible for various plant diseases like citrus canker in lemon leaves and
friuts, soft rot in carrot plants, blight dieses in rice plants, crown gall disease in apple
trees and rose plants.
(iv) In humans, bacteria cause diseases like cholera (Vibrio cholerae), gastric ulcer (Heliobacter
pylori), tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), sexually transmitted dieases like gonorrhoea
(Neisseria gonorrhoeae), syphilis (Treponema pallidum), etc.
(v) In animals like horse, cattle and sheep anthrax disease is caused by Anthracis.
Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria (Archae-ancient ; bact-rod) are special since, they live in some of the most harsh
habitats such as extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas
(methanogens).
The characteristics of this domain are
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(i) They are most primitive prokaryotes.
(ii) They are found in stressed environment, sucha as high salt content (Great salt lake, the dead
sea), edge of the ocean, hot sulphur springs, volcanic walls, etc.
(iii) Their cell walls lack peptidoglycan. In most cases, the wall composed of non-cellulosic
polysaccharides and some protiens. In some members, there is no cell wall. This feature of
having different cell walls is responsible for their survival in extreme condition.
(iv) Most of the archaebacteria are chemoautotrophs.
Types of Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria are of following three types
Methanogens
These are strictly anaerobes. They live anaerobically in gut of serveral ruminants such as cows, goat,
etc. These bacteria help in fermentation of cellulose. They produce almost 65% of atmospheric methane.
Example Methanobacterium, Methanobacillus, Methanosarcina and Methanococcus.
* Methane is a pollutate that contributes to greenhouse effect and global warming.
* The fermentation of cattle dung by methanogens is done in specially designed gobar gas
plants to produce cooking gas.
Halophiles
These are found in extreme saline environments like salt lakes, salt marshes, salt pans, salt solutions,
etc. They are mostly anaerobes. They contain a chemical called halorhodopsin to pump in chlorides
into the cell to prevent cellular dehydration.
Halobacterium develops purple membrane having photoreceptor pigment bacteriorhodopsin. In light,
it acts as a proton pump and helps in synthesise of ATP. The formation of ATP is a survival mechanism
under anaerobic condition.
Examples Halobacterium and Halococcus.
Thermoacidophiles
These archaebacteria can live in both extreme heat and acidic pH (around 2) environment. Under
anaerobic conditions, these organisms oxidise sulphur to sulphuric acid.
2S + 2H2O + 3O2 — 2H2SO4 + Energy
Thermoacidophiles can survive in high temperature and low pH conditions because of
(a) Special branched chain lipids in cell membranes that reduce cell fluidity.
(b) Enzymes can work at low pH.
(c) Enzymes are resistant to high temperature coagulation. Examples Sulfobolus, Thermoplasma
and Thrmoproteus.
Important of Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria can live in extreme environments, so they are useful in
(i) Modern biotechnology (ii) Generation of biogas
(iii) Thermophilic enzymes (iv) Biosensors
(v) Restriction enzymes etc.
Difference between Eubacteria and Archaebacteria

Eubacteria Archaebacteria
Cell wall is made up of peptidoglycans. Peptidoglycan is absent in cell wall. It is made up
of cellulosic carbohydrate.
Plasma membrane consists of phospholipids. It is a single layer of branched chain lipids.
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by plasma membrance made up of lipid and proteins. The membrance bound structure like true
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, etc., are absent.
The photosynthetic pigment present in the cell are chlorophylla-a, -carotene, myxoxanthophyll,
myxoxanthin, etc., The nucleolus is absent and the nucleoid is not bound by nuclear membrane.
Some cyanobacteria (Nostoc, Anabaena, Scytonema, etc.) posses special type of cells called
heterocysts to perform special functions. Heterocysts are the sites of nitrogen fixation.
Eubacteria
They are called ‘true bacteria’ and are characterised by the presence of a rigid cell walls, and if motile,
have flagellum.
Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria, member of this group (blue green algae) have many characters similar to bacteria. The
examples of cyanobacteria are Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Spirulina, Rivularia, Anabaena, etc. They can
survive in a wide variety of habitats, such as hot springs, sea water, polluted water, etc.,
Cyanobacteria have following three forms
(i) Unicellular as in Chrococcus.
(ii) Colonial as in Microcystic and Gloeocapsa.
(iii) Filamentous as in Nostoc, Oscillatoria and Anabaena.
Cell Structure
Cell has a define firm and rigid cell wall surrounded by mucilaginous sheath. The cell wall is followed
pleural fluid of cattle suffering form pleuropneumonia. The organisms are often called MLOs (Mycoplasma
Like Organisms) or PPLOs (Pleuropneumonia Like Organisms).
The characteristic features of mycoplasma are
(i) Their size range from 0.1-0.5 m and have organised nucleus, plastids, mitochondria and
other organelles are absent.
(ii) DNA is naked (because of absence of histones) and ribosomes (of 70S type).
(iii) Mycoplasma posses heterotrophic nutrition. Examples Mycoplasma gallisepticum, M.laidlawii.
They cause pleuropneumonia in domestic animals, mycoplasmal urethritis in humans.
Nutrition
Cyanobacteria are mostly photoautotrophs. They contain chlorophyll-a and other photosynthetic
pigments.
Reproduction
Cyanobacteria multiply asexually and vegetatively. Sexual reproduction does not occur.
The types of multiplication are
(i) Binary fission occurs in unicellular forms.
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Genes are not interrupted by non-coding Geners are interruptedb y introns like eukaryotes.
(ii) Fragmentation occurs in colonial and filamentous forms.
(iii) Conidia are asexually produced spores of fungi.
(iv) Endospores and exospores are non-reproductive structure.
Differences between Bacteria and Cyanobacteria

Bacteria - Cyanobacteria
Cell are smaller - The cells are comparatively larger.
Cell wall is 1-2 layered - The cell wall is four layered
They may possess flagella - They lack flagella
They are both autotrophic and heterotrophic - They are autotrophic
Autotrophic bacteria contain bacteriochorophyll - They possess chlorophyll-a as found in
eukaryotic autotrophs.
Photosynthesis is anoxygenic - Photosynthesis is oxygenic
The may be aerobic or anaerobic - They are aerobic
The reserve food is glycogen - The reserve food is cyanophycean strach
Uses of Cyanobacteria
Some use of cyanobacteria are
(i) Some cyanobacteria have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. The green manuring by
fermers is done on this basis to enrich the soil with nitrogenous fertilisers.
(ii) Cyanobacteria like Anabaena, Tolypothrix, etc. help in prevention of soil erosion and its
conservation.
(iii) Spirulina is a protein rice supplement for humans. It is a fast growing cyanobacteria. It is also
known as Single Cell Protein (SCP).
Harmful Effects of Cyanobacteria

Some harmful effects of cyanobacteria are
(i) Cyanobacteria discolour the walls and roofs of buildings, movements and statues.
(ii) Oscillatoria causes asthma and gastrointestinal problems by releasing its toxins.
(iii) Growth of Oscillatoria in water bodies shows pollution by organic matter.
(iv) Excessive growth of cyanobacteria form water blooms, which decreases oxygen level in
water causing death of aquatic animals.
Mycoplasma
Mycoplasma are organisms that completely lack a cell wall. They were discovered by Roux (1898) in
pleural fluid of cattle suffering from pleuropneumonia. The organisms are ofter called MLOs (Mycoplasma
Like Organisms) or PPLOs (Pleuropneumonia Like Organisms).
The characterisitic features of mycoplasma are
(i) Their size range from 0.1-0.5 m and have organised nucleus, plastids, motochondria and
other organelles are absent.
(ii) DNA is naked (because of absence of histones) and ribosomes (of 70s type).
(iii) Mycoplasma posses heterotrophic nutrition, Examples Mycoplasma gallispticum, M.laidlawii,
They cause pleuropneumonia in domestic animals, mycoplasma urethritis in humans.
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KINGDOM PROTISTA
Kingdom-Protista includes all single-celled eukaryotes but, the boundries of this kingdom are not well
defined. It was first proposed by Ernst Haeckel (1866).
Physilogically kingdom-Protista acts as a connecting like between the kingdom-Monera and the complex
multicellular kingdom-Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
Kingdom-protista includes the following categories such as dinoflagellates, chrysophytes, euglenoids,
slime moulds and protozoans.
The general characteristic features of Kingdom-Protista are given below :-
(i) These are mostly aquatic organisms. Some protists also living in the bodies of animals as
parasites.
(ii) The cells are eukaryotic. These contain membrane bounded cell organelles like mitochondria,
Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, 80S ribosomes, etc.
(iii) Locomotion may either occur by Pseudopodia (Amoeba, Euglypha), Cilia (Paramecium),
Wriggling (Sporozoans, non-flagellates) and Mucilage propulsion (some protists like diatoms).
Diatoms do not have any organelles for locomotion.
(iv) Protists shows various modes of nutrition such as
(a) Photosynthetic (holophytic) Dinoflagella-tes, diatoms and euglenoids.
(b) Halozoic (zootrophic) Protozoans like Amoeba and Paramecium.
(c) Saprobic (saprotrophic) In slime moulds.
(d) Parasitic Trypanosoma, Giardia, Plasmodium, Entamoeba.
(e) Mixotrophic In Euglena.
(f) Symbiotic In zooflagellates like Trichonympha and Lophomonas.
(g) Pinocytosis In Amoeba to absorb soluble organic substances.
(v) Most of the protists are aerobic. However, some protists that live at the bottom of aquatic
habitats can respire anaerobically.
(vi) Protists reproduces asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion and zygote
formation.
Protista Kingdom and its Phylum

Phylum Feature of Some Characteristics Example
Euglenophyta One-called make or take in food. Euglena
(euglenoids) most have one flagellum
Chrysophyta (golden Most are non-celled, make their Navicula
algae) diatoms own food, yellow-brown in colour.
Pyrrophyta One celled, take in food, have two Gonyaulax
(dinoflagellates) flagella.
Sarcodina One-celled, take in food, have Amoeba
(sarcodines) pseudopods.
Ciliophora (ciliates) One-celled, take in food, have cilia. Paramecium
Mastigophora One-celled, take in food, have two Euglena
(flagellates) or more flagella.
Sporozoa One-celled take in food, no means Monocystis
(sporozoans) of movement
Myxomycetes Many-or one-celled, absorb food, Plasmodium
(slime molds) change form during life cycle
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The major groups of Protista are
(a) Protistan algae (photosynthetic protists)
(b) Slime moulds (consumer-decomposer protists).
(c) Protozoan protists.
Photosynthetic Protists
These chrysophytes from the main part of phytoplankton. These include chrysophytes, dinoflagellates
and euglenoids.
1. Chrysophytes
This group includes diatoms and golden algae (demids).
i. Diatoms
(a) Diatoms occur in all aquatic and moist terrestrial habitats and are also known as chief producer
in the ocean.
(b) They pile up at the bottom of water reservoirs and form big heaps called diatomaceous
earth.
(c) They are microscopic unicellular organisms of different shapes, such as circles, semicircles,
triangular, spindle-shaped, boat-shaped, etc.
(d) They body wall of the diatoms is made up of cellulose impregnated with glass like silica. The
cell wall has two overlapping halves like a sapbox called shell or frustule, i.e., a lid and a
lower half fitted together.
(e) Diatoms are variously coloured, do not passess flagella except in the reproductive state.
(f) Each cell has a large central vacuole.
(g) Chloroplast are yellowish brown to greenish brown. They contain chlorophyll-a and c. They
contain fucoxanthin that provides brownish ting.
(h) Food is reserved in the form of oils and leucosin (polysaccharide).
(i) The diatoms mostly reproduces asexually by binary fission. Sexual reproduction varies from
isogamy to oogamy. example Navicula, Amphipleura.
Economic Importance of Diatoms

Diatoms are economically important in the following ways
* Diatoms are very important photosynthesizers.
* Diatomite deposits are often accompanied by petroleum fields.
* These are used as a cleaning agent in tooth pastes and metal polishes and are use in filtration
of oil and syrups.
* Diatoms are used as insulation material in refrigerators boilers and furnaces. These are also
used to make sound-proof rooms.
* Diatoms are also very good pollution indicators.
ii Golden Algae (Desmids)

These are unicellular green algae. Their cell walls have distinct halves. Sexual reproduction occurs by
‘conjugation’ (similar to Spirogyra). They are useally found in freshwater and acts as an indicators of
polluted water.
2. Dinoflagellates
These are mainly marine and photosynthetic organism. There are about 1,000 species of photosynthetic
protists.
The general characteristic features of dinoflagellates are listed below
(i) These are important photoplanktons. Most of them are marine but some occur in freshwater.
(ii) They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main pigments present in
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their cells.
(iii) The cell wall in dinoflagellates, if present is composed of number of plates made up of cellulose.
Some dinoflagellates like Gonyaulax and Gymnodinium grow in large number in sea and make the
water look red and form ‘red tide’.
Taxins released by such large numbers may even kill other aquatic animals.
(iv) The cell usually possess two flagella which are of different types (heterokont). One flagellum
is transverse arising from the another part. The other flagellum arises in thevertical furrow.
Both these flagella beat in different directions.
(v) The nucleus is bigger in size, named as mesokaryon. Chromosomes do not have histone and
RNA.
(vi) The cells possess an osmoregulatory organelle called pousule, which superficially looks like
contractile vacuole.
(vii) Dinoflagellates reproduce asexually through cell division or by the formation of zoospores and
cysts.
(viii) Varieties of eye spots occur in dinoflagellates. Some of them are like ocelli.
(ix) Reserve food is stored in the form of starch and oils. e.g., Gonyaulax, Ceratium, Noctiluca,
Peridinium and Gymnodinium, etc.
3. Euglenoids
Euglenoids live in fresh aquatic habitats and damp soils.
(i) They are unicellular flagellate protists.
(ii) Body is covered by thin and flexible pellicle. It lacks cellulosic cell wall.
(iii) Euglenoids have two flagella, usually one long and one short.
(iv) They perform creeping movements by expresion and contraction of their body. This phenomenon
is called metabody.
(v) Nutrition is holophytic, saprobic or holozoic. This mode of nutrition is called mixotrophic.
(vi) The photosynthetic pigments include chlorophyll-a and b.
(vii) Reserve food is carbohydrate in the form of paramylon or paramylum bodies.
(viii) Euglenoids reproduce by longitudinal binary fission under favourable conditions. The palmella
stage is found during unfavourable conditions. Examples Euglena, Perenema, Eutreptia, Phacus, etc.
Euglena is considered as plant as well as animal. It is also called as plant animal.

Plant and animal features are
* Plant Features Chloroplasts and chlorophyll are present has holophytic nutrition.
* Animal Features Present of pellicle which is not made of cellulose. Contractile vacuole is
present. Longitudinal binary fission.
* Euglenozoa is a diverse clade that includes predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs
and pathogenic parasites.
* The main feature that distinguishes protists in this clade is the presence of a spiral or crystalline
rod of unknown function inside the flagella.
Consumer-Decomposer Protists
(Slime Moulds)
Theu possess the characters of both animals and fungi.
Slime Moulds
Slime moulds are saprophytic protists. Anton De Bary (1887) related them to animals and called
them as Mycetozoa. These are also named as fungus animals becuase they share the common
characters of both animals and are known as protistian fungi, and due to their protistian nature.
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The general features of slime moulds are discussed here
(i) Slime moulds are acellular and cellular types, about 600 species of slime moulds are reported
by biologists out of whihc 27 species are know from india.
(ii) They are found in moist terrestrial places rice in decaying organic food.
(iii) The body of slime moulds is covered with mucilage having gelatinous consistency, they do
not have chlorophyll.
(iv) They are surrounded by plasma membrance. However, the spores have the cellulosic cell
walls.
(v) They show phagotropic or saprotrophic nutrition.
(vi) Both sexual and asexual modes of reproduction occur.
(vii) They are like Protozoa in their amoeboid plamodial stage and similar to true fungi in spore
formation.
(viii) Acellular slime moulds (plasmodial slime moulds) are commonly found on dead and decaying
plant matter. The cellular slime moulds occur in all humus-containing upper layer of damp
soil. When the food supply is shorter or conditions are not favourable, the amoeboid cells form
aggregate without any fusion.
This aggregated mass is called pseudoplasmodium. The examples of cellular slime moulds
are dictyostelium and polysphondylium.
(ix) Plasmodium is the free-living thalloid body of the acellular slime moulds. It is wall-less mass
of acellular slime moulds. It is wall-less mass of multinucleate protoplasm covered by slime
layer. During unfavourable conditions, the Plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting bodies
bearing spores at their tips. While during favourable spores at their tips. While during favourable
conditions, Plasmodium can spread over several feet.
(x) Slime moulds are beneficial as they cause the decomposition of organic matter in the soil.
Protozoa Protists
Include unicellular protists which animal like behaviour. They were first studied by Leeuwenhoek
(1677). Protozoans protists may be aquatic, terrestrial or parasites. They can cause several diseases
in humans and animals.
General characteristics of protozoans are described below :
(i) They are microscopic small unicellular and colourless organism with different shapes.
(ii) Locomotion occurs with the help of finger-like pseudopodia, flagella or hairy cilia.
(iii) All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.
(iv) Respiration occurs through the general surface of the body.
(v) Reproduction occurs by binary fisison, multiple fission or budding. Sexual reproductin occurs
by syngamy and conjugation.
There are four major groups of protozoans
1. Amoeboid Protozoans
These organisms live in freshwater, seawater or moist soil.
Examples Amoeba, Entamoeba, Radiolarians, Pelomyxa, Foraminiferans and Heliozoans.
General features of this group are following
(i) They move and capture their prey by putting out pseudopodia (flase feet) as in Amoeba (as
mouth is absent).
(ii) The body is without periplast. It may be naked or have a calcareous sheel.
(iii) Flagella are present in some developmental stages. They also develop when food become
scarce.
(iv) Nutrition is holozoic.
(v) Asexual reproduction occurs by binary fission, multiple fission, spores and budding and sexual
reproduction occurs by syngamy.
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2. Flagellated Protozoans
The members of this group are either free-living or parasitic. Examples Giardia, Trypanosoma, Leishmania,
Trichonympha and Trichomonas.
(i) They have flagella for locomotion as their name suggest.
(ii) They may be aquatic, free-living, parasitic, commensals or symbiotic.
(iii) The body is enclosed by a firm pellicle.
(iv) Nutrition is holozoic, saprobic, and parasitic.
(v) Asexual reproduction is by binary fission.
(vi) Sexual reproduction is observed in some forms only.
(vii) Various species of these protozoans causes diseases in humans. For examples,
* Trypanosoma (sleeping sickness)
* Leishmania (kala-azar, dum-dum fever)
* Giardia (giardiasis)
* Trichomonas (laucorrhoea).
3. Ciliated Protozoans
These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of the presence of thousends of cilia.
Examples Paramecium, Opalina, Vorticella, Podophyra, Balantidium, etc.
(i) Many ciliates live as free-living individual in fresh and marine water (Paramecium).
(ii) A large number of cilia present on whole body surface. Cilia are used to food and for locomotion.
(iii) Nutrition is holozoic except in some parasitic forms.
(iv) The body is covered with flexible pellicle.
(v) There are definite regions for ingestion and egestion.
(vi) Ciliates have a larger macronucleus and smaller micronucleus.
(vii) They have small ejectable trichocysts for defence.
(viii) Osmoregulation occurs by contractile vaculoes.
(ix) Asexual reproduction occurs by transverse binary fission or budding. Cyst formation also
occurs during unfavourable condition.
(x) Sexual reproduction by means of conjugation.
4. Sporozoan Protozoans
This group includes organisms that have an infections spore-like stage in their life cycle.
Examples Plasmodium, Monocystis, Eimeria.
General features of this group are following.
(i) All sporozoans are endoparasites and pathogenic.
(ii) Locomotory organs are absent.
(iii) Nutrition is parasitic (absorptive).
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(iv) Body is covered with an elastic pellicle or cuticle and contractile vacuoles are absent.
(v) A sexual reproduction occurs through multiple fission and sexual reproduction by syngamy.
(vi) Life cycle may include two different hosts, e.g., Plasmodium requires two hosts (digenetic),
female Anopheles mosquito and human beings. It is responsible for causing malaria, in
humans.
KINGDOM FUNGI
The Kingdom-Fungi or Mycota consitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. They show a
great diversity in morphology and habitat. There are about 1,00,000 species in the kingdom fungi. The
characteristic features of kingdom fungi are discussed here.
Mycology is the branch of science that deals with the study of various fungi. A scientist having
specialisation in the study of fungi is called mycologist.
Fungal Structure
The fungal body is an assemblage of extremely fine, almost transparent threads called hyphae. Numerous
hyphae are twined around one another to form many mycelium (pl.mycelia).
Fungal Hyphae
Fungal hyphae are thin tubular transparent threads or filaments filled with protoplasm and covered by
wall.
The hyphae are of following types found in fungi
i. Aseptate Hyphae
In aseptate hyphae cross walls or septa are not formed at the time of nuclear division. Such
hyphae are multinucleate. It is called coenocytic, if a mycelium contains aseptate and multinucleate
hyphae.
ii. Septate Hyphae

In this type, cross walls or septa form after the nuclear division. The cells may have one, two
or many nuclei. These have septal pores or cross walls in their hyphae, which allow movement of
substances between adjacent cells.
Dolipore Septum
The central septal pore contain a barrel-shaped inflammation in many Basidiomycetes. This kind of
septum is called dolipore septum. These pores may get partially plugged by membrance bound bodies
and crystalline structures called woronin bodies.
Fungal Tissues
In fungi, fungal tissue is formed by interweaving of fungal hyphae called as plectenchyma. It can be
further divided as prosenchyma and pseudoparenchyma.
Prosenchyma is formed of distinct hyphae running together in parallel, while pseudoparenchyma is a
false parenchyma formed by close packing and fusion of hyphae.
Fungal Cell
Fungi are eukaryotic cell. A cell wall is present on the outside, made of chitin and polysaccharide.
They possess all the eukaryotic cell organelles except plastids. Plasmalemma bears coiled
membranous outgrowths called lomasomes lying below the cell wall. Near the hyphal tip the cytoplasm
contain small vesicles called chitosomes.
These contain cell wall materials. Food reserve is the form of glycogen and oil.
During cell division, the nuclear envelope may not dissolve as in plant and animal cells.
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Nutrition
Fungi are mostly heterotrophic. They absorb soluble organic matter from dead substances. Hence,
they are called saprophytes.
2. Ascomycetes
The common features of Ascomycetes are described below
(i) They are mostly terrestrial, some aquatic. A number of Ascomycetes are parasites on plants,
animals and humans.
(ii) Mycelium is branched and septate. It may consists of distinct hyphae or the same may
aggregate to produce prosenchyma and pseudoparenchyma.
(iii) Hyphae are septate. They posses central pores. They may however, have plugs like woronin
bodies.
(iv) The asexual spores are conidia produced exogenosuly on the special mycelium called
conidiophores. Conidia on germination produced mycelium.
(v) Sexual spores are called ascospores (sign, ascus) endogenously which are produced in sac
like. These asci are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called ascocarp. Each ascus
bears 4-8 ascospores, sometimes numerous.
(vi) In higher Ascomycetes, asci are aggregated in difinite fruiting bodies called ascocarps.
(vii) Sexual reproduction occurs by gametangial copulation, gametangial contact, spermatisation,
somatogamy and antogamy.
Examples Penicillium, Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora, Yeast etc. Neurospora is used
extensively in biochemical and genetic work.
3. Basidiomycetes
These are terrestrial, saprotrophic and parasitic forms also known as club fungi. Many of them attack
trees. A few species form mycorrhizal association.
(i) The mycelium is branched and septate.
(ii) Rhizomorphs are thick strands of hyphae which are used both for perennation and formation
of fructification.
(iii) Asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is
common.
(iv) Sex organs are absent but plasmogamy occurs by the fusion of two vegetative or somatic
cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryon which ultimately
gives rise to basidium.
(v) Karyogamy and meiosis take place in basidium producing four basidiospores. The basidiospores
are exogenously produced on the basidium (pl. basidial) The basidia are arranged in fruiting
bodies called basidiocarpes.
Exaples Agaricus compestris (edible mushroom), Puccinia (cause rust), Ustilago (cause smut
diseases), Amanita (toad stools), bracket fungi, Lycoperdon (puffbals), Armillaria (honey mushroom).
4. Deuteromycetes
Fungi because only the sexual or vegetative phases of these fungi are known. These are mostly
terrestrial, only few of them are aquatic, e.g., Tricladium, Pyricularia.
The characteristics of Deuteromycetes are
(i) The mycelium is septate and branched. Cells are usually multinucleate and septa posses
simple pores. The lamp connections are absent.
(ii) Asexual reproduction occurs by the formation of conidia or sometimes by oidia and
chlmydospores.
(iii) Sexual reproduction is not certain.
(iv) Mycelium structure and conidia indicate that most of the Deuteromycetes belong to
Ascomycetes whose sexual reproduction is not know.
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Examples of these fungi and diseases caused by them are
(a) Trichoderma (soil fungus) leucopenia called alimentary aleukia.
(b) Gibberella fujikuroi bakane or foolish disease of rise
(c) Colletotrichum falcatum red rot of sugarcane.
(d) Helminthosporium oryzae leaf spot disease of rise.
(e) Alternaria solani early blight of potato and tomato.
(f) Cercospora personata tikka disease of groundnut.
(g) Fusarium oxysporum wilts in potato, cotton, banana, flax, etc.
LICHEN
The algae component is called phycobiont and fungal component is mycobiont lichens are found in
habitats like walls, window panes, barren rocks, cooled valcanic lava, tree bark, soil and aquatic
habitats.
Different forms of lichens are formed based on their habitat such as saxicolous, lignicolous,
corticolous, terricolous, marine and freshwater.
Morphology
Lichens vary in colour like orange, brown dark brown, grey, yellowish green, etc.
Based on their morphology lichens can be of various types
(i) Crustose these lichens are crust like, closely attached to the substratum, e.g, Graphis,
Lecanora.
(ii) Leprose These are like minute scales attached superficially to the substratum, e.g., Lepraria.
(iii) Foliose These are like twisted and crinkled leaf, e.g., Parmelia, Physcia.
(iv) Fruticose These are branched, erect with bushy appearance, e.g., Evernia, Ramalina, Usnea.
(v) Filamentous These lichens consists of chains of algal cells wrapped aroung by fungal hyphae,
e.g., Racodium.
Internal Structure
The major part of lichen body constitutes fungus and only 5% part is algal component. The body is
divided as upper cortex, algal zone (gonidial layer), middle medulla, lower cortex and rhizines.
Only the algal zone contains photosynthetic partner. In about 98% lichens, the fungal partner belongs
to Ascomycetes. In the rest, the fungal partner belongs to Basidiomycetes adn Deuteromycetes.
Symbiotic Relationship
The algal partner or phycobiont plays following roles
(i) Nitrogen fixation if cyanobacterial type.
(ii) Photosynthesis.
(iii) Provides vitamins and other growth substances.
The fungal partner or mycobiont is involved in
(i) Outer covering for protection.
(ii) Attachment in substratum.
(iii) Protection aginst harmful radiations.
Sometimes, mycobiont sends haustoria into algal part. It prevents alga to secrete pectic substances
or induces alga to secrete nutrients. It this case, fungus is considered to be a controlled parasite
over the alga. This phenomenon of controlled parasitism is called helotism.
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Reproduction
Lichens may reproduce vegatatively or sexually. They reproduce vegetatively by the following ways
such as fragmentation, death and decay, isidia, soredia etc.
Lichens reproduce sexually by following ways
(i) Formation of ascomycetous fruiting body.
(ii) Formation of basidiocarp.
Sexual reproduction is not considered to be a common means of reproduction to form a new lichen.
Important of Lichens
Lichens have widespread importance for the mankind. Some of the important uses of lichens are listed
here.
(i) Lichens contain a complex carbohydrate called lichenin. Hence, many lichens are food for
many animals.
(ii) Many lichens are useful in producing medicines.
Usnea and Cladonia (antiboitics and usnic acid).
Cetraria islandica (laxative mucilage).
Parmelia (curing epilepsy).
Lobaria (treating lung diseases).
(iii) Lichens like Roccella tinctoria, Parmelia omphalodes are used in making different types of
dyes. Litmus was also previously obtained from Roccella montaingne.
(iv) Extracts of Lobaria pulmonaria and Cetraria islandica are used in tanning leather.
(v) Some lichens like Usnea are used in brewing industry.
(vi) Lichens are best indicators of air pollution.
(vii) Lichens help in understanding the process of biological succession by the ecologist.
fungus and the root of a plant. Mycorrhizal roots often show wooly covering of fungal hyphae on the
surface and remain in the upper layers of the soil where organic matter is abundant.
A fungal can form association with roots of many plants and the roots of a plant can form association
with many fungi.
Mycorrhizae are of the following two types
1. Ectomycorrhizae
In the type, the bulk of the fungus grows over the surface as a mantle. The only part of it lives in the
intercellular speces of the cortex of the root.
2. Endomycorrhizae
In this type, the fungus grows inside the coretx of the roots with some intracellular hyphae tips. In
some forms of endomycorrhizae, the fungal hyphae develop some special organs called vesicles with
the root cortical cells. This kind of mycorrhizae are calle Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM).
Important of Mycorrhizal Association

(i) Mycorrhiza help in absorption of minerals from the soil and provide to the root.
(ii) These help in increased absorption of water.
(iii) These produce growth inducing hormones. In the absence of fungus, Pinus and Betula show
growth despite of providing all types of nutrients.
(iv) Fungus help in preventing the root from parasitic fungi and harmful bacteria secreting
antimicrobial substance.
(v) Mycorrhiza endable the plants to grow in mineral deficient soil, saline soil and unfavourable
pH and temperature.
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(vi) In case of orchids, the fungus absorbs nourishment from outside and deliver to the germinating
seed as the same is devoid of stored food.
(vii) Mycorrhiza have antimicrobial substances which protect the root from parasitic fungi and
harmful bacteria by secreting antimicrobial substances.
Kingdom-Plantae
Kingdom-Plantae includes all eukaryotic, chlorophyll containing organisms called plants. Some of
these members are partially heterotrophic, such as insectivorous plants or parasites.
For example, venus fly trap and bladderwort. Cuscuta (dodder) is a parasite. The cell has an eukaryotic
type structure with prominent chloroplasts and cell wall containing celluose.
This kingdom includes following classes
(i) Algae (ii) Bryophytes (iii) Pteridophytes
(iv) Gymnosperms (v) Angiosperms
The members of kingdom-Plantae have two distinct phases the diploid saprophytic and the haploid
gametophytic. This is called alternation of generation.
Kingdom-Animalia
Animal kingdom containsheterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and the cells lack
cell walls. The main source of foold of animal kingdom are plants directly or indirectly.
The food is digested in alimentary canal and food is reserved as glycogen or fat. The mode of nutrition
is holozoic.
A definite growth pattern is present. Adults have definite shape and size. The higher forms have well
developed sensory and neuromuscular mechanism, Locomotion is present.
Sexual reproduction occurs by copulation followed by fertilisation of gametes and embryonic
development.
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VIRUSES
Five kingdom classification of RH Whittaker has not classified viruses, viroids and lichens in any
group.
The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterised by having an inert crystalline structure
outside the living cell. An inert virus outside the cell called virion. These are obligate parasites. They
do not have a biosynthetic machinery. Once they infect a cell they take over the machinery of the host
cell to replicate themselves, killing the host.
(i) The name virus was given by Pasteur (virus-venom or poisonous fluid). DJ Ivanowsky (1892)
recognised certain microbes as causative organism of the mosaic disease of tobacco.
(ii) MW Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract of the injected plants of tobacco could
cause infection in healty plants and called the fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious
living fluid).
(iii) WM Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be crystallised and crystals consist largely of
proteins.
Size
Virus is a ultramicroscopic nucleoprotein entity. Size of virus ranges from about 10 nm (foot and mouth
virus of cattle), 17 nm (alfalfa mosaic virus) to 1250 × 40 nm (beet yellow virus), TMV is 300 × 18.0 nm,
400 nm (parrot fever virus), 1300 × 6 nm (Pseudomonas).
Strucrture
A virus has mainly four parts
i. Envelope
It is the outer covering present in certian viruses. It is made protein of viral origin, lipid and carbohydrate
of host. Spikes or outgrowths may or may not be present. Some common enveloped viruses are HIV,
herpes virus, vaccinia virus.
ii. Capsid
It is a protein covering around the genetic material. Capsid has protein subunits called capsomeres.
TMV has 1230 capsomeres. The capsomeres are arranged helically or in geometric forms.
iii. Nucleoid
It contains genetic material which is either DNA or RNA but never both. Most of the animal viruses have
double-stranded DNA as genetic material, while majority of plant viruses have single-stranded RNA as
genetic material.
iv. Enzymes
They are rarely present. Lysozyme is found in bacteriophages. In some RNA viruses called retroviruses,
RNA polymerase, reverse transcriptase enzymes are present.
Classification
In viruses, genetic material is either DNA or RNA.
Based on the presence of DNA or RNA, viruses are divided in two main groups
i. Deoxyvira or DNA viruses

These are generally animal viruses with a few important ones having RNA. For example, rabies virus,
polio virus, retroviruses including HIV or AIDS virus. The structurral form of deoxyvira are deoxyhelica,
deoxycubica and deoxybinala.
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ii. Ribovira or RNA viruses
These are generally platn viruses with a few containing DNA. For example, Cauliflower mosaic virus.
The structural form of ribovira are ribobelica and ribocubica.
Types of Viruses
Viruses are classified by Holmes (1948) into three groups based on their host types
i. Plants Viruses (Phytophagineae)

These virus cause disease in plants. Examplex of plant viruses are Tobacco Virus (TMV), potato
mosaic viruses, tomato leaf curl virus, etc,
ii. These viruses causes disease in humans.

For example, influenza virus, smallpox virus, poliomyelitis virus, hepatitis virus, mumps virus, rhino
viruses.
iii. Bacterial viruses (Phaginear)

These are also known as bacteriophages and mainly infect lower organisms (phagineae bacteria).
Bacteriophages were discovered by Edward Twort (1915) and d’ Herelle (1917) independently. These
are bacterial viruses.
For example, T2, T4, lambda, coliphages (bacteriophages of E.coli) cyanophages (blue-green algal,
viruses, e.g., LPP-1, SM-1, N-1) phycophages (algal viruses), mycophages (fungal viruses), zymophages
(mycophages of yeast).
The shape of bacteriophages is tadpole like consisting of a head (icosahadral) and a tail. Head has a
protein cover or capsid. Internally, the head encloses a highly floded double-standed DNA (approx 50
in length).
A connector is present in between the head and the tail. The connector contains a neck and a collar.
Coller posses several whiskers. The tail is the norrow cylindrical part. It has central hollow core or
tube through which viral DNA is injected into the host.
The core contains enzyme like lysozyme, etc. and is surrounded by sheath proteins (formed of 2000
capsomeres). The tail ends in a basal plate or end plate. The basal plate included tail pins and
tailfibres (spikes) that are generally involved in attachement to the host cell.
Viruses multiply after entering into living cells. The two types of viral reproduction are lytic and lysogenic
cycle.
Some Common Viral Diseases
Plant Viral Animal Viral Human Viral

Disease Disease Disease
Tobacco Mosaic Foot and mouth disease Poliomyelitis
Potato Mosaic Equine encephalitis Rabies
Rinderpest
Pumpkin Mosaic Kysanur Forest Diesease Mumps
(KFD) of monkeys
Apple Mosaic Measles
Wheat Mosaic Ranikhet disease of fowl Chickenpox
Streak
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Potato Leaf Roll Dengue
Tobacco Leaf Curl Encephalitis
Banana Bunchy Top Common Flu
Yellow fever
Hepatitis
AIDS
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Herpes
VIROIDS
Viroids (satellite RNA) and prions belong to this category.
To Diener (1971) discovered a new infectious agent that was smaller than viruses and caused potato
spindle tuber disease, Citrus exocortis disease.
Viroids are small circular RNAs similar to viroids, but are located protein coat of a true. Virusoids
require the assistance of virus for their replication.
Viroids are free RNA’s devoid of nucleoprotein coat. The RNA has low molecular weight and is tightly
folded into circular or linear single-stranded structure. While , prions are obligate parasites made of
glycoproteins only. They are formed due to mutation in gene PRNP. Prions are not affected by proteases
nucleases, temperature upto 8000 C, UV radiations and formaldehyde.
These cause disease by accumulating in nervous tissue and cause its degeneration. Some common
diseases caused by them are Scrapie of sheep, mad cow disease etc.
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PLANT KINGDOM
Contents
Topic Page No.
Exercise 02 - 7
Notes
Classification 08 - 09
Algae 10 - 11
Algae Classification 12 - 14
Bryophyte 15 - 17
Pteridophytes 18 - 19
Gymnosperms 20 - 22
Angiosperms 23 - 26
Syllabus
PLANT KINGDOM
Classification, Algae, Algae Classification, Bryophyte, Pteridophytes,
Gymnosperms, Angiosperms
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
ETOOSINDIA.COM
HelpDesk : 92-14-233303
PLANT KINGDOM
LEVEL - I
1. Colonial algae is -
(A) Spirogyra (B) lamanaria (C) Fucus (D) None
2. Algae is shows -
(A) Isogamous (B) Auisogamous (C) Heterogamous (D) All
3. Largest size algae is -

(A) Kelp (B) Spirogyra (C) Chlamydomonas (D) Volvox
4. Anisogamy shows by -
(A) Chlamydomonas (B) Volvox (C) Fucus (D) Spirogyra
5. Heterogamy shows by -
(A) Fucus (B) Volvox (C) both 1 & 2 (D) Spirogyra
6. Filamentous algae is -
(A) Ulothrix (B) Volvox (C) Chlamydomonas (D) None
7. Red Algae is -
(A) Volvox (B) Polysiphonia (C) Chara (D) Ectocarpus
8. Flagella absent in gamete of -

(A) Chlorophyceae (B) Rhodophyceae (C) Phacophyceae (D) None
9. Phaeophyceae algae is -
(A) Chara (B) Sargassum (C) Ulothrix (D) Spirogyra
10. Rhodophyceae algae is not -

(A) Gracillaria (B) Porphira (C) Gellidium (D) Fucus
11. Storage food is starch is -

(A) Chlorophyceae (B) Phaeophyceae (C) Rhodophyceae (D) None
12. Kelp belong to -

(A) Phaeophyceae (B) Rhodophyceae (C) Chlorophyceae (D) None
13. Moss is -
(A) Marchantia (B) Sphagnum (C) Riccia (D) None
14. Fern belong with -

(A) Aglae (B) Bryophytes (C) Ptendophyte (D) Gymunosperm
15. Pterodophyte is NOT -

(A) Ginkago (B) Selaginella (C) Fern (D) Equisetum
16. Horse tail plant is -

(A) Equistitum (B) Fern (C) Selaginella (D) None
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17. Protonemas formed is -
(A) Bryophyte (B) Algae (C) Gymnosperm (D) None
18. Moss & liver wort belong with -

(A) Algae (B) Lichen (C) Bryophyte (D) None
19. Michorrhiza shows -

(A) Gymnosperm (B) Angiosperm (C) Bryophyte (D) None
20. Psilopsida members is -

(A) lycopodium (B) Pteris (C) Selaginella (D) none
1. D 2. D 3. A 4. A 5. C 6. A
7. B 8. B 9. B 10. D 11. A 12. A
13. B 14. C 15. A 16. A 17. A 18. C
19. A 20. A
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LEVEL - II
1. An algae which can be employed as food for humain being is -

(A) Ulohrix (B) Chlorella (C) Spirogyra (D) None
2. Lack of a all or all show -

(A) Cyanobacteria (B) Sea fan (C) Sacchromyces (D) BGA
3. The life cycle of algae such as spirogyra is -

(A) Haplontic (B) Diplontic (C) Haplo-diplontic (D) diplo
4. Chlorophyll of red algae is -

(A) Chl - a (B) Chl - a, Chl - b (C) Chl - a, Chl - d (D) Chl - a, Chl - e
5. Manmitol as a strong food in -

(A) Rhodhophyceae (B) Phaeophyceae (C) Chlerophyceae (D) Poaceae
6. Ectocarpus shows life cycle -

(A) haptontic (B) diplontic (C) haplo-diplontic (D) diplo-haplontic
7. Presence of pyrenoid shows by -

(A) Phaeophyceae (B) Chlorophycear (C) Rhodophyceae (D) Poaceae
8. Alginic acid is found in the cell wall of -

(A) Gigartira (B) Laminaria (C) Gelidium (D) Sytonema
9. Algae which form motile colony is -

(A) Volvox (B) Nostoc (C) Spirogyra (D) None
10. Iodine is found in algae -

(A) Ulva (B) Ulothrix (C) dilorella (D) Lamanaria
11. Reserve food is floridean starch in -

(A) Rhodophyceae (B) Phaeophyceae (C) Chlorophyceae (D) Xantaophyceae
12. Non motile, greatly tuicked, asexual spoxe in chlomydomonas is -

(A) Carpospore (B) Aplanospare (C) Alcinete (D) Hypnospore
13. Parosite algae is -

(A) Volvox (B) Ulothrix (C) Porphyra (D) Cephaleuros
14. Identify the alga, which exhibits diplontic life cycle -

(A) Spirogyra (B) Chlomydomonos (C) Fucus (D) Volvox
15. Botanical name of peat moss is -

(A) Sphagnum (B) Funaria (C) Antroceros (D) Polytrichum
16. Present in Archegoniophore -

(A) Chara (B) Adiantum (C) Funaria (D) Marchantia
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17. Moss spore germinate to form -
(A) Sporophyte (B) Protonema (C) Seta (D) capsule
18. Largest moss is -

(A) Pogonatum (B) Funaria (C) Dawsonia (D) Polytrichum
19. Domiant generation is bryophytes is -

(A) capsule (B) sporophyte (C) Gametophyte (D) Seta
20. The plants having vasular fissue but lacking seeds are present under -
(A) Algae (B) bryophytes (C) pteridophytes (D) Gymnosperm
1. C 2. B 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. C
7. B 8. B 9. A 10. D 11. A 12. D
13. D 14. C 15. A 16. D 17. B 18. C
19. A 20. C
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LEVEL - III
1. Protuallus of fern produces ?

(A) spores (B) gametes (C) Both (D) 1 & 2
2. The site of photo synthesis in BGA is -

(A) Chromato phores (B) mitochondria (C) Chleroplast (D) root hair
3. Phycology is the study of -

(A) Algae (B) Fern (C) Fungi (D) Bryophytes
4. Fern spores are usually ?

(A) haploid (B) diploid (C) triploid (D) tetra ploid
5. Agar-Agar is obtained from -

(A) Chlorella (B) Spirogyra (C) Ulthrix (D) Gelidium
6. Multiflagellate gamete in :
(A) Equisetum (B) Riccia (C) Lycopodium (D) Anthoceros
7. Club moss belongs to :

(A) Algae (B) Pteridophytes (C) Fungi (D) Bryophytes
8. Diatoms belong to which class -

(A) Phawphyceae (B) Bacillariophyceae (C) Chlorophyceae (D) Xantnophyceae
9. Heterocyst are found in -

(A) Eyanophyceae (B) Chlorophyceae (C) Phaeophyceae (D) Rhodophyceae
10. Manmitol as a strong food in -

(A) Rhodhophyceae (B) Phaeophyceae (C) Chlerophyceae (D) Poaceae
11. Green algae contain -

(A) chl-a & chl-b (B) starch (C) carotenoid (D) All of these
12. Which is the following responsible for peat farmation -

(A) Marchentia (B) Riccia (C) Funaria (D) Splagnum
13. Endo sperm of gymnosperm is -

(A) diploid (B) Tetraploid (C) baploid (D) none
14. Number of archlgania in cycas is -

(A) 8 (B) 4 (C) 3 (D) 2
15. In cycas -
(A) Archegania are present (B) Antneridia are present
(C) Archegania are absent (D) Both a & b
16. Rhodophyceae algae is not -

(A) Gracillaria (B) Porphira (C) Gellidium (D) Fucus
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17. Ovule of gymnosperm is -
(A) bitegmic (B) Unitegmic (C) nacked (D) both 2 & 3
18. In gymnosperm, the seeds are nacked because thye lack -

(A) Integyment (B) uncellus (C) percarp (D) perianty
19. Resin and Turpenfine are product of -

(A)Teak (B) Oak (C) Eucalyptur (D) Pine
20. Manocecious plant is -

(A) Marchantia (B) Pinns (C) cycas (D) Papaya
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. A 5. D 6. A
7. B 8. B 9. A 10. B 11. A 12. D
13. C 14. B 15. A 16. D 17. D 18. C
19. D 20. B
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CLASSIFICATION
Artificial System of Classification
This system is based on comparison of one or a few superficial characteristics, which are helpful in
easy identification of organisms. This system remained in use for about two thousent years.
Advantage
Advantages of artificial system are given below
(i) Artificial system is easy to remember as only one or few characters are used.
(ii) The traits used are of interest to humans.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages of artificial system are given below
(i) This system use only few superficial characters (i.e., habits, numbers, colours and shapes of
leaves, etc) which leads to many organisms grouped together.
(ii) They considered mainly the vegetative characters or the androecium characters as given by
Linnaeus.
(iii) It does not demonstrate natural and phylogenetic relationships.
(iv) This gave equal weightage to vegetative and reproductive/sexual characters this is not
acceptable, as vegetative characters are more easily influenced by the environmental factors.
(v) They sparated the closely related species.
Natural System of Classification

It is also known as phenetic system of classification. The natural system of classification is based on
natural affinities among the organisms. It considers both external and internal features like structure,
anatomy, embryology and phytochemistry.
Advantage
Advantages of natural system are given below :
(i) Only related organisms are kept in a group.
(ii) Unrelated organisms are kept in separate groups.
(iii) It shows natural relatioships among the organisms.
(iv) It shows possible origin of different taxa.
Disadvantage
Disadvantages of natural system are given below :
(i) There is more emphasis given on natural character.
(ii) In this system several related families are separate and unrelated families are put together.
(iii) Evolutionary basis is neglected.
Phylogenetic System of Classification

The phylogenetic system of classification indicates the evolutionary as well as genetic relationship
among organisms. This system is based on fossil recoreds of biochemical, anatomical, morphological,
physiological embryological and genetical.
The system was initiated by Engler and Prantl (1887-1899) in Die Naturalichen Pflanzefamilien. In
phylogenetic system, flowering plants are placed in ascending series related to complexity of floral
morphology. The phylogenetic system of classification are mainly the rearrangement of taxonomic
characters in addition to the phylogenetic information.
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Advantages
Advantages of phylogenetic system are given below :
(i) Families and order in this system are of small size.
(ii) This system is in conformation with the modern views of phylogeny.
(iii) They use information from various sources to solve problems of classification. Such information
become more important in the absence of supporting fossil evidences.
Disadvantage
Disadvantages of phylogenetic system are given below :
(i) This is not helpful in plant identification.
(ii) The classification is outdated as the habit is used as main basis of classification.
Types of Taxonomy
For the suitability in studies various categorisations has been done in taxonomy.
The important taxonomies are as follows
1. Numerical Taxonomy
It is carried out by quantitative assessment of similarities and differences in order to make objective
assessement. It is now easily carried out using computers based on all observable characteristics.
Number and codes are assigned to all the characters and the data are then processed. In this way,
each character is given equal importance and at the same time hundreds of characters can be considered.
2. Cytotaxonomy
Cytotaxonomy is based on cytological information like chromosome number, structure, behaviour and
type of chromosomes. For example,
(i) Chromosome number is constant for a species, e.g., 46 in man, 48 in apes and potato, 20 in
maize, 16 in onion and 8 in Drosophila.
(ii) Behaviour of chromosomes was used by taxonomists during pairing and banding patterns to
understand the relationships between species e.g., Origin of humans from apes, origin of wheat etc.
3. Chemotaxonomy
It is the system based on the evidences from chemical constituents (enzymes, hormones, proteins,
amino acids, etc.), some specific chemicals (usually secondary metabolites) and the chemical nature
of proteins have been utilised to establish similarities and relationships. For example, the presence of
raphides has been found to be common in 35 families of plants.
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Algae
Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, talloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic (both freshwater and
marine) organisms.
The important salient features of algae are given below :
(i) Habitat
These are found in both freshwater and marine habitats. Some algae forms are also found in moist
habitats like wet rocks and soil, tree trunks. etc. Some of them are also found in close association
with fungi (lichen) and animals (e.g., on sloth bear).
(ii) Thallus Organisation

The plant body (thallus) is without differentiation. The basis form and size of algae is highly variable,
and ranges from filamentaous (e.g., Ulothrix and Spirogyra) to colonial (e.g., Volvax). These are attached
on the substratum with the help of holdfast.
(iii) Structure of Algae Cell

It has on eukaryotic plant cell structure. The cytoplasm contains membrance bound chloroplast,
mitochondria, ER, Golgi bodies and other cell organelles. The cell wall contains cellulose. The nucleus
contains nuclear membrane.
(iv) Food Material

Algae have main food reserve as starch. In brown algae, mannitol and laminarine are the main reserve
food material, whereas in red algae floridean starch is the reserve food material.
(v) Reproduction
The algae reproduces vegetatively, asexually and sexually.
(i) Vegetative Reproduction

It occurs by fragmentation, tubes, stolons, adventitions branches, etc. Each fragment gets
develop into a thallus.
(ii) Asexual Reproduction

It occurs by a number of accessory spores, such as zoospores aplanospores, akinetes,
carpospores, etc. The most common being the zoospores, which are flagellated. The cells which
produce spores are called sporangia. The sporangia may be the vegetative cells (e.g. in Chlamydomonas
and Ulothrix) or modified vegetative cells (e.g. in Vaucheria).
(iii) Sexual Reproduction

It occurs by fusion of two gametes.
On the basis of morphology of reproductive cells, sexual reproduction is of two types :
(a) Isogamy In this method, two morphologically similar gametes fuse to form a zygote, e.g.,
Spirogyra.
(b) Heterogamy In this process, fusion occurs between morphologically as well as physilogically
different gametes. It is of two types
 Anisogamy It is the fusion of structurally dissimilar gametes, which differ in size and behaviour.
Male gamete is more active and female gamete is less active and bigger in size, e.g., Some
species of Chlamydomonas.
 Oogamy In this process, the male gamete is motile, active, small and without reserve food.
The female gamete is bigger, passive, non-motile and laden with food, e.g., Volvox, Fucus.
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(vi) Embryo and Life Cycle
An embryo stage is non present. Life cycle is haplontic, diplontic, diplohaplontic haplohaplontic, etc.
An alternation of generation occurs in diplohaplontic life cycle.
(vii) Economic Importance of Alage

(i) Alage are responsible for carrying out about a half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on earth
by the process of photosynthesis.
(ii) some forms of marine brown and red algae produce large amount of hydrocolloids. These are
algin (brown algae) and carrageenan (red algae) which have many commercial uses.
(iii) The algae Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to produce agar, which is used in preparation of
ice creams and jellies.
(iv) Some protein rich algae, like Chlorella and Spirullina are used as food supplements by sailors
and space travellers.
(v) About 70 species of marine algae are used as food, e.g., Porphyra, Laminaria and Sargassum.
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Classification of Algae
Algae are divided into various classes based on pigmentation, stored food and flagellation. The main
classes are Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
i. Class Chlorophyceae (Green Algae)

The membres of Chlorophyceae are commonly called green algae. There are about 7000 species in
this class. The reserve food material is starch.
The characteristics feature of Chlorophyceae are discussed below :
(a) Habitat These are mostly marine forms, only some are freshwater. Chlorella can tolerate
moderately warm waters. Snow dweling forms are called cryophytes, e.g., Chlamydomonas
nivalis, Scotiella, etc.
(b) Cell Organisation These are unicellular, colonial, coenocytic and multicellular forms. Cell
walls contain cellulose (inner layer) and pectose (outer layer) in most of the gree algae. The
chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon shaped.
The chloroplasts contain pigments. Most of the members have one or more stage bodies called
pyrenoids located in the chloroplasts. Pyreniods contain protein besides starch . Some algae may
store food in the form of oil droplets also.
(c) Thallus Unicellular green algae can be flagellate, (Chlamydomonas), unicellular, non-flagellate
(Chlorella). Acetabularia (umbrella plant) has unic upto 10 cm long with distinction nucleus
containing rhizoid, elongated sta and umbrella like cap.
A colony for fixed number of individual unicells (Volvox) is called coenobiur Coenocytic or
siphonaceaus thallus occur in Caulerpa. Unbranched filamentory Cladophora, heterotrichous
in Stigecloniu and parenchymatous in Ulva.
(d) Reproduction The membres Chlorophyceae reproduce vegetativel asexually and sexually by
various methods.
 Vegetative reproduction occurs through cell division (unicellular forms fragmentation, stolons,
tubers, storag cells, etc.
 Asexual reproduction occurs by zoospores, aplanospores, hypnospores akinetes and
daughters colonies.
 Sexual reproduction may be isogamous anisogamous or oogamous.
(e) Life Cycle It can be haplontic, diplontic and diplohaplontic. In haplontic life cycle there is a
single somatic phase, which is haploid. Diploid stage is represented by a single cell zygote, e.g., In
Spirogyra.
ii. Cell-Phaeophyceae (Brown Algae)

The membres of Phaeophyceae are fucoxanthin and phycocolloid rich multicellular eukaryotic algae.
Its common members are seaweeds called kelps. This class is comprised of about 2000 species.
(a) Habitat Brown algae are mostly marine. These are found mostly in colder seas or during cold
seasons in tropical regions.
(b) Size They range from simple branched, filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to profusely branched
forms as represented by kelps.
These represent largest algae. The largest kelps are Macrocystic (40-100m) and Nereocystis
(20-30m).
(c) Cell Organisation All members are multicellular. Cell wall is composed of cellulose, pectose
and phycocolloids. The cellulosic wall of vegetative cells is usually covered on the outside by
a gelatinous coating of algin.
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(d) Thallus It is heterotrichous filament with both prostrate and upright brnaches (Ectocarpus).
The parenchymatous structure is found in higher forms.
The plant boyd of large forms often differentiated into holdfast (with which it usually attaches
to the substratum) a stalk called the stipe and lamina (frond), which is photosynthetic.
Conducting tubes or trumpet hyphae are present in larger brown algae or kelps. They halp in
conduction of food materials.
(e) Photosynthetic Pigments and Colour These include chlorophyll-a, c and carotenoids. They
ranges in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending upon the amount of the
xanthophyll pigment, fucoxanthin present in them.
(f) Food Reserve It remains in the form of complex carbohydrates such as laminarin or mannitol.
(g) Flagellation These contain heterokont flagellation with one smooth (whiplash) and one tinsel
flagella.
(h) Reproduction Vegetative reproduction occurs through fragmentation (e.g., Sargassum),

adventitious branches and stolons (e.g., Dictyota). Asexual reproduction by biflagellate
zoospores, which are pear-shaped having two unequal laterally attached flagella.
Sexual reproduction is performed by isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy. Union of gametes
may take place in water or within the oogonium (oogamons species). The gametes are pyriform
(pear-shaped) and have two laterally attached flagella.
(i) Life Cycle Isomorphic alternation of generation is found in some brown algae, e.g., Ectocarpus,
Dictyota. In many brown algae, the diploid generation or phase is dominant. The haploid
phase is either microscopic or represented by gametes only (e.g., Fucus).
Economic Importance of Pheophyceae

 The brown algae that are used as food are Laminaria, Nerocystis, Macrocystis, Alaria, etc.
 Some brown algae like Fucus, Sargassam, Laminaria, Macrocystis are important fodder for
cattle.
 Brown algae are collected from sea shores and used as manure. They improve mineral content
of soilds.
 Alginic acid is a phycocolloid obtained from a number of brown algae such as Alaria,
Macrocystis, Ascophyllum, Laminaria. It is used as emulsifier, thickener, gelating agent in
toothpastes, shaving creams, ice-creams, emulsion paints, shampoo, cosmetics, etc.
 Fucus and Laminaria are rich in iodine.
iii. Class-Rhodophyceae (Red Algae)

The members of Rhodophyceae are commonly called red algae because of the predominance of the
red pigment, i.e., r-phycoerythin in their body.
(a) Habitat Most of the red algae are marine with greater concentrations found in the warmer
areas. They are found in both well lighted regions close to the surface of water and also at
great depths in oceans where relatively little light penetrates.
(b) Thallus The red thalli of most of the algae are multicellular. Some of them have complex body
organisation like Asterocystic is pseudofilamentous, Porphyridium is unicellular, Porphyra
has parenchymatous sheets, Chondrus is ribbon like, Gelidium is a multicellular sea weed.
(c) Cell Wall The cell wall contains cellulose, pectic compounds and certain mucopolysaccharides
called phycocolloids, such as agar, carrageenin, etc. In many algae, cell wall contans pits.
(d) Photosynthetic Pigments These include chlorophyll-a, carotenes, xanthophylls and

phycobilins. Phycobilins are water soluble and are of two types, i.e., red-coloured phycoerythin
and blue-coloured phycocyanin.
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(e) Reserve Food It is floridean starch similar in constitution to glycogen and amylopectin.
(f) Reproduction Vegetative reproduction occurs by fragmentation, regeneration of hold fast and
gemmae. Asexual reproduction occurs by non-motile spores (carpospores, monospores,
tetraspores and neutral spores).
Sexual reproduction occurs by non-motile gametes and is oogamous type. The male sex
organs is called spermatogonium or antheridium. The male produced is non-flagellated,
called as spermatium.
The female sex organ is called carpogonium. After fertilisation, a new structure called
carposporophyte is produced. It remains attached to the parent alga.
(g) Life Cycle Life Cycle has two or more phases such as haplohaplontic, haplohaplohaplontic,
diplodiplohaplontic, etc.
Economic Importance of Red Algae

 The Red algae like Porphyra, Chondrus, Rhodymenia, Centerella and Bostrychia are used as
food in various parts of the world.
 Agar yielding algae are called aerophytes, such as Gelidium, Gracilaria, Gelidiella, etc.
 Carrageenin a phycocolloid obtained from red algae like Chondrus and Gigartina is used in
preparations of emulsions for ice cream, chcolates, sauces, toothpastes, cosmetics, etc. It
is also used in clearing liqueurs and finishing leather, etc.
 Funori and adhesive phycocolloid is obtained from red alga Gloiopeltis. It is used in sizing
textiles, paper and as glue.
 Some algae like Corallina, Polysiphonia have medicin properties.
Salient Feature of Major Classes of Algae

Character Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae
Habitat Freshwater, marine or Only four genera are fresh Mostly marine; a few
terrestial. water, rest marine. are terrestrial.
Thallus form Unicellular, colonial, Filamentous, branched Unicellular, filamentous
coenobial, filamentous, usually heterotrichous. pseudoparechymatous
thalloid or siphonaceous.
Cell Structure Eukaryotic, well organized Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
nucleus and other cell
organelles present.
Cell wall Cell wall is made up of Outer mucilagenous layer Outer layer is pectic in
cellulose and pecific of cell wall consists of nature, whereas inner
material. alginic and fucinic acids layer is cellulosic.
and the inner layer is made
up of cellulose.
Flagella Motic cells with 2, 4 or 2, laterally inserted, of Non-flagellate, motile

more flageila; flagella unequal length; one of them cells are absent.
anteriorly inserted equal in whiplash and another of
length and whiplash type. tinsel type.
Dominant Chlorophyll-a, and b,  and Chlorophyll-a, and c, - Chlorophylla, and d -
pigments -carotene, xanthophyll. carotene, xanthophyll carotene (lustein)
(violaxanthin, fucoxanthin) xanthophylls,
Nucleus W ell organized nucleus with As in Chlorophyceae. As in Chlorophyceae.
chromosomes and
nucleolus is present.
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Bryophytes
Bryophytes
Bryophytes include the various mosses and liverworts. These are non-vascular embryophytes,
characterised by the presence of an independent gametophyte and parasitic sporophyte.
Habitat
Bryophytes commonly grow in moist, shaded areas in hills. These are also called amphibians of the
plant kingdom because, these can live in soil but are dependent on water for sexual reproduction.
Rhizoids
These are attached to the substratum by unicellular multicellular rhizoids.
Sex Organs
The main plant body produces gametes, hence it is cal gametophyte. The sex organs in bryophytes
multicellular, the male sex organs in bryophytes is cal antheridium (which produces biflagellate antherozoi
and the flask-shaped female sex organ is cal archegonim (produces a single egg.).
Reproduction
It is of sexual type reproduction. The antherozoids : released into water they come in contact with
archegonium.
Fertilisation
It occurs inside the archegonium. The egg secretes chemical which attracts spermatozoids. Sperms
required thin film of water for swimming and reaching to dehisced archegonium. One sperm fuses with
an egg and produces a diploid zygote. Zygotes do not under reduction division immediately instead,
they produce multicellular body called sporophyte.
The sporophyte is n free-living but attached to the photosynthet gametophyte deriving
nourishment from it. Some cells the sporophyte undergo reduction division (meiosis) produce haploid
spores (which germinate to produced gametophyte).
The sporophyte of bryophytes is called sporogonium because it is mainly dependent and
mean for producing spores.
Life Cycle
Bryophytes have heteromorphic or heterologous alternation of generation. The gametophyte many be
produced directly or first from a juvenile stage called protonema.
Economic Importance
Bryophytes in general are of little economic importance But, several species have some uses.
(i) Some mosses provide food for herbaceous mammals birds and other animals.
(ii) Species of Sphagnum (a moss), provides peat the have long been used as fuel. It has the
capacity to hold water as packing material for transshipment of living material.
(iii) Mosses along with lichens are the first organisms to colonise rocks. Hence, these help in
bilogical succession. They decompose rocks making the substrate suitable for the growth of
higher plants.
(iv) Mosses from dense mats on the soil, they reduce the impact of falling rain and prevent soil
erosion.
(v) Marchantia has medicinal properties to cure lungs and liver infections. It also has antitumour
properties.
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Bryophytes do not attain heights. They may range of 0.4 to 70 cm and have thalloid body.
The reasons may be following
(i) Root is absent.
(ii) Vascular tissue are not present.
(iii) Cuticle is not present on the plant body.
(iv) Absence of mechanical tissue.
(v) Male gametes need to swin upto the interior of dehisced archegonia.
Types of Bryophytes
The bryophytes are generally classified into two main groups
i. Liverworts
Liverworts (Hepaticopsida) usually grow in moist, shady places such as banks of streams, marshy
ground, damp soil, bark of trees and deep in the woods.
(a) Thallus The plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e.g., Marchantia., The thallus is dorsoventral
and closely appressed to the substrate. The leafy members have tiny leaf like appendages in
two rows on the stem like structure.
(b) Rhizoids These are unicellular. These may be of two types in some liverworts, i.e., smooth
walled and tuberculate.
(c) Reproduction It may occur by sexual and sexual means.

 Asex ual Reproduct ion It occurs by f ragm entati on of t hall i or by t he f ormati on
of speci al ised st ruct ures call ed gemmae (si gn. gemm a). G em mae are green,
mult icell ular, asexual buds which dev elop i n small receptacl es cal led gem ma
cups located on the t hall i . The gem mae becom e det ached f rom the parent
body and germinat e, f orming new indiv i duals.
 Sexual Reproduction During this male and female sex organs are produced either on
the same or on different thalli. The sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and capsule.
After meiosis, spores are produced within the capsule.
 These spores germinate to form free-living gametophytes, e.g., Riccia, Marchantia, Pellia,
etc.
ii. Mosses
Mosses (Bryopsida) grow in dense mats over moist shady places, especially during rains. Some
mosses grow in desert bogs and streams.
(a) Plant Body The predominant stage of the life cycle of a moss is the gametophyte which
consists of two stages the first stage is the protonema stage which develops directly from a
spore. It is a creeping, green, branched and frequently filamentous stage; the second stage is
the leafy stage which develops from the secondary protonema as a lateral bud. They consist
of upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves. This stage bears sex cells.
(b) Rhizoids These are long, multicellular branched structures with oblique septa. They take part
in fixation and absorption of water. However, surface conduction through capillarity is an
important mechanism of water supply to aerial parts.
(c) Reproduction This can occur both by vegetative and sexual means.
 Vegetative Reproduction It occurs by fragmentation and budding in the secondary protonema
from exposed rhizoids and other parts (like gemmae, buds and tubes).
 Sexual Reproduction Sex organs, antheridia and archegonia are produced the apex of
the leafy surface. Male organs appear cup-shaped, while female organs are bud-like. After
fertilisation, the zygote develops into a sporophyte, consisting of foot, seta and capsule
(containing spores).
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(d) Sporophyte The sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate than that in liverworts. Spores are
formed after meiosis. The mosses have an elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal, e.g., Funaria,
Polytrichum and Sphangnum.
Difference between Liverworts and Mosses

Liverworts Mosses
They are dorsiventral. They have radial symmetry.
Plants are thalloid or foliose. Mosses are foliose.
Midribs is not present in leaves. Leaves have unbranched midrib.
Rhizoids are unicellular and Rhizoids are multicellular and
unbranched. branched.
Plants bear scales. Scales are absent in plants.
A conducting strand is absent. A conducting strand is commonly present.
Sporophyte is differentiated in foot, It is not differentiated in foot, seta
seta and capsule. and capsule
Capsule often possesses elaters. Elaters are absent.
Dehiscence occurs through elaters. Peristome perform these functions.
A protonema stage is absent. A juvenile protonema stage is present.
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Pteridophytes
Pteridophytes are primitive seedless vascular plants al called cryptogams. These have conspicuous
sporophyte plant body, inconspicuous independent gametophyte with antheridia and partially embedded
archegonia have it 4-rowed necks.
The team Pteridophyte was coined by Haeckel (1866). There are about 13000 species of pteridophytes
have been repoted. They were perhaps the first land plants evolved during ordovician (450-500) million
years ago) period.
The characteristics features of pteridophytes are as follow :
Habitat
The pteridophytes are found in cool, damp shady placed though some may flourish well in sandy-soil
conditions. Some members like Azolla, Salvinia, Marsilae species.
Plant Body
The size varies from a fraction of centimeter (e.g., Azolla) to 20 m in tree ferns (e.g., Angiopteris). The
main plant body a sporophyte which is differentiated into true roots, and leaves. These organs posses
well differentiated vascular tissues. The leaves are small (microphyllus) as in in Selaginell or large
(macrophylls) as in ferns.
Vascular Tissues
These are xylem and phloem present throughout the body Xylem consists of tracheids and phloem is
made up of sieve cells and albuminous cells.
Sporophylls
The sporophytes bear sporangia that are subtended by leavs like appendages called sporophylls. In
some case sporophylls may form distinct compact structure called strobili or cones (Selaginella and
Equisetum). The sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore mother cells.
Spres
The spores germinate to give rise to inconspicuous, smal but multicellular free-living, mostly
photosynthetic thalloic gametophytes called prothallus. In mojority of the pteridophytes, all the spores
are of similar kinds; such plants are called homosporous. Genera like Selaginella and Salvinia
which produce two kinds of spores, macro (large) and macro (small) spores; such plants are called
heterosporous.
Gametophyte
The thalloid gametophyte or prothallus require cool, damp, shady places to grow. The megaspores
and microspores germinate and give rise to female and male gametophytes respectively. The female
gametophyhtes in these plants is retained on the parent sporophytes for viable periods. In most ferns,
prothallus is green and autotrophic. In heterosporous ferns, the female gametophyte depends on food
by the megaspore.
Sex Organs
The gametophytes bear male sex organs called antheridia and female sex organs called archegonia.
Antheridium is sessile and surrounded by a single layered jacket. Archegonium is flask-shaped. It is
partially embedded.
Fertilisation
Water is required for transfer of antherozoids. The male gametes released from the antheridia and
reach of the mouth of archegonium. Fusion of male gamete with the egg present in the archegonium
result in the formation of zygote. Zygote therefore, produces a multicellular, well differentiated sporophyte,
which is the dominant phase of the pteridophytes.
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Embryo
Fertilisation produces a zygote that undergoes division to produce embryo. The development of the
zygote into young embryo takes place within the female gametophyte. This event is a precursor of the
seed habit and considered as an important step in evolution, e.g., Dryopteris, Selaginella, Adiantum,
Equisetum and Salvinia.
Economic Importance of Pteridophytes

(i) Pteridophytes are a good source of food for animals. For example, sporocarps of Marsilea is
ebide. Angiopteris and Alsophila have starchy pith eaten by natives of Australia.
(ii) Ferns protect soil from erosion by providing a good cover on the hill slopes and other fragile
places.
(iii) Equisetum stems have rough surfaces. They are used in scrubbing and polishing.
(iv) Azolla a water fern has a symbiotic association with nitrogen fixing cyanobacterium Anabaena
azollae. It is cultured in paddy fields to harbour nitrogen fixing bacterium. Thus, act as a
biofertiliser.
(v) Ferns are also grown as ornamental plants for their graceful plant body.
Classification of Pteridophytes
The pteridophytes are futher classified into four classes
(i) Psilopsida (Psilotum)
(ii) Lycopsida (Selaginella and Lycopodium)
(iii) Sphenopsida (Equisetum)
(iv) Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris and Adiantum)
Difference between Bryophytes and Pteridophytes

Bryophytes Pteridophytes
The main plant body is It is sporophyte.
gametophyte.
These are non-vascular plants. These are vascular plants.
Sporophyte is parasitic over Sporophyte is independent of
gametophyte. gametophyte.
Plant body can be thallus or foliose. It is differentiated into stem, leaves and roots
Thru stems and leaves are not present. It has true stems and leaves
Roots are absent, rhizoids are present. Roots are present
Sex organs are stalked. Sex organs are sessile.
The wall of archegonial neck is 5-6 rowed. The wall of archegonial neck is 4-rowed.
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Gymnosperms
The gymnosperms (Gymnos = nacked ; sperma = seeds) are plants in which the ovules are not
enclosed by any ovary wall and remain exposed, both before and after fertilisation. These are small
groups of seed plants which are represented by only 900 living species. Unlike bryophytes and
pteridophytes, in gymnosperms the male and the female gametophytes do not have an independent
free-living existence. They remain within the sporangia retained on the sporophytes.
Habitat
These plants are mostly found in colder parts of northern hemisphere, where they form extensive
forests. A number of gymnosperms are now, know as ornamentals, e.g., Ginkgo, Thuja, Araucaria,
etc.
Morphology
Gymnospersm include, medium-sized trees or tall trees and shrubs. The giant red wood tree Sequoia
is one of the forest tree upto 100 m. Species of Gnetum are woody climbers. The smallest gymnosperm
is Zamia pygmaea which reaches a height of 25 cm. Many of the gymnosperms live fore more than 400
years, e.g., Pine (Pinus), redwood (Sequoia).
External Features
The plant body is sporophyte and differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
Plant Body
Tap roots are present for proper anchorage to heavy plant. Roots in some genera have fungal association
in the form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some other (Cycas) small specialised roots called coralloid
roots are associated with N2-fixing cyanobacteria such as Anabaena, Nostoc, etc.
The stems are branched (Pinus, Cedrus) or unbranched (Cycas). The leaves may be simple or
compound.
In Cycas, the pinnate leaves persist for few years. The leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted to
withstand extermes of temperature, humidity and wind. While, in conifers, the needle-like leaves
reduce the surface area. Their thick cuticle and sunken stomata also help to reduce water loss.
Internal Features
Plant possess vascular tissues i.e., xylem and phloem. They are arranged in vascular bundles.
Vascular Tissues
The conducting part of xylem consists of tracheid. Vessels occur in Gnetum and its relatives. Phloem
has sieve cells, but are arranged in rows in Gnetum.
Reproduction
The gymnosperms are heterosporous, i.e., they produce haploid microspores and megaspore.
Cones
The two kinds of spores are produced within sporangia that are born on sporophylls, which are arranged
along on axis to form compact strobili or cones. They are produced in different types of sporangia
called microsporangia or microsporophylls and ovules or megasporangia respectively.
The strobili bearing microsporangia are called microsporangiate or male strobilia and the strobili,
bearing megasporophylls with ovules or megasporangia are called macrosporangiate of female
strobili.
Pollen Grains
The microspores develop into a male gametophytic generation which is highly reduced and is confined
only to a limited number of cells, known as pollen grain. The development of pollen grains occurs
within the microsporangia.
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Ovules
The megaspore mother cell is differentiated from one of the cells of the nucellus, which is protected by
envelopes and the composite structure called ovule. The ovules are borne on the megasporophylls
which may be clustered together forming female cones.
Archegonia
The megaspore mother cell thus, undergo meiotic division forming four megaspores. Out of which one
is enclosed within the megasporangium (nucellus) and develops into a multicellular female gametophyte,
bearing two or more archegonia of female sex organs.
The multicellular female gametophyte is also retained within megasporangium.
Fertilisation
Air current required for trnasport of male gametes. The male gametes are carried to the archegonia.
i.e., gamete in the ovule by means of a tube called pollen tube and discharge their contents near the
mouth of archegonia. This is called siphonogamy.
Seeds
Following fertilisation, zygote develops into an embryo and the ovules into seeds. The seeds contain
food laden tissue called endosperm. It lies naked or exposed. Endosperm provides nourishment for
growth of seedling at the time of seed germination.
Examples Cycas, Pinus, Ginkgo, Ephedra, Gnetum, Vaucheria, Cedrus, Abies, etc.
Difference between Microsporophyll and Megasporophyll

Microsporophyll Megasporophyll
It bears microsporangia. It bears megasporangia.
It contains numberous microspores. It usually contains one megaspore.
Microspores are released. Megaspore are retains inside the megasporangium.
Classification of Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms further include three main classes
Cycadopsida (cycads), Coniferopsida (conifers) Gnetopsida (Gnetum).
Difference between Male Gametophyte of Pteridophyte and Gymnosperms

Male Gametophyte of Male Gametophyte of
Pteridophyte Gymnosperms
A distinct male gametophyte may A distinct male gametophyte is present.
not be present.
It contains an antheridium. Antheridium is not present.
Male gametes are flagellate. Male gametes can be flagellate or non-flagellate.
Male gametes reach female gametes Male gametes reach the female gamete through
by swimming in water. a pollen tube.
Economic Importance of Gymnosperms

(i) Seeds of Pinus gerardiana (chilgoza) are used a food after roasting. Some other edible
gymnosperms plant part are endosperm of Ginkgo, seed kernel of Cycas and Gnetum, sego
grains from stems of Cycas etc.
(ii) Gymnosperms provide softwood for construction, plywood and paper inducstry.
(iii) Branches of gymnosperm trees ae used as food.
(iv) Saw dust of conifers is used in making plastic and linoleum.
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(v) Resin is a semifluid secreted by special tubes of number of conifers. It helps in sealing female
cones after pollination, scale leaves around leave bases and apical buds. Resin is distilled to
obtain turpentine and resin. Turpentine is used for thining paints, varnishes, etc., and resin
is used for sealing joints, wheel green, preparation of writing paper, oil clothes, etc.
(vi) Ephedrine an antibiotic is obtained from Ephedra. It is used for curing respiratory problems
and asthma. Taxol is an anticancer drug obtained from taxus.
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Angiosperms
Angiosperms are seed bearing plants or flowering plants. Unlike gymnosperms where the ovules are
nacked, in angiosperms the sporophyll are organised into flowers and the seeds are produced inside
fruits. There are about 250000 species of angiosperms in the nature. They evolved about 130-160
million years ago.
Habitat
Angiosperm are found in wide range of habitats, from the land to upto 6000 m in Himalayas or Antarctica
and Tundra, dry hot deserts, cold deserts, tropics, fresh water up to 600 C, underground, over other
plants as parasites, saprophyte, etc. Zostera is a marine angiosperm.
Plnat Body
These plant are sporophytic, in the form of herbs, shrubs, trees, climber creepers, etc. The smallest
angiosperm is water plant Wolffia and tallest is Eucalyptus regnans (100 m and above). Primary root
develops from radicle. It forms tap root system. In many angiosperms roots develop from places other
than radicle, these are adventitious roots. Stem develops from plumule.
Leaves
These are simple or compound. The leaves bear axillary buds which can grow into stem branches.
Vascular Tissues
Angiosperms have vessels in xylem. Phloem contains sieve tubes and companion cells in regard to
gymnosperms which do not have companion cells.
Flowers
Flowers are the reproductive structures formed by the union of one or both types of sporophylls
(microsporophylls or stamens and megasporophylls or carpels).
Microsporophylls or Male Sex Organs

Stamens are considered as the male sex organs of a flower. Each stamen has two main parts. i.e., a
slender filament with an anther (at the tip). An anther contains four microsporangia where microspore
mother cells become differentiated to form four microspores, each developing into a pollen grain.
Megasporophylls or Female Sex Organs

Carpel or pistil is called the female sex organ of the flower. Each carpel has three parts (i.e., an ovary,
style and stigma). A megaspore mother cell is differentiated in the nucellus and undergoes meiosis,
ultimately on functional megaspore gets enlarged and forms the female gametophyte known as embryo-
sac.
Each cell of an embryo sac is haploid.
Embryo sac
Each embryosac contain a three called egg apparatus consisting of one egg cell and two synergids, three
antipodal cells (at the opposite end) and two polar nuclei (in the central cell). The polar nuclei eventually
fuses and forms diploid secondary nucleus.
Pollination
Pollen grains after dispersal form the anthers are carried by various ways such as wind, water or by
various other agencies to the stigma of the pistil.
Fertilisation and Development of a Seed

Each pollen grain germinates on the stigma forming a pollen tube that carries two male gametes to the
embryo sac, growing through the tissues of stigma and style.
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One of the male gametes fuses with the egg cell to form a zygote (syngamy).
The other male gamete fuses with the diploid secondary uncleus to produce the triploid Primary
Endosperm Nucleus (PEN). Because of the involvement of above mentioned two events, it is known as
double fertilisation. After fertilisation, synergids and antipodal cells degenerate.
Endosperm
The zygote develops into embryo and the primary endosperm nucleus develops into an endosperm.
Fruit
The ovule gradually transforms into a seed and the ovary becomes the fruit. A fruit is actually a ripened
ovary. They not only protect the seed but also help in their dispersal.
Difference between Gymnosperm and Angiosperm

Gymnosperms Angiospe rms
Ves sel or trachea is absent in xylem . Trac hea is present in xylem.
Phloem tissue contains sieve tube and
Phloem contains sieve ce lls.
companion ce lls.
Sporophyll are aggregated to form cones. Sporophyll are aggre gated to produce flowers.
Sepals and pe tals absent. Se pals and petals pre sent.
Cones are generally unisexual. Flowers are ge nerally bisexual.
Microsporophyll have a stalk and terminal
Microsporophyll are broad and leaf like.
anthers.
Megasporophylls are woody and there is The m egasporophyll are softer and rolled into
not rolling of megasporophylls. ovary, style and stigma.
Ovules are exposed. Ovules are enclosed in ovary.
Archegonia is pre sent. Archegonia absent.
Pollen germ inates on stigma, pollen tube
Pollen e nters microphyle directly.
passes through style to e nter ovary.
Single fertilisation. Double fertilisation
Endosperm is haploid and formed before Endosperm is triploid and form ed after
fertilisation. fertilisation.
Seeds expose d because there in no ovary, Se eds are e nclosed in a fruit which form s after
so no fruit form ation. fertilisation.
Classification of Angiosperms
George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker presented the system of classification of angiosperms
published in Genera Plantarum (1862-1883) which appeared in three volumes.
This system of classification is used by most of the well known Herbaria of the world. The details of
this system are not described here. Conveniently, on the basis of the number of cotyledons angiosperm
are classified in two broad groups i.e., Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae.
Difference between Monocots and Dicots

M o n o c o ts D ico ts
They c ontains o ne c oty ledon. They c ont ain tw o c ot y ledon s .
Leaves have parallel venation. Leaves have retic ulat e venation.
F ibrous root s y s tem is pres ent. Tap root s y s t em is pres ent .
S tom ata and du m b-bell s haped. S tom ata are k idney -s haped.
V as c ular bundles are s c att ered. V as c ular bu ndles are arranged in rings .
C am bium is abs ent. C am bium is pres ent.
S tem s do not have c onc entric S tem s have c onc ent ric arra ngem ent of
arrangem ent of t is s ue. A ground tis s ue epiderm is c ortex , endoderm is ,
tis s ue is pres en t. peric y c le, pith, etc .
S ec ondary grow th is abs ent w it h
Thes e s how s ec ondary grow th in s tem .
s om e ex c ept ion in s tem s .
R oot has pith in its c entre. R oot is generally devoid of pith.
S ec ondary grow th is abs ent in
S ec ondary grow t h oc c urs in roots .
roots w ith s om e ex c eption.
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Economic Importance of Angiosperm
(i) The angiosperms are major source of food. fibres, and bevera.
(ii) They also provide valuable timb and medicines.
(iii) These also add beauty to our environment as well.
Alternation Generation
Life cycle of an organism is a sequence events that occur from birth to death organism. In plants, both
haploid diploid cells an divide by mitosis.
This features leads to the formation different plant bodies haploid and dip. The haploid plant body
produces gamete mitosis. This plant body represent gametophyte.
After fertilisation, zygote also divide mitosis to produce a diploid sporophyte plant body. Haploid spores
are produce by this plant body by meiosis. The inturn, divide by mitosis to form a haploid plant body
once again.
Thus, during the life cycle of an sexual reproducing plant, there is a alternate of generation between
gamete produces haploid gametophyte and spore produces diploid sporophyte.
Plant Life Cycles

Different plant groups and individual different features in their life cycle
Haplontic
The dominant photosynthetic phase in gametophyte produced by haploid sporophyte. The gametophyte
produces gametes mitosis.
The gametes fuse and produce a diploid zygote, that represents sporophyte generation. These are no
free living sporophytes. Meiosis in the zygote rest in formation of haploid spores. This kind of life cycle
is called haplontic.
Many algae such as Volvox, Spirogyra and Chlamydomonas represent this pattern of life cycle.
Zygote
Sy
(2n) Meiosis
ng
am
Spores
y
A (n)
Gametogenesis B
Haplontic
Gametophyte
(n)
Diplontic
In this type, the diploid sporophyte is the dominant. The multicellular diploid phase is called sporophyte.
The gametophytic phase is represented by the single of few celled haploid gametophyte.
This kind of life cycle is termed as diplontic. All seed bearing plants, gymnosperms and angiosperms
follow this pattern of life cycle. Fucus, an angle is diplontic.
Sporophyte
(2n)
Diplontic
A
Zygote y
am Metosis
(2n) yng
S
B
Gametogenesis (n)
Gametophyte
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Sporophyte
(2n)
Zygote
(2n)
Syn
gam A
y
Meiosis
Gametogenesis
Haplo-diplontic Spores
(n)
B
Gametophyte
(n)
Haplodiplontic
In this type, there are two distinct multicellualr phases, diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte
are present. Both phases are multicellular. However, they differ in their dominant phases.
(i) A dominant, independent, photosynthetic, thalloid or erect phase is represented by a haploid
gametophyte. It alternates with the short lived multicellular sporophyte totally, partially or
dependent on the gametophyte for its anchorage and nutrition. All bryophytes represent this
pattern.
(ii) The diploid saprophyte is represented by a dominant independent photosynthetic vascular
plant body. It alternates with multicellular saprophytic/autotrophic, independent but short lived
haploid gametophyte. This pattern is called haplodiplontic life cycle.
All pteridophytes demonstrate this pattern.
However, most algal genera are haplontic, some of them such as Ectocarpus, Polysiphonia
and kelps are haplodiplontic.
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27
ANIMAL KINGDOM
Contents
Topic Page No.
Exercise 02 - 7
Notes
Classification basis 08 - 13
Phylum-Chordata 14 - 20
Nemaherdata 21 - 22
Syllabus
ANIMAL KINGDOM
Classification Basis, Phylum-Chordata, Nemaherdata
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ANIMAL KINGDOM
LEVEL - I
1. Radial symmetry shows by -

(A) Echinodermata (B) eteuopuora
(C) Coelenterata (D) All of these
2. Asymmetrical animal example is -

(A) Sponge (B) Annelids (C) Arthropodes (D) Sea anemones
3. Triploblastic Animal example -

(A) Coelenterata (B) Platyhelminthues-chordata
(C) Porifera (D) Ctenophora
4. Aschelminthes is -
(A) Acoelomate (B) Pseudocoelomate
(C) Schizocoelomate (D) Enterocoelomates
5. Tube within tube body plan present in -

(A) Aschelminthes (B) Ctenophora
(C) Spange (D) Flate worm
6. Select right example of protostomes -

(A) Annelida (B) Arthropode (C) Round worms (D) All of these
7. Excretory organ of flatworm is -

(A) Body surface (B) Nephridia (C) Coxal gland (D) Flame cell
8. Radula present in which phylum -

(A) Mollusca (B) Ctenophora (C) 1 & 2 (D) Cyclostomata
9. Cell aggregate body plam present in -

(A) Sponge (B) Coelenterata (C) Inseet (D) All of these
10. Pentaradial symmetry is found in -

(A) Echinodermata (B) Annelida (C) Porifera (D) Arthropode
11. A marine carticaginous fish that can produce electric current is -

(A) Pristis (B) Torpedo (C) Trygon (D) Scolioden
12. Ophiura is example of phylum -

(A) Hemichordate (B) Mollusea (C) Echinodermata (D) Arthropode
13. Acorn or tengue worm is -

(A) Saccoglossus (B) Balanoglossus (C) Cephalodiscus (D) Asterias
14. Doliolum is example of -

(A) Vertebrate (B) Cephalochordate (C) Urochero (D) None of these
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15. Petromyzon is -
(A) Ostracodermi (B) Placodermi (C) Cyclostomata (D) Chondrichthyes
16. Fossil bird is -

(A) Kiwi (B) Archaeopteryx
(C) Emu (D) Milvus
17. Placoid-cycloid scals match is -

(A) Scolioden-cabeo (B) Rohu-petromyzon
(C) Trygen-starfish (D) Chiamara-catla
18. Sea fan is -

(A) Gargenia (B) Physalia (C) Adamasia (D) Aunelia
19. Vsed in experiments on regeneration -

(A) Fasciola (B) Taenia (C) Dugesia (D) All of these
20. Batn sponge is -

(A) Pheronema (B) Euplectella (C) Sycan (D) Euspong
1. D 2. A 3. B 4. B 5. A 6. D
7. D 8. A 9. A 10. A 11. B 12. C
13. B 14. C 15. C 16. B 17. A 18. A
19. C 20. D
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LEVEL - II
1. Cartilage fish is -
(A) Labco (B) Scolioden (C) Eatala (D) Avabas
2. Cold blooded animal is -

(A) Pigeon (B) Frog (C) Wall lizard (D) 2 & 3
3. Crocodiles have chamber heart is -

(A) 2-chamber (B) 3-chamber (C) 4-chamber (D) Heart is absent
4. Limbless Amphibian is -
(A) Snake (B) Cyprio (C) Ichthyophis (D) Harpoden
5. How many living speeies are present in class reptalia -

(A) About 6000 (B) About 5000 (C) About 10,000 (D) About 40,000
6. Pneumatics bones are present in -

(A) Mammals (B) Pishes (B) Birds (D) Amphibian
7. Tunicabs is -
(A) Proto cherdales (B) Cephalochordates
(C) Urocherdales (D) Vertebrate
8. What kinds respiratory organ pre. in todpole -

(A) Skin (B) Lungs (C) Gills (D) Operculum
9. What kind or body scales are present in any fishes -

(A) Ctenoid (B) Plaeoid (C) Sphenoid (D) All
10. Comb plate present in -

(A) Cyclostomata (B) Ctenophora (C) Mollusea (D) Colentratu
11. Organ level of organisation present in -

(A) Coelentrata (B) Platyhelminthes (C) Annelida (D) Mollusca
12. Cellular level of organisation present -

(A) Protozoa (B) Porifera (C) Coelentrala (D) Platyhelminthes
13. Caval system present in -

(A) Arthropod (B) Porifera (C) Echinodermas (D) Hemichordate
14. Metagenesis present in which type phynum -

(A) Porifera (B) Annelida (C) Cnidaria (D) Cetenophora
15. Bioluminescence show by -

(A) Echinodermata (B) Coelentrata (C) Cetenophora (D) All of these
16. Segmentatim in the body is first obscrved in -

(A) Aschelminthes (B) Platyhelminthes (C) Annelida (D) Cnidoblast
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ANIMAL KINGDOM # 4
17. Blind sac body plam present in -
(A) Porifera (B) Coelenterata (C) Mollusca (D) All of these
18. Select wrong exoskeletan of animal -

(A) Shell of molluscs (B) Scales of reptiles
(C) Fcatrers of birds (D) Cuticle of fishes
19. Select wrong option for Aves -

(A) Nucleated RBC (B) 3-chamber cloaca
(C) Homcotnermal lwam blooded (D) 10 pair of crainal nerves
20. Haemocyanin pigment content -

(A) CO (B) Cu (C) Fe (D) Ni
1. B 2. D 3. C 4. C 5. A 6. C
7. C 8. C 9. A 10. B 11. B 12. B
13. B 14. C 15. C 16. B 17. B 18. D
19. D 20. B
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LEVEL - III
1. Which one is not correct -

(A) Humans - Ureotelic (B) Birds - Uricotelic
(C) Lizards - Uricotelic (D) Whale - Ammonotelic
2. Jacabsan organs which are additional

(A) Rat (B) snake (C) Man (D) All of these
3. Select wrong match -

(A) Metamaric segmentation - Annelida
(B) book lungs kebelts - scorpian
(C) organ - mollusca
(D) Ophiura - Feather star
4. Gill silts present in cyclostomata -

(A) 6-10 pairs (B) 6-15 paris (C) 2-15 pairs (D) None of these
5. Jaw less fish present in -

(A) Osteichthyes (B) Chondrichthyes (C) Ostracodermi (D) 2 & 3
6. Flying fish is -
(A) Anabas (B) Protopterus (C) Exocoetus (D) Catla
7. Largest reptiles is -
(A) Crocodiles (B) Komodo dragan (C) Pythnon (D) None of these
8. Which one is correct match -

(A) Aves - Avas (B) Cephalo chardala - doliolum
(C) Amphibian - Aligatro (D) All of these
9. Select right/correct option -

(A) Placoid scales - scolioden (B) Cycloid scales - labeo
(C) Ctenoid scales - Catla (D) All of these
10. 4 pair gills present in -

(A) Scoliodon (B) Labeo (C) Myxine (D) Peteromyzon
11. Bony fish is -

(A) Pristis (B) Sphyrna (C) Trygen (D) Labeo
12. Select wrong match is -

(A) Echinus - Sea urchin (B) Julus - millil
(C) Pinctoda - Pearloyester (D) Loa-loa - pinorin
13. Select correct match -

(A) Physalia - sea fan (B) Adamasia - Sea fan
(C) Adamasia - sea anemone (D) Velella - Stag horn ceral
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14. Group which show lack of digestive track -
(A) Annelida (B) Porifera (C) Arthopoda (D) Molluscs
15. dog tope worm is -

(A) Taeuia (B) Planaria (C) Echinococcus (D) All of these
16. Select wrong match is -

(A) Sycon - crown sponge (B) Spongilla - Batnspong
(C) Euplectella - Venus honler basket (D) Euspongia - Batnspong
17. Space between the lump & the montle present in mollusca -
(A) Keber’s organ (B) Gills (C) Eyes (D) Radula
18. Probasis present in -

(A) Mollusca (B) Arthropod (C) Hemichordate (D) Pisces
19. Internal shell absent in -

(A) Sepia (B) Loligo (C) Octopus (D) All of these
20. Select correct match is -

(A) Prawn - gills (B) Scorpian - Book lungs
(C) Cockroach - trachea (D) King crab = Trachea
1. D 2. B 3. D 4. B 5. D 6. C
7. C 8. A 9. D 10. B 11. D 12. D
13. C 14. B 15. C 16. C 17. B 18. C
19. C 20. D
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Animals : Features & Basis of Classification
The classification helps in easy indentification and also in assigning a systematic position to newly
described species.
Inspite of differences in structure and form of different animals, there are fundamental features common
to various individuals in relation to the arrangement of cells, body symmetry, neature of coelom,
patterns of digestive, circulatory or reproductive systems. These features are used as the basis of
animal classification.
Levels of Organisation
All members of Animalia are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes. But, all of them do not exhibit
the same pattern of organisation of cells. The cells in their body are of several types. These are
organised into several functional units of progressively increasing complexity.
The animal body shows four basic levels of structural organisation as given below :
1. Cellular Level
In thie level, the body shows some division of labour among cells. They are remarkable independent
and can change their form and function. It is found in sponges. The body consists of many cells
arranged as loose cell aggregates but, cells do not form tissues.
2. Tissue Level
Here, in coelenterates, the arrangement of cell is more complex. The cells performing the same
function are arranged into tissues, hence is called tissue level of organisation.
3. Organ Level
In Platyhelminthes and other higher phyla, tissue are grouped together to form organs, each specialised
for a particular function, i.e., organ level organisation is present.
4. Organ System Level

In animals like annelids, arthropods, molluscs, echinoderms and chordates, organs have associated
to form functional systems, each system concerned with a specific physiological function. This is
called organs system level of organisation. Organ systems in different groups of animals exhibit various
patterns of complexities.
Like the digestive system in Platyhelminthes has only a single opening to the outside of the body that
serves as both mouth and anus and is thus, called incomplete.
A complete digestive system has two openings, i.e., mouth and anus.
Symmetry
The symmetry refers to the arrangement of parts on the opposite sides of the body of a three dimensional
animal.
On the basis of symmetry, animals can be of following types
1. Asymmetrical
Animals in which, any plane passes through the centre does not divide them into equal halves such
animals are called asymmetrical, e.g., Sponges.
2. Symmetrical
The body of some animals can be divided into two similar equal halves by one or more planes. Such
animals are called symmetrical.
The symmetry can be further divided as
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i. Radial Symmetry
When an plant passing through the central axis of body divide the organism into two identical halves,
its called radial symmetry, e.g., Coelenterates, ctenophora and echinoderms.
ii. Bilateral Symmetry

In some animals, body can be divided into identical and right halves in only one plane. This is called
bilateral symmetry, e.g., Annelids, arthropods, etc.
 When the body can be divided into two similar halves by one or two vertical planes only, the
radial symmetry is called biradial symmetry. e.g., sea anemones.
 Spherical symmetry is found in animals like Volv some sponges and corals. The body of the
individed can be divided into similar halves by any plane pass through the centre.
 Adult sponges are asymmetrical, however they start their life form as a radial symmetrical
larva.
Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation

Germ layers are group of cells behaving as a unit during early stages of embryonic development. It
differentiate to give rise to all the tissues/organs of the fully formed individuals.
On the basis of germ layers animals are classified as follows
1. Diploblastic
Animals in which the cell are arranged in two embryonic layers-an external ectoderm and an internal
endoderm, are called diploblastic animals. In addition, an undifferentiated layer, mesoglea is present
in between the ectoderm and the endoderm e.g., Coelenterates.
2. Triploblastic
The animals in which the developing embryo has a third germinal layer mesoderm, in between the
ectoderm and endoderm are called triploblastic animals. e.g., All animals form phylum-Platyhelminthes
to phylum-Chlordata.
Coelom
The body cavity (between the body wall and gut wall) which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom.
The presence or absence of coelom is very important in classification.
On the basis of coelom, animals can be classified in three different groups
1. Acoelomates
The animals in which the body cavity is absent are called acoelomates, e.g., Poriferans, platyhelminthes,
coelenterates, ctenophors and flatworms.
2. Pseudocoelomates
In some animals, the body cavity is lined by mesoderm. Instead, the mesoderm is present as scattered
pouches in between the ectoderm and endoderm. Such a body cavity is called pseudocoelom and
the animals possessing them are called pseudocoelomates, e.g., Aschelminthes.
3. Coelomates
The animals having true coelom are called coelomates. A true coelom arises within mesoderm and is
therefore, lined by mesodermal tissues, i.e., externally by parietal peritoneum and internally by
visceral peritoneum.
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Knowledge Plus
 A true coelom appeared for the first time in annelids.
 Origin of coelom is an important step in animal evolution.
 In arthropods, true coelom is reduced and blood fills the viscera.
Body Plant
Animals have three types of body plants. There are
Animals
Cell Aggregate Plan Blind Sac Body Plan Tube within Tube Plant
A cluster of cells Cells are organised into Level of organisation is
with a limited division tissues. There is division organ system, Propen
of labour in which tissues of labour and each tissue digestive canal is present,
or organs are absent. performs a specific task. having two openings,
Example Sponges. Single opening of the body i.e, one for ingestion and
for ingestion and egestion. other for egestion.
Example Coelenterates, Example Aschelminthes.
flatworms, ctenophores.
The body plans of all higher invertabrates and vertebrates cannot be described due to increase in their
body complexity. However, on the basis of their development from blastopore, there can be classified
as :-
Protostomes Deuterostomes
Mouth develops from blastopore Anus develops first from
region and anus develops later. blastopore region and mouth
Example Annelida, mollusca, develops later.
arthropoda and roundworms. Example Echinoderms and
chordates.
Segmentation
In some animals, the body is externally and inernally divided into segments or somites with a serial
repetition of at least some organs.
Segmentation can be of following two types :
1. Metameric Segmentation
A segmentation that simultaneously divides body both externally and internally is called metamerism
or metameric segmentation. This kind of segmentation is found in annelids, arthropods and chordates.
2. Pseudometamerism
If is found in tapeworm, the body is divisible into parts or segments called proglottides. They develop
from the neck but are not embryonic in origin. Such a repetition which appears due to repeated
budding is known as false segmentation or pseudometameris.
Notochord
It is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formedo n the dorsal side during embryonic development
in some animals.
Animals with notochord are called chordates and those animals which do not form this structure are
called non-chordates, e.g., Porifera to echinoderms.
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Other Important Features
Apart from the basic features of body, size and shape, animals also possess some other important
features too.
Some of them are given below :
1. Cephalisation
It is the differentiation of head in anterior part of the body. It involves the concentration of nervous tissue
and sense organs in the head.
2. Appendages
The projecting structures of the body that perform specific functions like locomotion, capturing of food,
sensation, etc, are called appendages, e.g., Wings, fins, limbs, tentacles, parapodia, setae, etc.
3. Digestive System
Digestive tract is the passage through which food is taken for digestion, absorption and egestio. The
digestive tract that has a single opening for both ingestion and egestion is called incomplete digestive
tract, e.g., in flatworms and coelenterates.
The digestive tract with two external openings, one for ingestion and other for egestion is called
complete digestive tract, It is present in aschelminthes and high animals.
4. Respiratory System
Respiration occurs in different ways in different animals :
(i) They tiny aquatic animals like Amoeba, Hyd etc. respire through the body surface. This
called body surface respiration.
(ii) Larger aquatic animals have special organs call gills for respiration. This is called branch
respiration, e.g., In prawns, fishes and mussels.
(iii) The land animals respire through lungs. This called pulmonary respiration. It occurs in frog,
snails, lizards, birds and mammals.
(iv) Insects have tracheal respiration, which occur through trachea i.e., an intercommunicating
tube through wihch gas exchange occurs.
(v) In animals like earthworm, leech, frogs etc. skin acts as respiratory surface. This is called
cutaneous respiration.
(vi) Scorpions have book lungs and king crabs have book gills for resipration.
(vii) In frog, gas exchange also occurs through the lining of buccopharyngeal cavity. Hence, call
buccopharyngeal respiration.
Frogs have three modes of respiration i.e., Cutaneous, buccopharyngeal and pulmona
5. Circulatory System
The circulatory system is responsible for the transport materials in the body. It consists of a fluid
called blood vessels and a heart.
The circulatory system is closed when blood flow within the blood vessels.
If blood flows in spaces, and the sinuses are without proper boundries. In insects such as prawn and
Pila, blood is colourled that contains haemocyanin (a copper containing pigment) while, in vertebrates,
blood containing haemoglobin (an iron-containing pigment).
6. Excretory System
Excretory system is involved in the removal nitrogenous waste products from the body of organism
with the help of excretory organs.
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The excretion occurs in different ways in different organisms. Such as
(i) The excretory organs are absent in those organisms where organisation level is below the
tissue level. Here, each individual cell takes part in excretion.
(ii) In animals like sponges, coelenterates, all the cells are in contact with water. Excretion occur
by general body surface.
(iii) In vertebrates, kidneys are the excretory organs.
Based on excretory products animals can be classified into four categories as given below :
(i) Aminotelic, excretory product is amino acids, e.g., Starfish, Unio, etc.
(ii) Ammonotelic, excretory product is ammonia, e.g., most invertebrates and some molluscs.
(iii) Ureotelic, excretory product is urea, e.g., Cartilaginous fishes, snail, prawn, mammals
and aquatic reptiles.
(iv) Uricotelic, excretory product is uric acid, e.g., Insects, terrestrial crustaceans, lizards, snakes,
birds etc.
7. Nervous System
The nervous system is the aggregation of nerve cells that help in coordinating and controlling various
activities of the body.
8. Endocrine System
The endocrine glads are also called ductless glands. These secrete hormones. Endocrine glands
occur in all vertebrates and in some invertebrates (like insects).
9. Sensory System
This system consists of specialised cells, tissues and organs which can pick up a stimulus and
transmit the same to the nervous system.
Sensory system consists of different structure in different organisms, e.g., Antennal (tactile and smell),
tentacles (tactile), skin (tactile), statocyst (balancing), ear (hearing), olfactory epithelium (smell), taste
buds (taste), eyes (vision), lateral line organs (current receptors), etc.
10. Skeletal System

Skeletal system is a hard, internal or external framwork that provides support and shape to the body.
Some animals which are devoid of a skeleton have soft body, e.g., Platyhelminthes, aschelminthes,
annelida.
Skeleton system can be of following types ;
i. Exoskeleton
It is the hard supporting and protective framwork present on exterior of the body. It is made of non-living
matter, e.g., External shells of molluscs, cuticle of arthropods, scales of fishes and reptiles, feathers
of birds, hair, hoofs, nails, horns and claws of mammals.
ii. Endoskeleton
It is a hard supporting framwork present in the interior of the body. In invertebrates such as sponges,
it is made up of calcareous or siliceous spicules. In vertebrates, it is composed of hard living tissues
called cartilages and bones. Endoskeleton supports whole body of an organism.
11. Sex
Animals generally have sex organs to produce sexual reproduction. When both male and female sex
organs are found in some individual, it is called hermaphrodite or bisexual or monoecious, e.g., Liver
fluke, tapeworm, earthworm, leech, etc.
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The animals with either female or male sex organ is known as unisexual or dioecious, e.g., Frog,
lizards, birds, dog, etc. When male and female can be distinguished on the basis of external features,
the condition is called sexual dimorphism, e.g., Lion and liones, man and women, peacock and
peahen, etc.
12. Reproduction
Reproduction in organisms can be either asexual or sexual.
i. Asexual Reproduction
This kind of reproduction does not involve fusion of gametes. It is found in lower animals like sponges,
coelenterates, annelids, platyhelminthes. The common methods are budding, fussion, fragmentation
and regeneration.
ii. Sexual Reproduction

It involves formation and fusion of gametes. The male gametes called sperm are motile while, the
female gametes called ova are generally non-motile.
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Nemaherdata
All organisms
Kingdom
Monera Protista Fungi Animalia Plantae

Phylum
Protozoa
E.g., Amoeba Branches
Mesozoa Protozoa Eumetazoa
Phylum
Porifera
E.g., Sponges
Divisions
Phylum
Radiata Bilateria
Cnidaria Ctenophora
E.g.,Hydra E.g.,Tenoplana
Sections
Acoelomata Pseudocoelomata Eucoelomata

Phylum Phylum
Platyhelminthes Nemathelminthes
E.g.,Fasciola E.g.,Ascaris
Shizocoelomata Enterocoelomata
Phylum Phylum
Annelida Mollusca Arthropoda Echinodermata Hemichordata Chordata

E.g.,Earthworm E.g.,Pila E.g.,Cockroach E.g.,Starfish E.g.,Balanoglosses E.g.,Frog and Man
Phylum-Protozoa (Goldfuss)
(i) Protozoans are the first formed (Gr. Protos = first + zoon = animals) animals which are
one-called.
(ii) Protozoa exhibit ‘Protoplasmic level of organisation.’
(iii) Body symmetrical or asymmetrical, free-living or parasitic.
(iv) Locomotion is effected by flagella, cilia or pseudopodia.
(v) Excretion and respiration occurs by diffusion.
(vi) Nutrition is holophytic (Euglena), holozoic (Amoeba), saprozoic (Mastigophora).
(vii) Osmoregulation takes place in Protozoa with the help of contractile vacuole.
(viii) Nitrogenous waste material in Protozoa is ammonia.
(ix) Reproduction occurs by asexual and sexual methods.
(x) Classification of Protozoa is mainly based on locomotory organelles.
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Classification
Phylum-Protozoa is divided into four classes :
Class - Sarcodina, e.g., Amoeba, Entameoba histolytica
Class - Flagellata, e.g., Euglena, Trypanosoma
Class - Sporozoa, e.g., Plasmodium, Monocystis
Class - Ciliata, e.g., Paramecium, Opalina
Phylum-Porifera (Robert Grant)

(i) Sponges have no tissues.
(ii) The cavity common to all sponges is spongocoel lined with flagellated choanocytes.
(iii) Choanocytes or collar cells are present only in sponges.
(iv) Different types of canal system in sponges are asconoid, syconoid and leuconoid.
(v) Sponges have numerous mouthlets (ostia) and one exit (osculum).
(vi) Skeletion of sponges is secreted by Scleroblast.
(vii) All sponges are hermaphrodites. Reproduction is asexual or sexual. Sex cells (sperms and
ova) arise from undifferentiated archaeocytes.
(viii) Classification of sponges is primarily based on skeleton.
(ix) Excretion and respiration occur by diffusion.
(x) Development is indirect or direct. The common larval forms are parenchymula (Leucosolenia
and Clathrina), amphiblastula (Sycon), etc.
Classification
Phylum-Porifera is divided into three classes :
Class - Calcarea or Calcispongiae,
e.g., Laucosolenia, Sycon.
Class - Hexactinellida or Hyalospongiae,
e.g., Euplectella, Hyalonema.
Class - Demospongiae,
e.g., Spongilla, Cliona, Euspongia.
Phylum-Cnidaria (Coelenterata)
(Leuckart)
(i) Cnidarians are radially symmetrical animals with cells tissue grade of body organisation.
(ii) Body wall is diploblastic with two germ layers : ectoderm and endoderm (gastroderm).
(iii) The body cavity is known as coelenteron or gastro-vascular cavity.
(iv) Asexual phase is generally polyp and sexual phase is medusa.
(v) Some members like Physalia (Portuguese man of war) exhibits polymorphism.
(vi) The most characteristic feature of coelenterates is the presence of nematocysts or stinging
cells.
(vii) Nematocysts are mainly concerned with food capture, defense and attachement.
(viii) Respiratory, circulatory and excretory systems are absent.
(ix) Reproduction is both asexual and sexual, larval stages are Planula (Obelia) and Ephyra
(Aurelia).
Classification
Phylum-Cnidaria is divided into three classes ;
Class - Hydrozoa, e.g., Hydra, Obelia, Physalia
Class - Scyphozoa, e.g., Aurelia (jellyfish)
Class - Anthozoa, e.g., Metridium, Gorgonia.
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Phylum-Platyhelminthes
(Gegenbaur)
(i) Flatworms are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, asoelomate.
(ii) Flatworms have tissue organ-system level of organization.
(iii) Anus is absent like coelenterates, with blind-sac body plan.
(iv) Excretory organs are protonephridia or solenocytes or flame cells.
(v) Digestive, excretory, nervous and reproductive systems are present.
(vi) Cephalization (differentiation of head) begins in flatworms.
(vii) Monoecious or hermaphrodites with well-developed reproductive system.
(viii) Life cycle complicated with many larval stages.
Classification
Phylum-Platyhelminthes is divided into three classes :
Class - Turbellaria, e.g., Planaria
Class - Trematoda, e.g., Fasciola
Class - Cestoda, e.g., Tapeworm (Taenia)
Phylum-Nemathelminthes
(Gegenbaur)
(i) Tube within a tube body plan and organ-system grade of body organization is present.
(ii) These are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical and pseudocoelomate.
(iii) A syncytial or cellular epidermis, is present that is generally without cilia.
(iv) Excretory system consists of protonephridia and canals.
(v) Skeletal, respiratory and circulatory system are absent.
(vi) Reproductive system well-developed. Usually unisexual with sexual dimorphism.
(vii) Development may be direct or indirect. During indirect development a larva is present. Filariform
larva is present in Ancylostoma (hookworm), microfilaria larva is found in Wuchereria (filarial
worm) and rhabditiform larva is present in Ascaris and Enterobius (pinworm).
Classification
Phylum-Nemathelminthes is divided into two classes :
Class - Rhabditea, e.g., Ascaris, Wuchereria
Class - Enoplea, e.g., Trichinella, Trichuris
Phylum-Annelida (Lamarck)
(i) Annelids are bilateral eucoelomate (with true coelom), schizocoelic segmented worms.
(ii) Annelids are characterized by metameric segmentation.
(iii) Presence of satae which are chitinous and unjointed.
(iv) Alimentary canal is straight, excretory organs are nephridia.
(v) Blood vascular system is usually closed type. Blood is red due to the presence of repiratory
pigment haemoglobin or erythrocruorin, found dissolved in the plasma.
(vi) Development is mostly direct. If there is indirect development (e.g., Nereis), it includes a
trochophore larva,
Classification
On the basis of number and presence or absence of steae phylum-Annelida is divided into three
classes.
Class - Polychaeta, e.g., Nereis, Aphrodite
Class - Oligochaeta, e.g., Earthworm (Pheretima)
Class - Hirudinea, e.g., Hirudinaria.
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Phylum-Arthropoda (Vonsei Blod)
(i) Arthropods are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and metamerically segmented.
(ii) Each segment basically bears a pair of lateral jointed appendages adapted for good ingestion,
locomotion, respiration , copulation, etc.
(iii) Exoskeleton is light weight, tough and composed of structrual polysaccharide chitin.
(iv) Body cavity is a fluid filled haemocoel.
(v) Circulatory system open type with dorsal heart, arteries and sinuses.
(vi) Muscular system well-developed, muscle fibres always striated.
(vii) Respiration by gills or trachea or book lungs.
(viii) Excretion green or coxal glands or by Malpighian tubules. Excretory product is uric
acid.
(ix) Sexes mostly separate with sexual dimorphism. Paired reproductive organs and ducts are
present.
(x) Fertilization typically internal, in female’s body. Eggs megalecithal. Oviparous or viviparous.
Classification
On the basis of body divisions and presence or absence of certain appendages phylum-Arthropoda is
divided into four sub-phyla :
Sub-Phylum - Onychophora, e.g., Peripatus
Sub-Phylum - Trilobitomorpha, e.g., Triarthrus
Sub-Phylum - Chelicerata
Class - Merostoma, e.g., Limulus (the king-crab)
Class - Arachnida, e.g., Palamnaeus (scorpion)
Sub-Phylum - Mandibulata
Class - Crustacea, e.g., Palaemon, Cancer
Class - Myriapoda, e.g., Scolopendra (centipede), Thyroglutus (millipede)
Class 3 - Insecta, e.g., Periplaneta, Musca
Economic Importance of Insects

(i) The study of insects in know as Entomology.
(ii) Insecta can be divided into two series :
(a) Harmful insects (b) Beneficial insects
Harmful Insects
(a) Harmful insects can be divided into six series ;
 Pests of agriculture
 Pests of store-grains
 Household pests
 Pests of domestic animals
 Disease carriers
 Poisonous insects
(b) Some important agricultural pests are : grasshoppers and locusts, cotton bollworms (pests of
cotton), Pyrilla (sugarcane leaf-hopper), Aphids (pests of vegetables).
(c) Some important store-grain pests are :

Rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae
wheat weevil Trogoderma granarium
Red flour beetle Tribolium confusum
Pulse beetle Callosobruchus chinensis
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(d) Some important store-grain pests are :
Cockroaches Periplaneta
Houseflies Musca
Mosquitoes Anopheles, Culex and Aedes
Termites Odontotermes
D ise ase C arr ie r In se cts

Anthrax, diarrhoea, tuberc ulos is , lepros y,
H ous efly
typhoid, c holera, etc .
Malaria, filarias is , dengue fever, yellow
Mos quitoes
fever, etc .
K is s ing bug C hagas dis ea s e
R at flea B ubonic plague
S and fly K ala-az ar
T s e-ts e fly Afric an s leeping s ic knes s
B ed bug T yp hus fever
(e) Honey, bees, wasps, bedbugs and mosquitoes are poisonous insects.
Beneficial Insects
Honey Bee
 A colony of honey bee consists of three castes, viz, queen, drone and worker.
 Bee rearing is called apiculture.
 Diploid fertilized eggs give rise to queen and workers and unfertilized haploid produced males
and drones.
 Natural parthenogenesis occurs in honey bee.
 Bee wax is a secretory product of hypodermal glands of the abdomen of worker bee.
 Honey is stored in the cell of comb.
 Karl Von Frisch decoded the language of dance by bees.
 Mouthparts of honey bee are chewing and lapping type.
 Different species of honey bee are : Apis mellifera, A.dorsata, A.indica, A.florea.
 ‘Royal jelly’ is secreted by by worker bees.
 Honey bee is one of the most important pollinator in agriculture.
Silk Moth
 Silk is produced by an insect called silk moth.
 Bombyx mori is the mulberry silkworm.
 Silk is obtained from cocoon.
 Caterpillar feeds on mulberry leaves, its salivary gland secretes liquid silk.
 Silk thread is formed of two proteins namely fibroin and sericin.
 Natural silk contains nitrogen.
Lac Insects
 Lac is produced commercially by an insect Tachardia lacca (Laccifer lacca).
 Lac is secretion of mainly female.
 Lac is resinous substance.
 Lac is actually secreted for its protection and not for the food of the insect.
Red Ants
(i) Red ants are used for the production of formix acid.
(ii) Most molluscs secrete a shell of calcium carbonate that protects and supports their soft
tissues.
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(iii) The body is covered by a skin fold mantle which secretes the shell.
(iv) Body cavity is a reduced haemocoel.
(v) Molluscs typically employ a feeding organ called redula.
(vi) Circulatory system mainly of open type. Blood with amoebocytes, respiratory pigment
is copper containing haemocyanin dissolved in plasma.
(vii) Sense organs include eyes, statocysts and osphradia (chemoreceptor to test chemical
nature of water).
(viii) Fertilization is generally external, development direct or through free larval forms like trochophore,
veliger, glochidium, etc.
Classification
Molluscs are classified into seven classes.
Class - Monoplachophora, e.g., Neopilina (a living fossil and connecting link between
annelids and molluscs)
Class - Aplacophora, e.g., Chaetoderma
Class - Polyplacophora, e.g., Chiton
Class - Scaphopoda, e.g., Dentalium
Class - Gastropoda, e.g., Pila, Aplysia
Class - Pelecypoda, e.g., Unio
Pearl industry was introduced first in Japan by Kokichi Mikimoto in 1890.

Class - Cephalopoda, e.g., Sepia, Octopus (the foot is located on the head)
Phylum-Echinodermata (Jacob Klein)

(i) Echinoderms are triploblastic, radially symmetrical often pentamerous, larva with bilateral
symmetry.
(ii) Echinoderms are marine.
(iii) Echinoderms are uncephalized (head absent), the oral-aboral axis is perpendicular to the
pentamerous plane.
(iv) A calcareous endoskeleton is present in the form of ossicles bearing protective spines.
(v) The water vascular system is a unique organ system that functions in locomotion, feeding,
respiration and excretion.
(vi) Locomotion by external tube feet connected with water vascular system.
(vii) Usually dioecious, fertilization external.
(viii) Development is indirect through free swimming larval stages.
Classification
 Phylum-Echinodermata is divided into five classes :
Class - Asteroidea, e.g., Asterias (starfish)
Class - Ophiuroidea, e.g., Ophiothrix (brittle-stars)
Class - Echinoidea, e.g., Echinus (sea urchin) (commonly known as Aristotle’s lantern)
Class - Holothuroidea, e.g., Cucumaria, (sea cucumber)
Class - Crinoidea, e.g., Antedon (feather star).
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Phylum-Chordata
(i) Three primary chordate characters are :
(a) Presence of notochord.
(b) Presence of single dorsal tubular nerve cord.
(c) Presence of paired pharyngeal clefts.
(ii) Presence of a post anal tail.
(iii) Bilateral symmetry and metameric-segmentation.
(iv) Presence of true (schizocoel in vertebrates and enterocoel in protochordates).
(v) Blood vascular system closed, heart ventral with RBCs.
(vi) Sexes saparate with rare exceptions.
(vii) Phylum-Chordata is divided into three sub-phylum-Urochordata, Cephalochordata
and Vertebrata.
Sub-Phylum-Urochordata
(a) Notochord only in the tail region of larva.
(b) Commonly called ‘tunicates’
(c) Retrogressive metamorphosis results in the degeneration in adult, e.g., Herdmania (sea
squirt).
Sub-Phylum-Cephalochordata
(a) Adult with notochord extending from head to tail, hence, the name Cephalochordata.
(b) Coelom enterocoelous.
(c) Circulatory system closed but without heart.
(d) Excretion by protonephridia with solenocytes.
(e) Nerve cord dorsal, tubuar without genglia and brain, e.g, Amphioxus.
Sub-Phylum-Vertebrata (Craniata)
(a) Vertebrates have well-developed cranium and vertebral column.
(b) Notochord is embryonic in adult replaced by vertebral column.
(c) Vertebrates are divided into two divisions :
(i) Agnatha (without jaws), e.g., Petromyzon.
(ii) Gnathostomata (with jaws), e.g., Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.
Class-Pisces (Fishes)
(a) Study of the fishes is Ichthyology.
(b) Endoskeleton is cartilaginous or bony.
(c) Heart two-chambered. It is venous heart pumping impure blood only.
(d) Kidneys mesonephric. Excretion ammonotelic or ureotelic.
(e) Lateral line receptros present.
(f) Fishes are cold blooded.
(g) Fertilization internal or external, e.g., Scoliodon, Gambusia, Latimeria, Anguilla.
Class-Amphibia
(a) Amphibians are cold blooded.
(b) Amphibians originated during Devonian period of Palaeozoic era.
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(c) Endoskeleton bony, skull dicondylic (with two occipital condyles).
(d) Respiration by lungs, skin and buccal lining. Larvae and certain aquatic forms with external
gills.
(e) Heart three-chambered with two auricles and one ventricle.
(f) Fertilization mostly external.
(g) Extraembryonic membranes are absent (anamniota).
(h) Larva tadpole which metamorphosis into adult, e.g., Rana tigrina, Bufo melanostictus, Alytes,
Salamandra.
Class-Reptilia
(a) Herpetology is the study of reptiles.
(b) Mesozoic era is called Golden Age of Reptiles.
(c) Skin dry, cornified and devoid of glands.
(d) T-shaped interclavicle present.
(e) Heart is usually three-chambered or partially four chambered. Crocodiles have four-
chambered heart.
(f) Kidneys are metanephric. Excretion uricotelic.
(g) Cranial nerves are 12 pairs but 10 pairs in snakes.
(h) Larval stage is absent.
(i) Foetal membrane is present.
(j) Fertilization is internal.
(k) Jacobson’s organ in the roof of buccal cavity concerned with smell, well-developed in snakes
and lizards.
(l) Skull is monocondylic.
(m) Reptiles are cold-blooded animals.
(n) Urinary bladded is absent in snakes and crocodiles.
(o) Saurology is the study of lizards.
(p) Serpentology is the study of snakes.
Class-Aves
(a) Ornithology is the study of birds.
(b) Salim Ali was a famous ornithologist and known as Bird man of India.
(c) Birds are feathered, bipeds and air breathing.
(d) Jaw bones are prolonged into toothless beak.
(e) Skin without glands, only cutaneous gland is uropygial gland or preen gland at tail base.
(f) The largest and most powerful flight muscle is pectoralis major.
(g) Bones are pneumatic or hollow and have no bone marrow.
(h) Skull is monocondylic.
(i) Both clavicles and a single interclavicle fused to form a V-shaped bone called furcula or
wishbone.
(j) Crop secretes pigeon milk during breeding season.
(k) A sound box or syrinx producing voice.
(l) Heart is competely four-chambered.
(m) Females are oviparous.
(n) Birds are warm-blooded animals.
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Class-Mammalia
(a) Coenozoic era is know as Age of Mammals.
(b) The study of mammals is called Mammalogy.
(c) Most important character of mammals is the presence of mammary glands.
(d) Presence of a muscular diaphragm separating thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity.
(e) Presence of seven cervical vertebrae.
(f) Teeth heterodont, thecodont and diphyodont.
(g) Respiration by lungs (pulmonary).
(h) Heart is four-chambered.
(i) Erythrocytes are small, circular and non-nucleated.
(j) Kidneys are metanephric, Excretion is ureotelic.
(k) Brain is highly developed with corpus callosum connecting cerebral hemispheres.
(l) Mammalas are viviparous, e.g., man, rabbit, duckbilled platypus, kangaroo (Macropus), etc.
(m) Class-Mammalia is divided into two sub-class-Prototheria-egg laying mammals (Oviparous)
e.g., Duck-billed platypus.
Theria (Viviparous) e.g., Man, Rabbit, Monkey, Macropus.
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21
ANATOMY OF
FLOWERING PLANT
Topic Page No.
Exercise 02 - 7
Notes
Meristem Atic Tissue 09 - 12
Permanent Tissue 13 - 16
Complex Permanent Tissue 17 - 20
Tissue System 21 - 22
Dicot Stem 23 - 23
Monocot Stem 24 - 24
Dicot-Root 25 - 25
Monocot root & Leaf of Structure 26 - 26
Secondary Growth 27 - 30
Syllabus
ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANT
Meristem Atic Tissue, Permanent Tissue, Complex Permanent Tissue,

Tissue System, Dicot Stem, Monocot Stem, Dicot-Root, Monocot root & Leaf of
Structure, Secondary Growth
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
ETOOSINDIA.COM
HelpDesk : 92-14-233303
LEVEL - I
1. Tea leaf of legume seed coat shows presence of -

(A) Parenchyma (B) Collen chyma (C) Sclerid (D) None
2. Trichome present with -

(A) Cortex (B) Endodermis (C) Epidermis (D) All
3. Grass leaf stomate guard cell shape is -

(A) Kindey (B) Dumble (C) both (D) Heart
4. Closed vascular bundle shows -

(A) Open (B) Closed (C) both (D) None
5. Secandary grow the shows by -

(A) Dicot leaf (B) Monocot leaf (C) both (D) Dicot root
6. Scattered vascular bundle show by -

(A) Dicot root (B) Dicot leaf (C) Monocot leaf (D) Monocot stem
7. Secondary growth done by following respancible tissue/tissues -

(A) Lateral meristem (B) Cark lambium
(C) Vascular cambium (D) 2 & 3
(E) All
8. Active cell division shown by -

(A) Cortex (B) Meristem (C) Both (D) Xylem vessel
9. Monocot root show presence of xylem bundle -

(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 2 - 4 (D) More than six
10. Starch sheath with vascular bundle shows by -

(A) Dicot root (B) Dicot show (B) Both (D) Only monocot stem
11. Buliform cell present with -

(A) Epidermis (B) Cortex (C) Palisade tissue (D) Vascular bundle
12. Buliform cells helps plants for -

(A) Water loss protection (B) Vascular supply
(C) Liven ions (D) None
13. Monocot stem shows -

(A) Secondary growth (B) Primary growth
(C) Absence of xylem (D) None
14. Phloem parenchymon absent in -

(A) Dicot stem (B) Dicot root (C) Monocot stem (D) Monocot root
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15. Lenticle present with -
(A) Leaf (B) Bark (C) Root (D) All
16. Passage cell present with -

(A) Cortex (B) Epidermis
(C) Vasscular bundle (D) All
17. Very small pitn present -

(A) Dicot stem (B) Dicot root (C) Both (D) None
18. Hypodermis present in -

(A) Dicot root (B) Dicot leaf (C) Dicot stem (D) All
19. Canjoint, collateral, endarch & closed vascular bundle present in -

(A) Monocot root (B) Monocot stem (C) Monocot leaf (D) 2 & 3
20. Periderm is/are -

(A) Phellogen (B) Phellem (C) Phelloderm (D) All
1. C 2. C 3. B 4. A 5. D 6. D
7. E 8. B 9. D 10. B 11. A 12. A
13. B 14. C 15. B 16. A 17. B 18. C
19. D 20. D
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LEVEL - II
1. Your are given a fairly old piece of dicot stem and a dicot root. Which of the following anatomical structure will
you use to distinguish between the two ?
(A) Secondary xylem (B) Secondary phloem
(C) Protoxylem (D) Cortical cells
2. Which of the following part of dicot root is made up of cells with suberin deposition in tangential as well as
radial walls ?
(A) Epidermis (B) Endodermis Cortex (D) Xylem
3. Which of the following characters are not applicable to the anatomy of dicot stem and choose the correct
options given below ?
I. Collenchymatous hypodermis
II. Polyarch xylem
III. The presence of casparian strips on the endodermis
IV. Open vascular bundle
V. The presence of medullary rays of these
Selec the correct answer using the codes given below :
(A) I, IV and V (B) II and III (C) II and V (D) I, II and III
(E) III, IV and V
4. Which of these characters does/do not apply to the vascular bundle of monocot stem ?
I. Conjoint
II. Endarch protoxylem
III. Open
IV. Phloem parenchyma is absent
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
(A) I and II (B) II and III (C) III and IV (D) Only III
(E) I and IV
5. When one wood is lighter in colour with a lower density, the other wood is darker with a higher density. They
are -
(A) Spring wood and autumn wood (B) Heartwood and late wood
(C) Spring wood and early wood (D) Sap wood and spring wood
(E) Autumn wood and spring wood
6. Choose the incorrect statement.

(A) Gymnosperms lack vessels in their xylem
(B) The cell wall of collenchyma is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin
(C) The first formed primary xylem elements are called protoxylem
(D) The cell wall of parenchyma is made up of pectin
(E) Gymnosperms have albuminous cells and sieve cell in their phloem.
7. In dicotyledonous stem, which of the following is the sequence of tissue from inside to outside ?
(A) Pith, phloem, cambium, protoxylem, metaxylem, pericycle, parenchyma collenchyma, endodermis and
epidermis
(B) Pith, cambium, phloem, protoxylem, metaxylem, pericycle, endodermis, parenchyma, collenchyma and
epidermis
(C) Pith, phloem, protoxylem, metaxylem, cambium, pericycle, endodermis, parenchyma, collenchyma and
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epidermis
(D) Pith, protoxylem, metaxylem, cambium, phloem pericycle, endodermis, parenchyma, collenchyma and
epidermis
8. A piece of wood having no vessels (trachea) must belong to -
(A) teak (B) mango (C) pine (D) palm
9. Which one of the following characters is not found in transverse section of monocot stem ?
(A) Sclerenchyma bundle sheath
(B) Lysigenous cavity
(C) Sclerenchymatous hypodermis
(D) Starch sheath
10. Identify for correct pair of statements.

I. Functions of sieve tubes are controlled by the nucleus of companion cells.
II. Albuminous cells are present in angiosperms.
III. In dicot root, the vascular cambium is completely secondary in origin.
IV. Cylindrical meristerms contribute to the formation of primary plant body.
Codes :
(A) I and III (B) III and IV (C) I and II (D) II and III
11. Age of a tree can be estimated by -

(A) its hight and girth (B) biomass
(C) number of annual rings (D) diameter of its heartwood
12. In barley stem vascular bundles are -

(A) open and scattered (B) closed and scattered
(C) open and in a ring (D) closed and radial
13. Find out the wrong statement about angiosperm roots -

(A) Xylem is centripetal in growth in the young roots
(B) Cuticle is absent in young stages
(C) The apex is protected by root cap
(D) Vascular bundles are collateral
14. The age of tree by counting annual rings is called -

(A) Dendrochronology (B) Ageing
(C) Chronology (D) Countrology
15. A monocot stem with secondary growth is -

(A) Lilium (B) Cocos (C) Yucca (D) Asparagus
16. Old dicot roots differ from dicot stem in -

(A) The absence of cortex (B) The absence of primary phloem
(C) The absence of vascular bundles (D) The presence of xylem
17. In dicotyledonous roots, the initiation of lateral roots takes place in -

(A) endodermal cells (B) cortical cells
(C) epidermal cells (D) procambial cells
(E) pericycle cells
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18. In grasses, certain adaxial epidermal cells along the veins modify themselves into large empty, colourless cells
called -
(A) bulliform cells (B) companion cells
(C) guard cells (D) subsidiary cells
(E) albuminous cells
19. In an annual ring, the light coloured part is known as -
(A) early wood (B) late wood
(C) heartwood (D) sapwood
20. Heartwood differs from sapwood in -

(A) The presence of rays and fibres
(B) The absence of vessels and parenchyma
(C) Having dead and non-conducting elements
(D) Being susceptible to pests and pathogens
1. C 2. B 3. B 4. D 5. A 6. D
7. D 8. C 9. D 10. A 11. C 12. B
13. D 14. A 15. C 16. B 17. E 18. A
19. A 20. C
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LEVEL - III
1. The difference in phloem of gymmosperms and angiosperms is due to -

(A) parenchyma (B) sieve cell
(C) compound cell (D) fibres
2. The cells without nuclei are present in -

(A) vascular cambium (B) root hair
(C) companion cell (D) members of sieve tube
3. Bicollateral vescular bundles are found in the members of this family -

(A) Malvaceae (B) Fabaceae
(C) Caesalpiniaceae (D) Cucurbitaceae
4. The quiescent centre in root meristem serves as a -

(A) Site for storage of food which is utilised during maturation
(B) Reservoir of growth hormones
(C) Reserve for replenishment of damaged cells of the meristem
(D) Region for absorption of water
5. Assertion (A) :- Libriform fibres are true fibres.

Reason (R) :- Libriform fibres develop from non-functional tracheids by reduction.
(A) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are correct, but R is not the correct explanation of A
(C) A is correct, but R is incorrect
(D) A is incorrect, but R is correct
6. Casparian thicknings are found in the cells of -

(A) pericycle of the root (B) endodermis of the root
(C) pericycle of the stem (D) endodermis of the stem
7. In which of the following, root system is poorly developed ?

(A) Phaene (B) Hydrilla (C) Halophyte (D) Xerophyte
8. Aerenchyma is helpful in plants by -

(A) providing buoyancy in hydrophytes (B) absorption in stilt roots
(C) giving mechanical strength to plants (D) giving flexibility to plants
9. Complex tissue includes -

(A) collenchyma (B) apical meristem (C) conducting tissue (D) idioblast
10. Vessels differ from tracheids -

(A) in being living
(B) in being derived from a single cell
(C) in having vertical row of cells with crosswalls dissolved
(D) because they conduct water
11. Quiescent centre is a -

(A) weak zone (B) active zone (C) inactive zone (D) strong base
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12. Root caps are absent in -
(A) mesophytes (B) xerophytes (C) hydrophytes (D) lithophytes
13. The histogens are classified on the basis of -

(A) cells they contain
(B) cells they give rise to future tissue
(C) meristematic activity
(D) cell division
14. Meristematic cells have -

(A) thick cell wall and large intercellular spaces
(B) thick cell wall and no intercellular spaces
(C) thin cell wall and large intercellular spaces
(D) thin cell wall and no intercellular spaces
15. Fascicular interfascicular and extra-stelar cambium together constitutes -

(A) ground meristem (B) apical meristem
(C) intercalary meristem (D) lateral meristem
(E) primary meristem
16. The phloem of angiosperms differs from that of other vascular plants by the presence of -
(A) vessels (B) companion cells
(C) tylosoides (D) albuminous cells
(E) secretory cells
17. Complementary cells are associated with -

(A) lenticels (B) hydathodes (C) rhytidome (D) bark
18. Pith is a central part of the ground tissues generally made up of -

(A) parenchyma (B) collenchyma (C) chlorenchyma (D) sclerenchyma
19. Tyloses are balloon-like ingrowths in vessels developing from the adjoining -
(A) fibres through pits on vessel wall
(B) fibres through the general surface of vessel wall
(C) parenchyma through pits on vessel wall
(D) parenchyma through the general surface of vessel wall
20. The function of a vessel is conduction of -

(A) food (B) water and minerals (C) hormones (D) All of these
1. C 2. D 3. D 4. C 5. C 6. B
7. B 8. A 9. C 10. C 11. C 12. C
13. B 14. D 15. D 16. B 17. A 18. A
19. C 20. B
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Meristem Atic Tissue
Tissues :-
A group of cells which is having similar shape, function and having a common origin is called tissues.
Approximately, all types of tissues originates by divisions of meristem in the form of parenchyma.
The term tissue is coined by Nehemiah Grew. (Father of Plant Anatomy)
All the cells of tissues may be a similar or of different forms.
The tissues divided in to two groups by Karl Nageli :-
Tissues
1. Meristematic tissues 2. Permanent tissue

undifferantiated tissue fully differentiated tissue
Characteristics of Meristematic tissues

1. Meristematic tissues or meristem is a undifferentiate tissue.
2. Cell cycle of meristem is in continuous state of division. It means they have the capacity to divide.
3. Meristematic cells have only primary cell wall which is thin and flexible (elastic). Secondary cell wall
is absent.
4. Cells of meristem are small.
5. They have dense cytoplasm.
6. Normally vacuoles are absent in meristematic cells but if present then small vacuoles.
7. They have prominent and large nucleus.
8. Meristematic cells are metabolically highly active.
9. Lack of reserved food in these cells.
10. Plastids are absent in meristems. If they are present, then only at the proplastids stage.
11. Their mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum having simple structure and internal structures not
developed.
12. They do not have intra cellular spaces. Cells are closely fitted (packed) togather.
Classification of Meristematic Tissues :-

Meristematic tissues are classified in different ways on the basis of certain factors as follows :-
A. Meristems Based on origin

On the basis of origin, meristems can be divided in to following two types.
i. Primary meristem
It is the initial meristem which is formed during embryonic stage and still retains its meristematic
activity.
They are the meristems developed from primary permanent tissues. They are not present at the very
begining stage of the plant.
Some of the cells of the primary tissues becomes meristematic and constitute the secondary meristem.
It means meristems is formed from any permanent tissues is called dedifferentiation.
B. Meristematic tissues based on location (position) in plant Body

On the basis of position the meristematic tissues can be divided into the following three types :-
(a) Apical Meristem
These tissues are found at the apices of root and stem. They are respondible for increasing in length
of plant organs. Apical meristem has two regions at embryonic stage -
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First - PROMERISTEM or PRIMORDIAL MERISTEM -
It is the meristem which develops very beginning during embryonic stage.
Second - EUMERISTEM -
This meristem is formd the divisions of primordial meristem.
According to Haberland, eumeristem divided into three regions :-

(i) Protoderm : This is the outer layer of eumeristem by the activities of these tissues the epidermal
tissue system is formed.
(ii) Procambium : These cells are long and it gives rise to the vascular tissue system.
(iii) Ground Meristem : The cells of their region are large, thin walled and isodiametric. Ground tissue
system is formd by the activity of these cells. The functional activity of these are gives rise to hypodermis,
cortex, endodermis, pericycle, pith-rays and pith.
(b) Inter calary Meristem

This is the separated region from apical meristem. It is lies between the masses of plant. The activity
of these meristem also add to the length of the plant or its organs. They may be present either the
base of internode of grasses or at the base of node of Mint and at the base of leaves petiole by the
activity of these meristem, length of the leaves increases.
(c) Lateral Meristem

These meristem are present along the lateral sides in the plant organs. A margin meristem is found in
leaves is a type of lateral meristem. The activity of these tissues increase the width of leave.
Intrafascicular cambium is also a type of lateral meristem. It is found in the stem of dicotyledons and
Gymnospermic plants. This is cambium lies between xylem & phloem. Excluding this cambium,
remaining all types of cambium is secondary lateral cambium. All the type of cambium is lateral also.
The functional activity of cambium to increase the girth of the plant organs.
A group of meristematic tissues present at the tips of root and stem is called Apical meristem. The
structure of apical meristem is different in various levels (categories) of plants.
 Apical meristem is absent in lower plants i.e., Algae and Fungi. All the cells of these plants are
divisible. Thus each type of growth in these plants, is called diffused growth. Diffused growth is also
occur in animals.
 Apical meristem in Bryophytes and some Pteridophytes consist of single cell. This cell is known as
apical cell. This apical cell is in pyramid shaped and divided into two lateral planes.
 Apical meristem in Ferns. Gymnosperms and Angiosperms consist of many cells.
Several views have been available in relation of structure and growth habit of apical meristem. A few of
them are discussed here as -
1. Apical Cell theory -

This theory proposed by Karl Nageli and Hofmeister.
According to Nageli and Hofmeister the apical meristem composed of single apical cell. This view is
only applicable for Bryophytes and some Pteridophytes.
2. Histogen Theory -
It was propounded by Hanstein (1870).
According to him, the root and shoot apices distinguished into three meristematic region of three
layers of histogen cells. They are as follows.
i. Dermatogen :- This is the outermost single layer of cells. These cells forms dermis through anticlinal
divisions.
ii. Periblem :- This region is situated just below the dermatogen. Hypodermis, cortex and endodermis
are formed by the division of these cells.
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iii. Plerome :- This is the innermost region. Stele formation takesplace by division of these cells.
It means formation of pericycle, vascular bundles medullary rays and pith.
 This theory is not applicable to shoot apex, because shoot apex is not clearly visible into three layers.
This is seems to be applicable for root apex.
 Excluding above described three histogens, a fourth type of histogen is formed in monocotyledons.
This is known as Calyptrogen. Root cap is produced by Calyptrogen. Root cap is only produced by
dermatogen in dicotyledons.
 A group of inactive cells is present between the dermatogen and calyprogen is called Quiescent
Centre. These cells contain less amount of DNA and synthesis of protein is also less quiescent centre
name coined by “Clowes”.
 As the calyptogen get damaged, this zone becomes active to form new cells of calyptrogen.
Exception
These is only one histogen is present in Ranunculus. Two histogens occurs in Casurina.
Due to presence of root cap position of root apex is sub terminal. So maximum growth in root takes
place behind the apex.
Two zones in the shoot apex :-
(I) TUNICA :- This is periphiral layer. Epidermis is formd by this layer. The plane of cell division of cells of
Tunica is only anticlinical. Anticlinical division occurs at right angle to longitudinal axis of cell. Surface
area of the plant organs increases due to anticlinal divisions.
Generally, tunica represent only single layer, but some times it is multi layered, then the outer most
layer forms the epidermis and remaining layers from another types of tissues with the association of
corpus.
(II) CORPUS :- The inner Mass of cells present below the tunica is called Corpus. The cell of this zone
dividing in all directions resulting increases in volume. The mass of these cells mainly forms teh
cortex. The cells of corpus usually larger than those of tunica.
4. MANTLE CORE THEORY

This theory was proposed by “Popham and Chan”. They were compared the mantel to the tunica and
core compared with the corpus. According to them corpus or core is distinguished into these zones -
i. Sub-Apical Meristem :- This is present just below the mantle. The re-establishment of mantle is
functional activity of this zone if the mantle is damaged.
ii. Central-zone Meristem :- This is the inner most zone. This zone is responsible only for formation of
pith.
iii. Pheripheral Meristem :- This region only responsible for the formation of cortex and vascular tissues.
5. NEWMAN’S THEORY :-
According to his, meristematic tissues of shoot apex is of three types -
i. Monoplex :- This is the such type of shoot apex in which meristematic cells arranged in groups
inplace of meristematic layers. Such type of shoot apex is found in Ferns.
ii. Simplex :- Such type of shoot apex is formed by single layers of cells. It is found in Gymnosperms.
iii. Duplex :- Such type of shoot apex is formd by two layers of cells. Peripheral layer is called tunica and
inner layer is called corpus. Such shoot apex is present in Gnetales and Angiosperms.
Note - According to Newman, the tunica and Corpus of shoot apex in Ferns and Gymnosperm is non
distinguished.
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6. KORPER-KAPPE THEORY -
This theory was proposed by “Scheupp”. Its view is applicable for root apex. According to them root
apex has two regions - The central region of root apex is know as Korper. The cells are located
vertically - ‘T’ forms in this region.
The peripheral region is called Kappe. Kappe is also known as “Calyptra” or “Covering”. The cell are
arranged inverted ‘T’ form in this region. This theory is not applicable on root apex or shoot apex.
C. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PLANE OF CELL DIVISION

On the basis of plane of cell division, three types of meristem occurs -
(I) RIB-MERISTEM :- Such meristem in which division occurs only in one plane. For example tunica is a
type of rib-meristem.
(II) PLATE-MERISTEM :- Such meristem which divides into two planes. By this division a plate like
structure is formed and increases in the area. The leaves of the plants is formed through this type of
meristem.
(III) MASS-MERISTEM :- Such meristem which divides in all possible planes resulting in the increase in
volume of plant body (organ).
Example - The formation of embryo and endosperm is takes place by this kind of meristem.
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Permanent Tissues
A group of cells which have lost the property of division and differentiates into different forms to perform
different function, are called permanent tissue. Their cells may be living or dead. Permanent tissues
are of three (3) types :-
A. Simple tissue B. Complex tissues C. Special tissues
These tissues are made up of similar cells that perform a common function. Simple tissues are of
three types :-
I. Parenchyma II. Collenchyma III. Sclerenchyma
I. Parenchyma
It is very primitive type of tissue. Remaining all different types of tissues are derived from this tissue.
Name coined by Grew.
Characteristic features :-
 This is living tissue.
 This is a universal tissue, it means it is found in all parts ex. root, stem, leaf.
 All the cells of parenchyma are thin walled.
 Each cell containing big central vacuole.
 Inter cellular spaces are present between cells.
 The cell are isodiametric.
Functions :-
The main function of this tissue is storage of food. Some cells of parenchyma store waste materials.
They are called “idioblast cells”. Idioblast cell stored oils, tanin, crystal of calcium oxalates in the
form of food.
Shape :-
The cells of parenchyma spherical in shape. Each parenchymatous cells composed by planes of 14
lateral lines. These are known as Tetrakaidecahedron. This characteristic of cells is due more flexibility.
Modifications of Parenchyma :-
1. Prosenchyma :- The cells of this parenchyma are long with pointed ends. This parenchyma forms the
pericyle of roots.
2. Aerenchyma :- This parenchyma is made up of by rounded cells. These cells surrounds the large air
chambers. It is present in hydrophytic plants, which help in buoyancy to plants.
3. Stellate parenchyma :- The cells of this tissues are stellate and branched. Air spaces also present
in these tissues. Main function of this parenchyma is to provide mechanical support. These tissues
are found in leaf bases of Banana. It is providing strength to leaf base. Leaf base of Banana perform the
functions of stem. Rhizome is found in Banana.
4. Chlorenchyma :- This a such parenchyma is which (sufficient) abundant quantity of chloroplants
present. Two types of chlorenchyma present in the leaves :-
a. Palisade tissues :- Palisade tissues lack of intercellular spaces. Their cells are tightly fitted togather.
Palisade tissues manly located below (near) the upper epidermis. Palisade tissues usually present in
xerophytes. Number of chloroplast is more in palisade tissue as compare to spongy tissue.
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Origin of Parenchyma :-
 Parenchyma is found in cortex pith, mesophyll and some organs of flower, is derived from ground
tissue.
 Parenchyma is present in vascular tissues which is formed from procambium and vascular cambium.
 Parenchyma of secondary cortex is formed by cork cambium.
II. Collenchyma
Ferm coined by Schlieden.
Main Characteristics -
 Collenchyma is living mechanical tissue.
 It is made up of elongated cells.
 It is made up of thin walled cells. Cell wall of these cells thickened at the some place. These thickened
places mainly composed by pectin. The presence of thickening of pectin is the characteristics features
of collenchyma.
 Cytoplasm of the cell is vacuolated.
 Collenchyma is not a universal tissue. This is mainly found in the stems of herbaceous dicotyledons.
 Collenchyma is basent in parts of woody plants, roots and monocotyledons.
 Collenchyma forms the hypodermis of stem during the secondary growth. Thus collencyma is absent
in plants after the secondary growth.
 Chloroplast is found in the cells of collenchyma. Thus chloroplast may be present in hypodermis of
dicotyledons stem.
 Lamina margins of leaves also bears collenchyma. This is protects the cracking of lamina margin due
to the action of wind.
Types of Collenchyma
Majumdar divided collenchyma into three types :-
1. Lamellar / plate collenchyma :- The cells of collenchyma arranged in lamellar forms. The cell
having thickening on the tangential walls. Due to such type of deposition, cell looks like a lamellar or
plates. Ex. Raphanus
2. Angular collenchyma :- This collenchyma is formed abundantly. The cells of this tissue is angular.
The deposition of pectin at the angles of cell. eg., Datura, cucurbita
3. Lacunar collenchyma :- Large intracellular spaces are present in between these cells. Deposition of
pectin on the wall of intracellular spaces. Intera cellular spaces of collechyma thickened. ex. Sunflower
stem.
III. SCLERENCHYMA
Name coined by mettenius - Main features :-
 Sclerechyma is the main mechanical tissue.
 These cells are long, nerrow, thick walled and dead.
 Cell wall of their cells is thick and lignified.
 Various tyhpes of pits are formed due to the deposition of lignin on hard wall.
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Type of Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma cells are of two types - Sclereids & Sclerenchymatous fibres
I. Sclereids -
These cells are small extremely thick walled and their ends without pointed. Sclereids are isodiametric
or irregular in shape, Sclereids cells have more pits and lumen is almost very small. Their pit cavity
(lumen) is branched. Tsirch classified the sclereids on the basis of their shapes :-
a. Stones cells of Barchy - sclereids or Grit cells :-
These cells are spherical or oval in shape. They are found in endocarp of drupe fruits, so that endocarp
becomes hard.
Example - They are present in endocarp of coconut, mango, almond, walnut etc.
Basides drup fruit brachysclereids also present in flesy (edible) part of pear. Grittness in pear fruit is
due to this sclereids.
b. Macro-sclereids or Rod cells or Malpighi cells :-

They are small and rod like cells. They are present in seed coats.
Example - They form part of seed coat in leguma plants. Due to their presence seed coat becomes
hard. Seed coats of lotus is hardest (stony). Seed coat of french bean is harder amongs the leguminous
plants. So dormancy is found in leguminous seeds.
c. Osteio-Sclereids :-
These are known as prop-cells. These are pillar like cells. Both end of pillar like cells spreads to form
bone like structure.
Example - These cells are found in leaves of two plants Hakea and osmanthus.
d. Astero Sclereids :-
These cells are stellate shaped. They are found in floating leaves.
Example - The leaves of victoria, lotus etc.
e. Trichoselereids :-
These are also known as internal hairs. They are spines like, bifurcated cells which is present in
floating leaves.
Example - Victoria, Nelumbo, Nymphea.
II. SCLERENCHYMATOUS FIBRE

On the basis of structure fibres classified into two parts :-
a. Libriform fibres :-
They are extermely thickned long fibres. They posses simple pits. Libriform fibres are present in
phloem, xylem, pericycle and hypodermis. Maximum in phloem.
b. Fibre Tracheids :-
They are highly thickened as compared to others. Bordered pits are present in these fibres. They are
only found in xylem.
 On the basis of position fibres divided into three types -

(i) Surface fibres - They are also called “Filling fibres”. They are present on the surface of plant bodies.
Example - Cotton fibres are formed by the out growth of seed coat. They are not a any type of tissues.
Cotton fibres composed of cellulose and not lignified. So that cotton fibres are not true fibres. Two
types of fibres are found in cotton. Long fibres are called ‘lint’ and small fibres known as ‘fuzz’. Fuzz is
filling fibre. Coires of coconut is also type of surface fibres. They are derived from the mesocarp. It is
true fibres.
(ii) Xylary or wood fibres : They are hard fibres. They are lack of flexibility. They can not be knitted so
that they are not useful. They are found in xylem. ex. munj fiber.
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(iii) Bast fibres :- They are also known as commercial fibres. They are flexible and can be knitted. These
fibres obtained from the phloem and pericycle of plants.
 The best fibres of Corchorus spp(Jute) and Crotalaria juncia (Sun hemp) are obtained from the phylum.
 The base fibres of hemp (Canabis sativa) and Linum usitatissimum (flax) are obtained from pericycle.
This bast fibres has great economic value.
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Complex Permanent Tissue
A complex tissues are a collection of different type of cells. This is a heterogenous group of cells.
 Complex tissue is absent in gametophytes.
Complex tissues is of two types -
a. Xylem b. Phloem
A. Xylem
The term ‘Xylem’ is coined by Nagelie. Xylem is also provide mechanical support to the plant in
addition with the conduction of water and minerals. On the basis of development xylem divided into
primary xylem and secondary xylem. Primary xylem originates from procambium. Parenchyma of
primary xylem is not differentiate and medullary rays is also absent. Secondary xylem originate through
the secondary growth. The elements of xylem are (i) Tracheids, (ii) Vessev or tracheae xylem fibres.
 Tracheids are elongated cells with tapering ends.
 Tracheids having a large humen as compared to the fibres.
 Tracheids joint togather from their ends to form a long rows. These rows extending from the roots via
stem to the leaves.
 A transverse septum lies between each two tracheids. It bears pits.
 Tracheids are dead and lignified cells. The deposition of lignin on cell wall is responsible to form a
different type thickenings. Lignification is also to form various types of pits. Pits are the nonthickened
areas.
 Bordered pits are mainly present an the wall of tracheids. The maximum bordered pits are found in the
tracheids of Gymnospermic plants.
 Maximum deposition of lignin is in pitted thickenning.
 Different type of thickening of lignin is found in tracheids.
 Spiral, annular and reticulate thickning of lignin is found in protoxylem.
 Pitted thickening of lignin is found in metaxylem.
 Tracheids of pteridophytes have long or elongated bordered pits. Such type of pits are called scalari
form pits.
2. Vessels :-
Advance conductive element of xylem.
 The basic structure of vessels is the same as tracheids.
 They are also dead elements of xylem.
 The luman of vessels is wider than the tracheids.
 Vessels are only found in xylem of angiosperm but exceptionally it is also present in some
Gymnosperms like Ephedra, Gnetales and Welwitschia.
 Similarly vessels are absent in some Angiospermic plants such as Dracaena, Yucca, Dazinaria,
Drymeace, Vintera, tetracentron and trochodendron etc.
 Transverse septum is absent between two cells. If even it is present then it is porous. Thus vessels are
more capable than tracheids.
 Vessels usually contains simple pits thickning of wall is the same as tracheids.
 Due to the absent of transverse septum or porous, vessels work as a pipeline during conduction of
water.
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3. Xylem fibres :-
This is also dead part of xylem.
 Xylem fibres provides strength to the tracheids and vessels. Mainly they provide strength to the vessels.
They are present more abundant in secondary xylem.
 This is the living part of xylem.
 The radial conduction of water is the function of xylem parenchyma.
Water Conduction Elements of Xylem :-

Tracheid and Vessels collectively known as water conducting elements or “Hadrome”. Development of
conducting elements by three types :-
I. Centrifugal :- In this type of development, the protoxylem formed near the centre axis and metaxylem
is formed away from the centre towards the periphery. This condition is known as endarch. ex. stem of
angiosperm & Gymnosperm.
II. Centripital :- In which protoxylem is formed away from the centre near the pericycle and metaxylem
is formed towards the centre. This condition is called exarch. ex. Roots.
III. Centrifugal and Centripital :- In which elements of metaxylem is formed from both side of the
elements of protoxylem. So that protoxylem is surrounded by metaxylem. This condition is known as
Mesarch ex. stem of fern.
B. PHLOEM
The fern ‘Phloem’ is coined by Nageli. The main function of phloem is the transport of organic materials
from one place to another place. On the basis of development, phloem is classified into two categories
primary and secondary phloem. Primary phloem is derived from procambium and secondary phloem is
derived from vascular cambium. Phloem remains active for less duration as compared to xylem. Phloem
consist of 4 types of cells as below :-
1. Sieve cell :-
Sieve element is discovered by Harting.
 Sieve element is living and thin walled cells.
 A matured seive cell lack of nucleus. Thus these are non nucleated living cells.
 Central vacuole is present in each seive cells. Cytoplasm of seive cells is streaming in the form of thin
layer around the vacuole (cyclosis).
 In Angiosperms seive cells are arranged with their ends and form sieve tube.
 Seive plate (transverse perforated septa) is present between the two seive cells. It is porous Materials
only transport through these pores.
 Callose id deposited on the radius of pores during dropping (falling) season of leaves to form a thick
layer. This is called Callus pad.
 Seive plate protected by callus pad. It also prevented from bacterial infection and drough. Callose is a
-1-3-glucan.
 Callose is dissolves during spring season.
 In Gymnosperm and pteridophytes, seive cells do not form seive plates and arranged irregularly. Seive
elements have seive plates on their lateral walls.
Thus conduction of food in zig-zag manner.
 Seive cells contains special type of protein-P-protein which is related with conduction of food and it
repairs damage sieve cells.
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 Seive cell and companion cell originates togather. Both of them originates from a single cell. called
sister cells.
 The companion cells and seive cells maintain close cytoplasmic connections with each other through
plasmodesmata.
 Companion cells are only found in Angiosperms (exception - Austrobaileya).
 Comapanion cells is a living with large neuceus this nuceus is also controls the cytoplasm of seive
cells.
 Special type of cells attached with the seive cells in conifers. they are called albuminous cells.
3. Phloem fibres :- A fiber which are present in phloem is called Libriform fibres. These fibres provide
support to the seive cells. The main function of that fibres to provide mechanical support. They are
used for making ropes, rough clothes and mats etc.
4. Phelom Parenchyma :- It is also known as bast parenchyma. They are living and thin walled cells.
They store various food materials. Pholem parenchyma is absent in monocotyledon plants. The main
function of phloem parenchyma is conduction of food in radial direction and storage of food. The
vascular part of pholem seive cells is called Leptom.
Special tissue or secretory tissue
I. Lactiferous tissue :-
They are made up of long, highly branched and thin walled cells. These cells filled with milky juice, it
is called Latex. Latex is known as plant milk Latex obtained from the plants that is called petrocrops.
Latex is the mixture of saccharides, starch granules, alkaloids minerals and waste materials. Starch
granules present in latex are dumble shaped. Latex, provide protection to the plant. It is also protected
to plants from grazing animals. It prevents the infection of bacteria in fungus. Lactiferous tissue is of
two types - Latex cells and latex vessels.
i. Latex cells - They are non articulated latex ducts/tubes. They are long branched and multicleated
cells. Such types of cells are called coenocytic cells.
Example :- Latex cells are found in Calotropis, Euphorbia and Nerium.
ii. Latex vessels :- They are articulated vessels. Latex vessels are formed due dissolution of cells wall
of meristematic cells. Thus they are syncytic cells. Latex vessels are also multinucleated.
Example :- Latex vessels are present in Heavea, (Banyan tree ficus), Papaver etc. Highly developed
latex vessels are found in the fruit wall of Opium.
As the name indicates this tissue is present in the form of glands. These glands contains secretory or
excretory materials. Glandular tissues have two types of glands.
Glands are found in Urtica-dioica (Bicchubutti) are unicellular, these cells are present on the surface of
the leaves. They are spiny glands in which formic acid is filled. Multicellular glands are of two types.
1. External Glands :- They are located on the surface of the plants, or arising as a outgrowth from the
epidermis. These glands are of various types :-
i. Digestive glands :- Digestive glands are found in insectivorous plants. These insectivorous plant
compansate their deficiency of N2. They are found in Utricularia, Drosera, Dionia etc. plants.
ii. Oil Glands :- These glands are secreting volatile oil. These gland are present in the leaves of Eucalyptus
and external fruit wall of citrus (Lemon).
iii. Nector Glands :- These glands are embedded in the tissues. They are found in floral parts mainly in
thalamus. These giands secreter nector to attraching the insects.
2. Internal Glands :- These glands are embedded in the tissues. Internal glands are of following types.
i. Mucous secreting glands :- These glands secretes mucous. They are found in the levaes of betel.
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ii. Oil glands :- Oil glands are of both types external and internal. These secretes oil. It act as a
antiseptic. These glands are found in lemon orange etc. fruits.
iii. Tanin, resin, gum secretory glands are also internal glands. Maximum resin glands are present in
palm. Gum glands are found is (Acasia (Babool). Resin ducts are schizogenous.
iv. Water gland :- Water glands aer open on Hydathode. These glands related with guttation. Hydathodes
are present in Tomato, Pistia, Ichornia Nasturtium etc. It is related with epitheme tissue.
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Tissue System
On the basis of division of labour tissue categorised into three different system. Each system usually
consist of an association of tissues which perform specific function.
1. The epidermal tissue system :- This system includes epidermis and its related cells, hairs, pores
etc.
2. Ground tissue system :- It is the largest tissue system. It includes hypodermis, cortex, endodermis,
pericycle and medullary rays (pith rays).
3. Vascular tissue system :- This tissue system originates from the cambium. It consists of xylem and
pholem.
Types of vascular Bundles

On the basis of arrangement of different parts of vascular bundles are devided into three categories.
I. Conjoint colleteral vascular bundles - When the xylem and pholem are present on the same radius
in vascular bundle. In this vascular bundle order of condition is found. This vascular bundle is found in
gymnosperm and angiosperm. Open vascular bundle is found in dicotyledons and gymnosperm. Closed
V.B is found in monocots.
II. Conjoint bicolletral vascular bundle - These are two patches of pholem one on each side of xylem.
In such a vascular bundles there are two strips of cambium one on each side of xylem. Only found and
vascular bundle is open. Such type of vascular bundle is known as bicolletral vascular bundle. ex.
stem of family cucurbitaceae.
III. Radial vascular Bundles :- When the xylem and phloem are present on different radii. Such vascular
bundles are called radial vascular bundle. All the roots of plants contains radial vascular bundle. The
development of xylem in these vascular bundle is centripetal. Thus, these vascular bundles are called
exarch.
IV. Concentric vascular bundles :- In this vascular bundle either xylem surrounds the phloem surrounds
the xylem. Concentric vascular bundles are always closed. They are of two types -
i. Amphicribal or Hadrocentric :-The xylem is in the centre surrounds on all sides by phloem. Such
vascular bundle is termed amphicribral. The development of xylem in these vascular bundles either
centripetal or centrifugal manner. These are known as mesarch vascular bundle. Such types of vascular
bundles are found in ferns in lower Gymnosperms.
ii. Amphivasal or Leptocentric :- In this type of vascular bundle xylem is completely surrounds the
pholem. It means pholem present in the centre of the vascular bundles.
Such type of vascular bundle is termed endarch. Such vascular bundle exceptionally formed in
Angiosperms e.g. Dracaena, yucca etc,
The stele is the whole central mass of vascular tissue with or without pith surrounded on the outer side
by endodermis. Vantieghem and Douliot put forward the hypothesis about stele. According to him
stele is the central part of core of Co axis of the plant which includes the vascular system and its
relative structures.
The tissues which is lies inside the stele is called intrastelar tissues and the tissues which lies out
side the stele is known as extra tissues. Stele surrounded by endodermis but endodermis is originally
the part of cortex.
1. Protostele or Monostele :-
Protostele is the most primitive and simplest type of stele. It consist of solid mass of xylem completely
surrounded by pholem. Such type of stele devois of pith. Solid stele is of following types :-
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i. Haplostele :- In this stele, xylem surrounded by a smooth layer (some thickness) of pholem. Central
xylem is in cylindrical form.
ii. Actino stele :- Actino stele is that in which the central xylem has radiating ribs and assume a star
shaped appearance.
Example - Psilotum & isoetes.
III. Plecto Stele :- A such type of solid stele in which the xylem divides into a number of separate plates
which lie parallel to one another.
Example - Most of the species of lycopodium.
2. Siphono stele -
Siphono stele is that stele in which the pith is present in centre of hollow vascular cylinder. Siphono is
of following two types -
i. Ectopholic siphonostele - In such type of vascular tissue of stele pholem always present out side of
the xylem.
Example - Equicetum, Osmunda
ii. Amphiphloic siphonostele - The vascular tissu of such type of stele in which xylem is surrounded by
pholem on the both sides
Example - Adiantum, Marsilea
3. Soleno Stele :-
Solenostele is that stele in which leaf gaps produced in the main vascular tissue. Leaf gaps are
produced by breaking of main vascular tissues due to the leaf. These broken pieces ofo stele is called
soleno stele.
 Solino stele also may be Ectophloic or Amphi phloic
4. Dictyo Stele -
When the production of many leaf gaps in solenostele main vascular cylinder, breaks into many
fragments, then such type of solenostele is called Dictyo stele. Each divided fragment (piece) is called
meristele. Each meristele has its own separate endodermis and pericycle. Dictyo stele is well developed
type of stele is Pteridophytes.
Example - Pteridium, Pteris, Dryoteris
5. Eustele -
In this type of stele, vascular bundle present in circle and medullary rays located in between them.
Such type of stele is found in gymnosperm and dicotyledon plants.
6. Atacto Stele -
Many vascular bundles are distributed in the ground tissue. Such type of stele is called atactostele.
This is highly developed type of stele. Endodermis and pericylce is absent in atacto stele. Such type
of stele is the main characteristic feature of mono cotyledons.
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Dicot stem
Primary structure of a typical dicto stem shows following features -
1. Epidermis - Epidermis is the outermost layer of the stem. It is made up of single layer of cells and lack
of chloroplast Multicellualr hairs and stomata are found on epidermis. Epidermis play a significant role
in protection.
2. Hypodermis - It is present just below the epidermis. It is provides additional support to the epidermis.
It is thick multicellular layer. This layer is composed of collenchyma and their cell contain chloroplast.
So that hypodermis is green and photosynthetic.
3. Cortex - This part is composed by parenchyma. Storage of food is the main function of the cotex. The
innermost layer of the cortex is termed endodermis.
4. Endodermis - This is thick single cellular layer. The cells of endodermis are barrel shaped. These cells
accumulate more starch in stem of dicot. Thus, it is known as “starch sheath”.
5. Pericycle - This layer situated in between the endodermis and vascular bundles (below the epidermis)
and above the vascular bundle). The pericycle of stem is multi layered and made up of scerenchyma.
Pericyle is also known as Hard bast. In stem of sunflower, pericycle is made of alternate bands of
parechymatous and sclerenchymatous cells. In which cells of pericycle in front of the vascular bundle
is made up of sclerenchyma and remaining is composed by parenchyma. A pericycle situated in fornt
of vascular bundle is known as Bundle cap.
6. Vascular Bundle - The vascular bundle of dicot stem arranged in a ring. Well developed pith is present
below their ring. Each vascular bundle is conjoint colletral endarch, and open. Each vascular
bundle is made of phloem and xylem, Eustele is present indicot stems.
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Monocot Stem
The following structure is seen in a typical monocotyledon stem -
1. Epidermis - Epidermis is the outermost one called thick layer. It is covered with thick cuticle with
stomata. Multicellular hairs are absent comparatively of stomata are is also less.
2. Hypodermis - Hypodermis of monocotyledon stem is made up of scerenchyma. This are is made of

2-3 layer of sclerenchyma.
3. Ground tissues - The entire mass of parenchyma cells next to hypodermis and extending to the
centre is called ground tissues. These is no differentiation in between endodermis, cortex pericycle
etc. parts.
4. Vascular Bundle - Many vascular bundle are scattered in the groud tissue. Vascular bundles lies
towards the centre larger and less in number. Vascular bundles situated towards the periphery are
smaller but greater in numbers. Each vascular bundle is conjoint colleteral endarch and closed
type. Vascular bundles surrounded by the layer of sclerenchyma is known as bundle sheath.
Monocotyledon stem contain only xylem and phloem.
i. Xylem - Xylem element of monocotyledon are arranged like a ‘Y’ and it has limited no. of vascular. Two
small vessels positioned radially toward axis in the form of protoxylem. Due to presence of water in
this cavity is also called water cavity. This cavity is formed by disintigration of the element present
below the protoxylem and neighbouring parenchyma.
5. Pith and stele - Atactostele is found in monocotyledon. This is highly developed stele. Undifferentiated
pith is present in monocotyledon stems.
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Dicot-Root
1. Epidermis - It is a uniseriate outermost layer. Unicellular root hairs arising form the some cells of
epidermis of root is known as epiblema or Rhizodermis or Piliferous layer.
2. Cortex - This part is made up of parenchymatous cells. The cells of outer part of cortex are suberized
in old root. It is called Exodermis.
3. Endodermis - This layer is situated between the vascular tissues and cortex. Casparian strips present
radially in innermost layer of endodermis. These strips are made up of suberin.
4. Pericycle - This is a single called thick layer. It is composed by a type of parenchyma, which is called
prosenchyma. Pericycle of roots is single layered. Cork cambium is formed from this layer during the
secondary growth. Lateral root originates from the pericycle. Thus lateral roots are endogenous in
origin. The branches of stem are exogenous in origin, because they are originates from the outer part
of cortex.
5. Vascular bundles - Vascular bundles are radial and exarch, xylem and phloems are separate and
equal in number. The number of vascular bundle in dicot is two to six (diarch to hexarch). But exceptionally
ficus polyarchic condition is found in (Banyan tree). Tissues are situated between the xylem and
phloem are called Conjugative tissue. These are consist of parenchyma. Vascular cambium is formed
from the conjugative tissue during the secondary growth. Thus all cambium is formed after the secondary
growth is roots.
6. Pith - It is found in the centre and is less developed or absent. Flexibility occurs due to this.
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Monocot Root & Leaf of Structure
The internal structure of a typical monocot root is the same as dicot root. But number of vascular
bundle is more than six in monocot root. But exceptionally the number of vascular bundle in onion is
two to six. In monocot root pit is well developed.
Internal structureo f leaf -

Generally leaves devided into two categories - Dorsiventral leaves and isobilateral leaves. The difference
in between tham as follows -
1. Dorsiventral leaves attached at right angles of the stem while isobilateral leaves attached paralled to
the stem.
2. The sturcture of both the surface of dorsiventral leaves is different, while in isobilateral, structure of
both surface is similar.
3. Dorsiventral leaves found in dicot but exceptionally, isobilateral leaves also formed in Eucalyptus.
4. Isobilateral leaves occurs in monocotyledon, but Lilium longiflora is the exception of this.
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Secondary Growth
“The growth in diameter (girth) of the plant organs, is called secondary growth”.
A permanent internal structure of the organs are formed through the apical meristems. This structure
is formed in the begining of some weeks of the first year. This structure is known as primary structure.
Primary structure is only found in Pteridophytes and monocotyledon plants.
A normal secondary growth is found in roots and stem of dicotyledons Gymnosperms. Due lack of
vascular cambium in monocotyledons, secondary growth is absent. But exceptionally secondary
growth is found in some monocotyledons. Such as Palm, yucca, Draccaena, Smilax, Agave,
Coconut etc.
Secondary growth in Dicot Stem
A. Secondary growth in vascular Region -

secondary growth in vascular region begins (starts) earlier than the cortical region. It is complete in the
following steps -
I. Formation of ring of vascular cambium -

A cambium is present in vascular bundle is called intrafascicular cambium. This is type of primary
meristem. First of all, cells of medullary rays becomes meristamatic and forming interfascicular
cambium. Intrafascicular and interfascicular cambium collectively known as vascular cambium.
Vascular cambium is formed in the form of a complete ring which is made by single layer of the cells.
Two types of cells are found in the ring of this vascular cambium.
Fusiform initials and ray initials.
Fusiform initials are long with pointed ends, while ray initials are spherical (ovale). More fusiform
initials are present in vascular cambium.
II. Activity of vascular cambium -

A continous periclinal divisions or tangential division takes place in fusiform initials. The plant of division
in periclinal divisions is parallel to longitudinal axis of a cell. Few cells are formed towards the radius
(periphery) through this type of activity and these cells differentiates into secondary phloem or bast.
Some of the cells are formed towards the central axis and these cells are differentiate into secondary
xylem or wood. Normally more secondary xylem is formed as compared to secondary phloem.
By the pressure of secondary phloem primary phloem pushed towards the outside and gets crushed.
Thus epidermis and hypodermis can not be seen during the secondary growth in stem. By the pressure
of secondary phloem primary pushed toward the outside gets crushed. Thus epidermis and hypodermis
can not be seen during the secondary growth in stem. By the pressure of secondary xylem, all the
primary tissues - such as primary xylem, pith, oldsecondary xylem etc. dengerated in the centre of
stem because woody.
I. Ring porous wood - Vessels are arranged in the form of a ring in this wood. Such wood conducted
water more efficiently.
II. Diffused porous wood - Asystematical distribution of vessels is found in this type of wood.
Formation of Annual Rings

The activity of cambium do not remains equal but it is changeable in the whole year. In winter or
autumn season the activity of the cambium is poor and the secondary xylem or wood formed not
extensive through the vascular cambium. Cells formed during this period, are small thick walled and
have narrow lumens. This is called autumn wood or late wood.
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The vascular cambium is highly active in spring or summer season and secondary xylem formed
during this period is extensive and cell of secondary xylem are larger, thin walled and have wider
lumen. This wood is known as spring wood or early wood. The autumn and spring wood is formed
in a rings. The ring of any type of wood is called growth ring. Thus two growth rings are formed during
a year. A ring of autum wood and a ring of spring wood collectively known as Annual ring. Thus a
annulal ring consist of two growth ring. The number of annual rings formed in a tree come give the idea
of the age of the tree.
The study of determination of age of the plant by this techniques is called Dendrochronology. The
annual rings are counted form the base of the stem. Because basal part having maximum annual rings
and upper past have less. Therefore, counting form the basal region can give the correct idea. A piece
is taken from the stem up to central region with the help increment borer instrument. The annual ring
counted from that piece and again inserted (fitted) into the same stem at the same place. Annual ring
is formed more distinct in changeable seasons.
A more distinct annual ring is formed in temperate plants. A distinct annual ring is not formed in tropical
plants. A clear annual ring is not formed in India except Himalaya regions.
Lesser distinct annual ring is formed in seashore regions. Because their climate, remains the same in
the whole year. More clear annual ring is formed in deciduous plants as compared to evergreen plants.
Periclinical division also going on continuously in ray initials of vascular cambium. Some of the cells
are formed inner side and some of the cells are formed outer side through these divisions. All these
cells are made up of parenchyma. Radial lines of cells of parenchyma are formed in the stem. They are
called Vascular rays. Madullary rays are primary and vascular rays are secondary. Both of them
conducted water and food in radial direction.
B. Secondary growth in Cortical Region

As a result of the addition of the secondary vascular tissues, increasing the diameter of circle of xylem
region and cortical region, comes under stress and strain. The some cortical tissues ultimately gets
ruptured. To make good loss of protective tissues of epidermis is try to compasate but they are
failured, and get ruptured at many place. This loss in fulfilled by the activity of cork cambium. Cork
cambium is also known as Phellogen or Extrastelar cambium. Cork cambium arises from the
hypodermis or from the outer layer of cortex because they becomes meristematic.
Those cells formed towards the inside, are differentiate into parenchyma. These are called secondary
ary cortex or Phelloderm. Phallogen, cork and phelloderm are collectively known as periderm
Phellogen + Phellum (cork) + Phelloderm = Periderm
Cork is formed in high quantity and secondary cortex is in less quantity from the cork cambium. The
highest activity of cork cambium is in winter season. Most of the cells of phellum are dead. But some
places living cells are also found. Suberin is not deposited in these places. These places are known as
Lenticles. Lenticels appears on the outer surface of the plant either in small points or in the form of
areas of protruberance. Lenticles are made up of scattered collection (Group) of living cells, These
cells are known as complementary tissue. Lenticles normally formed below the stomata. Lenticles
serve for exchange of gases between the plant and atmosphere. Transpiration is also take place
through the lenticles, is know as Lenticular transpiration. Adventitius roots cutting originated from the
living cells of lenticles in vegetative reproduction. Lenticles mainly formed on stem and it is never found
on leaves. Even lenticles are present all over the plant body. They are also present on fruits. Cork
cambium remains living only for the one year. Each year, a new cambium is formed below the previous
cambium. This new cambium derived from the secondary cortex on phelloderm.
Bark
All the tissue situated out side the vascular cambium is called Bark. Bark has two part.
1. Outer Bark - Outer bark is dead. All the tissues lies out side the cork cambium are called outer bark.
It is also known as Rhytidome.
2. Inner Bark - The region in between the cork cambium and vascular cambium is called inner bark. Its
most of the part is living. The main region of inner bark is the secondary phloem or bast. Thus bark
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consist of both type of tissues living non living (dead). A plant will die if we removed the complete bark
of the plant because maximum loss of water from this. If a ring of bark removed from the base of the
plant within a few days a plant dies. Because phloem is separated due to this activity and plant comes
in the state of defficiency of food.
Kind of Bark
1. Ring Bark - Ring bark is formed around the stem in a complete ring. When the ring of cork cambium is
completed then it is known as ring bark.
Example - Betula vulgaris - Bhojpatra, A complete distinct ring bark is formed in this plant. Its bark
used writting material as a paper in the ancient period. Ring bark is also formed in Eucalyptus.
2. Scaly Bark - This bark is formed around the stem in the from of peices or fragments. When the ring of
cork cambium is not continuous, the scaly bark is formed.
Secondary growth in Dicot Root -

Secondary growth is essential in roots to provide strength to the growing aerial parts of the plants and
fulfill the requirement of water and minerals. Secondary growth is not found in monocot roots. First of
all, conjunctive tissue becomes meristematic during the secondary growth in a dicot-root to form a
vascular cambium which is formd is separate curved strips. Then after, the cells of pericycle lying out
side the protoxylem also becomes meristematic to form a additional strips of cambium. In this way a
complete ring of vascular cambium is formed. The portion of vascular cambium is formed by pericycle
is less. The main portion of vascular cambium is formed by conjunctive tissue.
The shape of ring of vascular cambium is wavy in the begining, but latter on it becomes circular due
to the pressure of secondary xylem. The portion of vascular cambium is formed by conjunctive tissue
becomes meristematic first and form the secondary xylem towards the centre. Resulting ultimately
the ring becomes circular by the pressure of secondary xylem (Pushing outwards).
The activity of vascular cambium of root is the same as the activity of vascular cambium of stem.
Secondary xylem is formed towards the inner side and secondary phloem is formed toward the outer
side by vascular cambium. The portion of vascular cambium which is formed by pericycle is responsible
for the formation of pith rays. These are made by parenchyma. These pith rays are known as primary
medullary rays. A few medullary or pith rays are also formed from vascular cambium. These are
called secondary medullary rays. Thus two types of medullary rays are found in the secondary
structure of roots. The presence of two types of medullary rays is basic characteristic features of
roots. Only secondary rays are found in stem. Both of the medulary rays conducted water and food in
radial direction.
 Cork cambium is developed from the pericycle in roots. Cork is formed towards the outside and
secondary cortex is formed towards the inner side by the cork cambium.
Functions of secondary meristem (Cambium)
1. Healing of wounds - When wound is formed on any stem, then living cells of the wound is responsible
to form a cambium. This is called wound cambium. It is also called inducibel cambium. This newly
formed cambium to form a cork towards the outside. The cork covers the wound entirely. Thus the
wound is healed. a out growth like structure of parenchymatous cells are found on the margins of hte
wound. This is known as Callus.
2. Abscission - The leaves of most of the Pteridophytes and branched Angiosperms are either falls after
degeneration of destroyed on the plants.
The leaves in Gymnosperms and woody dicotyledons are separate through the abscission before their
death. Middle lamella is dissolve in abscission layer abscission and primary walls also dissolve partially
or completely. The place from where leaf separated, is called leaf scar. The living cells present in leaf
scar is responsible to form cork cambium. Resulting, cork is formed towards the outside and so that
ultimately the relation of the leaf detached from the plant. This is termed abscission.
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Anomalous secondary growth in stem -
1. Anomalus/abnormal position of vascular cambium - Normally vascular cambium is circular, but it

is folded in stem of some plants later on these folds breaks and separate from each other. Each fold is
responsible to form a complete vascular bundle. Many vascular bundles are formed in stem.
Example - Thinowia, Serjania, Bauhinia.
2. Abnormal Activity of vascular Cambium - Parenchyma is formed form the maximum part of the
vascular cambium. Only (rarely) in some places xylem and phloem is formed, while generally xylem
and phloem is formed from the maximum part of the vascular cambium, and medullary rays are formed
from the few part of vascular cambium.
Example - Aristolochia, Vitis vinifera (Grape).
3. Sequential or successive ring of vascular cambium - In some of the plants, a new ring of vascular
cambium is formed in each year. This is formed out side the previous ring.
Example - Cycas, Gnetum, Mirabilis, Boerahvia, Bougainvilia, etc.
4. External Stelar vascular cambium - Vascular cambium is formed from the pericycle in plants of
Amranthacear and chinopodiacear family. A complete ring of vascular cambium is formed from the
pericycle.
5. Interxylary Cork - Parenchyma of secondary xylem becomes meristematic in some of the plants and
behave like a cork cambium. It means cork is formed to the interior of wood.
Example - Artemesiatridentata etc.
6. Cork cambium form Epidermis - Cork cambium originates from the epidermis in same of the plants.
Example - Solanum dulcamara, Quercus suber (oak). commercial cork is obtianed from the oak.
7. Secondary Growth in Monocotyledons - In some members of plants such as Dracaena, Yucca,
Agave, Aloe arboresence, Lomandra, Kingia, Senseviera, Vascular cambium formed from the
outer region of the ground tissues. Parenchyma is formed towards the outside by the vascular cambium
and vascular bundles are formed toward the inner side.
In some plants, the girth of the stem increased without cambium. Such as Palms, Musa, Tulipa etc.
The apical meristem of these plants is special type. This is known as primary thickening meristem.
This apical meristem is responsible for the growth in both length and girth (thickness) of the plant.
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BIOMOLECULE
Topic Page No.
Exercise 02 - 07
Notes
Carbohydrates 08 - 08
Proteins 09 - 09
Lipids 10 - 11
DNA 11 - 11
RNA 12 - 15
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) 16 - 18
Inorganic Constituents of Protoplasm 19 -24
Syllabus
Biomolecule
Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, DNA, RNA,
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA), Inorganic Constituents of Protoplasm
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
ETOOSINDIA.COM
HelpDesk : 92-14-233303
BIOMOLECULE
LEVEL - I
1. One molecule of triglyceride is produced using

(A) One fatty acid and one glycerol
(B) One fatty acid and three glycerols
(C) Three fatty acids and three glycerols
(D) Three fatty acids and one glycerol
2. Which of the following statements is wrong for sucrose ?

(A) It is a disaccharide
(B) It is a non-reducing sugar
(C) It accumulates in the cytoplasm
(D) It is comprised of maltose and fructose
3. The protein component of a holoenzyme is know as

(A) Coenzyme (B) Cofactor (C) Prosthetic group (D) Apoenzyme
4. Km is
(A) Product (B) Enzyme (C) Constant (D) Unit
5. Which of the following amino acids contains sulphur atom in its side chain ?
(A) Methionine (B) Alanine (C) Tryptophan (D) Phenylalanine
6. Which of the following sugars cannot be hydrolyzed further to yield simple sugars ?
(A) Ribose (B) Maltose (C) Sucrose (D) Lactose
7. Consider the following statements :

A. All enzymes reauire an additional chemical component called cofactor or coenzyme for their catalytic
function.
B. The cofactor for pyruvate kinase is K+
Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
(A) A (B) B (C) Both A & B (D) Neither A nor B
8. The Michaelis constant is a measure of which one of the following ?

(A) Concentration of enzyme (B) Catalytic efficiency of the enzyme
(C) Thermo-stability of enzyme (D) Affinity of the enzyme for its substrate
9. The initial source of energy to all the varied forms of life is

(A) A glucose molecule (B) An ATP molecule
(C) The solar energy (D) A protein molecule.
10. The bioenergetic reactions are peculiar in the fact that they keep on managing the body at
(A) A megathermic level (B) An isothermic level
(C) A microthermic level (D) A hekistothermic level.
11. In a living system, the chemical energy is principally stored in the form of
(A) Nucleotide diphosphates (B) Nucleoside triphosphates
(C) Nucleotide triphosphates (D) Nucleoside diphosphates.
12. Choose the correct statement(s)

(A) Living steady state has a self regulatory mechanism called homeostasis
(B) Energy flow and energy transformation of living system follow law of thermodynamics
(C) Metabolism is release and gain of energy
(D) All
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13. Which one is incorrect ?
(A) Organisms live at the expense of free energy
(B) ATP powers the cellular work by complying exergonic reaction to endergonic reactions
(C) All living organisms exist in a steady state characterized by concentrations of biomolecules. Biomolecules
are in a metabolic flux
(D) None
14. Choose the false statement -

(A) The living state is a non-equilibrium steady state to be able to perform work
(B) The constant flow of material or energy in and out of cell prevent from reaching equilibrium
(C) Living state and metabolism are synonymous
(D) None
15. What is the most correct about enzymes ?

(A) All enzymes are basically proteins (B) All proteins are basically proteins
(C) Some proteins are enzymes (D) Some enzymes are proteins
16. The energy required for life processes must be extracted from an organisms -
(A) Nucleus (B) Biosynthesis (C) Enzyme (D) Environment
17. Which of the following are unique features about the enzyme ?
(A) They are not consumed by the enzyme-mediated reaction
(B) They are not altered by the enzyme-mediated reaction
(C) They lower the activation energy
(D) All
18. Which statement about the enzymes is true ?

(A) They act to speed up a biochemical reaction
(B) They are made up of protein or RNA in some cases
(C) They are sensitive to temperature and pH
(D) All
19. The most common monomer of carbohydrates is a molecule of -

(A) Glucose (B) Fructose (C) Ribose (D) Deoxyribose
20. In a spontaneous reaction, the free energy of a system -

(A) Decreases (B) Increases (C) Becomes equal to zero (D) Remains unchanged
1. D 2. D 3. D 4. C 5. A 6. A
7. B 8. D 9. C 10. B 11. B 12. D
13. D 14. D 15. A 16. D 17. D 18. D
19. A 20. A
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LEVEL - II
1. Which of the following statements is correct ?

(A) Enzymes accelerate reactions by stabilizing transition state
(B) A chemical reaction of substrate to form product goes through a transition state that a higher energy than
either substrate or a product(s)
(C) The rate of formation of E–S complex is the same as the rate of breakdown of this complex either to products
or back to reactant
(D) All
2. Select the false statements for an enzyme promoting a chemical reaction by -

I. Lowering the energy of activation
II. Causing the release of heat, which acts as a primer
III. Increasing molecular motion
IV. Changing the free energy difference between substrate and product
(A) I and IV (B) II and III (C) II, III, IV (D) III and IV
3. Which one is correct ?

(A) E + S —ES — E + P — EP (B) E + S — ES — E – P — E + P
(C) E + S ES E –P E+P (D) E + S ES — E – P — E + P
4. Which of the following is an important attribute of life ?

(A) Energy transformation (B) Self-duplication
(C) Process of evolution (D) All of the above
5. The life as such is an expression of a series of process passing through a purely

(A) Conservation of energy (B) Endergonic phase
(C) Thermodynamic phase (D) Destruction energy
6. A living organism in terms of its energy requirements from the environment, operates as
(A) An open system (B) A close system
(C) An inefficient system (D) An incognizable system
7. Which of the following forms of energy is of no use to the living organisms -

(A) Radiant energy (B) chemical energy
(C) Free energy (D) Heat energy
8. _______ is a globular protein of ~6 kDa consisting of 51 amino acids, arranged in 2 polypeptide chains held
together by disulphide bridge.
(A) Insulin (B) Keratin (C) Glucagon (D) Fibrinogen
9. Which of the following fatty acids is liquid at room temperature ?

(A) Palmitic acid (B) Stearic acid (C) Oleic acid (D) Arachidic acid
10. What kind of molecule is represented by the structure below ?

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH=CHCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH
(A) a sugar (B) an unsaturated fatty acid
(C) a saturated fatty acid (D) a disaccharide
11. Given below are two statements A and B. Choose the correct answer related to the statements.
Statement A - Amino acids are amphoteric in their function.
Statement B - All amino acids are necessary for our body.
(A) Statement A is wrong, statement B is correct (B) Both the statement A and B are wrong
(C) Statement A is correct, statement B is wrong (D) Both the statement A and B are correct
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12. Even though starch and cellulose are made up of the same repeating units of glucose, they are very different in
their properties. The main difference between starch and cellulose is that
(A) cellulose has all its glucose repeats oriented in same direction
(B) starch has alternate glucose repeats oriented at 1800 to each other
(C) starch has all its glucose repeats oriented perpendicular to each other
(D) cellulose has alternate glucose repeats oriented at 1800 to each other
13. Which one of the following biomolecules is correctly characterised ?

(A) Lecithin - a phosphorylated glyceride found in cell membrane
(B) Palmitic acid - an unsaturated fatty acid with 18 carbon atoms
(C) Adenylic acid - adenosine with a glucose phosphate molecule
(D) Alanine amino acid - Contains an amino group and an acidic group anywhere in the molecule
14. Which one is the most abundant protein in the animal world
(A) Trypsin (B) Hemoglobin (C) Collagen (D) Insulin
15. Macro molecule chitin is :

(A) Phosphorus containing polysaccharide (B) Sulphur containing polysaccharide
(C) Simple polysaccharide (D) Nitrogen containing polysaccharide
16. The essential chemical components of many coenzymes are :

(A) Nucleic acids (B) Carbohydrates (C) Vitamins (D) Proteins
17. Transition state structure of the substrate formed during an enzymatic reaction is :
(A) transient but stable (B) permanent but unstable
(C) transient and unstable (D) permanent and stable
18. Select the option which is not correct with respect to enzyme action :
(A) Substrate binds with enzyme at its active site.
(B) Addition of lot of succinate does not reverse the inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by malonate.
(C) A non-competitive inhibitor binds the enzyme at a site distinct from the which binds the substrate.
(D) Malonate is a competitive inhibitor of succinic dehydrogenase.
19. Which one of the following is a non-reducing carbohydrate ?

(A) Maltose (B) Sucrose (table sugar)
(C) Lactose (D) Ribose 5 - phosphate
20. Which of the following statements about enzymes is wrong ?

(A) Enzymes require optimum pH and temperature for maximum activity
(B) Enzymes are denatured at high temperatures
(C) Enzymes are mostly proteins but some are lipids also
(D) Enzymes are highly specific
1. D 2. C 3. D 4. D 5. B 6. A
7. D 8. A 9. C 10. B 11. D 12. D
13. A 14. C 15. D 16. C 17. C 18. B
19. B 20. C
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LEVEL - III
1. Which of the following statement is correct ?

(A) Enzymes generally function in a narrow range of temperature and pH
(B) Enzymes show maximum activity at optimum temperature and optimum pH
(C) Enzymes remain in temporary inactive state at low temperature but higher temperature destroy enzymatic
activity due to denaturation of proteins.
(D) All
2. Choose the correct statement(s) -

(A) Km (Michaelis - Menten) constant is the substrate concentration at which the enzymatic reaction attains
half of its maximum velocity (1/2 Vmax)
(B) At lower Km, higher the substrate affinity for enzyme
(C) Vmax is reached when all the active sites of an enzyme a re saturated with substrate
(D) All
3. In competitive inhibition -
(A) Inhibitor resembles the substrate in molecular system
(B) Competition between substrates and inhibitors to occupy active sites
(C) Binding of the inhibitors to activities sites declines the enzyme action
(A) All
4. Sulpha drugs/sulphanilamides kill bacteria by inhibiting synthesis of folic acid from para-aminobenzoic acid.
This type of control of bacterial pathogens is -
(A) Noncompetitive inhibition (B) Allosteric inhibition
(C) Competitive inhibition (D) Negative feed back
5. Inhibition of succinate dehydrogenase by malonate is the example of -

(A) Noncompetitive inhibition (B) Competitive inhibition
(C) Allosteric inhibition (D) Negative feed back
6. Enzymes are divided into

(A) 6 classes, each with 4 - 13 subclasses and named according by a four-digit number
(B) 7 classes, each with 4 - 13 subclasses and named according by a four-digit number
(C) 6 classes, each with 4 - 13 subclasses and named according by a three-digit number
(D) 6 classes, each with 4 - 20 subclasses and named according by a four-digit number
7. According to IUB system, isomerases belong to which class ?

(A) I (B) III (C) V (D) IV
8. Apoenzyme and coenzyme collectively produce -

(A) Holoenzyme (B) Enzyme product complex
(C) Cofactor (D) Prosthetic group
9. The suffix ‘–’ added to substrate for naming the enzyme is -

(A) –ase (B) –in (C) –sine (D) –ose
10. The enzyme concerned with transfer of electrons is -

(A) Oxidoreductases (B) Cytochrome oxidase
(C) Dehydrogenase (D) All of the above
11. Amylase is an example of -

(A) Oxidoreductase (B) Transferase
(C) Hydrolase (D) Ligase
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12. Which of the following enzymes does not belong to the class V of enzyme classification ?
(A) Isomerases (B) Mutases
(C) Epimerases (D) Dehydrogenases
13. When apoenzyme is separated from its metal component its activity is -
(A) Decreased (B) Increased
(C) Lost (D) Not effected
14. Cofactors are -

(A) Nonprotein organic molecules (B) Certain vitamins
(C) Metallic ions (D) All of the above
15. Which of the following combinations are correct ?

(A) Metal ions loosely attached with apoenzyme - Activators
(B) Non protein organic part attached to apoenzyme firmly - Prostatic group
(C) Non protein organic part attached loosely to apoenzyme - Coenzyme
(D) All of the above
16. Which one is not cofactor ?

(A) Coenzyme (B) Apoenzyme
(C) Prosthetic group (D) Metal ions
17. Which one is correct ?

(A) Cofactor plays crucial role in catalytic activity of the enzymes
(B) Zn is activator of carboxypeptidase
(C) Catalase and peroxidase have been as prosthetic group
(D) All
18. Suppose all the reactions in a unicellular organism have come to equilibrium. This
(A) Signals the birth of the organism (B) Happens when the organism is at rest.
(C) is true at all the times (D) leads to death
19. Which one of the following is made up of only one type of macromolecules ?
(A) virus (B) plasmid (C) ribosome (D) nucleosome
20. Ball and stick models emphasize th ________ of a molecule but fail to suggest its ________.
(A) Overall shape ; bonding (B) Bonding ; overall size
(C) Overall size ; bonding (D) Geometry ; overall shape
1. D 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. A
7. C 8. A 9. A 10. D 11. C 12. D
13. C 14. D 15. D 16. B 17. D 18. D
19. B 20. D
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Carbohydrates
Macromolecules of Protoplasm
Carbohydrates
1. Compound of C, H and O are presented by the general formula (CH2O)n,
2. Most abundant in plant (part of cell wall), and animal cell (source of energy, e.g. glucose).
3. Polyhydroxy aldoses or ketoses.
4. Monosaccharides are simple sugars and have upto ten carbon atoms.
5. Disaccharides are found when two monosaccharides condense. Oligosaccharides have 3–10
monosaccharide units in a chain, while polysaccharides have more than 10 monosaccharides.
6. Monosaccharides are named according to the number of carbon atoms and contain free or potentially
free aldehyde or ketone group along with hydroxyl group. Pentoses are linked with nucleic acids –
ribose with RNA and deoxyribose with DNA.
7. Monosaccharides are widely distributed in animal and plant cells.
8. Most common disaccharides are maltose, surcose and lactose which on hydrolysis yield two
monosaccharide molecules.
9. Oligosaccharide have 3–10 monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bond.
10. Polysaccharides perform two vital functions.
(a) Structural component of plant cell wall.
(b) Storage product of energy in both plants (cellulose/starch) and animals (glycogen).
Polysaccharides may be homopolysaccharide if all the monomer units are same i.e. glucose, e.g.
glycogen and cellulose. If the monomer are different, they are called heteropolysaccharides. Further
the molecule may manifest branched, cyclic or linear configuration. Polysaccharides are formed by
linkage of many monosaccharides by glycosidic bond.
11. Polysaccharides may bond with protein (glycoprotein or proteoglycons) and these are also called
mucopolysaccharide. Bacterial cell wall contains peptidoglycan ; antibodies, and receptor. Cellulare
deposits of chondriotin. Many glycoproteins act as hormones, antibodies, and receptors.
12. Many carbohydrates from the structural components of the body, e.g., chitin, cellulose, protein hyaluronic
acid. Others are used in production of energy, e.g., glucose, glycogen. Some form conjugates with
lipids, proteins, purines and pyrimidine.
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Proteins
1. Proteins are the polymers of aminoacids (20 types) and are synthesized on ribosomes attached to
mRNA as per genetic code. The bond between aminoacids are called peptide bond.
2. Proteins take part in a variety of cellular functions. They may participate in (a) structure (b) growth
(c) cell division (d) development (e) differentiation (f) defence of body (g) and metabolic activities. Thus,
proteins can act as structural unit of membranes, cells, tissues ; as enzyme they participate in any of
the synthetic and degradation activity ; as immunological substances ; as receptors ; in generation of
cell signals, and as hormones.
3. Protein structure is of four types (a) primary (b) secondary (c) tertiary and (d) quarternary.
(a) Primary structure is a linear chain of amino acids that occur in a specific sequence and number.
Some may have cross linkages in the form of disulfide (—S—S—) bonds.
(b) The secondary structure of protein has a specialised 3-D configuration. Tight coiling of polypeptide
chain occurs due to formation of H-bond between carbonyl and imido group of individual amino acid.
This folding gives it a form called -helix in which there are 3 single bonds called omega, phi and chi.
(c) Tertiary structure Further folding of polypeptides occurs. This structure is stabilised by various secondary
bonds between specific R groups. There are three types of linkages.
(i) —S—S holding two polypeptide together
(ii) H-bonding and
(iii) Electrostatic bonds between +ve and –ve groups.
4. Globular and Fibrous Proteins
Globular : (a) They are soluble in body fluids.
(b) Act as enzymes, antibodies or hormones.
Fibrous : (a) Occur in muscles, skin, teeth
(b) May be contractile or elastic.
(c) Some are dissolved in plasma e.g. fibrinogen.
5. Functions of Proteins
(a) Enzymes, e.g. hydrolases, transferases, oxido reductases, etc.
(b) Vectors of O2/CO2 (haemoglobin), CO, etc
(c) Stored products, e.g. as ferritin — iron storage in spleen, caesin — amino acid storage in milk.
(d) Structural components, e.g. Plasma membrane, cell matrix, collagen fibres, in connective tissues.
(e) Contraction, e.g. as actin (globular and fibrous), myosin in muscles. (heavy and light)
(f) Protection, e.g. as antibodies (5 types IgG; IGE; IGD; IgM; IgA Immunoglobulin) to attack and
destroy antigen ; as fibrinogen to facilitate clotting of blood.
(g) Hormone, e.g. Insulin in glucose metabolism; glucagon in glycogenolysis.
(h) Toxin, e.g. snake venom as hydrolytic enzyme.
(i) Regulates and influences ion distribution and exchange. Regulate cell Physiology.
(j) As receptors or in identification of molecules entering or exiting from cells and binding with them.
6. Proteins are involved in neurotransmission and can be analysed by a variety of methods.
7. Proteins are of 3 types :
(a) Simple : Made up of amino acid only. Soluble in different solvents and have variable thermal
coagulability. This determines their molecular from and size, e.g. protamines, histones, kertin, collagen,
elastin.
(b) Conjugated : Simple protein links to non-protein. Protein component is called apoprotein while the
non-protein part is called the prosthetic group.
The whole molecule is called holoprotein. They are classified on the basis of their prosthetic groups
into.
(i) Chromoprotein and flavoprotein (ii) Metalloprotein
(iii) Lipoprotein (iv) Glycoprotein
(c) Derived protein : Similar to natural protein, not soluble in water, fibrous.
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Lipids
1. They are compounds of C, H, O.
2. They are biopolymers of fatty acids.
3. Lipids are of 3 types
(a) Glycerides
(b) Phospholipids and
(c) Steroids
4. Simple lipids are called glycerides — Fatty acid ester with glycerol as alcoholic component. Their
general formula is :
CH2O–CO–R1  Fatty acid molecule (may or may not be similar)
2
CH–O–CO–R
CH2O–CO–R3
Bases of lipids of animal tissues/cells.

Name of lipids Chemical nature and functions
Phospholipids Contains nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous

(Esters of fatty acids) groups in addition to phosphate. Constituent of membrane, facilitates
absorption of sterols and non-polar lipids, amphipathic molecule.
Many types are known.
Lecithin Contains glycerol, two fatty acids, phosphate group and nitrogenous base
choline. Found in brain, liver, cardiac muscles and blood.
Caphalin It contains ethanolamine instead of choline as a N2-base (in brain).
Lipoamino acid Contains serine, threonine or hydroxyprotein. Found in RBC and brain.
I. Plasmalogens They are of many types, found in RBC, cardiac muscles and brain.
Sphingiomyelin Found in blood, liver and brain
II. Sphingolipids Contain sphingosin alcohol which is linked to fatty acid by amide bond. Many
types are known.
(a) Gangliosides Found in liver, RBC, neural tissues.
(b) Sulphatides Found in liver, kidney and salivary glands.
(c) Cerebrosides Found in nervous system.
(d) Glycolipids Amphipathic molecules.
III. Steroids Acts as hormones, e.g. corticoids, androgens, estrogens, progesterone.
Found in liver secretion (Bile acids).
IV. Cholesterol Found in blood, kidney, liver.
V. Prostaglandins Found in tissue fluids, prostate, thymus, blood plasma, etc.
Triglycerides are either solid or liquid.

Fatty acids are of two types :
(a) Saturated fatty acids e.g. palmitic acid and stearic acid
(b) Unsaturated fatty acid. They have double bond, e.g. oleic acid.
5. Phospholipids
(a) Occur in the biological membranes and maintain their structure.
(b) They are essentially triglycerides in which phosphoric acid and nitrogen compounds like choline or
serine, etc. replace one of the fatty acids. They are called derivatives of phosphtidic acid.
(c) They are found in both plants and animals. Cephalin is a phospholipid which is specific to neural
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tissues of brain. Others are lecithin, spingomyelin, plasmolin and cardiolipin.
(d) They are formed by esterification of phosphatidic acid with a nitrogenous compound.
(e) Phospholipids of biological membranes facilitate ion-exchange, intercellular transport and cellular
excretion. They are also implicated in electrogenesis in excitable cells, e.g. muscles and neurons.
6. Non-phosphorylated lipids form structural unit of cellular organelles. This includes glycolipids, sulpholipids
and proteolipids. Glycolipids occur in nervous tissue of animals, sulpholipids in liver, kidney, testes
and salivary gland.
7. Lipids are of critical importance in initiating and stimulating many physico-chemical processes.
8. Gangliosides are found in the gray matter of the nervous system in high amounts. Disorders due to
breakdown of gangliosides is the cause of serious pathologies, e.g. Tay-Sachs disease which is
inherited as an autosomal recessive trait.
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RNA
(a) Single stranded
(b) Genetic material of some viruses (RNA Viruses, e.g. HIV).
(c) Contains A, U, C and G and the sugar is called ribose. Thus, T of DNA is replaced by U (uracil).
(d) RNA is formed from DNA by transcription.
(e) It is found in nucleus, mitochondria, plastids and ribosomes.
(f) RNA is of the following types :
(i) mRNA synthesized on DNA template, carries genetic code in the form of triplets (64 types).
The decoding and translation of these leads to the formation of a protein molecule. mRNA has a short
life and is unstable.
(ii) tRNA (20 types) each specific for a particular type of amino acid (20 types), highly stable, have a
definite shape, clover-leaf like from. tRNA serves as an adaptor. It transports specific amino acids.
tRNA is also called soluble RNA. [sRNA].
(iii) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) It forms  rRNA which is a stable molecule and is associated with ribosomes
(factory for protein synthesis). It animal cells, prokaryotes and plant cells rRNA can be identified on
the basis of their differential sedimentation rate expressed by the Unit S (Svedberg Unit). rRNA is
complexed with 50 different protein molecules in robosomes.
(iv) Viral RNA Single stranded, genetic material of some viruses e.g. HIV1.3. However information from
RNA  RNA does not occur. Instead RNA acts as the template for DNA synthesis by reverse
transcriptase.
Porphyrins (Derivatives of Porphyrins)

Large, flat, heterocyclic ring structure contain iron or magnesium found in plant and animal cells and
subserve a variety of functions e.g. O2/CO2 transport (haemoglobin, myoglobin). Pholosynthesis
(chlorophyll), enzymes (cytochromes, peroxides, catalase).
Heterocyclic ring structure is made up of 4 pyrrole rings linked by Methin bridge. They have
side chains on ring and occur in different isomeric form.
Polynucleotide Chain
In one nucleotide, one molecule of phosphoric acid is connected with C5 of one molecule of deoxyribose
sugar by a ester bond. The nearest nucleotide is bonded with the other by a phosphodiester bond. This
bond exists between phosphatic of one nucleotide and sugar of another. This results in the formation
of a deoxyribose – phosphate chain called polynucleotide chain. The phosphate molecule is bounded
with the C3 of the next nucleotide and the nitrogen base with the C1 of deoxyribose. One end of
polynucletoide has C3 deoxyribose residue which does not bond with the other nucleotide whose other
end does not join with C5 sugar residue. These ends are callec 31 and 51 and the chain is coiled.
According to Watson and Crick, the following rules are followed in the bonding of nitrogenous
bases of DNA.
1. Purine always bonds with pyrmidine, i.e. A with T and C with G.
2. The nearest chains are joined by H-bond. There are two H-bonds between A and T(A = T) and three
between C and G (C  G).
3. In a given DNA molecule, the amount of purine and pyrimidine is equal.
4. The two chains of DNA are complementary, i.e., if the sequence of nitrogenous bases is A, T, G and C
then in the other one it would be T, A, C and G.
5. One end of polynucleotide chain is called 31 and the other 51.
6. One molecule of DNA contains about 2000 nitrogenous bases.
7. The width of DNA molecules is 20 Å.
8. Each turn of DNA measures 34 Å and has 10 bases at a distance of 3.4 Å from each other.
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Thus, DNA is polymer and has a high molecular weight 106 and 109 or even more. Molecular
weight for purified DNA is in the range of 1000,000 to 120 × 106.
DNA occurs in many forms :
(a) Double stranded in all eukaryotes
(b) Single stranded in Bacteria, and Viruses
(c) Circular in E.Coli
DNA or RNA
Fredrick Miescher (1886) extracted a substance from pus cells by treating them with NaCl and called
it Nuclein. Seglar confirmed the presence of Nuclein in eukaryotic cells of reptiles, birds and also in
yeast. Altman and Albrechi are credited with coining the term nucleic acid and Levine and Jones
studied their chemical nature to show that they are made of nitrogenous base, sugar and phosphoric
acid. Nucleic acid were shown to act as genetic material by Franklin and Stahl. While Chargaff stated
that the nitrogenous bases are present in equal ratio (Chargaff’s rule), Wilkins provided the
crystallographic data. The double helical model of DNA was given by Watson and Cricks who shared
the Nobel Prize with Wilkins.
Chemical nature of DNA

DNA is made up of variety of organic and inorganic compounds, e.g. nitrogen bases, sugar and phosphoric
acid.
(a) Nitrogen bases These are four types of bases which are either purines or pyrimidines. The purine
bases are adenine (A) and Guanine (G), while the pyrimidine bases are thymine (T) and Cytosine (C).
The relative ratio of purines and pyrimidines in a DNA molecule is equal, i.e., A = T and G = C. However,
the ratio of A + T/G + C differs in organisms, although it is similar in the same organims.
(b) Sugar The sugar in DNA is a 5-carbon sugar (pentose) called deoxyribose. It does not contain O2 at C2
position.
(c) Phosphoric acid These are linearly linked with deoxyribose in a DNA molecule at C3 and C5 position.
Because of this, each DNA strand has two ends, i.e., a 5 and 3 end. The bond between sugars of two
different nucleotide is called the phosphodiester bond.
Molecular Organisation of Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid

One deoxyribose sugar molecule bonds with a nitrogenous base (A, or T, or C or G) to form n Nucleoside.
The nucleoside joins with phosphoric acid to form a nucleotides. The nucleotides of DNA are called
deoxynucleotides. They are of 4 types.
(a) deoxyadenylic acid : Adenine + deoxyribose + phosphoric acid.
(b) deoxyguanylic acid : Guanine + deoxyribose + phosphoric acid.
(c) deoxycytidilic acid : Cytosine + deoxyribose + phosphoric acid
(d) deoxythymidilic acid : Thymidine + deoxyribose + phosphoric acid.
Types of DNA Replication

1. Semiconservative 2. Conservative 3. Dispersive
1. Semiconservative : The salient features of this process are :

(a) unwinding of the double helix (but no rupture of separated strands).
(b) guided synthesis of complementary strands of each of the two separated polynucletodie strands.
(c) entire polynucleotide strands of parental DNA are passed on to the progeny in intact form.
(d) Progeny DNA receives either one half or none of its nucleotides from the parental DNA.
2. Conservative :
(a) Both the primary and secondary structure of DNA (parental) is conserved.
(b) Replication of DNA does not involve ruputure of individual DNA strands or unwinding of the helical
duplex.
(c) A sequence of hydrogen bonded base pairs serves as genetic determinant on which specific nucleotides
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preferentially bind and determine their sequential position in the daughter polynucleotide.
(d) No redistribution of parental DNA among the progeny is permitted.
(e) The original DNA is transferred as an intact unit or not at all.
3. Dispersive : No experimental evidence is available to support this. It postulates
(a) general break up of the parental DNA and
(b) its more or less uniform distribution among the progeny.
Biological significance of DNA

It all eukaryotes and majority of prokaryotes (except RNA viruses), DNA is the repository of all genetic
information. It serves as information molecule and generates the codes for synthesis of proteins that
subserve diverse functions. This is does by forming mRNA which carries the genetic code in the form
of triples (64 types), tRNA (20 types) which carry anticodon and rRNA. DNA is a stable macromolecule
but can undergo changes (mutation) that may involve substitution of a single nitrogenous base pair
(point mutation) or several bases. Such mutations bring about changes in physico-chemical properties
and functions of DNA coded proteins. If selected (natural selection) it leads to formation of new phenotypic
characters. This is the basis of variation and cause of evolutionary changes.
DNA replicates during cell growth and cell division and thus is responsible for passing a copy
to daughter cells. Mitotic cell division results in daughter cells that are exactly similar in structure,
chromosome number (2n) and functions. However, during meiosis as a result of synapsis of homologous
chromosomes, crossing over and reduction division, the daughter cells are not only genetically different
from parental cells but also contain haploid (n) number of chromosomes. This genetic recombination
often expresses itself by forming new types of phenotypic character at structure at structural and
functional levels.
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Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
RNA occurs in nucleus and cytoplasm freely or are found in association with ribosomes. Cell organelles
such as plastids, mitochondria adn eukaryotic chromosomes also contain RNA. In Tobacco mosaic
virus (TMV) and wound tumour it acts as genetic material. It may be single stranded, e.g. many
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, or double stranded, e.g. wound tumour and Reovirus. RNA was first
implicated in protein synthesis by Casperson (1950) and Brachet ((1956).
Evidence for the “One Gene-One enzyme” hypothesis [Beadle and Tatum].
RNA is a polymer of nucleotides. Like DNA it is also made up of purines adn pyrimidines. The purine
bases are adenine and guanine (similar to DNA), but the pyrimidine bases are uracil (instead of
thymine as found in DNA) and cytosine. The pentose sugar in RNA is called ribose. In RNA the
nucleotides are : Adenine (A) + ribose + phosphoric acid and cytosine (C) + ribose + phosphoric acid.
The nucleosides are accordingly A + ribose ; U + ribose ; C + ribose and G + ribose. The bond between
nitrogenous base and sugar (N – C) is called glycosidic bond. In purine and sugar bonding, it is
between C1 and N9, and in pyrimidine and guanine between C1 and N3. Purine and pyrimidine bases
are present on the backbone which is formed of linearly arranged ribose sugar and phosphate.
The secondary structure of RNA is coiled like hairpin and this coiling is stabilised by A = U and
C  bond.
RNA occurs in many forms. Four major types of RNA have been identified in organisms :
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) :Found in nucleus and is synthesized by DNA. mRNA acts as information
molecule and carries genetic information for the synthesis of proteins in cytoplasm. It is synthesised
as complementary strand during transcription form DNA. It contains the same sequence of nitrogenous
bases except that instead of thymine (T), uracil (U) is present. It is translocated to cytoplasm after
transcription and is stored in different forms of ribosomes. It acts as templete for protein synthesis
(translation process), has a short life span and is dispersed after translation. mRNA is rapidly
synthesized in metabolically active cells. The nucleotides of mRNA are same in all organisms but their
sequence is different. mRNA is synthesized on one or the other strands of DNA. The transcription
process starts from 51 – 31 end. RNA polymerase catalyses mRNA synthesis.
The life span of mRNA is bacteria is about two minutes but in eukaryotes it is a few hours.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) : It constitutes 10% of cells, has lower molecular weight ; synthesized in nucleus
and later transferred to cytoplasm. It is involved in translation of genetic code. mRNA code is read by
tRNA as it contains anticodon (triplet). tRNA (20 types) binds with the specific amino acid (one out of
20 types known) with the help of the enzyme aminoacyl synthetase (20 types).
tRNA is synthesised under the direction of genetic code provided by nuclear genes DNA. In
bacteria 40–80 cistrons are involved with transcription of tRNA but in Drosophila this number is 56.
tRNA plays a pivotal role in insertion of activated and appropriate amino acid (as per code) on ribosomes
leading to formation of polypeptide chain of aminoacids.
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) : It is found in ribosomes in the form of ribonucleoprotein. Nearly 80% of cell
weight consists of rRNA. rRNA is of two types in prokaryotes i.e., 28S and 16S. In eukaryotes it is of
three types 28S, 18S and 5S.
rRAN is synthesized n nucleus and is coded by DNA. The part of chromosomes which is
concerned with rRNA formation is called Nucleolar Organiser. 28S and 18S rRNA is transcribed by
nuclear DNA and has a larger molecular weight.
In higher organisms, nearly 200–2000 rRNA cistrons take part in rRNA synthesis.
4. Viral RNA : It TMV and Influenza viruses, RNA is single stranded. It is the genetic material of retroviruses,
e.g. HIV.
Difference between DAN and RNA

DNA RNA
1. Genetic material of all eukaryotes 1. Genetic matterial of retro viruses.
and prokaryotes.
2. Double-stranded and helical (nuclear) 2. Single stranded having several forms.
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(except viruses, in which it is single Double stranded in few.
stranded, or mitochondria and plastids,
in which it is circular.
3. Nitrogenous bases are A, T, G and C. 3. NItrogenous bases are A, U, G and C.
4. The pentose sugar is called deoxyribose 4. The pentose sugar is called ribose.
5. Codes for various forms of RNA 5. Does not code for DNA.
6. Take part in protein synthesis.
7. Several types of RNA known, e.g., mRNA, tRNA
(20 types), rRNA and viral DNA.
DNA RNA
HOCH2 O OH HOCH2 O OH
H H H H
H H
OH OH OH OH
Deoxribose Ribose
O O
N CH3 N H
N N
O N H O N H
H H
Thymine Uracil
Difference between DNA and RNA

Comparsion of different types of RNA
Character Ribosomal Messenger RNA transfer RNA
RNA (rRNA) (mRNA) (tRNA)
1. Percentage of total 80% 3% - 5% 10% - 20%
RNA of cell.
2. Sedimentation 28S, 18S, 5.8S 8S 3.8S, 5S
coefficient and 5S
3. Number of 5S, 120 Nucleotides
Nucleotides 16S-18S - 1600–2500 E.coli : 8S 5S=73–93
Nucleotides 9000 to Nucleotides
23S-28S = 3200–5500 500,000 Nucleotides
Nucleotides 25000–30,000
4. Molecular 23S=1.1 × 106
weight 30S=0.55 × 106
5. Unusual Small amount of Small amount High contents
bases methylated bases. 1/30-40 bases [E.coli 1/100–150bases]
6. Site of synthesis Derived from Synthesized in Synthesized in
DNA Template Nucleolar DNA Nucleus on nucleus on
DNA template. DNA template.
7. Function Unpaired bases Conveys genetic Adaptor for
may bind information from attaching aminoacids
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to ribosomes mRNA and tRNA DNA of chromosomes to mRNA template
to facilitate specific
protein synthesis.
HN H
Structure of uracil
H
O N
H
CH2 O
CH4 CH
Structure of ribose sugar 3 2
HC CH
OH OH
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17
Inorganic Constituents of Protoplasm
Water
1. Major and essential constituents of protoplasm (60-95%). Life without water does not exist.
2. Water is necessary for biochemical reaction.
3. It is required for maintenance of body temperature, formation fluids, as solvents for catabolites and
anabolites.
4. Water is excreted from the body in the form of urine, as part of faeces, sweat and with expiratory air.
For humans, sources of water are (a) Food and fluids, (b) Metabolic water (300–400 ml) produced by
oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
5. Water is an hydride of oxygen (H2O). It has high melting and boiling point, heat of vaporisation and
surface tension. It is a dipolar compound. Water acts as a excellent solvent.
6. Water facilitates maintenance of pH (H+ ions concentration) of body fluids, e.g. blood (pH 7.40),
intestinal juice (pH 8.0-9.0), gastric juice (pH 1.0-2.0).
Minerals
Calcium and Phosphorus
1. The concentration of Ca2+ and P is regulated by parathormone and calcitonin. Vitamin D, Estrogen
and testosterone also play this role.
2. In adult male and female the amount of Ca2+ required is 500 mg. In pregnant women, 11 of Ca2+ is
needed.
3. Ca+2 is the structural component of skeleton and teeth. It is required in blood coagulation ; for enzyme
activity ; for synaptic transmission in neuron ; contraction of muscles ; permeability of gap junctions,
and plasma membrane ; excitation of neural tissue, contraction of cardiac muscles, functions of
hormones and in lactogenesis.
4. P is also an important constituent of skeleton and teeth. If facilitates (a) energy transfer (b) Acid-alkali
balance (c) phosphorylation and phosphorylysis (d) enzyme action, and as constituent of
phosphoprotein, nucleid acids, phospholipids and lipoprotein.
Magnesium
1. About 350 mg of magnesium is needed in adults per day and 450 mg in pregnant women.
2. It is an important constituent of skeleton and teeth.
3. It helps in neuro muscular excitation.
4. It facilitates enzyme action.
Sulphur
It is an important constituent of enzymes, e.g. some electron enzymes, and of several proteins and
also of coenzyme A. About 80-90 gm of S is present in human body.
Sodium
About 1.3–5.0 g per day is required in adult human. It is important for excitability of neurons, muscle
cells, fluid balance, acid-base balance, cardiac muscles function, for ionic charge in membrane and
also in enzyme activation, e.g. Na-activated ATPase. Regulated by aldosterone.
Potassium
Daily requirement in adult male is 1.8–5.5 gm. Important in enzyme action (K-activated ATPase) or
also with Na (Na-activated ATPase), acid-base balance, excitability of membranes, ionic charge of
membrane and cardiac muscle function. Regulated by aldosterone. Human body has 110-130 gm of
K.
Chloride
About 1.5–5 g is needed by adult male per day. Important in maintenance of fluid balance, acid-base
balance and cardiac function. Human body has 70.80 gm of Cl–.
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Trace Elements
1. Iron (Fe) Adult male require 25 mg; female require 30 mg and pregnant women require 40 mg per day.
It is circulate in the form of transferrin. Fe is linked for the synthesis of haemoglobin. It thus facilitates
O2/CO2 transport.
2. Copper (Cu) Adult humans need 2.5 mg/day. Important in enzyme activity, e.g. in maturation of elastin
fibres as a constituent of the respiratory pigment haemocyanin (found in spiders and molluscs).
3. Zinc (Zn) Adult humans require 15 mg and pregnant women 25 mg per day. Deficiency of Zn inhibits
growth, attenuation of carbonic anhydrase in RBC, inhibition of development of genitalia and hairs in
humans, dermatitis, neural disorders, eye defects. It is required also in enzyme action and in metabolism
of vitamin A.
4. Manganese (Mg) Adult humans require 2.5 mg per day. It is a constituent of many enzymes and also
acts as a cofactor. Many mitochondrial enzymes contains Mn2+. Important for fertility in many organisms
(e.g. cow) facilitates synthesis of porphyrins and protoglycan in many tissues.
5. Molybdenum (Mb) Adult human require 0.5 mg par day. Constituent of non-heme flavoprotein.
6. Cobalt (Co) Acts as co-factor for many enzymes. Constituent of vitamin B12 Facilitates erythropoiesis
and maturation of RBC.
7. Selenium (Se) Adult human require 0.2 mg per day. Constituent of (a) enzyme glutathione peroxidase,
(b) microsomal protein. Seleno-proteins are related to oxidase system of membranes.
8. Iodine (I) Adult male require 140 mg, female 100 mg and pregnant female 125 mg par day. Inorganic
iodide is accumulated in thyroid gland follicles. It facilitates iodination of tyrosins to form T1, T2, T3, T4
derivatives of which T3 (Thyroxine) is most active. It is transported by globulin with which they conjugate
(unstable) to form thyroglobulin.
9. Fluorine (F) Adult humans require 2–3 mg par day. Facilitates development of skeleton adn teeth.
Higher concentration are toxic and are detrimental to skeleton, teeth muscles, kidney, brain, gonads,
etc.
10. Chromium (G) Adult humans require 0.05–0.15 mg par day. Acts as a increased glucose tolerance
factor.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic substance which are capable of subserving functions.
Characteristics
1. Required in micro quantities and are linked with one or the other phases metabolic cycles of a cell.
2. May join with the non-proteinaceous part of an enzyme and act as co-enzyme, e.g. niacin acts as a
co-enzyme in NAD biosynthesis.
3. Influences enzyme functions.
4. Plants can make their own vitamins but animals can synthesis only some vitamins. The latter phenomena
is due to mutation and destruction of genes that are responsible for vitamin synthesis.
5. Vitamin deficiency causes many metabolic, cellular, tissue, organ disorders in animals and man.
6. Vitamins are either water soluble or fat soluble.
7. Vitamins are needed in diet on a 24 hours basis.
Table 1.10–1.11 describes the water and fat soluble vitamins, their common name, chemical nature,
source, site of absorption and storage, functions, daily requirements and deficiency syndrome
(symptoms and name of disease).
Enzymes
Biochemical pathways and cycles are linked with anabolic and catabolic processes in cells. These
are sequentially catalysed by Enzymes, a term coined by Kuhne ((1878). The nature of enzymes was
defined by Brezelius (1827). Bucher extracted the enzymes from yeast which catalyse alcoholic
fermentation. Schwann is credited with isolation of pepsin from gastric juices and later also identified
another proteolytic enzyme – trypsin. Urease was first extracted and crystallised by Summer (1926).
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Enzymes (3000 kinds known and 250 obtained in crystalline from) are soluble, colloidal,
carbon compounds. All enzymes are proteins (polymers of aminoacids). They take part in many
metabolic are deeply influenced by a variety of physical and chemical factors.
According to recommendations of the International Union of Biochemists (IUB) enzymes are
classified into six categories.
1. Oxido-reductases Catalyses oxidation and reduction reaction in a cell. About 221 enzymes are placed
in this category.
2. Transferases Facilitates transfer of one chemical group of a biochemical into another.
3. Hydrolases They break the structural and chemical bond of biochemical in a cell by introducing water
(—OH). This process is also called hydrolysis. The substrates for these enzymes are glycosides,
peptides, esters.
4. Lyases They are similar to hydrolases in all respects except that they catalyse removal of one group
from the substrate. But, the double bond of the substrate remains intact. These enzymes act on C–S,
C–O, C–N, and C–C groups.
5. Isomerase This catalyses internal reorganisation of molecules in a substrate.
6. Ligase Catalyse bonding of compounds of molecules in a substrate.
Enzymes are also classified on the basis of the kind of biochemical reaction they catalyse in a cell.
Role of vitamins in biochemical reactions

Type of biochemical Name of vitamin Name of required
reaction in the cell required co-enzyme
1. Fixation of CO2 Biotin Biotin

2. Oxidation-Reduction Nicotinamide (a) Diphosphopyridine nucleotide
(b) Triphosphopyridine nucleotide
3. Oxidation-Reduction Ripoflavin (c) Flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
(d) Triphosphopyridine nucleotide
4. Translocation of Pantothenic acid Co-enzyme A
Acetyl group
5. Reaction with Folic acid Tetrahydrofolic acid
C1 compounds
6. Isomerisation Cyanocobalmin Cobalamide coenzyme
C-series
7. (a) Decarboxylation Pyridoxine Pyridoxyl phosphate
(b) Transamination
8. Decarboxylation of Thiamine Thiamine pyrophophate
ketoacids
Role of enzymes in biochemical reactions

Category Biochemical Example
of enzyme reaction catalysed
I. Oxidoreductase Biochemical —
oxidation and reduction
(a) Dehydrogenases Removal of H and its translocation
e.g. SDH.
(b) Oxygenase Insertion of C2 in place of double
bond in a substrate.
(c) Peroxidase Use of Hydrogen peroxide in
oxidation.
(d) Oxidative deaminase Insertion of —OH group.
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20
II. Transferase Transfer of chemical
group from one molecule
to another
(a) Transminase Transfer of —NH2 group.
(b) Kinase Transfer of phosphate group from
ATP to substrate
(c) Phosphorylase Transf er of phosphat e group
without utilising ATP.
(d) Acyl transferase Transfer of acetyl/acyl group to
suitable receptor.
(e) Glycosyl transferase Transfer of glycosyl group.
III. Hydrolase Cleaving of molecules

by action of water
(= Hydrolysis)
(a) Peptidase Hydrolyse peptide bonds.
(b) Phosphatase Removal of chemical group from
carbon compounds by hydrolysis.
(c) Phosphodiesterase Hydrolysis of phosphate ester
(d) Glycosidase Hydrolysis of glycosidic bond.
(e) Esterases Hydrolysis of carboxylic ester.
(f) Deaminase Hydrolysis of amines.
(g) Deamidase Hydrolysis of amidase.
IV. Lyases Cleaving or conjugation

of functional groups
molecules (internally)
to form isomers.
(a) Carboxylase Addition of —COOH
(b) Decarboxylase Removal of —COO
(c) Aldolase Cleaving of Ketose mono-, and diphosphate
V. Isomerase Redistribution and e.g. Mutase, Racemase, Epimerase,

rearrangement of cis-trans-isomerase
to form isomers.
VI. Ligase Conjugation of Formation of C—C, C—N

molecules by using C—O and C—S bonds.
energy donated by ATP
and other phosphates..
Co-enzymes and their functions
Co-enzymes Functions
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) Transfer of hydrogen atoms (electron).
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate Transfer of hydrogen atoms.
(NAD+)
Thiamine pyrophosphate (B1) Decarboxylation and aldehyde group transfer.
Flavin monoculeotide (FMN) Transfer of hydrogen atoms.
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) Transfer of hydrogen atoms.
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21
Lipoic acid Transfer of acyl groups.
Biotin Transfer of CO2.
Pyridoxal phosphate (B6) Participates in transmination, decarboxylation and
recamization reactions of amino acids.
Tetrahydrofolate Transfer of methyl, methylene, formyl and formamino
groups
Cyanocobalamine (vitamin B12) Transfer of alkyl groups in alkylation reactions.
Co-enzyme Q Transfer of hydrogen atoms.
Co-enzyme A Transfer of acyl groups.
Some co-enzymes containing a vitamin as their component
Type of vitamin Co-enzyme or the active form

Thaimine Thaimine pyroposphate (TPP)
Riboflavin Flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
Nicotinic acid Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
Panthothenic acid Co-enzyme A(CoA)
Pyridoxine Pyridoxal phosphate
Biotin Biocytin
Folic acid Tetrahydrofolic acid
Vitamin B12 Co-enzyme B12
Molecular mechanism which contribute to the catalytic efficiency of enzyme
Mechanisms Remarks
1. Proximity effects Temporary binding of reactants close to each other on an
enzyme increases the chance of a reaction.
2. Orientation effects Reactants are held by the enzymes in such a way that the
bonds are exposed to attack and a transition state is readily
achieved.
3. Strain effects Enzyme may induce strain or distortion in the susceptible
bond of the substrate molecule, making the bond easier to
break.
4. Acid-base catalysis Acidic and basic amino acids in the enzyme facilitate transfer
of electrons to and from the reactants.
5. Covalent catalysis Enzyme may combine with the substrate to form an unstable
covalent intermediate that readily undergoes reactions to
form the products.
6. Microenvironmental effects Hydrolytic amino acids create a water-free zone in which
non-polar reactants may react more easily.
Mechanism of enzyme action

Two theories have been advanced 1. Lock and key theory and 2. Induced fit theory of Koshland (1960).
A specific part of enzyme has a catalytic site which exerts binding force on hydrophilic or
hydrophobic bonds. This causes formation of enzyme-substrate complex. Such reaction involve formation
of covalent or electrostatic bond. Enzymes contain different sites for substrate binding and catalysis.
Enzymes have found different applications in biomedicine and industry. Thus pencillinase
(of bacterial origin) is used in treatment of allergy, lysozyme (present in tear) is used as antibiotic for
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22
treatments of eye infection, trypsin is used in cleaning wounds, genetically engineered products are
used in treatment of diabetes mellitus (Humulin from E-coli), and anti-cancer drugs. Proteases are
used as components of detergents (alcoholase), meat tenderiser (Papain), cold pasteurisation
(catalase), imparting flavour to chees (lipase), whitening of bread (lipoxygenlase) etc.
(a) Nucleus (for synthesis of histones, RNA and NAD)
(b) Mitochondrial enzymes of Krebs cycle, area cycle, electron transport chain, oxidative phosphorylation
and oxidation.
(c) Lysosomes : site of hydrolytic action.
(d) Cytoplasmic enzymes of glycolysis, glycogenolysis, glycogenesis and Fatty Acid synthesis.
Nature of enzymes
1. All enzymes are proteins.

2. Molecular weight ranges from 10,000 d + 50,000 d.
3. They can catalyse one type of reaction, e.g. Acid phosphatase can only catalyse hydrolysis but not
oxidation or any other reaction.
4. Structurally enzymes can be simple protein e.g. Pepsin and trypsin or conjugated proteins. The
conjugant is always a non-protein and is called co-factor. Such an enzyme is called holoenzyme, i.e.
enzyme + co-factor. The enzyme part (apoenzyme) is colloidal and heat stable.
5. Co-factor are of two types
(a) Co-enzymes Carbon compounds temporarily bonded to apoenzyme at the time of their catalytic
reaction. They act as co-factors in many biochemical reactions catalysed by enzymes, e.g.
B-complex group of vitamins.
(b) Prosthetic group Carbon compound permanently bonded to enzymes. If removed, the enzyme
becomes inert, e.g. peroxidase, catalase.
6. Many metalloenzymes contain ions CO2+, Fe2+, Cu2+, Mn2+ and Zn2+ are examples of this.
7. Enzymes are needed in microquantities and can be reused. They catalyse the biochemical reaction
but do not take part in it. At the end of the reaction they remain unchanged.
8. Depending on availability of energy, they can act in forward and backward direction.
9. Being protein, enzyme can be denatured to a variety of physical and chemical factors and thus become
inert.
10. Enzymes are substrate and reaction specific.
11. They reduce the activation energy.
12. Enzyme-substrate reactions are specific.
13. Enzyme activity is significantly altered by temperature, pH, substrate concentration, concentration of
enzyme vis-a vis substrate, product, ions, redox potential, storage of end-product which induces not
only structural changes in enzymes (allosteric effects) but also suppress their catalytic activity.
Antibiotics, toxins, antimetabolites, cause reversible and/or irreversible alterations and serve as enzyme
inhibitors.
14. Enzymes occur in multiple form and these forms are called isoenzymes whose number, structure,
chemical properties and function varies. These isoenzymes of an enzyme can be separated by
electrophoresis. For example, in muscles of heart, five types of LDH isoenzymes have been delineated
designated as LDH, –LDH5 while in spermatogenically active testes of aves and mammals, a sixth
LDH isoenzyme called LDHx is consistently seen.
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23
Cell Biology
(Cell: The unit of Life)
Topic Page No.
Exercise 02 - 07
Notes
Cell Theory, Types of Cell 08 - 14
Cytoplasm, Cytoskeleton, Cell Wall 15 - 17
Plasma Membrane, Celia and Flagella 18 - 21
Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER) 22 - 22
Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, Vacuoles 23 - 26
Plastids, Mitochondria, Nucleus 27 - 32
Chromosomes 32 - 37
Syllabus
Cell Biology
(Cell: The unit of Life)
Cell Theory, Types of Cell, Cytoplasm, Cytoskeleton, Cell Wall, Plasma Membrane,
Celia and Flagella, Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER), Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes,
Vacuoles, Plastids, Mitochondira, Nucleus, Chromosomes.
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
ETOOSINDIA.COM
HelpDesk : 92-14-233303
CELL BIOLOGY (Cell : The unit of life)
LEVEL - I
1. The content of nucleolus is continuous with the rest of the nucleoplasm as -

(A) It is the site of active rRNA synthesis
(B) It is spherical
(C) It is membraneless
(D) It is associated with NOR of certain chromosome
2. Number of nucleolus in a nucleus is -

(A) Only one
(B) Many
(C) Dependent on number of SAT-chromosome
(D) One or more
3. Nuclear DNA exists as a complex of proteins called ______ that ______ condenses into ______ during
______
(A) Chromatids, chromosomes, cell division
(B) Chromosomes, chromatin, Interphase
(C) Chromatin, Chromosome, Interphase
(D) Chromatin, Chromosome, Cell division
4. Which of the following cell organelles is directly connected to the outer nuclear membrane ?
(A) Mitochondria (B) Golgi body (C) ER (D) Chromatin
5. An organelle found in all eukaryotic cells during some portion of their lives is the -
(A) Chloroplast (B) Nucleus (C) Flagellum (D) Centriole
6. Material of the nucleus is stained by -

(A) Acidic dye (B) Basic dye (C) neutral dye (D) iodine
7. For the study of structure of nucleus the best cell is -

(A) Cell in the interphase (B) Cell in the late prophase
(C) Cell in the divisional phase (D) Cell in the meiotic phase
8. Which one is correct about the nuclear membranes (NMs)

(A) Both the NMs are never fused
(B) Both the NMs are always parallel to each other and is never fused
(C) Both NMs are parallel to each other and fused to form nuclear pores at a number of places
(D) Inner NM is attached with ribosomes
9. The nuclear pores are the passage for the movement of certain materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm in
both the direction. Which one is correct about materials in their respective direction
(A) Proteins, enzymes into the nucleus (B) Ribosomal components out of the nucleus
(C) mRNA out of the nucleus (D) All
10. Actively functional nucleus shows -

(A) Large nucleolus, diffused chromatin and more nuclear pores
(B) Large nucleolus, diffused chromatin and no nuclear pores
(C) Large nucleolus, compact chromatin and many pores
(D) No nucleolus, diffused chromatin and small nuclear pores
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11. Both the nuclear membranes are separated by ______ in perinuclear space
(A) 10 to 50A0 (B) 1 to 5A0
(C) 10 to 50 nm (D) 1 to 5nm
12. Cells actively carrying out protein synthesis have -

(A) Smaller and single nucleolus
(B) Smaller and more numerous nucleoli
(C) Large and more numerous nucleoli
(D) Large and single nucleolus
13. Chromatin consists of -

(A) DNA only (B) DNA + Histones
(C) DNA + RNA + histones + Non-histones (D) Ribonucleoproteins only
14. The total length of DNA molecules of 46 chromosomes in a human cell is about ______, where as a typical cell
is 10m in length -
(A) 2mm (B) 2cm (C) 0.2 mm (D) 2m
15. Part of chromosome after secondary constriction is called -

(A) Chromomere (B) Telomere (C) Satellite (D) Primary constriction
16. Structure which provides the shape to chromosomes as called -

(A) Centromere (B) Centriole (C) Satellite (D) Chromomere
17. Which of the following enzymes is absent in lysosome ?

(A) Lipases and proteases (B) carbohydrase
(C) Polymerases (D) Nuclease
18. Which of the following is incorrect about the microbodies ?

(A) They are present in bacteria (B) Minute, membrous vesicles
(C) They are present in plants and animals (D) They have various enzymes
19. The Golgi apparatus (Dictysome) -

(A) Is found in animal cells only (B) Is found in prokaryotes only
(C) Is the site of rapid ATP production (D) Packages and modifies proteins
20. Which one is the important site of synthesis of glycoprotein and glycolipid ?
(A) GB (B) RER (C) Lysosome (D) None
1. C 2. D 3. D 4. C 5. B 6. B
7. A 8. C 9. D 10. A 11. C 12. C
13. C 14. D 15. C 16. A 17. C 18. A
19. D 20. A
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3
LEVEL - II
1. To enter or leave a cell substances must pass through

(A) a microtubule (B) the Golgi apparatus
(C) a ribosome (D) the plasma membrane
2. Bacterial cell are prokaryotic ; in comparison to a typical eukaryotic cell they would
(A) be smaller (B) have a smaller nucleus
(C) lack a plasma membrane (D) have fewer internal membranous compartments
3. Which of the following correctly matches an organelle with its function ?

(A) mitochondrion ... photosynthesis (B) nucleus ... cellular respiration
(C) ribosome ... manufacture of lipids (D) central vacuole ... storage
4. The term “nuclear envelope” is more correct than the term “nuclear membrane” because
(A) The enclosure has pores which membranes do not
(B) The enclosure is made up of two membranes
(C) The chemical composition is inconsistent with cellular membranes
(D) None of the above. The two terms are perfect synonyms.
5. A cell has mitochondria, ribosomes, smooth and rough ER, and other parts. Based on this information, it could
not be
(A) a cell from a pine tree (B) a grasshopper cell
(C) a yeast (fungus) cell (D) a bacterium
6. Passage through pores in the nuclear envelope is restricted primarily to

(A) proteins, RNA, and protein-RNA complexes
(B) lipids and glycolipids
(C) DNA and RNA
(D) RNA and protein-carbohydrate complexes
7. Cell fractionation is the most appropriate procedure for preparing ____ for study.
(A) isolated cells which are normally found tightly attached to neighbouring cells
(B) cells without a functional cytoskeleton
(C) isolated organelles
(D) the basic macromolecules
8. Which of the following clues would tell you whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic ?
(A) The presence or absence of a rigid cell wall
(B) whether or not the cell is partitioned by internal membranes
(C) the presence or absence of ribosomes
(D) whether or not the cell carries out cellular metabolism
9. Choose the correct statement(s) for active transport -

(A) It occurs against the conc. so it needs ATP
(B) A few ions transported by it
(C) Na+ / K+ pump is the example of active transport
(D) All
10. Cell wall is -

(A) Nonliving and impermeable (B) Nonliving, rigid and permeable
(C) Living and semipermeable (D) Living and selective permeable
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11. Cell wall forms outer covering for plasmamembrane of -
(A) Only fungi (B) Only fungi and plants
(C) Only fungi, plants and bacteria (D) Fungi, bacteria, plants and animals
12. Which is not the function of cell wall ?

I. Provides shape to the cell
II. Protects the cell from mechanical damage and infection
III. Helps in cell to cell interaction
IV. Imbibes water
(A) Only V (B) Only IV
(C) Only II, IV, and V (D) None
13. Important site for formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids is

(A) Lysosome (B) Vacuole (C) Golgi apparatus (D) Plastid
14. Peptide synthesis inside a cell takes place in

(A*) Ribosomes (B) Chloroplast
(C) Mitochondria (D) Chromoplast
15. In eubacteria, a cellular component that resembles eukaryotic cell is -

(A) Cell wall (B) Plasma membrane
(C) Nucleus (D) Ribosomes
16. Microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses etc. are used in genetic manipulation. Bacterial plasmid is an
important genetic engineering tool. Which of the following statements about bacterial plasmids is correct ?
(A) They are double-stranded circular nucleic acids
(B) They are recombinant proteins in the cytoplasm
(C) They are cell organelles that contain nucleic acids
(D) They are cell organelles that contain recombinant proteins
17. Which one of the following structures is an organelle within an organelle ?

(A) Ribosome (B) Peroxisome
(C) ER (D) Mesosome
18. Which one of the following cellular parts is correctly described ?

(A) Thylakoids - flattened membranous sacs forming the grana of chloroplasts
(B) Centrioles - sites for active RNA synthesis
(C) Ribosomes - those on chloroplasts are larger (80s) while those in the cytoplasm are smaller (70s)
(D) Lysosomes - optimally active at a pH of about 8.5
19. The cell membranes of adjacent cells are fused at

(A) macula adherens (B) zonula adherens
(C) zonula occludens (D) nexus
20. Detailed structure of the membrane was studied after the advent of electron microscope during
(A) 1930s (B) 1950s (C) 1970s (D) 1990s
1. D 2. A 3. D 4. B 5. D 6. A
7. C 8. B 9. B 10. B 11. C 12. D
13. C 14. A 15. B 16. A 17. A 18. A
19. C 20. B
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LEVEL - III
1. Which one of the following organisms is not an example of eukaryotic cells

(A) Amoeba proteus (B) Paramecium caudatum
(C) Escherichia coli (D) Euglena viridis
2. Which one of the following is not considered as a part of the endomembrane system ?
(A) Golgi complex (B) Peroxisome
(C) Vacuole (D) Lysosome
3. Of the following organelles, which group is involved in manufacturing substances needed by the cell ?
(A) lysosome, vacuole, ribosome (B) ribosome, rough ER, smooth ER
(C) vacuole, rough ER, smooth ER (D) smooth ER, ribosome, vacuole
4. A cell has mitochondria, ribosomes, smooth and rough ER, and other parts. Based on this information, it could
not be
(A) a cell from a pine tree (B) a grasshopper cell
(C) a yeast (fungus) cell (D) Actually, it could be any of the above
5. The electron microscope has been particularly useful in studying bacteria, because
(A) electrons can penetrate tough bacterial cell walls
(B) bacteria are so small
(C) bacteria move so quickly they are hard to photograph
(D) with few organelles present, bacteria are distinguished by differences in individual macromolecules.
6. Which of the following statements are true about Endoplasmic Reticulum ?

I. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum makes lipids
II. It is also called the control center of the cell
III. It processes carbohydrates
IV. It modifies chemicals that are toxic to the cell
(A) I, II and III (B) I, III and IV
(C) only I and IV (D) all are correct
7. Which of the following statements are true about Eukaryotes ?

I. They are cells with a nucleus.
II. They are found both in humans and multicellular organisms.
III. Endoplasmic reticulum is present in Eukaryotes.
IV. They have chemically complexed cell wall
(A) I, II and III (B) I, III and IV
(C) I, II and IV (D) all are correct
8. The DNA is located in the _____ of _____ .

(A) Cristae, mitochondria (B) Matrix, mitochondria
(C) Intermembrane space, mitochondria (D) Grana, chloroplast
9. RNA is found in all of the following structures except -

(A) Prokaryotic cell (B) Nucleus, chloroplast and mitochondria
(C) Vacuole (D) Ribosome, HIV, TMV
10. Which of the following cell organelle(s) is/are double membrane bound ?
(A) Nucleus (B) Chloroplast
(C) Mitochondria (D) All
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11. Which of the following statement is incorrect ?
(A) Mitochondria, unless specifically stained are not easily visible under the microscope
(B) Physiological activity of cells determines the number of mitochondria per cell
(C) Mitochondrion, a power house of cell has DNA, RNA, ribosomes and enzyme. So it can survive outside the
cell
(D) Mitochondria divide by fission
12. Based upon the type of pigment, plastids are of how many type ?
(A) 3 types (B) 4 types
(C) 2 types (D) 5 types
13. Chloroplasts contain -

(A) All types of pigments (B) Chl + Carotene + anthocyanine
(C) Chl + Carotenoids (D) Only Ch
14. In chloroplast, chlorophyll is present in -

(A) thylakoid (B) Stroma
(C) Outer membrane (D) Inner membrane of envelope
15. Stacks of vesicles in chloroplast form -

(A) Stroma (B) Thylakoid
(C) Grana (D) Oxysome
16. Extranuclear genes are found in -

(A) Lysosome and chloroplast (B) GB and ER
(C) Nucleus and mitochondria (D) Mitochondria and chloroplast
17. The number of chloroplast in each mesophyll is -

(A) 100 (B) 100 - 1000
(C) 20 - 40 (D) 104
18. In Chlamydomonas (a green alga) the number of chloroplast per cell is -

(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 100 (D) 1000
19. The length and width of chloroplast is -

(A) 5 - 10m, 1-4 mm (B) 50 - 10m, 2-4 m
(C) 2 - 4m, 5-10 m (D) 5 - 10m, 2-4 m
20. In higher plants the chloroplast is -

(A) Spiral (B) Lens - shaped
(C) Cup shaped (D) Reticulate
1. C 2. B 3. B 4. D 5. B 6. B
7. A 8. B 9. C 10. D 11. C 12. A
13. C 14. A 15. C 16. D 17. C 18. A
19. D 20. B
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CELL THEORY
Robert Hooke (1665) first discovered the existence of cell in a thin section of cork with the help of a
crude microscope. Leeuwenhoek (1675) studied free cells. Schleiden and Schwann propounded the
cell theory. Virchow (1855) proposed that cells originate from pre-existing cells [Ominis Cellule e
Cellula]
The principal features of cell theory are :
1. Cells are the structural unit of all organisms (plants and animals)
2. Cell is the functional unit of life.
3. Cell always arise from pre-existing cells.
4. All organisms are made up of cell and cell products.
5. Organisms are actually cells.
6. The activity of any organism is due to the activity of cells.
7. Cell is the unit of genetics.
8. In multicellular organisms, individual cells are able to maintain their existence and function.
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TYPES OF CELLS
Cells are of two types : Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes
Characteristics
1. Lack of a well-organised nucleus.
2. Nuclear material (Nucleoid) is scattered in the cytoplasm. These contain 700-6000 genes.
The genetic material is either DNA or RNA.
3. Presence of membrane-bound enzymes.
4. Membrane composed or proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Cardiolipin is the principal fat.
5. Absence of histones.
6. Mitchondria absent.
7. No lysosomes.
8. Absence of endoplasmic reticulum.
9. Have 70s (50s + 30s) ribosomes.
10. Fission or budding facilitates increase in the number of cells.
Examples : Bacteria and blue green algae (=cyanobacterea)
Eukaryote
Characteristics and Functions of Animal Cell
1. Bounded by trilayered plasma membrane comprising of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. It is selective
permeable. It may have microvillis, cilia or flagella emanating from its surface. Membrane allows
movement of gases, ions and metabolites by diffusion, osmosis, active transport, phagocytosis and
pinocytosis. The membrane separates the cytoplasm and cell organelles from the outside environment.
The membrane is 75Å — 100Å thick. The protein layer is 20Å — 25Å thick. The pores of the membrane
have a diameter of about 8Å — 50Å
2. Cytoplasm consists of water, organic and inorganic substances. A cytoskeleton of tubulin protein is
present which maintains the form and position of the cell and cell organelles.
3. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is made up of tubular, cisternal or vascular forms and occupies substantial
space in the cell cytoplasm. It is connected to the plasma membrane and nucleus as well. Its membrane
(unit) has a diameter of 50Å — 60Å. Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types :
(a) rough ER (RER) and (b) smooth ER (SER).
Rough ER is involved with protein synthesis which occurs in ribosomes (80s) attached to mRNA unit.
It also facilitates intracellular transport. Smooth ER is involved with steroidogenesis, lipogensis and
glycogenesis.
4. Mitochondria are bound by double membrane and are called ‘Power House’ of the cell [site of ATP
production]. They contain circular DNA ; DNA, 70s ribosome, protein Ca2+ Mg2+ and can move from
one part of the cell to another. Mitochondria contains cristae (finger-likes projection); and mitochondrial
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matrix covered by double enclosing a fluid filled space called
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
perimitochondrial space (80Å — 100Å). External membrane contains many minute particles called
oxysomes. Each particle consists of base, shaft and head piece. Mitochondria are the site of Krebs
Cycle enzymes (TCA Cycle) ; and Electron transport chain.
5. Ribosomes are made of ribonucleoprotein. Their diameter is 150Å — 250Å. They are made from 60s
and 40s subunits which make 80s ribosomes characteristic of eukaryotes. They lie freely in cytoplasm,
or in clusters (called polyribosomes or polysomes) or attached to endoplasmic reticulum. They take
part in protein synthesis and are therefore called ‘Protein Factor’ of cell.
6. Golgi Complex was discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898). They are in the form of stacks of narrow, flat
tubes and are present in the form of one or more groups. They are found in secretory cells and are
either cisternal or vesicular in shape. Anabolites synthesized by ER are transfered to Golgi bodies
where they undergo maturation and exit as a membrane bound substance. Complex sugars and
glycoproteins are also synthesized on RER, etc.
7. Lysosomes were discovered by de Duve. They are also called ‘suicide bags’ of cell. They measure
0.5 — 0.8 m in diameter. They are bound by a single membrane which is 60Å — 70Å a thick and
contain variety of hydrolytic enzymes, e.g., nucleases, lipases glycosidase. Lysosomes are involved
in, extracellular and intracellular digestion, cancer ; and in cell division.
8. Nucleus Majority of cells are mononucleate, some are binucleate (e.g., Paramaecium) or multinucleate
(Opalina, skeletal muscle cells), or enucleate (mature RBC of mammals). Nuclear membrane envelops
the nucleus. It is a double unit membrane and enclose a space of 100Å — 300Å called perinuclear
space. Octagonal nuclear pores (600Å — 700Å diameter) are present in facilitate fluxes of cellular
chemicals. Ribosomes are attached to outer nuclear membrane.
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Nucleus contains nucleoplasm made up of water, proteins, RNA, etc. Nucleolus and chromosomes
are the two principal structural elements of nucleus.
The number of nucleoli may be one or more. They are spherical, made up of RNA and protein.
Chromosomes are thread-like structures. Each is made up of DNA and histone protein.
The number of chromosomes is different in different species. Their shape and size of Drosophila and
Lamp brush chromosome of amphibian Oocytes. chromosome are of 2 types autosomes and sex-
chromosomes or allosomes.
9. Centriole may be single or double and is present above the nucleus. It is surrounded by cytoplasm
and forms the centrosphere. They take part in the formation of nuclear spindle during cell division and
of basal bodies of cilia and flagella.
10. Cilia and Flagella are hair-like structure of varying length and diameter. Although structurally similar,
cilia are smaller than flagella and have 9 peripheral fibres and 2 central fibres (9 + 2) made up of
microtubules and covered by a membrane. A basal body (called blepharoplast-kinetosplast) is present
which determines and regulate their movement. Cilia and flagella are locomotory organelles of many
organisms, e.g., Paramaeceni, Euglena, and some cells, e.g., sperm. They contain the contractile
proteins, actin and myosin.
Characteristics and Functions of Plant Cells :

Plant cells contain most of the organelles found in animal cell (except centriole). In addition they have
(a) cell wall, (b) plasmodesmata, (c) plastids of various types, and (d) vacuoles.
1. Cell wall covers the plasma membrane.It is thick and made up of polysaccharides. It protects and
gives form to the cell. It prevents entry of large molecules. Like animal cell, movement of material is
regulated by plasma membrane. Cellulose is the principal constituent of cell wall of plants.
2. Bridges between two cells occur at few places. These are called plasmodesmata and contains
channel-like structure formed by cell wall facilitating movement of material.
3. Plastids are found only in cells (exception Euglena which contains chloroplast). Some plastids are
colourless, store starch and are called leucoplast. Other type of plastids have coloured pigments,
e.g., chloroplasts contain various types of chlorophyll, and Mg2+, DNA, 70s ribosomes, protein, and
enzymes which take part in photosynthesis. Chromoplast contains coloured pigments other than
chlorophyll.
4. Vacuoles are charasteristic of plant cells. However, some animal cells also have them. They are
covered by a membrane called tonoplast. Vacuoles serve as storage organs for a variety of biochemicals,
pigments, etc.
In Amoeba, three types of vacuoles are found.
1. Contractile vacuole with osmoregulatory function.
2. Food vacuole
3. Water vacuole.
Parasitic protozoans and marine animals lack vacuoles in their cells.
Cell organelles and their functions

1. Plasma membrane :
Outermost covering of animals cell, 75Å thick, made up of lipoprotein, allows
passage of water, gases, ions, organic molecules of various shapes size by
diffusion, osmosis, active transport, pinocytosis and phagocytosis, contains
surface receptors, enzymes, with catalytic sites.
Some contain antigens.
2. Endoplasmic reticulum : Form internal channel system of cell. Connected to plasma membrane and
nuclear membrane, principally of two types
(a) rough Endoplasmic with attached ribosomes, site for active protein
synthesis and
(b) smooth (without ribosome) site of steroidogenesis ; lipogenesis ;
glycogenesis.
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3. Golgi complex ; Present in secretory and metabolically active cells, involved in formation of
primary (‘Virgin’) Lysosomes ; facilitates glyco-lycosidation of lipids and
proteins ; bounded by double membrane.
4. Mitochondria ; Also called ‘Power House’ of cell, bounded by double membrane, contain
DNA, RNA 70s ribosomes and protein ; contains enzymes of Krebs cycle,
and electron transport chain, sites for oxidation of carbohydrates, lipids and
amino acids.
5. Lysosomes ; Also called ‘suicide bags’, single membrane vesicles ; contain hydrolytic
enzyme which are used for extracellular and intracellular digestion. Lysosomes
are polymorphic. They are implicated in numerous cell functions.
6. Ribosomes ; Present in cytoplasm singly or in clusters (polyribosomes), or attached to
ER. Two types : prokaryotes have 70s (50s + 30s), while eukaryotes have
80s (60s + 40s) ribosomes, also present in nucleus chloroplast and
mitochondria (Both have 70s). Site of protein synthesis.
7. Chloroplast ; Characteristic of green plants imparting them photosynthetic abilities ; it
consists of envelope, stroma and thylakoids. Chlorophyll pigment of several
types contains Mg2+. Trap light and use it for photosynthesis.
8. Nucleus ; Covered by double membrane with nuclear pores (for flux of ions ; metabolites),
contain one or more nucleoli (rich in RNA). Chromosomes (number is species-
specific) made up of DNA, RNA and histones. Regulator of metabolic and
genetic functions ; participates in mitotic and meiotic cell division.
Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Character Prokaryote Eukaryote
Example ; Bacteria. Example ; Algae, Protists, Metazoans, Higher
Bluegree algae. plants etc.
1. Size and shape
(a) Microscopic rod-like, spherical, (a) Large, spherical, well organised nucleus
nucleoid without nuclear membrane enveloped by nuclear membrane,
0.7 – 2.50 . 4.0 – 75 × 103 
(b) Multiple nucleoid present in a cell. (b) Mostly mononucleate. Occasionally binucleate
(c) Chromosomes absent, instead and rarely multinucleate.
individual DNA molecule present. (c) Chromosome present.
2. Cell division : No mitosis/meiosis. 2. Cell division by mitosis and meiosis, rarely by
Cell divide by fission. amitosis and fission.
3. Endomembranes absent. 3. Endomembranes present.
4. Mitochondria absent 4. Mitochondria present.
(Respiratory enzymes are present on
membrane and on mesosomes).
5. Chloroplasts absent. 5. Chloroplasts present in plant c ells, rarely in
6. Cell wall made of non-cellulosic material. animal cell (e.g., Euglena spp.)
7. DNA 6. Cellulose cell wall present only in plant cells.
(a) Non-histone bound (a) Bound to histone
(b) Short and small molecules (b) Long, linear, double helical molecules.
(c) Can reanneal rapidly after denaturation. (c) Reanneals slowly after denaturation.
(d) Shorter ; and DNA has little redundant (d) Has more redundant base
base sequence per chromosome base sequence per chromosome
(e) DNA polymerase sensitive to (e) Not sensitive to ethidium dibromide.
ethidium dibromide.
8. RNA and Ribosomes
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(a) 70s (50s + 30s) ribosomes (a) 80s (60s + 40s) ribosome
9. Protein synthesis
Inhibited by Inhibited by
Chloramphenicol cyclohexamide.
10. Cardiolipin
Present Absent.
11. Cholesterol
Absent or present Present.
in low concentration
12. Locomotion
By flagella with By cilia and flagella.
single fibril Also by pseudopodia in some.
13. Exo-and endo-cytosis
Absent Present
Difference between plant and animal cell
Plant Cell Animal Cell

1. Presence of cell wall made of cellulose 1. Absence of cell wall.
and other polysaccharides or derivatives.
2. Plasmodesmate with channels present. 2. Plasmodesmata absent.
3. Vacuoles covered by tonoplast present 3. Vacuoles absent (except in some free living
which act as storage organs. protozoans).
4. Centriole absent. 4. Centriole present.
5. Plastids of various types present and contain 5. Plastids absent (except in Euglena).
DNA, RNA, ribosomes 70s protein and Mg2+. 6. Cilia and flagella only present in protozoans,
6. Motile plant cell have cilia or flagella. spermatozoa.
Difference between prokaryote and eukaryote cell
Prokaryote cell Eukaryote cell

1. Cell wall made of aminosugars and muramic 1. Absent in animals ; but a cellulose cell wall
acid (peptidoglycan), present. is presence in plant cell.
2. Capsule made of mucopolysaccharides is 2. Absent.
present in many cells.
3. Cell organelles bound by lipoprotein 3. Present
membrane are absent.
4. Nuclear membrane absent. 4. Present
5. DNA naked. 5. Proteins (histones) are combined with
DNA.
6. Nucleolus absent. 6. Present (1–2 or more)
7. Some cells have flagella but lack the 7. Cilia and flagella present display
9 + 2 arrangement of fibres. characteristic 9+2 arrangement of fibres.
8. Divide by amitosis (fission) 8. Divide by mitosis and meiosis. Some forms
display amitosis.
9. 70s (50s + 30s) ribosome present. 9. 80s (60s + 40s) ribosomes present.
10. No mitochondria. 10. Mitochondria (Power House of cell) present.
11. No centriole. 11. Centriole present in animal cell but absent
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in plant cell.
12. No endoplamic reticulum. 12. Endoplasmic reticulum present with or
without attached ribosomes.
13. No exocytosis and endocytosis. 13. E x o c y t o si s a n d e n d o c y t o si s a r e
characteristic process.
Various cell types and their size
Cell type Size (m) (Range)

1. Neurons (Length) 2 × 106
2. Ostrich egg 75 × 103
3. Human Oocyte 250.00
4. Euglena 100.0 – 200.0
5. Hepatocyte 20.0
6. Amoeba proteus 8.0 – 15.0
7. Mammalian RBC 8.0
8. Small Lymphocytes 0.20 – 2.50
9. Bacteria 0.10
10. Pleuropneumonia like
Organism (PPLO)
11. Viruses 0.07 – 0.10
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CYTOPLASM
Characteristics and Functions of Cytoplasm
1. It is the intricate heterogenous complex of soluble, insoluble colloidal forms of diverse variety of
chemicals that fill the interior of cell which contain different types of cell organelles.
2. It forms the internal environment of cells have where numerous biochemical reactions related to cell
metabolism occur.
3. The cell matrix contains cytoskeletal elements and organelles. Cell organelles can be removed by
ultra centrifugation and the left over soluble fraction is called cytosol.
4. Cytoplasm of cell is enveloped externally by plasma membrane and internally by nuclear membrane.
5. Appears to be jelly-like, transparent and colourless fluid
6. Colloidal in nature. Colloids of various shapes and sizes are suspended in water (60–90%).
7. Contains soluble proteins (e.g. some enzymes), inorganic salts, lipids, carbohydrates.
8. Suspended particles exhibit incoherent motion (Brownian movement). Temperature affects this.
9. Cytoplasm exhibits intracellular motion or cyclosis and also amoeboid movement by forming
pseudopodia.
10. A proteinaceous cytoskeleton make up of microtubules ; microfilaments and intermediate filaments is
present which is aided by intratrabecular system in providing mechanical support.
These help the cell organelles to maintain their locus.
11. Cytoplasm contains 90% water and 10% organic and inorganic substances. The ratio of elements in
cells varies. Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen are abundant elements along with phosphorus
and sulphur. They act as precursors for biosynthesis of macromolecules. Inorganic compounds which
2 2 2
occur in ionic forms are Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Cl–PO 4 , CO 3 and NO 3 they have important
role in various physiological functions, e.g., electrical properties, electrogenesis by neurons and other
excitable cells is due to distribution of Na+ and K+ across the membrane. Ca2+ is important in (a)
blood coagulation. (b) muscle contraction, (c) gelation of cytoplasm. Mg2+ is constituent of chlorophyll
and Fe2+ of Haemoglobin and are also needed as co-factor for catalytic action of enzymes.
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CYTOSKELETON
It forms the internal framework of all cells. It also assists in movement of these structures e.g.,
mitochondria usually change their position.
Linear structure made up of protein subunit form the fibrous structural component of cell
components. These are of 3-types : (a) microtubules, (b) microfilaments and (c) intermediate filaments.
Charactersties and Functions of Microtubules
1. Form the cytoplasmic matrix of all eukaryotic cells.

2. Tube like, 25m in diameter, occur singly or in aggregate.
3. Microtubules are hollow, devoid of ribosomes, made of 13 sub-units.
4. The protein sub-unit of microtubules is called tubulin.
5. The protein monomers of tubulin are -tubulin and -tubulin.
6. The microtubules are specially oriented in relation to the loci of centriole, basal bodies and centromere.
7. Maintains cell shape.
8. Facilitate sperm cell nucleus elongation during spermiogenesis.
9. Involved in cell differentiation.
10. Determines cell polarity and motility.
11. Helps in intracellular transport of macromolecules through the formation of temporary channels.
Characteristics and Functions of Microfilaments
1. Elongated, unbranched and proteinaceous, responsible for cell motility.

2. Filaments arranged in bundles and their thickness varies from 6-10 m.
3. Actin and myosin present.
4. Microfilaments are found in W.B.C., pseudopodia microvilli of intestinal cells, non-muscle cells, and
mitotic spindle.
5. Take part in cytokinesis during mitosis and meiosis.
Characteristics and Functions of Intermediate Filaments
1. Unbranched, diameter of about 100Å.

2. Found in neurons, neuroglial cells, fibroblasts, etc.
3. Contractile in function.
4. Chemically they are of five types and occur in bundles of varying diameter.
(a) Keratin
(b) Glial filaments
(c) Neurofilaments
(d) Desmin containing filaments
(e) Vimetin containing filaments
Characteristics and Functions of Microtrabecular System
1. Number to Porter (1976). Consists of microtrabecular filaments.

2. Forms a fine network of filaments that ramify throughout the cell. No definite shape of lattice. It varies
with cell shape and environment and contains actin.
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CELL WALL
Cell wall is characteristic of prokaryotes and plant cells. It is absent in animal cells. Cell wall of
prokaryotes has been extensively studied and differs in chemical composition from cell wall of lower
and higher plants.
Cell Wall of Prokaryotes
Two types of cell walls are found in bacteria recognised by their affinity for crystal violet stain. Bacteria
whose cell wall acquire deep purple stain are called Gram (+), while others which take this light pink
stain are called gram (–). Gram (+) bacteria (e.g., streptococcus) have very little lipid ; while in
Gram (–) bacteria (e.g. E. coli) abundant lipids are present.
Cell wall is rigid, porous, electron dense layer of varying thickness.
Cell Wall of Lower Plants (e.g Fungi)
1. Cell wall is stratified.

2. Cell wall is bilayered. Outer layer is smooth or granular and inner layer is rigid and crystalline Outer
wall made of protein and polysaccharides while inner is made of choline.
3. Thickness of wall depends on cell maturity.
Cell Wall of Higher Plants
1. It has three layers, (a) primary wall (b) secondary wall and (3) transitional lamella. Sometimes a thin
tertiary wall is also present.
2. It consists of proteins, lignins, polysaccharides, chitinous materials and minerals. Cellulose is the
major constituent and provides structural frameworks.
3. Pectins, lignins, hemicellulose, etc. are embeded in the framework.
4. The cell wall also contains hemicellulose.
5. Pectin is present in secondary wall and middle lamella. It is a polysaccharide.
6. Lignin of cell wall makes up about 25% of dry weight of a tree. It is a complex polysaccharide.
7. Cell wall of seaweeds contains a polysaccharide called Agar.
8. The plant cell wall also contains non-polysaccharides, e.g. protein fragments, silicate, calcium carbonate.
9. Cell wall of higher plants provides shape and mechanical support.
10. Many economically important are present in cell wall.
11. Cell wall is porous. Tubular channels called plasmodesmata connect the plasma membrane of adjoining
cells. These serve as intercellular routes for transport of water, minerals from root tip to shoot tip and
product of photosyntheses from leaf to root by cells. Cell wall is permeable to a variety of substances.
12. Cell wall prevents cells from bursting open as a result of the build up of internal turgor pressure.
13. Plasmodesmata which connect adjacent cells are of several types.
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PLASMA MEMBRANE
Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells are enclosed by a membrane called plasma membrane (plasmalemma).
Plant cells have a cell wall.
Characteristics and Functions of Plasma Membrane
1. It is a dynamic barrier between the cell exterior and cell interior, and regulates fluxes of gases,
metabolites, hormones, etc.
2. It is selectively permeable and serves as interphase.
3. It receives exogenous and endogenous signals and translates them into action. (single perception and
transduction).
4. Physical and chemical composition of plasma membrane reveals that it is made up of
(i) proteins (ii) carbohydrates (in varied proportions).
5. Two types of protein are present in membrane
(a) peripheral protein, (=extrinsic) soluble, free of lipids and
(b) integral proteins (= intrinsic associated with lipids, and insoluble.
6. Lipids from 40% of the chemical constituent of plasma membrane. Cholesterol, 5 types of phospholipids
and glycolipids have been found to be present.
7. Carbohydrates are conjugated to lipids (glycolipids) or to protein (glycoprotein).
Moleculer Models of Plasma Membrane
The arrangement of lipids and proteins in the plasma membrane and manner in which such a membrane
functions has been a subject of much investigation and debate. Many models hove been proposed.
Their salient features are as follows :
Danielli-Davson Model (1935)
Plasma membrane is a bilayer of lipids molecules. Proteins (charged groups are attached to polar
ends of lipids which are outwardly directed. The total thickness of three layers (2 lipid + 1 protein)
to 25 Å. This model fails to explain membrane structure in detail ; and the functions ; and is therefore
not accepted.
Unit Membrane Hypothesis of Robertson (1964)
Unit membrane consists of a core of bimoleculer leaflet of lipids which are flanked on either side by
single layer of fully spread out hydrophilic protein or lipid material.
Unit membranes are present in all plant and animal cells and serve as physical and physiological
barrier between the environment and cell, and between cell organelles and cell matrix.
Inner and outer layer of proteins are chemically different.
The layer on one side of the lipid core is made up of protein and of the other side of carbohydrate.
This leads to asymmetrical state of unit membrane.
Robertson’s model fails to explain diversities of membrane and certain aspects of permeability.
Fluid-Mosaic Model of Singer and Nicolson (1972)

This is the most acceptable model. According to this,
1. Lipids occur in the form of a fluid bilayer and the proteins do not form a sandwich covering of hydrophilic
lipid bilayer.
2. The membrane proteins are globular in shape and are completely or partially embedded in the lipid
bilayer like icebergs in the sea. It presents a mosaic arrangement.
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3. Lipids are either phospholipids or glycolipids suspended in water. They aggregate to form micellae of
various shapes.
4. Membrane proteins (peripheral and integral) play an important role in structure and act as carriers or
channels (serving for transport). Numerous enzymes, antigens and various kinds of receptor molecules
are present in plasma membrane.
Functions of Plasma Membrane
Dynamic membrane functions are important in exchange of metabolites, ions, water ingestion of solid
materials and fluids, recognition of cell signals, identification of exogenous and endogenous chemicals
enzymatic reactions, gaseous change, movement of biochemicals, ions against concentration gradient,
etc. The membrane is a living entity, selectively permeable and actively regulates the continuous
molecular traffic that are needed, or are to be expelled.
The principal ways in which the membrane functions are -

1. Diffusion - (passive transport) Diffusion is passage of substance from high concentration to a lower
concentration solution. Diffusion dues not require inputs of energy. Small sized, non-polar molecule
e.g. water, oxygen and hydrogen can move freely across the membrane. Uncharged polar molecule
move rapidly. However, if they are charged they do not diffuse e.g., Na+. This shows that the plasma
membrane is selectively permeable.
2. Osmosis - When two aqueous solutions of different concentration are separated by the membrane
permeable to water but impermeable to solute molecules, water diffuses through the membrane from
low concentration until the molal concentration on both sides are equal. This is called osmosis.
3. Facilitated Transport
i. This is aided by carrier molecules embedded in the membrane. A carrier molecule links itself
with the substance and transports it across the other side.
ii. The mobile carrier is considered to be analogus to an enzyme molecule which binds the
solute to its active site.
4. Active Transport - This denote movement of substances against the concentration gradient. salient
features of this are as follows.
(i) It is soluble specific.
(ii) It depends on the concentration of substances being transported.
(iii) It is direction specific.
(iv) It can be selectively poisoned e.g. transport of glucose can be inhibited by phlorizen and KCN (also
Na. azide)
(v) It facilitates maintenance of internal solute and ion composition of the cell.
(vi) Pumps specific substances against the gradient (substance-specific transport systems).
(vii) Active transport system consists of (a) carrier molecule with binding sites specific to substance to be
transported and (b) protein * of protein that transfers energy to first component, facilitating active
transport.
(viii) Cell membranes of many cells, e.g. neurons are excitable and respond to exogenous chemicals,
temperature change, touch, pressure, etc. and transmit signals in a particular direction. Specific
protein receptors are present on membrane.
Nerve cells generate electrical impulses. Na+ and K+ play a critical role in this.
(ix) Many membrane proteins play a critical role in detecting foreign material (e.g. toxins, viruses, bacteria,
pollen, etc). These are called antigens. When activated they evoke a immune (defensive) reaction by
stimulating the formation of antibodies.
(x) Surface carbohydrate of plasma membrane help in cell adhesion to neighbouring cells.
(xi) Surface antigen forms the basis of cell recognition. For example, classification of ABO blood group is
based on genetically controlled antigen present on RBC.
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(xii) Cell aggregation occurs due to presence of aggregation factor present on plasma membrane.
(xiii) Flagella and cilia are locomotary organelles on the surface of eukaryotic cells. Other projections are
microvilli. Pseudopodia are found in blood cells, e.g. WBC. They are the locomotary organelles of
algae and some protozoans where they also help in feeding.
Cell Junctions
Adjacent cells of animal tissues are held together at many sites due to specific types of cell junctions
of the plasma membrane. These may be localised or present throughout.
Three types of cell junctions are known as :
Adhering Junction (Desmosomes)

This consists of fine cytoplasmic tonofilaments that run across some regions of cells separated by
intercellular space.
Gap Junction (Nexus)

This junction forms cellular adhesion and act as intercellular channels for transport of ions and small
molecules. They also facilitate communication via electrical coupling.
Tight Junction
This is formed by fusion of cell membrane of adjacent cells at the point of contact. No intercellular
space is across. They have belt or band-like form. They prevent flow of material in either direction and
maintain cell polarity.
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CILIA AND FLAGELLA
Cilia and flagella are microscopic, contractile, fibre-like structures emanating from cell cytoplasm.
Cilia are smaller than the cell but flagella are longer than its cell. They create water current, collect
food material, act as sensory structures, and perform mechanical functions of many types. The number
of cilia is much more (3000 – 4000) than flagella (1 – 10). Flagella beat singly, while cilia display
synchronous or asynchronous movement. Cilia perform wave-like movement.
Cilia and flagella are found in protozoans and metazoans e.g. Paramecium, nephron of vertebrate
kidney, green algae (e.g. Chlamydomonas and Volvox). zoospores and gametes.
Ultrastructure of Cilia and Flagella
1. Whip-like, cylindrical extensions from the free surface of cells.

2. They arise from basal bodies present in cells which act as centre of motility.
3. They are normally 5-10 m long. It consists of a basal body, shafts, central axonome, plasma membrane
and enterposal cytoplasmic matrix.
4. The basal body (kinetochore) is present below cell membrane and is somewhat similar to centriole. It
has a cartwheel-like appearance with 9 peripheral filaments and no central filaments.
5. The shaft is 5 m – 10 m long in cilia but in flagella it can be upto 150 m. Cilia are made of
microscopic is characteristic of cilia and flagella of all types of cells that have them.
6. Cilia and flagella contain tubulin protein 20 – 25 secondary proteins.
7. Flagellar activity in eukaryotes is dependent on activity of ATPase. Loss of ATP makes them inert. ATP
is provided by mitochondria.
Functions of Cilia and Flagella
1. Motility : Ciliary locomotion is characteristic of protozoa and some planarians. Larval forms of
invertebrates are ciliated which help in locomotion in water. Flagella of sperm makes it motile. The
ciliary beat may be synchronous or irregular.
2. Nutrition : Ciliary feeding is characteristic of fresh water mussels, rotifers, herdmania, amphioxus,
etc.
3. Removal of Excreta : Ciliated cells near the oral end of sea-anemones remove undesirable particles.
4. Respiration : Flagellar and ciliary activity causes water currents. This facilitates gaseous exchange.
5. Circulation : Movement of coelomic fluid in many annelids and starfishes is faciliated by flagellar
activity.
6. Movement of material in uriniferous tubules of kidneys, genital ducts is aided by cilia/flagella.
7. Cilia and flagella act as sensory structures, e.g. macula and cristae hairs serve this function.
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ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Endoplasmic reticulum is a system of endomembranes of the cell cytoplasm with extensive ramification.
Thy physical appearance of ER has been studied by electron microscopy. It was discovered by Porter.
ER membrane is similar to plasma membrane i.e. has lipid bilayer, and proteins (integral and
peripheral). It is of three types.
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

(i) Lace-like system appearing as cisternae, running parallel to the nuclear membrane or in parallel rows.
(ii) Cisternae are tubular, closed at both ends, bear ribosomes containing RNA.
(iii) mRNA with attached ribosomes on ER gives it a characteristic spiral or rosette-shaped form.
(iv) RER is the site of protein synthesis which occurs in attached ribosomes.
(v) Nascent peptides/polypeptides are transferred either to cisternae or ER or released in cytoplasm.
(vi) RER is connected to nuclear membrane as well as with plasma membrane. This shows that they also
facilitate influx and movement of exogenous material in the nucleus.
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

(i) SER is found in continuation with RER and is located in the peripheral part of cytoplasm. SER is
though to be derived from RER. It lacks attached ribosomes.
(ii) SER is concerned with lipogenesis and steroidogenesis.
(iii) SER is involved in glycogenesis.
3. Annulate Endoplasmic Reticulum (AER)

(i) More or less similar to RER because they have cisternae and ribosomes.
(ii) Differ from RER is not having a constant lamellar surface which in fact is either beaded or moniliform
having pores.
(iii) Also concerned with protein synthesis.
Chemical Composition
(i) ER has a rich variety of phosphatase, cytochromes, reductases, esterases and transferases which
are present in its lumen or on the surface facing the cytoplasm.
(ii) ER enzymes catalyse biosynthesis of cholesterol, plasmalogens, bile acids, fatty acids triglycerides,
glycolipids, and phosphatides.
(iii) Nearly 60 percent protein and 40 percent phospholipids (by weight) are present in ER.
(iv) The enzymes of electron-transport chain (cytochromes) are involved in electron transfer.
(v) Inner face of ER contain enzymes (peptides) which cut the polypeptide chain two smaller peptides or
glycoside and aminoacid residues.
(vi) ER contains the enzymes for biosynthesis of cholesterol, precusor for steroids ; and bile salts.
(vii) ER also facilitates glycogenolysis.
(viii) ER provides mechanical support and functions as a circulatory system of cell facilitating movement of
such metabolites as ions, nucleoproteins, RNA, etc.
(ix) ER also has detoxifying enzymes which are triggered into action on administration of hydrocarbons or
carcinogens.
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GOLGI APPARATUS
First discovered by Camillo Golgi. It occurs in plant and animal cells. Animal cells have various shapes
of Golgi complex, e.g. vesicles, cisternae, narrow neck, bowl-like forms or shallow saucer-shaped
bodies. Cisternae are the simplest unit of Golgi.
Cisterna of animal cells are of various length and shapes. Plant cell have Golgi consisting of
stacks of smooth, double membraneous, lamellar discs (2 – 20) associated with tubules at their
edges. At their free end, bulbous dilations may be present. Cisternae are membrane-bound space.
They serve as storage sites for secretions of material. Such cisterna are called Dictyosomes and are
made up of stacks of flatted discs. Plant cell may have upto 50 dictyosomes scattered in cytoplasm.
Golgi complex comprises of (a) cisternae (b) tubules and small vesicles and (c) large vesicles
with amorphous material.
Golgi membrane contains 60 percent protein and 40 percent lipid.
Functions
1. Secretory cells have numerous Golgi which are associated with endoplasmic reticulum. This means
that synthetic products of ER are stored in Golgi complex.
2. Golgi complex synthesizes glycoprotein, mucopolysaccharides and glycosphingo-lipids via enzymatic
intervention.
3. It synthesizes lipids of yolk in oocytes of many animals.
4. It helps in steroid synthesis in gonads and formation of acrosomal complex in sperm during
spermiogenesis.
5. In plant cells they have anabolic function.
6. It aids in cell secretion.
7. Various chemicals are synthesized by Golgi complex in different and cells of animals, e.g.
i. Acetylcholine, adrenaline, and peptides by neurons which serve as neurotramsomitters,
ii. Milk protein by alveolar epithelium of mammary gland,
iii. Enzymes such as lipase, proteases by exocrine cells of pancrease,
iv. Hormones,
v. Mucigen by goblet cells and
vi. Thyroglobulin by thyroid follicle cells.
8. Golgi complex of neuronal cells gives rise to zymogen granules.
9. Formation of cell wall in plant cell is also facilitated by Golgi.
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LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are cell organelles bound by a single membranes ; de Duve (1955) first gave the term
Lysosomes since they contain hydrolytic enzymes. They are also called ‘suicide’ bags.
Lysosomes are absent in prokaryotes and plant cells but are found in all eukaryotic organisms.
Acid phosphatases is used as a cytochemical ‘marker’ for detecting the site and pattern of distribution
of these organelles in a cell. The shape and size (0.1 to 5.0 m) varies and depends on the metabolic
status of the cell.
Lysosomes are polymorphic. Four types are recognised :

1. Primary : nascent (newly formed) with newly-synthesized enzymes.
2. Secondary (Phagolysosome) : These are involved in intracellular digestion or breakdown of exogenous
material.
3. Autolysosomes : These arise by fusion of primary lysosomes. If fractured they release their hydrolytic
enzymes and cause cell death and autolysis.
4. Residual bodies : These contain residues of undigested metabolites and/or foreign substances.
Lysosomes are bound by unit membrane which has the unique characteristic of fusion with other
membranes.
Origin
1. From endoplasmic reticulum.

2. From focal degradation. Acidic hydrolases synthesized in rough endoplasmic reticulum are translocated
to zones of focal degradation where they enlarge and form membrane bound lysosomes.
3. From Golgi complex.
4. Lysosomes synthesized by rough endoplasmic reticulum are translocated to Golgi apparatus from
where membrane bound lysosomes are pinched off.
Lysosomal Enzymes
A variety of histochemical, cytochemical and biochemical techniques have been used to localise,
extract, and characterise lysosomal enzymes. The fragile lysosomal membrane can be ruptured by
surface active agents (detergents), mechanical and osmotic shocks, and enzymes.
The rich repertoire of enzymes (about 40) in lysosomes facilitate digestion of carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, nucleic acids and esters. Acidic pH is required for catalytic activity of majority of lysosomal
enzymes.
Functions of Lysosomes
1. In intracellular digestion of endogenous and exogenous material (ingested by cell). Endogenous material
may be deformed or broken cell organelles or accumulated end products of catabolism.
2. Digestion of macromolecules and colloids which enter cell by pinocytosis. The left over material in the
vesicle forms the residual bodies.
3. Autophagy Digestion of deformed or fragmented cell organelles or cells/tissues (e.g. during amphibian
metamorphosis) etc. Such material is trapped in membrane bound vesicle called autophagic vesicles
where it is digested via action of lysosomal hydrolases. Residual bodies thus formed are removed by
reverse pinocytosis. They fuse with plasmalemma and expel their contents by exocytosis.
4. Crinophagy Expulsion of accumulated waste and undigested material. Crinophilic granules fuse with
lysosomes to form crinolysosomes. The granules are degraded by hydrolases and the end products
diffuse in cytoplasm with the rest expelled from cells residual bodies.
5. Lysosomes and Cell Secretion Release of hormones from pitutary and thyroid glands is facilitated by
lysosomes.
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6. Bone resorption is also facilitated by causing breakdown of osteoblast and calcified cells.
7. Sperm acrosomal enzymes of lysosomal origin aid in penetration of sperm into the egg thus helping in
fertilisation e.g. hyaluronidase, acrosin ; trypsin-like and neuraminidase.
8. Malfunctions of lysosomes are the cause of many disease in humans, e.g. hexosominidase deficiency
causes Tay-Sachs disease ; gout is a disease caused by accumulation of uric acid crystals in joints.
9. Role of lysosomes in chemotherapy The technique uses neoplastic cells as carriers of drugs.
Lysosomes of such cells are loaded with drugs which fuse with Lysosomes. Lysosomes cleave the
carrier molecule and the drug is released to the cell interior where it performs its chemotherapeutic
role.
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VACUOLES
Vacuoles are characteristic of plant cells particularly in maturing cells. Many protozoan cells also
contain them in various forms and function (absent in parasitic and marine protozoans). Other types of
animal cells also contain them and they are considered as zones of osmotic differentiation in cytoplasm.
Vacuoles are membrane bound. The membrane is called tonoplast. In many plant cells vacuoles
are connected by tubular connections extended by neighbouring vacuole. Such tubules may extend
even up to nuclear and plasma membrane or reach other cells via plasmodesmata.
In amoeba, three types of vacuoles are present viz., water, food, and contractile vacuole
(osmoregulatory). Cyclosis of cytoplasm facilitates their migration.
Function
1. They act as storage organelles for metabolites or toxic secretory products.
2. Cells with large vacuole ensure economy in the synthesis of cytoplasm.
3. Vacuolar membrane (Tonoplast) act as solute pump for such ion flux as Na+, K+ and Cl–.
RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are found in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (absent in mature mammalian RBC). Their
number and other characteristics vary. Largest number of ribosomes are found in hepatic cells and
secretory cells of pancreas. They occur freely, in clusters, or attached to endoplasmic reticulum.
On the basis of their sedimentation co-efficient, ribosomes have been differentiated into (a) Prokaryotic
ribosomes 70S and (b) Eukaryotic ribosomes 80S. 70S ribosomes are also characteristic of chloroplast
and mitochondria. Both are made of two unequal sub units. Ribosomes are also found in nucleus and
are also found attached to mRNA in the form of string (called polysomes).
Number of ribosomes may be high as 15000, e.g. Eschrechia coli.
Ribosomes are concerned with protein synthesis and are made up of uncovered ribonucleoprotein
particles (rRNA + protein). The amount of rRNA is approximately 60 percent and of protein 40 percent.
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PLASTIDS
Cells of autotrophic organisms have the ability to synthesize their own food. Plant cells are unique in
having special organelles that contain pigments which play a pivotal role in photosynthesis (exception
Fungi and Myxomycetes). Some animals, e.g. Euglena also have chloroplast and thus are autotrophs.
Chloroplast have the green chlorophyll pigments. The two main parts are : Stroma : chlorophyll free
protein matrix and (ii) lamellar fraction. Plastids are classified on the basis of (a) presence or absence
of pigment and (b) nature of pigment.
Types of Plastids
1. Amyloplast develop from proplastid, lack pigments but contain starch, ex. root cells and storage organ
cells of some plants like potato.
2. Leucoplast are colourless and contain vesicles. ex. white petals and epidermal cells.
3. Etioplast contain fats and essential oils develop in dark (lack thylakoids), but develop thylakoids if
illuminated.
4. Plastids that store starch, contain pigments (usually chlorophyll) and thylakoids are called
chloroamyloplast.
5. Chromoplast are of two types :
(a) On which contain photosynthetically active pigment, e.g., (i) Chloroplast present in green plants
and consists of chlorophyll a and b ; (ii) Phacoplast contains brown carotenoids chlorophyll a and
chlorophyll c pigment characteristic of Dinoflagellates, Brown algae, and diatoms. (iii) rhodoblast
contain phycoerythrin (e.g. red algae), chlorophyll a, d and phycobilin protein, and blue (iv) green
chromatophores (ex. blue green algae) contains chlorophyll a, carotenoids, phycocyanin (accounts
for their blue colour).
(b) Chromoplasts without photosynthetic activity.
Ultrastructure of Chloroplast
1. Double layered covering
2. A granular stroma or matrix
3. Lamellar system and
4. Plastoglobuli (Osmiophilic granules)
Double Layered Covering

This is somewhat similar to mitochondrial membrane, 50–80 Å thick, has a unit membrane organisation
and presence of intermembrane space. Outer membrane is permeable to chemicals of low molecular
weight, inner membrane impermeable to nucleotides, sucrose, phosphate but contains specific barriers
for translocation of metabolites.
Stroma
Contains (a) granules called grana (b) metabolic enzymes for CO2 assimilation (c) RNA, proteins,
lipids and carbohydrates (d) filled with gel-like fluid.
Lamellar System
This consists of
(a) Flattened disk-like structures called Thylakoids which are connected to their lumen and surrounding
stroma.
(b) Tightly packed disc form a granum (number 10–100) which looks like stacks of coins.
(c) Stromal lamellae which run between Grana.
(d) Thylakoids contain protein and lipid in a ratio of 50 : 50.
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(e) Thylakoids consists of chlorophyll, carotenoids, phospholipids, galactolipids, sulpholipids, and Lipophilic
plastid Quinones.
Plastoglobuli
Circular osmiophilic, contain granular lipids, present in stroma as electron-dense bodies,
30m–300 m in diameter, their number increases with age of plants. Their size increases during
vegetative growth.
Function as storage organs for lipids outside thylakoids.
Characteristics of Chloroplasts
1. Number of chloroplast per cell shows much variation. In angiosperms their number can be 40 per cell.
Chlamydomonas has only large chloroplast while an incredible number of chloroplasts have been
counted in the leaf of Ricinus communis (400,000/mm2 of surface area)
2. Chloroplast consists of 40–50 percent protein, 5–10 percent chlorophyll a and 2, 1-2 percent carotenoid
pigments. Also present are nucleic acids and minerals (free or bound).
3. Chloroplast exhibit contractility and can migrate. Migration is facilitated by cytoplasmic streaming
movement in a cell.
4. Shape, size and volume is altered by sun light.
5. Chloroplast store starch.
6. DNA and RNA are associated with the chloroplast.
7. Mg+2 is always intimately associated with chlorophyll structure.
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MITOCHONDRIA
These were discovered by Atman (1894) who called them particles resembling bacteria and possessing
genetic information apparatus. Benda called them mitochondria. Present in all aerobic eukaryotic
cells, they are absent in mammalian mature RBC and prokaryotic cells. Their number varies from one
to an astronomical figure of 5 × 105 e.g. Chaos chaos (Giant Amoeba). In hepatocytes of rat the
number of mitochondria varies between 1000 – 1500. In neoplastic cancer cells, their number is
greatly attenuated. Metabolic status of cells largely determines the number of mitochondria and thus
it varies from cell to cell also.
Mitochondria contain respiratory enzymes. They can be stained with Janus Green B. They
are present in the mitochondrial matrix and cristae.
Position
Found near the nucleus, or aggregated in peripheral cytoplasm. In general, largest concentration of
mitochondria occurs near the site of maximal activity or oriented in the direction of activity e.g. sperm
cells (mitochondria present in mid-piece), hepatocytes, muscle cells.
Shape
Varies, granular or filamentous (depends on metabolic state of cells). Yeast cells have spherical
mitochondria ; elongated shape occurs in hepatocytes ; filamentous in fibroplasts, and elliptical in
kidney cells. In rare instances one end of these organelles is swollen.
Size
Varies, but is generally 0.5 wide and 7 long (somewhat similar to a bacterial cell). Metabolic state of
cells influences size of cells.
Ultrastructure
Electron microscopic structure of mitchondria was given by Palade. The salient features are :
1. Each organelle is made up of two membrane – an outer smooth membrane and an inner one which has
villi like outgrowth of various shapes and sizes called cristae. Membrane resemble unit membrane
(70 Å thick).
2. Mitochondrial lumen is enveloped by these two membranes in such a manner so as to give the
appearance of a sac within a sac.
3. Presence of an intermembrane space of 60Å – 70Å. The lumen of outer sac has no connection with
the inner one.
4. Cristae are heterogenous in shape–some villous, others finger-like and irregular.
5. Mitochondrial matrix is filled with dense granules and proteinaceous material.
6. Dense granules are believed to be site of binding for divalent ions such as Zn2+, Mn2+, and Ni2+.
7. Stalked particles are present on Mitochondrial cristae. These are called elementary particles, which
consists of a hexagonal basal plate, stalk and a knob-like structure.
8. Mitochondrial matrix contains circular DNA and ribosomes. DNA-directed protein synthesis occurs
here.
9. Lumen of mitochondria contains co-enzymes, e.g. NAD+, NADH, NADPH Nucleoside mono, di-, and-
triphosphates. Inner membrane is impermeable to these.
Functions of Mitochondria
Nearly 70 enzymes and co-enzymes are present on the membrane system, matrix and inter membrane
space which catalyse a variety of energy-dependent metabolic functions. In addition to energy
transduction, the principal functions are :
1. Ion transport facilitated by permeases
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2. Oxidative phosphorylation
3. Tricarboxylic cycle (Krebs cycle)
4. Oxidation of Fatty acids.
5. Electron transport
Origin of Mitochondria
1. do novo origin (From unit membrane or endoplasmic reticulum)’
2. Self-replication of pre-existing mitochondria (by fussion)
3. Transformation of non-mitochondrial system into mitochondria.
Mitochondria are believed to have originated from aerobic prokaryote i.e. mitochondria represent symbiotic
bacteria (= Prokaryote) living in association with eukaryotic cells.
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NUCLEUS
Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown (1831). Meischer (1869) suggested that nucleus is an
important constituent of cells. Waldeyer (1888) designated the rod-like structures in nucleus as
chromosomes.
Prokaryotes lack a well-organised and defined nucleus. All eukaryotic cells (except mature
RBC of mammals) contain a definitive and well-organised nucleus enveloped by nuclear membrane
and contain chromosomes. Prokaryote nucleus is devoid of nuclear membrane and has a single
circular chromosome made up of DNA.
Nucleus (a) regulates all metabolic activity of a cell and (b) is store house of all the genetic
information ; enucleate cells have short life. The size, shape, and number of nuclei in a cell varies.
Most cells, however, are cardiac muscles, Opalina. Mostly nucleus is lobed, round, oval, or
elliptical. However, it may acquire different shapes.
The position of the nucleus in a cell also varies. It may be central, eccentric, peripheral or
basal.
Structure of Nucleus
Nucleus contains the following structures :
Nuclear Membrane
1. Double layered, the two layers are 100 Å – 300 Å apart leaving a discontinuous perinuclear space.
2. Structure of nuclear membrane is similar to plasma membrane.
3. The membrane is derived from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) The outer surface has attached ribosomes.
4. Pores (nuclear pores) present. Their number varies and relates to the species of cells and its metabolic
state.
5. Below the inner membrane lies the dense lamellae called the honeycomb layer. This is bordered by
lumps of chromatin on the inner surface. The outer membrane communicates with the ER.
6. Nuclear membrane facilitates the transport of macromolecules, ribonucleoprotein, etc.
7. Nuclear membrane contains 20 types of proteins many of them are enzymes. ATPase, glucose-6-
phosphatase and cytochrome P-450 are found to be associated with it.
Nuclear Matrix
1. Jelly-like, composed of nuclear gel or karyolymph and matrix.
2. Nuclear gel is highly granular. It contains proteins, DNA, RNA, and phospholipids.
3. Acidic protein can contract and expand under the influence of Ca2+ and Mg2+.
4. Chromatin is present in condensed form called heterochromatin which is made up of network of non-
chromatin material.
Nucleolus
1. Present in all eukaryotic cells except sperm, cleaving blastomeres of amphibians and some algae.
Number of nucleoli varies from 1 to many. Cells devoid of nucleolus do not synthesize proteins.
2. Nucleolus from shows changes during cell cycle. It disappears during prophase ; and reappears during
telophase. Interphase nucleolus is irregular and is prominent.
3. Nucleolus contains a central homogenous region surrounded by a more filamentous region.
4. Nucleolus has three main functions :
(a) Transcription of the gene that code for rRNA.
(b) Processing of periribosomal molecule.
(c) Assembly of ribosomal subunits.
Nucleolar genes (rDNA) occur in clusters as well as in multiple copies.
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Chromatin
1. It is basis of heredity and occurs in the form of viscous substance.
2. Contains DNA, RNA and proteins in a compact form. Proteins are of 2 types (a) histones and (b) Non-
histones.
3. During interphase, chromatin is dispersed through the nucleoplasm in the form of reticulum.
4. Feulgen positive dark regions of chromosome is called heterochromatin (forming aggregates called
chromomeres), the non-chromatic region is known as euchromatin.
5. Histones are basic proteins and have a 1 : 1 ratio with DNA.
6. Non-histone proteins of chromatin are concerned with gene expression, e.g. RNA polymerse.
7. Eukaryotic chromatin is fibrous.
8. Chromatin consists of nucleosome which is connected by a fine thread. A single molecule of H1 and
histone is associated with each nucleosome.
9. Nucleosome DNA has two parts (a) core DNA and (b) Linker DNA.
10. Heterochromatic region of chromosomes forms chromocenters during interphase and prophase and
contains important genes. It is rich in DNA and is often called satellite or redundant DNA is believed to
facilitate separation of chromosomes during anaphase.
11. Chromatin is reproduced during interphase of a growing cell.
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CHROMOSOMES
Chromosomes were named by Waldeyer (1888). They are present in nucleus of eukaryotic cell. They
regulate metabolic activities of cells and contain the entire genetic blue print of an organism which is
transmitted to the next generation. Fleming observed thread-like structures in chromosomes and
called them chromatin.
Prokaryotic chromosomes lie in cytoplasm. Chromosomes of higher plants and animals contain
basic proteins called histones. Histones have nothing to do with transmission of heritable traits and
information. Roux proposed that units of heredity are present on chromosomes. Beneden and Boveri
(1887) stated that each species has fixed number of chromosomes.
The genetic material of majority of organisms is DNA. Some viruses have RNA as the genetic
material, e.g. Tobacco mosaic virus, reovirus. Others have DNA. Sutton and Boveri (1902) proposed
the chromosome theory of Heredity and Morgan related their role in transmission of character from one
generation to other.
The chromosome of prokaryotes, e.g. Coli is circular and contains double stranded helix of
DNA. It also has small amount of RNA (mRNA) and protein (mostly enzymes). Chromosome is attached
to mesosomes. In addition to this, E. Coli and other bacteria possess circles of double stranded DNA
called plasmids and episomes. Plasmids replicate independently. Episomes first integrate with host
chromosomes and then can simultaneously replicate with it. Supercoiled chromosome is found in the
bacterium, Thermoplasma acidophilium.
Eukaryote Chromosomes : Characteristics and Functions
1. Irregular thread-like, stain with Feulgen technique indicating presence of DNA in them. Highly condensed
during metaphase. Form of chromosomes depends on cell cycle.
2. Carriers of genes. Total number of genes present in a haploid or signal set of chromosome in a cell is
called genome.
3. Shape and size of chromosomes alters during cell growth and division cyclically. Metaphase chromosome
have a primary construction called centromere which divides the chromosomes into two arms.
4. Number of chromosomes is species-specific and can be easily counted during metaphase when they
are attached to mitotic spindle by centromere. The smallest diploid number of chromosome in animal
is 2 in case of Ascaris megalocephala ; in Drosophila melanogaster it is 8 and in human it is 46. Table
1.6 gives the information on characteristic chromosome number of plants and animals.
Somatic cell contain diploid number (2n) while germ cells have haploid number (n) of chromosomes.
5. Chromosomes are classified into 4 types on the basis of position of centromere.
(a) Telocentric : Centromere located at one end. Appear to be rod-like. It is of rarest type.
(b) Acrocentric : Centromere located in such a way that a very short arm of chromosome is visible.
(c) Sub-metacentric : Centromere divides the chromosome into unequal arms. They appear to be L-like in
form during anaphase..
(d) Metacentric : Centromere divides chromosomes into two equal arms. They appear to be V - like during
anaphase.
They are also classified on the basis of number of centromere (a) Monocentric : one
centromere/chromosome (b) Dicentric have 2, (c) Polycentric have more than 2 (d) Diffuse : centromere
spread along the total length (e) Acentric : centromere is absent.
6. Chromosomes are classified into :
(a) Somatic chromosomes (autosomes) are present in all somatic cells (body cells). They are more
numerous.
(b) Sex chromosomes are present in sperm and ovum. They are of 2 types, X and Y (in birds and lepidoptera,
they are termed Z and W).
Structure of Autosomes : Each is made up of two chromatids. Chromatids contain coiled chromonema.
Chromonema comprises of either a single or multiple strands of nucleoprotein (DNA + histone)
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chromonema is surrounded by chromatin material. Chromatids are held togethers by centromere.
During cell division, centromere becomes the focal point for attachment of spindle fibres. Chromatid
can be longitudinally split into two halves called chromonema. Thus, each chromosome is a tetrad
structure. Chromosomes exhibits banded pattern. Average length 0.5  – 30 m and width
0.2 m – 3 m and width 0.2 m – 3m. Polytene chromosomes of some insects are 300 m long
10 m wide. Chromosomes of plants are longer than that of animals. The beaded structures. present
on chromatin are called chromomere. Tobacco chromosomes are largest amongest plants.
The number of centromeres is usually one per chromosome (monocentric). However, in some
more than one may be present (polycentric). Centromere divide the chromosome into 2 arms of varying
length. The tips of chromosomes are called telomere.
Chromosomes may have one or more constrictions called primary constriction (loci of
centromere) and secondary constriction (nucleolar organiser). In addition, some may have a specifically
localised satellite chromosome separated from the rest of chromosome.
All somatic cells have a fixed number of chromosomes expressed as diploid or 2n. Their
number is reduced to half (haploid = n) during gametogenesis.
Sex Chromosomes (=allosomes) They provide the chromosomal basic of sex determination in animals
which manifest sexual dimorphism. Two types of sex chromosomes are found : X and Y . X and Y differ
in shape, size, DNA content, and sedimentation rate. In birds and lepidopteran they are called Z and
W.
7. Chromosomes contain DNA, RNA, histones, enzymes, some organic phosphorus compounds and
inorganic salts.
8. All the chromosomes of a species may have similar size or they may be dissimilar. The size of
chromosomes may very from cell to cell in different parts of a plant. In developing stages of insects
also, their size exhibits variation.
Special Types of Chromosomes

Lamp Brush Chromosomes
They were discovered by Fleming (1882) in amphibian oocyte.
Characteristics and functions

1. Found in Oocytes of fish, amphibian, reptile, birds and some invertebrates.
2. Hairy appearance, highly elastic, and consists of chromosomes held together by an extremely fine
axial fibre (95 per cent DNA). Lateral loops extends from chromomere.
3. Contains alternating regions of high density granules, and low lateral loops which contain 5 per cent
DNA.
Polytene Chromosomes
Polytene chromosomes or salivary gland chromosomes of certain dipterans. e.g. Drosophila and
Chironomus larva were disovered by Balbiani (1881).
1. Extremely specialised type found in the larval salivary gland of Drosophila melanogaster etc.
Also found in malpighian tubules, fat bodies and alimentary canal.
2. A large nucleolus is found attached to the common chromocenter.
Human Chromosomes
Characteristics
1. Total diploid number is 46 (23 pairs) in somatic cells.
2. Of the 46 (23 pairs), 44 (22 pairs) are autosomes and 2 (one pair) are sex chromosomes. Males have
one X and one Y while females have 2X.
3. The chromosomes are recognised on the basis of position of centromere, size of two arms size of
chromosomes and banding pattern (revealed by different staining methods) designated in various
ways.
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Chromosomal Abnormalities
Chromosomal abnormalities in humans are due to (a) euploidy (b) aneuploide and (c) structural
aberrations. Polyploidy (more than the normal 2n number of chromosome) is rare in humans.
Aneuploidy (less than 2n) may be due to ploidy of sex chromosomes or of autosomes. Thus,
Turner syndrome is due to presence of only one X chromosome i.e. 2n + XO ; and Klinefelter syndrome
is due to presence of 1 or more X chromosome (i.e. 2n + XXY).
Autosomal Disorders
1. Down’s Syndrome (chromosome was) discovered by Langdown (1866). Number of chromosomes is
47. Three 21st chromosome are present. Persons are mentally retarded and display abnormality of
nose, ear and hand (ii) Patau’s syndromes (Trisomy of 18th chromosome). Death occurs soon after
birth in many cases.
Structural aberrations due to translocation, deletion, duplication and inversion. Deletion of some genes
of chromosome 5 (short arm) leads to Cri-du-chat syndrome ; and of 21st chromosomes causes
leukemia.
Characteristic diploid (2n) chromosome number of some plants and animals

Diploid Number (2n)
I. Plants :
1. Chlamydomonas [green algae] 16
2. Mucor hemolysis (bread mould fungi) 2
3. Pinus ponderosa (gymnosperm) 24
Angiosperms
4. Brassica aulerecia (cabbage) 18
5. Raphanus sativus (Radish) 18
6. Carica papaya (Papaya) 18
7. Helianthus annus. (Sunflower) 34
8. Solanum tuberosum (Potato) 48
9. Lycopersicum solanum 24
10. Pisum sativum (Pea) 14
11. Triticum vulgare (Wheat) 42
12. Zea (Maize) 20
13. Oryzae Satius 24
14. Haplopappus gracilies 2
II. Animals
A. Vertebrates
1. Mammals
1. Homo sapiens (Humans) 46
2. Chimpanzee (Pan troglydetro) 48
3. Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) 48
4. Rhesus monkey–Macaca mulatta 42
5. Capra hickers (goat) 60
6. Sheep Ovis arise 54
7. Pig–Sus acinus 62
8. Horse–Equs cabalis 64
9. Cat–Felis domesticus 38
10. Dog–Canis familiaries 78
11. Rat–Mus musculans 40
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12. Common rat–Rattus rattus 42
13. Rabbit–Oryctolagus cuniculus 44
2. Birds
1. Anser platyrhyncha (Duck) 80
2. Gallus domesticus (Fowl) 78
3. Columba livia 80
3. Reptila
1. Alligator mississipiens 32
4. Amphibia
1. Toad–Xenopus laevis 36
2. Toad–Bufo americanus 22
3. Frog–Rana pipiens 26
5. Pisces
1. Goldfish-Carusius aurtaus 100
B. Invertebrates
1. Mollusca
(a) Helix plamatea (Roman Snail) 54
2. Arthropoda
(a) Mosquito–Culex pipiens 6
(b) Honey bee–Apis mellifica 32, 16
(c) Fruitfly–Drosophila melanogaster 8
(d) Housefly–Musca domestica 12
(e) Silk moth–Bombyx mori 56
3. Nematoda
(a) Ascaris Lumbricoides 24
(b) Ascaris megalocephala 2
4. Platyhelminthes
(a) Planaria 16
5. Cnidaria
(a) Hydra vulgaris 32
6. Protozoa
(a) Paramecium aurelia 30–40
(b) Radiolarians 1600
Chromosomal disorders in humans
Sex chromosome Sex No. of Barr body Result

2n + XO Female 0 Turner’s Syndrome
2n + XX Female 1 Normal
XXX Female 2 Super female
XXXX Female 3 Mentally retarded
XXXXX Female 4 -do-
XY Male 0 Normal
XYY Male 0 Normal
XXY Male 1 Klinefelter Syndrome
XXYY Male 1 -do-
XXXY Male 2 -do-
XXXXY Male 3 Intense Klinefelter Syndrome.
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Autosomes Sex Result
Trisomy of Occurs in Down’s Syndrome

21st chromosomes male or female
(47 chromosomes)
Trisomy of 18th -do- Edward’s
chromosome syndrome
Trisomy of 13th -do- Patau’s Syndrome
chromosome
Deletion of some genes (short arm) Male or Cri-du-chat
of 5th chromosome female syndrome
Deletion of some genes -do- Leukemia
of 21st chromosomes
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38
THE LIVING WORLD
Contents
Topic Page No.
Exercise
The Living World 01 - 06
Notes 07 - 07
Plant Taxonomy 08 - 08
Nomen Clature (Binomial)
10 - 10
Tri-Nomial Nomenclature
11 - 11
Type-Specimen (Herbarium Shut)
12 - 12
Taxonomic Hierarchy
13 - 13
Taxon
14 - 14
Species Concept
15 - 16
Taxonomical Aids
Syllabus
THE LIVING WORLD
Plant Taxonomy, Nomen Clature (Binomial), Tri-Nomial Nomenclature,
Type-Specimen (Herbarium Shut), Taxonomic Hierarchy, Taxon, Species
Concept, Taxonomical Aids
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
ETOOSINDIA.COM
HelpDesk : 92-14-233303
Topic 1 THE LIVING WORLD
LEVEL - I
1. Basis of life is C secrate of life.

(A) Lipid (B) Protein (C) Nuclic acid (D) Nucleoprotein
2. Binomial nomenclature given by.

(A) Linnaeus (B) Darwin (C) Lamarck (D) Hackel
3. ICBN shows
(A) International council for Batonical nomenclature
(B) Internation code of botanical nomenclature
(C) Indian code of botanical nomenclature
(D) None of these
4. Listing of flora based on -

(A) Practical classification (B) Artificial classification
(C) Emperical classification (D) Natural classification
5. Economical importance based classification -

(A) Artificial (B) Practical (C) Natural (D) Numerical
6. Plant classification based on alphabetical order -

(A) Rational (B) Emperical (C) Numerical (D) 1 & 2
7. Phylogenic term given by -

(A) Lamarck (B) Linnaeus (C) Darwin (D) Haeckel
8. Phylogemic concept given by -

(A) Linnaeus (B) Hackel (C) Lamarck (D) Darwin
9. Taxonomic categones number is -

(A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 5 (D) 8
10. Taxonomic name for plant given by -

(A) H. J. Lan (B) Adolf Mayer (C) Lan & Mayer (D) Hooker
11. Suffix-Phytina use for -

(A) Class (B) Division (C) Sub division (D ) Family
12. Species concept given by -

(A) Mayer (B) Lamarck (C) Linnaeus (D) John ray
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13. Smallest Taxonomic graph is -
(A) Geuus (B) Species (C) Tribe (D) Division
14. Taxonomic tools whice based on centrasting charaetristics -

(A) Key (B) Herbaria (C) Botanical garden (D)
15. Taxonomy related with -

(A) Plant taxonomy (B) A affinities
(C) Plant nomenclature (D) All of above
16. Duplicate of holotype is -

(A) Isotype (B) Syntype (C) Neotype (D) Paratype
17. Standard size of harabarium swet -

(A) 11.5'' 17.5'' (B) 10.5'' 16.5'' (C) 11.5'' 16.5'' (D) 11.5'' 18.5''
18. Binomen elature based book is -

(A) species plantarum (B) Genera plantanim
(C) Pinax Theatre botanica (D) 1 and 3

(A) Mangitera mangitera (B) Naza Naza
(C) Isoetes Isoetes (D) Naza naza
20. Which option mismatch -

(A) species (B) class (C) Phylum (D) Glumawe
Answer Key
1. C 2. A 3. B 4. C 5. B 6. B
7. A 8. B 9. B 10. A 11. C 12. D
13. B 14. A 15. D 16. A 17. C 18. D
19. D 20. D
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LEVEL - II
1. Term new systematics given by -

(A) Huxley (B) Linnaeus (C) Bentnam (C) Huchinsan
2. Most approved concept for speeies -

(A) Static cocept (B) Biological concept (C) Genetical concept (D) Typological concept
3. First step of Taxonomy -

(A) Identification (B) Namenclature (C) Taxonomy (D) Affinities
4. When we lost Holotype, see on holotype from originae plant is know as -

(A) Leetotype (B) Neotype (C) Paratype (D) Syntype
5. Species belong to different geographical arcas is known as -

(A) Allochronic (B) Siblings (C) Allopatric (D) Siblings
(A) Solanum tubrosum (B) Solanum Tuberosum
(C) Solanum tuberosum Linn. (D) All the above
7. Morphological same but reproductive isolated species are known as -

(A) Sibling (B) Microspecies (C) Sympatric (D) All ochromic
8. Cauli hawer cabbage & knol-knol are -

(A) Ecades (B) Ecotype (C) Biotype (D) All of these
9. Species are continous changable according -

(A) Static concept (B) Biological concept (C) Dynamic concept (D) Typological concept
10. Development in systematic order is known -

(A) Phylogeny (B) Genology (C) Phenology (D) All of above
11. Taxonomy based on morphology, origin & development -

(A) -taxonomy (B) -taxonomy (C) Omega taxonomy (D) cyto taxonomy
12. Enquiry in to plants books written by -

(A) Throphrastus (B) Linnaeus (C) Aristotle (D) Hooker
13. Linnaeus book not -

(A) Systema nature (B) Gevera phantarum
(C) Species plantanum (D) Historia plantarum
14. Theories elementaire de la Batanique written by -

(A) Linnaeus (B) Bantram (C) A.P De Candolle (D) Theo-phrastus
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15. ‘Cohort’ use for -
(A) Species nalated graph (B) upper position
(C) Between species & order graph (D) All the above
16. Taxen given in following -

(A) Gevera (B) Family (C) Genuv (D) None of above
17. Linnalus plant classification is -

(A) Artificial (B) Natural (C) Phylogentic (D) None
18. Plant phylogenetic classification given by -

(A) Linnaev (B) Huchinsan (C) Menta (D) Hooker
19. Binomial nomenclature based on -

(A) First name genus see and species
(B) Genus first cetter in capital & small calter in species
(C) Variety name given after species name
(D) All of above
20. Bringil, pottato, Ginger related -

(A) Chemical composition of cytoplasm (B) Cell organells
(C) cytochrame (D) Cell shape & size
Answer Key
1. A 2. D 3. A 4. A 5. C 6. C
7. A 8. C 9. C 10. B 11. A 12. A
13. D 14. C 15. D 16. D 17. A 18. B
19. D 20. C
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LEVEL - III
1. Smallest taxon is -
(A) Class (B) Order (C) Genue (D) Species
2. Taxon is -
(A) Group of same species
(B) Texonomical hieraracly any series
(C) group of same genus
(D) Name of above
3. Taxonomy natural system based on -

(A) Morphology (B) Phylogeny (C) Morphology & Affinities (D) Ontogany
4. Nicotiana is a -
(A) Variety (B )Subspecies (C) Species (D) Geneus
5. Cohort related group of -

(A) Species (B) Gevra (C) Family (D) Order
6. Word ‘cladistics’ of plant taxonomy related with -

(A) Phylogenic classification (B) Artificial classification
(C) Natural classification (D) Sexual classification
7. Specific properties of plant which absent in animals -

(A) Metal bolism (B) Sexual reproduction (C) Autotropny (D) Asexual reproduction
8. Binomial classification of plant effective from -

(A) 1-8-1758 (B) 1-5-1753 (C) 1-8-1736 (D) 1-5-1758
9. Selecty correct option -

(A) Apsi indica (B) Trypasoma (C) Ficus Bengalensis (D) Mangifera indica
10. Organnism with highest number -

(A) Genus (B) Family (C) Phylam (D) Class
11. Two similar holotype know as -

(A) mesotype (B) Meotype (C) Syntype (D) Isotype
12. Systema naturae written by -

(A) Lamarck (B) Aristotle (C) Linnaeus (D) Hacale
13. ‘Biological Nomenclature’ interanatical apply for -

(A) Plants (B) Animal (C) Both plant & Animal (D) None of the above
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14. Animal classification related term phylum given by -
(A) Haukel (B) John ray (C) Quiver (D) Linnaeus
15. ‘Systematics’ derved from -

(A) Greek word (B) Latin word (C) Both (D) none
16. Polytypic species related with -

(A) Biotype (B) Ecotype (C) Ecades (A) All
17. All living related with mostly -

(A) Ecades (B) Biotype (C) Ecotypes (D) Linnean species
18. Select correct order of Taxonomic categeries

(A) Class - Genus - class - order - division
(B) Species - Genus - class - order - division
(C) Division - order - class - species - Geneus
(D) Division - class - order - family - geneus - species
19. ‘Theory of special cration’ given by -

(A) Linnaeus (B) Joyn ray (C) Lamarck (D) Aristotle
20. Morphological same but reproductively isolated species is -

(A) Sibling (B) Sympatiric (C) Allopatric (D) Microspecies
Answer Key
1. D 2. B 3. C 4. D 5. C 6. A
7. C 8. B 9. D 10. C 11. D 12. C
13. C 14. C 15. A 16. D 17. A 18. D
19. A 20. A
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PLANT TAXONOMY
PLANT TAXONOMY :
The word was proposed by A.P. de Candole in his book "Theories elementaire de la botanique"
(Theory of elementry botany)
Taxonomy includes study of following 4 points
(1) Identification - Identification of living organism
(2) Nomenclature - Nomenclature of living organism
(3) Classification - Classification of living organism in groups
(4) Affinities - Study of inter relationship between living organism
Systematics :- (Branch related with taxonomu)

(1) The term "Systematics" was proposed by Linnaeus
(2) Its includes description of morphological character of plants or living organism.
e.g. Morphological character of Root, Stem, Leaves, Flowers
(3) This description is used to know inter relationship between living organism.
New systematics or Neo systematics or Biosystematics :-

(1) Neo - systematics - A new branch - Name given by J.Huxley
(2) It includes description of all the characters including morphological characters of plants or living
organism.
e.g. Anatomical character , Histological characters
Embryological characters , Cytological characters
(3) It is used to know the inter relationship between living organism,
Significance of taxonomy :-
(1) With the help of taxonomy diversity of living being can be studied easily.
(2) At present, 300 lakh (30 million) type of living organism are found on our earth.
(3) 17 lakh (1.7 million) type of living organism have been discovered still now. Out of them 12 lakh are animal
and 5 lakh type are plant.
(4) Maximum diversity of living beings are found in tropical rain forest.
 These forest have heavy rain fall whole year.
 In india maximum tropical rain forest are found in Andman & Nikobar and in all eastern states of India
(Assum, Meghalaya, West Bengal etc.)
 In india maximum tropical rain forest are present (Tropical country)
(5) After tropical rain forest the second maximum diversity is found in corel reefs (oceans)
Note :- The no. of living beings that have extincted are 50-100 time that of the living beings. Scientists discover near
about 15000 type of living organism every year.
Practical significance of taxonomy :-

Practical significance of taxonomy is  Identification
Identification is amied at finding the correct name and the proper position of an organism in the
already established plan of classification. This is done by examining its morphological (external) and
anatomical (internal) characters. Identification is accomplished with the help of biological keys. Use of a
biological key is given later in this chapter.
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NOMEN CLATURE (BINOMIAL)
BINOMIAL SYSTEM :
(1) Binomial system first proposed by Gaspard Bauhin in his book - "Pinax Theatre Botanica"
(2) Carolus Linnaeous :- Linnaeus used this nomenclature system firstly on large scale and proposed scientific
name of all the plants and animals.
 Linnaeus is founder of binomial system.
 Linnaeus proposed scientific name of plants in his book "Species Plantarum". It was published on
1 May 1753. So this was the initiation of binomial system for plants. So any name proposed (for
plants) before this date is not accepted today.
 Linnaeus proposed scientific name of animals in his book "Systema Naturae" (10th edition.)
 The 10th edition of Systema naturae was first published on 1 August 1758. So initiation of binomial
system for animals is beleived to be starts on 1 Aug. 1758.
Principle of Priority :-
The nomenclature is done by principle of priority. If the two names are proposed for any plant after the 1753,
the valid name is the earlier name proposed just after 1 may 1753.
ICBN :- "International code for botanical Nomenclature"

ICBN - Book of Rules of Nomenclature
(1) Collection of rules regarding scientific - nomenclature of plants is known as ICBN.

(2) ICBN was firstly proposed by -
Sprague, Hitchcock, Green (1930)
(3) ICBN was first accepted in 1961.
(4) 12th international congress, Leningrade revised ICBN in 1975.
(5) After revision it was repulished in 1978. So that ICBN published two times
(1) 1961 (2) 1978
Main rules of ICBN :-

(1) According to binomial system name of any species consists of two names -
(i) Generic name - Name of genus
(ii) Specific name - Trival name
e.g. Solanum tuberosum (Potato) Mangifera indica (Mango)
   
Generic name specific name Generic name Specific name
(2) Generic names of different genus should not be same in any one kingdom.
e.g. Potato can not be named as Mangifera
However they can be repeated in different kingdoms,
e.g. Bougainvillea - It is name of a plant and also it is name of an animal
(3) Specific name can be repeated on one kingdom.

e.g. Saraca indica, Mangifera indica
(4) In plant nomenclature (ICBN) tautonyms are not valid i.e. generic name and specific name should not be
same in plants.
e.g. Mangifera mangifera
But tutonyms are valid in animal nomenclature (ICZN) - International Code for Zoological Nomenclature)
e.g. Naja naja (Indian cobra), Rattus rattus (Rat)
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(5) Length of generic name or specific name not be less than 3 letters and not more than 12 letters.
Exception :- Riccia pathankotensis - More than 12 letters
According to ICBN this name is not valid but this name was proposed before 1961, so it is valid.
(6) First letter of generic name should be in capital letter and first letter of specific name should be small letter.
But if specific name is based on the name of some person, its first letter will be in capital letter.
e.g. Chaetomium Subramaniella
(7) When written with free hand or typed, then generic name and specific name should be separately underlined.
But during printing name should be italized.
(8) Name of scientist (who proposed nomenclature) should be written in short after the specific name
e.g. Mangifera indica Lin.
(9) Name of scientist proposed wrong name then his name should be written in bracket and the scientist who
corrects the name will be written after the brackets.
e.g. Tsuga canadensis (Lin.) Salisbury
Note : Linnaeus named this plant as Pinus canadensis
(11) Scientific names should be derived from latin or greek language because they are dead language.
(12) Type specimen (Herbarium Sheet) of newly discovered plant should be placed in herbarium (Dry garden).
Binomial Nomenclature :-
Common names of any organism are always problematic since, many species have more than one common
name and a common name can describe more than one species. When writing a scientific documents, it is
the convention to use binomial nomenclature. Carolous Linnaeus (1758) introduced a shorthand designation,
binomial (binomial two name) nomenclature for each organism, in which the first name indicates genus while
second name indicates species. Genus always starts with capital letter while species with small latter and
written in italics. For example, red alder, Alnus rubra; Alnus is the genus and rubra is the specific epithet.
There are many species in the genus Alnus but only one Alnus rubra. A species may be further described
according to sub-species or variety. For example Ponderosa pine, Pinus ponderosa var ponderosa or lodgepole
pine, Pinus contorta sub-sp. latifolia. A sub-species is a morphologically distinct, often geographically separate
population of a species. A variety is also a morphologically different population which may be associated with
a geographic region or particular site conditions but less distinct than a sub-species. The species name
should always be used in conjunction with common names so that anyone reading the document can know
exactly which species you are referencing.
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TRI-NOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
TRINOMIAL SYSTEM :
(1) Proposed by Huxely and Stricklandt.
(2) According to this system name of any plant of species is composed of three names :-
(i) Generic name
(ii) Specific name
(iii) Subspecific name (Name of variety)
(3) When members of any species have large variations than trinomial system is used. On the basis of
dissimilarities this species is classified into sub species :-
e.g. Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (Cauliflower)
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage)
Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa (Knol-Khol)
Trinomial Nomenclature
Sometimes three words are also used for naming the organism, especially the animals. These include
generic, specific and sub-specific parts. For example, modern man is called Homo sapieus sapiens and
Gorilla as Gorilla gorilla gorilla.
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TYPE SPECIMEN (HERBARIUM SHUT)
TYPE SPECIMEN (HERBARIUM SHEET) ARE OF DIFFERENT TYPE
Holotype - Herbarium sheet on which the first description of plant is based.
Lectotype - In case the holotype is lost, second herbarium sheet prepared from the original plant is
called lectotype.
Neotype - In case the holotype and original plant is lost, then herbarium sheet prepared from some
other plant of same species is called neotype.
Syntype - In case the holotype and original plant is lost then many herbarium sheet prepared from
many plants of same species is called syntype.
Isotype - Duplicate of holotype - In presence of holotype a second herbarium sheet prepared from the
original plant is called isotype.
Pratype - Nomenclature is invalid in absance of type speciemen.
Types of specimen
Holotype Nomenclature type
Isotype Duplicate of holotype
Paratype Any other specimen described along with holotype
Syntype Any one of the two or more specimens cited by author, when there is no holotype
Lectotype Specimen selected from original meterial to serve as nomenclature type, where there is no
holotype
Neotype New nomenclatural type, when the original material is missing.
Topotype A specimen collected from the same locality from which the holotype was originally collected.
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TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY
TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY
Desending order / arrangment of taxonomic categories is known as heirarchy
There are 7 main categories
1. Kingdom - Largest unit
2. Division / phylum
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
7. Species - Smallest / basic unit
Humen Houslehy Mango Wheat

1 Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Plantae
2 Division/phylum Cherdata Artuopoda Angiospermae Angiospermae
3 Class Mammalia Iusecta Dicotyledoneae Monocotyledonae
4 Order Primata Diptera Sapindales Poales
5 Family Hominidae Muscidae Anacardiaceae Poaceae
6 Genus Homo Musca Mangifera Triticum
7 Speecies Sapiens Domestica Indica Aestivum
Taxonomic Hierarchy
It is the grouping of the species into higher categories on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities,
complexity and simplicity and hence, evolutionary relationships.
Species
It is the basic unit of classification. It is a group of individuals which are alike morphological and reproductive
characters so that they are able to interbreed freely and produce fertile offspring.
Genus
A group of species having common characteristics is called genus. It is first higher category above the
species level.
Order
A group of families which share a number of common characteristics. The family-Felidae (Lion, leopard, tiger,
cats) and Canidae (Dog, wolf, fox) are included in the same order Carnivora.
Class
A group of related orders is class. For example, all the insects are included in class-Insecta. They are
characterized by the presence of three pairs of Jointed legs and trachea. Similarly, members of class-Aves
(birds) are characterized by the presence of feathers which are modified forelimbs.
Phylum
Classes having atleast a few characters in coomoon, collectively constitute a phylum. For example, Nereis,
Pheretima and Hirudinaria belong to different classes but have been grouped in a single phylum-Annelida.
Kingdom
It is the highest category in taxonomic system and includes phyla (or Divisions in plants) which are related
atleast in one character. Linnaeus system of classification includes only two kingdoms-Animalia and Plantae.
But Whittaker's system of classification includes five kingdoms-Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
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TAXON
TAXON
Taxon is a unit of classification which may represent any level of grouping of organisms. The term was
introduced by ICBN (International Code of Botanical Nomenclature) during 1956. Mayr (1964) has
defined taxon to be a taxonomic group of any rank that is sufficiently distinct to be worthy of being
assigned to a definite category. Simpson (1961) recognizes taxon to be a group of real organisms
recognized as a formal unit at any level of hierarchical classification.
Taxon - Plant or animal groups included in categories are called as taxon.

Mayer - First proposes the term taxon for animal
H.S. Lan First proposes the term taxon for plants
Suffix for taxon
1. Kingdom - x
2. Division - phyta
3. Class - opsida / phyceae / ae
4. Order - ales
5. Family - aceae
6. Genus - x
7. Species - x
Species - smallest taxonomic categories
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SPECIES CONCEPT
SPECIES CONCEPTS
Species is the fundamental or smallest unit of classification. The term species was recognized from genus
by John Ra.y Ernst Mayr defined species as. A group of potentially inter-breeding natural populations of
closely resembling organisms. Carlous Linnaeus proposed static concept of species or morphological
concept of species. He considered species as a fixed and iminutable entity.
1. Dynamic concept of species was proposed by Lamarck, who considered species as a mutable and
dynamic entity.
2. Biological concept of species was proposed by Ernst Mayr. According to this concept, a species is a
group of individuals who resemble each other in morphological, physiological biochemical and behavioural
characters and capable in interbreeding.
3. Morphospecies are the species erected on the basis of morphological characters only.
4. Taxonomic species are the species having a binomial name.
5. Sibling species are true species which do not interbreed but are otherwise difficult to separate on the basis
of morphological characters alone.
6. Allopatric species Two or more species which are inhabitive different area or geographical condition.
7. Sympatric species are species having overlapping areas of geographical distribution.
8. Parapatric species are species with adjacent geographic ranges meeting in a very narrow zone of overlap.
9. Neontological species are living species.
10. Allochronic species are species belonging to different time periods.
11. Polytypic species are species, which have more than one ideal types according to their geographical
isolated areas.
12. Linnaean species is a taxonomic species distinguished on morphological grounds.
13. Biospecies is a species erected on the basis of reproductive and genetic isolation of a natural population.
14. Macrospecies is a large polymorphic species with several sub-divisions.
15. Microspecies or Jordan's species is a true breeding genetic unit below the rank of species.
16. Agamospecies is a species reproducing only asexually, e.g., Euglena and Amoeba.
17. Gamospecies are sexually reproducing species.
18. Palaeospecies are species know from fossils only.
19. Monotypic species are species without differentiation of sub-species or varieties.
20. Keystone species is a species that plays a key role or central role in the ecology of a place.
21. Mule, Hinny, Tigon and Linger are exception to biological species concept. Mule is the offspring of male
donkey and female horse and hinny is the offspring of female donkey and male horse. Both Mule and Hinny
are sterile. Tigon is the offspring of male tiger and female lion and linger is of female tiger and male lion.
Both tigon and linger are fertile.
22. Synchronic species are species belonging to a same period or time.

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TAXONOMICAL AIDS
TAXONOMICAL AIDS
Taxonomical aids are techniques and produces to store information as well as speciman or identification and
classification of organism -
All the information is used in classification of an organism
Important Taxonomical Aids

1. Herbarium 2. Botanical gardens 3. Museums
4. Zoological park 5. Key 6. Hora
7. Manograph 8. Mammals & catalogus
(A) Herbarium
(i) Herbarium is a store house of collected plant speciman's that are dried, lonessed & pressened an sheets.
(ii) Standard size of herbarium shut is 11.5 × 16.5"
Uses of herbaria
(i) used for identification of plant
(ii) Help in knowing the morphological variations Found in species
(iii) Herbaria useful for research in plant taxonomy
(iv) useful for locating wild varietes
(III) = Form of harbarium shut
(i) Collecting date
(ii) Collecting place
Plant
(iii) English name
(iv) Local & scientific name
Label
(left side) (v) Family of plant
(vi) Name of collecting reason
Botanical garden
(i) Living plant collecting in botanical garden
(ii) Plant species identify in B.G.
(iii) Tegging a label with plant label given information name of family & plant botanical name
(iv) Important botanical garden
(A) Royal botanical garden - kew (london)

(B) Indian botanical garden - Hawra (India)
(C) National botanical research institute - Lucknow (India)
Museums
(i) Museums is place for collections of preserved plants and animals speciman for study
(ii) Universities & educational institute manage their museums
(iii) Dead organism are placed in museum
Zoological park
(i) Wild living animal must be placed.
(ii) Zoological parks provide natural habitat to the animal
(iii) 200 zoological park in india
(iv) The zoos are managed by the central zoo authority of india
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15
Key
(i) Key is also a taxonomical aid used for identification of plants & animal based on the similarites & dissimilarites.
(ii) Key help identification of plant & animal by selecting & eliminating the characters according to their presence
or absence in the organism under study
(iii) The keys are generally use two contrasting characters
(iv) One contrasting character accepted other contrasting character rejected.
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16
KINGDOM PLANTAE
Contents
Topic
Algae
Chlorophyta
Brophyta
Pteridophyta
Some important points
Syllabus
KINGDOM PLANTAE
Algae,Chlorophyta,Brophyta,Pteridophyta, Some important points
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
ETOOSINDIA.COM
HelpDesk : 92-14-233303
KINGDOM- PLANTAE
All the multicellular eukaryotic plants are placed in kingdom- plantae. They are autotrophic i. e. they
manufacture their food photosynthesis.
Following plant groups are included in kingdom- plantae
(1)ALGAE (2) BRYOPHYTA (3) PTERIDOPHYTA

(4) GYMNOSPERM (5) ANGIOSPERM
ALGAE
Term'' Algae '' was given by Linnaeus.
Phycology- Study of algae.
Father of Phycology → Fristch → Book → Structure & Reproduction of algae''
NATURE Father of Indian phycology- M.O.P.Iyengar
(1) Algae are found in both fresh and marina water.
(2) Algae are found in many forms like filamentous, colonial.
(3) Algae are surrounded by mucilaginous sheath and below the sheath cell wall is present which is made up
of cellulose and pectin but mainly made up of cellulose, galactans, mannans and mineral like calcium
carbonate
(4) On the basis of structure, algae are thalloid i. e. plant body is not differentiated into root, stem and leaves
Tissue system is also absent in algae.
(5) On the basis of nutrition, algae are photoautotrophic. They have chioroplast in which photosynthrric
pigments are present. Classification of algae is mainly based pigments. Chl-a and B carotene are univer-
sal pigments of algae.
(6) Cell wall of algae is made uo of cellulose a pectin, gallactose a mannose
(1) Vegetative (2) Asexual (3) Sexual
Vegetative reproduction
(i) Binary fission - cell divided into two parts and nucleus is also divided into two parts by mitosis.
eg. Found only in unicellular algae
(ii) Fragmentation - Filaments break down into smll pieces from new filaments.
eg. All filamentous algae
Asexual reproduction :
(i) By different types of spores like zoospore, aplanospore, hypnospore akinetes.
(ii) Zoospores are formed in favourable conditions and Aplanospores, hypnospore and akinete etc. are
formed unfavourable condition.
(iii) Thick walled spores (Hypnospres akinetes) also protect the algae from unfavourabke condition so they
are the methods of pernnation also.
Sexual reproduction :
(i) Male sex organ is called antheridium and female called oogonium. The sex organs of algae are unicellular
& jacketless. But exceptionally sex organs of green algae Chara (chara-green-algae known as stone
wort) are multicellular and jacketed.
The male sex organ of Chara is known as globule and female is known as nucule.
(ii) Plant body of algae is haploid so sexual repro. Take place through zygotic meiosis. So their life cycle is
haplontic. But exceptionally brown algae are diploid and sexual reproduction tack place through
gemtic meiosis in them.The life cycle of brown algae is diplona-plontic.
(iii) Algae reproduce by zygotic meiosis i.e. first division in zygote is meiosis so embryo is not formed.
Sexual repro. Is of three types
(a) Isogamous - Chlamydomonas debaryanum, Ulothrix, Ectocarpu, Spirogyra
(b) Anisogamous - Chlamydomonas braunii
(c) Oogamous - Chlamydomonas coccifera, Sargassum, Volvos Fucus
Note: (1) chlamydomanas exhibits complet evolution of sexual reproduction.

(2) In chlamydomanas debaryanum gametes are flagellated and similar in size.
(3) In chlamydomonas braunii gametes are motile and dissimilar in size.
The classification of algae is mainly based on the photosynthetic pigments. In addition to this, cell
wall composition and stored food are also the base of classification.
Algae is divided into following divisions
(1) CHLOROPHYTA - GREEN ALGAE
(2) PHAEOPHYTA - BROWN ALGAE
(3) RHODOPHYTA - RED ALGAE

PLANT KINGDOM (PLANTAE)
Some important Points about Algae
 Atleast a half of the total CO2 fixation (photosynthesis) on earth is carried out by algae, because on earth
water is present in 2/3rd part.
 They perform oxygenic photosynthesis, so they increase the level of dissolved oxygen in their immediate
(nearby) environment.
 They are primary producers (autotrophs) of energy rich compounds which form the basis of food cycles of
all aquatic animals.
 As the producers algae are of paramount importance.
 About to species of marine algae are used as food.
 Hydrocolloids or phycocolloids :- The colloidal substances obtained from algae which have very high
water holding capacity are known as phycocolloids eg. Algin, Carrageen & Agar Agar.
 Pyrenoids :- They are storage bodies located in the chloroplast in these bodies protein are present around
which starch is also there. Means pyrenoids are made of proteins & starch.
Classes Common Major Pigment Stored Cell wall Flagellar Habitat

Name food wall number &
position of
insection
Chlorophyceae Green Chlorophyll Starch Cellulose 2-8, equal, Fresh water

algae a, b apical brackish
water, salt water
Phaeophyceae Brown Chlorophyll Mannitol, Cellulose 2, unequal, Fresh water

algae a, c, Laminarin & algin lateral (rare) bracicish
fucoxanthin water, salt water
Rhodophyceae Red Chlorophyll Floridean Cellulose Absent Fresh water

algae a, d, starch (some),
Phycoerythrin brackish water,
salt water(most)
CHLOROPHYTA
 All the algae, included in this division are green in color.
 Green algae are the most advanced algae. Itisbelieved that green algae the anccestors of the higher plants.
 Green algae usually have a rigid cell wall made up of an inner layer of cellulose an outer layer of pectose.
 Habitat : Green algae are cosmopolitan in nature.
Different forms of Green algae (Structure):
Green algae are found in many forms
(1) Unicellular :-
(i) Chlamydomonas - Motile unicellular algae. This moves with the help of flagella.
(ii) Chlorella - Non motile unicellular alga.
 Calvin discovered'' calvin cycle'' by experimenting on chlorella.
(iii) Acetabularia - Umbrella plant- It is the largest unicellular plant . The diameter of its cell is 10 cm.
Hammerling experimented on Acetabularia.
Note: According tofive kingdom system the algae described above should be placed in Protista but due to
their life cycle is similar to green algae so they studied in plantae.
(2) Colonial - Some green algae are found in colonies. They from colony of cell. The number of cell in a
colony is fixed. Colony with fixed number of cells coenobium.
eg. Volvox - Motile colony
(3) Multicellular filamentous - Mostlyn the green algae are multicellular and filaentous.
eg. Ulothrix - known as pond wool
Spirogyra - known as pond silk
(4) Multicellular thlloid or parenchymatous - some algae are multicellular in length & width.
eg. Ulva - Also called as sea lettuce
Photosynthetic pigments:
Chlorophyll - Chl' a' and Chl' b'
Carotene -  carotene
Xanthophyll - Luteaxanthin and Violoxanthin- Yellow coloured
Note: 1. On the basis of pigment (Chl ' a', Chl 'b', carotenoids), stored food (starch) & cell wall
(made up of cellulose or prctose), green are considered similar to higher plants.]
2. Most of the members of green algae have starch as stored food and some have oil
droplet also.
3. One or more pyrenoids are also present in chloroplast as storage bodies. Pyrenoids
contain proten besides starch.
4. (i) Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.
5.(ii) Vegetative reproduction is by tragmentat asexual reproduction is by flagellated
zoospore produced in zoosporangium.
Economic Importance:
(1) Food -
Chlorella is used as food , because after Spirulina, Chlorella has largest amount of protein.
(2) Antibiotics -
Chlorellin antibiotic is obtained from Chlorella.
(3) Space research -
In space, Chlorella is used as a source of food and O by space travellers.
(4) Parasitic algae -
Cephaleuros algae remains parasitically in the leaves of tea plant and causesdisease 'red
rust'.
PHAEOPHYTA
Brown algae or sea weeds or "kelps"
 Brown algae are found in marina water.
 Brown algae multicellular filamentous.
 Brown algae are the largest in size (upto 100 meter in length).
 Largest brown algae - Macrocystis
 The vegetative cell have a cellulosic wall usally covered on the outside by a gelatinous coating of align.
 Thallus of brown algae is divided into three parts:-
(i) Lamina (frond) - Leafy part or photosynthetic part
(ii) Stipe - Elongated tubes celled trumpet hyphae are present for food con
duction in stipe. Trumpet hyphae are analogus to sieve tubes of
vascular plants. Due to lamina and stipe brown algae look like
leaf (leafy algae).
(iii) Hold fast - Help in attachment.
e.g. Fucus, Dictyota, Ectocarpus
Reproduction :-
 Vegetative reproduction take place by fragementation.
 Assexual reproduction in most brown algae is by biflagellate zoospore.
Pigments :
Chlorophyll - Chi 'a', Chi 'c’
Carotene - Only carotene
Xanthophylls - Mainly Fucoxanthin
Note : The amount of Fucoxanthin is more in brown algae due to which these algae are brown in colour.
(Xanthophylls a!e mostly yellow but fucoxanthin is brown)
Stored Food :
Laminarin and mannitol - both are derivatives of carbohydrates.
Phycocolloids :
 On cell wdll of brown algae some colloid substances like fucinic acid, alginic acid and fucoidin are
present which are known as phycocolloids.
 Phycocolloids protects brown-algae against dessication and shocks. Phycocolloids are used in ice-cream
as thickening agent. Alginates, salts of alginic acid used for dentury measurement.
 Alginates or Alginic acid - Obtained from Laminaria, Fucus, Macrocystis.
A1ginates are used in the manufacturing of soap, ice-cream, polish, cream and plastic.
Special Point : (1) Life cycle of Ectocarpus and kelps are diplohaplontic, life cycle of Fucus is diplontic.
(2) Zoospores and gametes are pear shaped and have two unequal laterally attahced flane1la.
(3) Sex repro. may be brown algae isogamous, anisogamous or
oogamons. Special Name :(1) Postelsia → It is known as sea palm
(2) Anegclonema → It is old Ice bloom because it grows on marlae ice
It is known as Gulf weed because Sargssum is a free floating alga. It grows rapidly in North Atlantic ocean
and covers thousands of hectare/of area. Therefore this region is called as sargasso sea.
Lominaria (Kelps) :
It is called as Devil's Aprin.
Iodine and Bromine - Obtained from Laminaria.
RHODOPHYTA
Red algae
(1) Red algae are known as second ancient algae.
e.g. Polysiphonia
(2) There is no motile stage found in life cycle of red algae and BGA i.e. cilia & flagella are absent.
(3) Red algae mainly found in marina water with greater concentration found in the warmer areas. But
exceptionally Batrachospermum is found in fresh water (rivrer) and Porphyridium is found on land.
(4) Red algae are multicellular but exceptionally Porphyridium is unicellular.
(5) Cell wall of red algae is complex and made up of cellulose & pectin.
The cell wall of red algae is also complicated like blue green algae. Their cell wall has many different
type of substances such as xylan, galactose, polyuronic acid, polysulphate esters.
But in some algae calcim carbonate is also present in the cell wall. Due to which their thallus become
stony. These algae from lime stone & coral reefs
e.g. Corallina and Lithothamnion
Pigments:
Chlorophyll - Chl' a' and chl 'b'
Carotenes - B carotene
Phycobilins - R - phycoerythein (red coloured) and R- phycocyanin (blue coloured)
(1) On the basis of pigment red algae is similar to blue green algae.
(2) Colour of red algae changes according to depth in sea this is celled as Gaudikov's effect.
(3) When red algae are present on the sea their colour is blue and when they are at the botton their
colour is red.At the surface of sea the amount of R-phycocyanin is more while in depth the
amount R-phycoerythrin is more.
Penetration power is maximum in ultra violet and violet light. R-phycocrythrin is only pigment to
absorbult violet light. Due to phycoerythrin red algae are deepest algae.
(4) Gaudikov's effect is also found in Blue- Green algae.
(5) Red algae not always red, it may be blue coloured also.
eg. Batrachospermum - This is a blue coloured algae.
Stored Food :
Floridean starch - floridean starch is structurally similar to glycogen and amylopectin
Phycocolloids :
Agar -Agar, carrageenin and funori phycocolloids are found in the cell wall of red algae.
Reproduction :
(1) Vegetative - By fragmentaiion
(2) Asexual - Non motile spores [By monos pore, carpospores, tetraspore]
(3) Sexual reproduction :
(i) By zygotic meiosis because main plant is haploid.
(ii) Sexual reproduction is oogarmous and accompanied by complex post fertilization
developments.(iii) The female sex organs are called carpogonia.
(iv) The maie sex organs of red algae are known as spennatangia. Non moiile spore like gametes
are formed in spermatangia which are known as spermatia.
(v) Life cycle of Polysiphonia is diplobiontic and Batrachospermum is haplobiontic
Special points and Economic importance
(1) Harveyella - It is a colourless parasitic alga. It remains as parasite on other alga.
(2) Porphyra - It is an edible algae.
(3) Gelidium and Gracilaria - Agar - Agar colloid is obtained from these. It is used to prepare culture
medium to grow microbes and in prepartion of ice creams and Jellies.
(4) Chondps crispus - It is also called Irish moss, Carrageenin colloid is obtained from this alga. It is used
as gelating agent in food industries (i.e. to make the food item viscous)
 Capsule of medicines is also prepared from carrageenin.
HABITAT OF SOME IMPORTANT ALGAE

(1) Terrestrial - The algae found in moist soil & wall.
eg. Terrentofolia
(2) Epiphytes - Algae which are present on plants

eg. Protoeoceus
(3) Endophytes - Algae which are present inside plantsego

eg. Coieochaete niteiurn (in Nitella plant)
(4) Epizoic - Algae which are present on animalsego

eg. Cladophora (present on Mollusca shell)
Cyanoderma and Triehophilus (Blue green algae) (Present on sloth bear)
(5) Endozoic - Algae which are present inside the body of animals
eg. Zooehlorella and Zooxenthellae (inside the Hydra)
(6) Parasites - Algae that live as parasite and causes diseases

eg. Cephaleuros (algae remains in the leaves of tea plant)
Cephaleuros causes red rust disease of tea
(7) Thermophilic - Algae found in hot water.

eg. Chlorella
(8) Cryophytes - Algae which are pre~ent in polar regions & Low Temperature.
eg. Chlamydomonas (some species)
Haematdcoccus nivalis (It develops red snow in polar region.)
(9) Epiphloephytes - Algae arise on bark of trees.
THALLOPHYTA
(1) The term "Thallophyt.a" was given by “Endlicher” According to two kingdom c1assification all
the algae, fungi and prokaryotes were placed in thallophyta, because their pant body is thallus.
(2) In thallophyta the male sex organs are called as Antheridia and female sex organs are called as Oogonia.
Sex organs are unicellular & Jacket less [Jacket -layer of sterile cells)
(3) The sexual reproduction in thallophyta is isogamous, anisogamous and oogamous.
(4) In thallophyta, sexual reproduction takes place through zygotic meiosis, therefore embryo is not formed.
Demerits of Two kingdom classification:
(1) In two kingdom classification Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes placed in the same group.
(2) In this system photosynthetic green algae and non photosynthetic fungi are placed in same group i.e.
plantae.
(3) In two kingdom system unicellular and multicellular organism are placed together.
(4) On the basis of cell wall bacteria were considered as plant and put in plantae.
(5) Position of Euglena is not fixed.
BRYOPHYTA
 The term "Bryophyta" was Proposed by "Robert Braun".

 The study 0f Bryophytes is knovjn.CIS Bryology.
 Hedwig is considered to be the father of Bryology. But according to some scientist it is believed that
Cavers is the father of Bryology.
 Father of Indian Bryology is Prof. Shiv Ram Kashyap.
General characteristics :
1. Bryophytes are the first land plant It is believed that, they originated from aquatic plant and they come
on land through water. Because some bryophytes have characters similar to aquatic plants (eg. presence
of air canal)
2. Bryophytes are known as amphibians of the plant kingdom, because these plants can live in soil but are
dependent on water for fertilization.
3. Bryophytes are not considered as the successful land plants because vascular tissue is absent and they
need water for fertilization. Due to the absence of vascular tissue bryophytes can not grow very tall. The
process of water conduction in bryophytes takes place with the help of parenchyma. Parenchyma is a
living tissue.
4. Plant body of bryophytes is more differrentiated than that of algae.
5. Bryophytes are sciophytes, i.e. bryophytes.prefer to grow in most (wet) and shady places.
6. It is thalluslike & prostrate & erect & attached to substraction by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids.
7. They lack true roots, stemsor leaves. But they may root like, stemlike or asses leaf like structures.
Life cycle of Bryophytes:
1. The main plant body of bryophyte is haploid. It produces gametes, hence is called gametophyte.
2. Sex organs are formed on gametophyte Sex organs are multicellular and facketed in bryophytes male sex
organs are called as antheridium and female sex organs are called as archegonium. Archegonium is flask
shaped.
3. The male gametes of bryophytes are motile. These motile male gametes are called as antherozoids.
Antherozoids are usually comma shaped and biflagellate. Female gamete is called egg.
Buds
(n) GAMETOPHYTE
(n)
Liver worts
Protonema &
(n) Horn worts Antheridia Archegonia
(n) (n)
Germination
Gametophytic generation
Mosses Antherozoids Egg
Spores (n) (n)
(n)
Sporic Meiosis Zygote
Sporophytic generation (2n)
Mitosis
Spore mother cells Sporophyte Embryo
(2n) (2n) (2n)
4. In Bryophyta, fertilization is performed by zoodiogamy i.e. male gamete swims into water to reache
the female gametes and fertilizes it.
5. Oogamous types of ferlilisation is four:d in bryophytes. As a result of the teli:lization, a diploid zygote
is formed. Zygute does not undergo reduction division (meiosis) immediately) This zygote initiates
the sporophytic generation. Sporophytic generation is a diploid stage.
6. Zygote formed embryo and then sporophyte by mitosis. Sporophyte of bryophyte is not differentiated
into root, stem & leaf but it is made of foot Seta & capsule so it is known as sporagonium.
Sporophyte is not free living attached to photosynthetic gametophyte & derived nocrishment from it.
7. The germination of spores is direct or indirect. In Liverworts & Hornworts the germination of spore
is direct i.e each spore forms a gametophyte after germination i.e. each spore forms one thallus.
Bur the germination of spores in Mosses is indirect. In mosses a multicellular filament is formed after
the germination of spore. This filament is known as protonema. Now buds are formed on protonema.
Each bud develops and form a gametophyte plant. Indirect germination is best for survival. Mosses
are gregarious in nature because they appear in group.
Note: Protonema developed from spores is called as primary protonema and the protonema
developed from parts other than spores are known as Sometimes buds again produce multicellular
filamentous structures when is secure Protonema.
• Sexual reproduction in bryophytes is oogamous type and life cycle is halplodiplontic type.
• In Bryophyta the sporophyte is depend on gametophyte. This is a unique character of
bryophyta.
Bryophyta is divided in to three classes
1. Hepaticopsida 2. Anthocerotopsida 3. Bryopsida or Musci
HEPATICOPSIDA - LIVFR WORTS
(i) All the bryophytes included in this class have shape like liver (eg. Marchantia) or flat (eg. Riccia) so they
are known as liverworts.
(ii) Plant body of this group is thallus like and dorsiventral. Rhizoids and scales are present on thallus..
Rhizoids are unicellular and unbranched. Scales are multicelluler.
(iii) The leafy members (eg Porella) have tiny leaf like appendages in two rows on the stem like structures.
(iv) The sporophyte of Liverworts is completelydepend on gametophyte i.e. it is d~pehd on gametophytes
food, water and habitat.
(v) The sporophyte of Liverworts is made up of foot, seta and capsule. (Except Riccia sporophyte is made
up of only capsule).
(vi) In capsule of Riccia some diploid & sterile cells are there to provide nutrition to developing spores, they
are known as nurse cell.
(vii) These nurse cells are further evolved into elastic Marchontier. Elastaters are hygroscopic & they help in
dispersal of
Eg. of Liverworts -
Ricca, Marchantia, Cryptothallus, Riella, Pellia, Porella.
Note : (1) In Bryophytes. sporophyte of Riccia is the simplest.
(2) Asexual (vegetative) rcproduction in Liverworts takes place by iragmentation of thalli, or by the
formation of specialised structures called gemmae (sing. gemma). Gemmae aregreen. multicellular.
asexual buds, which develop in small receptacles called gemma cups located on the thalli. The
gemmae become detached from the parental body and germinate to form new individuals. Eg.
Marchantia.
(3) During sexual reproduction male and female sex organs are produced either on same (eg. Riccia)
or on different thallus (Eg. Marchantia)
ANTHOCEROTOPSIDA - HORNWORTS
(i) The plant body of this group is also thallus like. Scales are absent but rhizoids are present on thallus
Rhizoids are unicellular and unbranched.
(ii) The sporophyte of Hornworts is divided into foot and capsule.
(iii) The sporophyte of Homworts is not completely depend on its gametophyte i.e. it is semiparasite because
its sporophyte is photosynthetic therefore it can manufacture its own food. So it does not depend on
gametophyte for food, it depends only for water and habitat.
(iv) In hornworts at the basal part of capsule, a special, type of meristem is present. Due to the activeness of
this meristem, the capsule grows rapidly. It grows like the hom of animals.
eg. Notothylus, Anthoceros
BRYOPSIDA OR MUSCI -MOSSES
(i) All the Mosses are included in this class. The plant body of mosses is made up of stem like. leaf like and
rhizoids (roots like). The Rhizoids present in the plants of this class are multicellular. branched and
obliquely septate.
Note - The presence of leaves in gametophyte is the unique character of Moss because in plant kingdom
any gametophyte do not have leaves. They consists of upright selender axis bearing spirally arranged
leaves.
(ii) Vegetative reproduction in mosses is by fragmentation and buding in the secondary protonema. During
sexual reproduction, sex organs are produced at the apex of the leafy shoots.
(iii) The sporophyte of moss in bryophyta is highly developed while the sporophyte of liverwort is the sim-
plest. The sporophyte of moss is divided into foot, seta, capsule.
(iv) The sporophyte of mosses is also semiparasite like, that of Hornworts. i.e. it is photosynthetic. The moses
have an elaborate mechanism of spore disperal.
Eg. of Mosses:
 Funaria - Rope moss or Cord moss
 Polytrichum - Hair tap moss
 Dawsonia - Australian moss -The highest bryophyte-45 cm.
 Buxbaumia - Saprophytic moss - Photosynthesis absent
 Sphagnum -
– Bog moss - lt like.s to grow-on acidic bog.
Quaking bog
– Carpet moss or Turf moss - It spreads like a carpet on bog due to which, the swamp
cannot be easily seen.
– Peat moss - It is a fossil fuel that obtained from bog. The formation of peat takes place by
the fossilization of Sphagnum. Sphagnum grows in acidic bog. The number of bacteria
are less in bog due to which the degradation of dead cell could not takes place. Hence it is
present in the form of fossil.
– Absorbent cotton - Sphagnum can absorb water in very high amount, therefore it is used
in the form of absorbent cotton in Europe.
IMPORTANCE OF MOSSES
– Bryophytes in general are of little economic importance but some mosses provide food
for herbaceous mammals, birds and other animals, Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide
peat that have long been used as fuel, and because of their capacity to hold water as
packing material for transshipment of living material. Mosses along with lichens are the
first organisms to colonise rocks and hence, are of great ecological importance. They
decompose rocks making the substrate suitable for the growth of higher plants. Since
mosses foml dense mats on the soil, They reduce the impact of falling rain and prevent
soil erosion.
PTERIDOPHYTA
Term pteridophyta was proposed by Haeckel.
The study of pteridophytes is known as pteridology.
Pteridophytes are known as reptiles of plant kingdom.
1. Pteridophytes are also called as vascular cryptogames. Pteridophytes are vascular plants i.e. xylem
and phloem are present in it. In pteridophytes, vessels in xylem and companion cells in phloem are
absent. But exceptionaly xylem of Pteridium, Selaginella and Marsilea contains false vessels.
Note :-Secondary growth is absent (due to absence of cambium) in pteridophytes but
exceptionally secondry growth is present in stem of Isoetes.
2. Pteridophytes are used for medicinal purpose and as soU binders. They are also frequently grown
as ornamentals.
3. Pteridophytes are called as the first successful terrestrial plants i.e. they are more adapted terrestrial
plants as compared to bryophytes.
4. Because like bryophytes, most of the pteridophyte plants growin shady & moist places.
(i) Vascular tissue is present in pteridophytes.
(ii) The y have roots.
5. Pteridophytes are not completely successful terrestrial plants because they need water for
fertilization, so pteridopl)ytes grow in shady and m6ist places.
6. In pteridophyta, the plant body is completely differentiated in to root, stem and leaves.
 The primary root remains a1ive for short period. After some time it is replaced by adventitious
roots.
 Stem is erect or prostrate. When in pteridophytes stem is underground, which is known as
rhizome.
 On the basis of leaves. pteridophytes are of two types -
First in which stem is smaller while leaves are larger. They are known as macrophyllous
Pteridophytes.
eg. Pteridium, Pteris, Marsilea
Second, in which stem is larger and leaves are smaUer. They are called as microphyllous
Pteridophytes.
eg. Equisetum, Lycopodium, Selaginella
LIFE CYCLE OF PTERIDOPHYTES
Plant is sporophyte. Le. diploid.

Most of the pteriophytes are homosporus i.e. only one type of spores are formed during reproduction.
eg. Psilotum, Lycopodium, EqtJisetum, Pteridium, Dryopteris, Adiantum, Pteris.
Exception - Some pteridophytes are heterosporus i.e. two types of spores microspores and megaspores.
eg. Selaginella, Isoetes, Marsilea, Salvinia, Azolla, Stylites, PiI1ularia, Regnellidium
Formation of spores takes place in sporangia. Sporangia are formed at the abaxial surface of leaves. The
leaves on which sporangia are formed are called sporophylls (reproductive leaves) and normal photosynthetic
leaves are called tropophylls (vegetative leaves). Sporangia are present in groups, these groups are called
sorus (Plural-sori). Sori are found on sporophylls.
Note:
In pteridophyta, sporophylls are also photosynthetic. This is a unique character of pteridophyta.
Spore mother cells are present in sporangia. Spores are formed in these spore mother cells by meiosis and
these spores start the gametophytic generation.
6. In pteridophyta, the germination of spores is exosporic i.e. germination takes place out side the
sporangia (in soil)
7. In soil a gametophyte is formed by the germination of each spore. which is known as prothallus.
The formation of garnetophyte takes place in the soil tnerefore it is free (independent) and mostly
photosynthetic. These gametophyte require cool, damp, shady places to grow. Because of this
specific restricted requirement and the need for water for fertilisation, the spread of living
pteridophytes is limited and restticted to narrow geographical regions.
8. There is no relation between the main sporophytic plant and prothallus. Prothallus (gametophyte
plant) is made up of thallus and rhizoids. It is non vascular.
Note: In plant kingdom, gametophyte is always non vascular
9. In homosporus pteridophytes gametophyte is monoecious but in heterosporus pteridophytes the
gametophyte is dioecious.
In heterosporus pteridophytes -
Microspores form - Male gametophyte
Megaspores form - Female gametophyte
10. The formation of sex organs takes place on this gametophyte. Male sex organs are called as
antheridium and female sex organs are called as archegonium. The formation of male gametes
takes place in Antheridia which are called as antherozoids.
Antherozoids are spiral and multiflagellate but exceptionaly antherozoid of Selaginella are spindle
shapes and in Lycopodium is curved (comma) and biflagellate. Egg is formed in archegonium.
11. Fertilization takes place by zoodiogamy and zygote is formed as a result of fertilization. Zygote
develop and forms an embryo. Now this embryo develops and forms a sporophytic plant with
root, stem, leaf.
 Type of sexual reproduction in pteridophyta is oogamous.
 Their life cycie is diplo-hapiontic type.
 The unique character of life cycle of Petridophyte is - independent alternation of generation
i.e. sporophyte and gametophyte are independent of each other.
Sporophyte
(2n)
Sporophylls
(2n)
Embryo Sporophytic
(2n) generation Sporangia
(2n)
Zygote
(2n) Spore mother cells
(2n)
Fertilization Gametophytic Meiosis
(Zoodiogamy) generation
Egg Antherozoids Spore
(n) (n) (n)
Antheridia
(n) Gametophyte
Archegonia or Prothallus
(n) (n)
Pteridophyta is divided in to 4 classes

1. Psilopsida 2. Lycopsida 3. Sphenopsida 4. Pteropsida
1. Psilopsida:
(i) The most ancient vascular plants are placed in this class. The plants in this class have many
primitive characters.
(ii) Their plant body is differentiated in to stem (rhizome), scaly leaves and rhizoids.
2. Lycopsida:
(i) Club mosses are placed in this class.
(ii) The plant body of club mosses is differentiated into root, stem and leaves. Leaves are green and
photosynthetic and known as tropophylls are present on stem. Roots are adventitious.
Lycopodium - Common club moss or Ground pine or Trailing evergreen
It is a medicinal plant. It is used as tonic in Homeopathic medicines.
Selaginella - Little club moss or spike moss or Bird's nest moss or Resurrection plant.
Selaginella bryopteris - It is known as "Sanjeevani"
3. Sphenopsida
(i) In this class Horse tails are included.
(ii) The plant body of horse tails are differentiated into root, stem or rhizome & scaly leaves.
(iii) Roots are adventitious.
(iv) Their stem is jointed i.e. nodes & internodes are clearly seen on stem. Scaly leaves are present on
these nodes.
(v) Silica is present in the epidermis of stem and leaves. Due to silicated surface leaves become
rough. If two horse tail plants collide , then there is a dangerous chance of fire in the forest.
(vi) The formation of sporangia takes place on special branches of stem called as sporangiophores.
Sporangiophores are arranged in a group and fonn a long and condensed cone. This cone is formed
at the apical part of aerial stem
e.g. Equisetum (pipe)
Pteropsida :
(i) This is the largest group of pteridophytes.
(ii) They are commonly called as ferns. Most of the pteridophytes are ferns.
(iii) Ferns are megaphyllous (macrophyllous)·i.e. rhizome is small and leaves are tompartively larger
and these leaves are known as 'Fronds'.
(iv) Multicellular hair are present on the young leaf and young rhizome of fems which are called as
ramenta. They are for protection & to decrease the loss of water during transpirations.
(v) There is no difference between tropophylls and sporophylls in fern i.e. every leaf of fem forms
sporangia at the time of reproduction. Therefore cones are not produced in ferns.
Pteridophyta - 4 classes
(1) PSILOPSIDA
(i) Psilopsida are root less pteridophytes Rhizoids are present instead of roots. In psilopsida stem is
underground i.e., Rhizome. This rhizome bears some aerial branches. Sporangia are formed on
these branches. Rhizoids are found on rhizome also.
(ii) Scaly leaves are present on aerial branches (scaly leaves - dry, brown coloured & non-photosynthetic.
They are only for protection of sporangia)
(iii) Scaly leaves do not have capacity of photosynthesis, therefore photosynthesis is performed by stem.
(vi) Sporangia are formed on stem.
(v) Sporangia are formed on stem.
(vii) Most of the plants in this class are extinct only one living genus are present in this class - Psilotum
Psilotum  Aliving fossil
Rhynia & Horneophyton - Fossil plant
(2) LYCOPSIDA
(i) Sporangia are formed on sporophylls. These sporophyll are not scattered on stem, instead they are
present in groups at the tip of plant. The group is called strobilus or cone.
Isoetes - Quill wort or Merlyn grass - Aquatic weed.
Selaginella - Resurrection plant - Most of the species of selaginella are “Draught Escapers” i.e., do not
face draught condition, complete their life cycle in short wet season. In dry season plant dries & rolls in a
ball like structure. In this stage, it passes out dry season. When wet season returns plant absorb water 4
again becomes normal green plant. So it is termed as “Resurrection Plant”.
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS
1. Heterospory (Heterosporous Condition) :-
Occurence of 2 type of spores, small (Microspore) & large (macrospore = megaspore) is heterospory. A
very few genera are heterosporous in pteridophytes eg. Selaginella, Salvinia, Azolla.
2. On these plants microspores form malegametophyte, male sex organ 4 malegamete which come outside
the microsporangium but the megaspore forms female gametophyte, female sex organs & female gamete
inside the magasporangium on the parental sporophyte which are retained in megasporangium for vari-
able periods.
3. After the fertilization zygote & embryo is formed. Embryo essentially come outside the megasporangium
so seed could not be formed in pteridophytes but the heterospory is found in them which is an important
stem in evolution of seed habit in higher plants.
Note : In some pteridophytes prothallusis saprophytic & heterosporus petridophyte like selaginella &
salvinia gametophyte are not called prothallus.
Examoles of Ferns :
Pteridium pteris - They are called “Braken ferm” or “Sun fem”.
Dryopteris - Also called as Brook shield fem
Adiantum - Walking fern
This name is given to them due to rapid vegetative reproduction . Vegetative
reproduction in Adiantum takes place by means of leaf tip, It spreads
very fast.
Osmunda - Royal fern or flowering fern.
Ophioglossum - Adder's tongue fern
Marsilea - Pepper wort fern
Azolla - Aquatic fern (Smallest pteridophyte and biofertilizer)
Alsophila - Tree fern (Largest pteridophyte)
Salvinia - Aquatic is nature
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS :
(2) Selaginella and Salvinia In heterosporus pteridophyts Selaginella and Salvinia and the development
of the zygote in to young embryos takes place with in the female
& Azolla
gametophyte. Female gametophytes are retained on the parent sporophyte
for variable periods.
Genera like Selaginella and Salvinia posses partially endosporic
development of embryo.
This event is a precursor of seed habit considered an important steps in
evolution.
(3) Selaginella Ligulate leaves (tongue shaped) are present in it.
Function - Ligule is secretory structure, which secretes water and keso
the sporangium and the young leaf moist.
(4) In some pteridophytes sporangia are not formed on lower surface of sporophylls-
In some pteridophytes sporangia are formed at the axil of leaf.
eg. Selaginella
In some pteridophytes sporangia are formed in spike.
eg. Ophiglossum
In some pteridophytes sporangia are formed in sporocarp.
eg. Marsilea, Azollo, Salvinia
(5) In some pteridophytes prothallus is saprophytic and the heterosporus pteridophytes like Selaginella and
salinir gametophytes are not called prothallus.
GYMNOSPERM
(1) Term gymnosperm was proposed by “Theophrastus”.
(2) The gymnosperms (gymnos = naked. sperma = seed) and plants in which the ovule are not encloded by
any ovary wall and remain exposed, both before:and after fertilization.
(3) Study of Gymnosperm known as Gymnospermology.
 Main plant body of Gymnosperm is divided in to Root, Stem and leaves.
 The roots are generally tap roots.
Note:- Roots in some genera have fungal association in the from of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in
some others (Cycas) small speciallised roots called coralloid roots are associated with N2-fixing
cyanobacteria.
 The stems are unbranched (Cycas) or branched (Pinus, Cedrus).
 The leaves may be simple or compound.
 In Cycas the pinnate leaves persist for a few years.
 The leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted to extreme condition.
 In conifers the needle like leaves reduce the surface area, their thick cuticle and sunken stomata
also help to reduce water loss.
Gymnosperm & Angiosperm are collectively included under spermatophyta i.e. seed bearing plants.
Gymnosperms are naked seeded plant i.e. no fruit formation takes place in these plant.
In gymnosperm embryo & seed formation takes place but no fruit formation occur.
Gymnosperms are very limited in distribution. They are mainly found in cold regions.!n India Gyrrmosperms
are found on Himaliayan mountains. They usually OCOlr on slopes of mountain in cold region therefore
gymnosperms are xerophyte.
All gymnosperm are vascular plants. Therefore vascular tissue presenU.e. xylem & phloem. Xylem lack
vessels & phloem lacks companion cells.
Note :-
 Exceptionally in xylem of Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia true vessels are present.
 Secondary growth takes place in gymnosperms stem, so Gymnosperms stem is woody.
Most of the gymnosperms are arborescent (woody and tree habit) -but some are present as shrub.
eg. Ephedra
Some Gymnosperm are liana or woody climbers.
eg. Gnetum ula
LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERM
1. In Gymnosperms main plant body is sporophyte (diploid). All Gymnosperm are dioecious. i.e. male &
female plants are separate, but exceptionally Pinus is monoecious.
2. All Gymnosperms are heterosporus. Atthe time of reproduction two types of spores are formed.
 Microspores form - Male gametophyte
 Megaspores form - Female gametophyte
3. These two types of spores are formed in different sporangia.
 Microspores are formed in Microsporangia.
 Megaspores are formed in Megasporangia. Integumented megasporangia are also termed as ovule.
4. Both types of sporangia are formed on different sporophylls.
 Microsporangia are formed on Microsporophyll.
 Megasporangia are formed on Megasporophylls.
5. Both types of sporo:hyllS are)ound in groups & form male cone (strobilus Microsporangiate) & female
cone(Macrosporangiate).
6. Meiosis takes place in cells of microsporangium & megasporangium and form microspore & megaspone
respectively.
7. In Gymnosperm and angiosperm germination of spores is endosporic i.e. germination of spore takes
plants with in sporangia.
8. Male gametophyte is formed after germination of microspore. Male gametophyte is.also known as pollen
grain. Male gametophyte forms male gamete.
9. In lower gymnosperm, male gametes are motile & muiticiliate, but in higher gymnosperm and angiosperm
male gametes are non motile due to the absence of cilia and flagella. They do not require water for
fertilization.
 Main body of ovule is made of a diploid tissue called as nucellus.
 A cell of nucellus acts as megaspore mother cell which undergoes meiosis and forms four haploid
megaspores, out of which only one remains functional and rest three degenerate.
 This megaspore further develops into female gemetophyte or endosperm.
 The cells of female gametophyte or endosperm behave like arcegonial initial and form two or
more archegonia.
 Archegonia - It forms egg.
10. Pollen grains (Male gametophyte) reach at the micropyle of ovule by wind, called as anemophilly. After
pollination malegametophyte (pollen grains) are stored in the pollen chamberof ovule .
FERTILIZATION :-
Two types of fertilization take place in gymnosperms
Zoodio - siphonogamy - This type of fertilization occurs in 1ower gymnosperms. Male gametes are
motile and transfered to female gamate by pollen tube.
Siphonogamy - This type of fertilization occur in higher gymnosperms. Male gametes are non motile
transferred to female gamete (egg) by pollen tube. After Pollination male & female gametes are fused &
form a diploid zygote.
 In gymnosperm single fertilization takes place so only zygote is formed through fertilization. In
Angiosperm double fertilization takes places so two product are formed after it (i) Zygote
(ii) Endosperm.
 In gymnosperm, endosperm is formed before fertilization by megaspore so it is haploid but in
angiosperm endosperm is formed after fertilization by triple fusion (sec. nucleus (2n) + male
gamete (n). So, endosperm of angiosperm is triploid.
 In angiosperm, fertilization take place by siphonogamy.
 Gymnosperm + Angiosperm = Siphonogama
Sporophyte (2n) Sporophyte (2n)
Male cone (2n) Diploid Female cone (2n)
Microsporophylls (2n) Megasporophylls (2n)
Microsporangium (2n) Megasporangium (Ovule) (2n)

Meiosis in microspore mother cells Meiosis in megaspore mother cell
Microspores (n) Microspores (n)
Germination Germination
Male gametophyte (Pollen grain) (n) Female gametophyte (n) (Endosperm)
Haploid
Male gametes (n) Archegonia (n)
Female gamete (egg) (n)
Fertilization
By
Zoodio-siphonogamy
OR
Siphonogamy
Zygote (2n)
Diploid
Mitosis
Embryo (2n)
Seed
Sporophyte (2n)
[LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERM]

DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE -
(1) Embryo is lormeo by the development of diploid zygote. After embryo formation ovule is changed into
seed.
 Embryc enclosed in ovule because i:ievelopment of spore is endosporic.
 Seeds are not formed in pteridophyta because germination of spore is exosporic i.e. embryo
develops outside the sporangia.
Embryo is enclosed in seed. Seed absorbs water & bursts. Now embryo germinates and forms a new
diploid plant.
Note :- Different types of polyembryony are found in gymnosperm i.e. in single seed more than one
embryos are produced.
LIFE CYCLE :
Life cycle of Gymnosperm & angiosperm is diplontic because gametophytic generation is short
lived. Gametoohvte is verv reduced & depends on its sporophyte.
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS :
1. Antheridia is absent in gymnosperm & angiosperm i.e. pteridophyte is last group having antheridia.
But archegonia is also absent in angiosperm. So gymnosperm is last group having archegonia.
2. During evolution Gametophyte becomes reduced & sporophyte becomes well-developed.
Very reduced - In Angiosperm

Gametophyte { Wall developed - In Moss
Very reduced - In Thallophyta (Only zygote)
Sporophyte
{ Wall developed - In Angiosperm
Gymnospenns are divided intotwo groups

(1) Cycadophyta (Lower Gymnosperm) (2) Coniferophyta (Higher Gymnosperm)
CYCADOPHYTA
(A) The plants of this group are megaphyllous or macrophyllous with circinate vemation.
(B) Presence of Ramenta.
(C) Male gamete is motile.
Cycadophyta is divided into three orders
Cycadofillicales or Pteridospermae:-
(i) This order is completely extinct. Plant of this order known as seed fern.
eg. Lyginopteris - Fossil plant
(ii) Cycadofillicales was the first group of seed plant.
Benettitales :-
(a) It is also a completely extinct group.
eg. Williamsonia - fossil plant
Note : Its fossils were discovered by Prof. Birbal Sahani
(iii) Cycadales :
(a) Presently living cycadophytes are included in this order.
(b) All the plants of this group are living fossils.
 Zamia pygmea - Smallest Gymnosperm
 Cycas - Fern palm or Sago palm
Sago is obtained from its stem.
 Cycas thouarsii - The diameter of its ovules is 7 cm. Its ovule, male gametes, egg
and male cone are largest in plant kingdom. In embryo of cyeas
two cotylesons are present. In cycas male gamates are top shaped.
In Cycas female cone is absent.
CONIFEROPHYTA
Four orders are included in this group
(i) Ginkgoales :-
(a) It is the oldest order of coniferophyta. Maximum plants of thi group are extinct.
Ginkgo biloba - living fossil - It is also kown as “Maiden hair tree”
Note : Exceptionally Ginkgo biloba belongs to higher gymnosperm but its male gametes are
motile.
(ii) Cordaitales :-
(a) It is completely extinct group
eg. Cordaites
(iii) Coniferales :
(a) Conifers are included in this group.
(b) It is the largest group of gymnosperm
Examples of Coniferales -
(a) Pinus (Pines) :-
 Pinus species - A resin "turpentine" is obtained from it. Turpentine is
used in varnish.
 Pinus gerardiana - It is known as "chilgoza pine"
 Pinus roxburghii - It is known as "chirpine".
(b) Cedrus deodara - It known as devdar
(c) Taxus - It is known as Yew tree. An anticancer medicine “Taxol”
is obtained from its bark.
(d) Taxodium maxicanus - The stem of this plant is thickest in the plant kingdom.
(e) Abies balsamea - A resin “Canada balsam” is obtained from it. It is used
manufacture permanent slides in biology laboratory.
(f) Juniperus virginiana - An oil is obtained from this tree - “Cedar wood oil”. It is
used cleansing fluid in biology laboratory. This oil is
also used microscope to increase the resolving power.
This oil is used nail polish remover.
(g) Araucaria species

 Araucaria excelso - Christmas tree
Ornamental plants
 Araucaria araucana - Monkey puzzle tree
(h) Sequoia species - The plants in this genus are heavy. Therefore they are
called as father of forest.
Sequoia giganteum - It is called Red wood tree or Sherman tree. It is the largest
gymnosperm. There is only one tree of this species and
that is in California (America)
(i) Metasequoia - It is a living fossil. This plant is present in china valley.
(iv) Gnetales -
(a) They are the most advanced gymnosperms.
(b) Exceptionally members of this group have vessels in xylem.
(c) Archegonia is absent in the members of this group.
eg. (1) Gnetum (2) Welwitschia
(3) Ephedra - Exceptionally archegonia is present in Ephedra.
Ephedra - This gymnosperm is commonly found in Rajasthan. Ephedra is a medicinal plant. Ephedrine(Medicine)
is obtained from it. It is an effective medicine in asthma. Athletes misuse it, so ephedrine is restricted for them.
Cycadofillicales were first seeded plants. First time seed habit was established in this group. In general way seed
habit was originated from those pteridopbytes which are now extinct. These pteridophytes were ancestor of
cycadofillicales.
Some heterospones pterldophyes Selaginella and Salvinia show origin of seed habit.
There is mainly two requirements for seed formation.
(1) Plant should be heterosporus (2) Germination of megaspore should be endosporic
Cell and Cell Division
Topic Page No.
Exercise 02 - 08
Notes
Cell Division 09 - 09
Amitosis 09 - 09
Cell Cycle 10 - 11
Mitosis 11 - 13
Meiosis 13 - 18
Difference between meiosis & mitosis 18 - 19
Syllabus
Cell Division, Amitosis, Cell Cycle, Mitosis, Meiosis, Difference between meiosis
& mitosis
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
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LEVEL - I
1. During mitotic anaphase, choromatids migrate-

(A) From the poles of the cell towards the metaphasic plate
(B) Toward the NM
(C) Along with their side chromatids towards the one pole
(D) From metaphase towards the poles
2. Microtubeles thats form the spingle tend to originate from ________ and terminate in _________.
(A) Centromeres, telomeres (B) Centrioles, telomeres
(C) Centrioles, kinetochores (D) The nuclear envelope, kinetochore
3. Synaptonemal complex is more conspicious at
(A) Zygotene (B) Pachytene (C) Diplotene (D) Leptotene
4. In plant cell, cytokineses is accomplished by the formation of a(n)-
(A) Aster (B) Equatorial plate (C) Cell plate (D) Membrane furrow
5. The distribution of mitochondria and plastid between the daughter cells during cytokinesis-
(A) Is random (B) Is directed by centrioles
(C) Is directed by mitotic spindle (D) Is directed by nuclear membrance
6. When dividing cells are examined under a light microscope, chromosomes first become visible dur-
ing-
(A) Interphase (B) Prophase
(C) Metaphase (D) G2 and S phases
7. Centrosomes are -
(A) Constricted regions of chromosomes(B) Regions where microtubules polymerise
(C) Part of Cilia (D) The central part of the same cell
8. In the cell cycle, mitosis occurs between -
(A) G1 and S phase (B) S and G1 phase
(C) S and G2 phase (D) G1 and G2 phase
9. Celluler structures which disappear during late prophase and reappear during anaphase are -
(A) Mitrochondria and spingle fibers (B) Plasma membrane
(C) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus (D) Plastid
10. The best stage to observe shape, size and number of chromosomes is -
(A) Metaphase (B) Anaphase
(C) Interphase (D) Prophase or telophase
11. A picture of dividing Drosophila cell through a microscope show that the cell contain 8 chromo-
somes, each consisting of two chromatids. The picture must have been taken during-
(A) Mitotic metaphase (B) Mitotic Anaphase
(C) Meitotic Anaphase II (D) Meiotic Telophase II
12. Which of the following phase of mitosis is essentially the reverse of prophase in term of nuclear
change ?
(A) S-phase (B) Anaphase
(C) Telophase (D) Interphase
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13. Which of the following is not a function of mitotic cell division in animals ?
(A) Growth and repair (B) Cell replacement
(C) Asexual reproduction (D) Gametes formation
14. Given -
1. Chromatic 2. Monod
3. Dyad 4. Daughter chromosome
The correct sequence in cell division is :
(A) 1, 2, 3, 4 (B) 2, 3, 1, 4
(C) 3, 2, 1, 4 (D) 4, 3, 2, 1
15. Cytokinesis in animal cell takes place by _________ ; in __________ direction while in plant cell
by ____; in ______ direction -
(A) Furrowing, centrifugal, cell plate, centripetal (B) Furrowing, centripetal, cell plate, centrifugal
(C) Cell plate, centrifugal, furrowing, cetripetal (D) Cell plate, cetripetal, furrowing, centrifugal
16. Phragmoplasts or Phragmosomes, vesicles of GB are the precursors of -
(A) Cell plate (B) Chloropalsts
(C) Chromoplast (D) Protoplast
17. In some organisms like certain fungi and algae, cell undergoging mitosis repeatedly without sbsequently
undergoging cytokinesis. What would result from it ?
(A) Decrease in the chromosomes number (B) Decrease int eh DNA molecules
(C) Formation of syncytium (D) Multicellularity
18. Liqiud endosperm in coconut is resulted due to -
(A) Karyokinesis followed by cytokinesis
(B) Failure of karyokinsis followed by cytokinesis
(C) Karyokinesis twice followed by single cytokinesis
(D) Karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis
19. Which of the following statements is correct ?
I. Mitosis / equitorial is usually restricted to diploid cells
II. In some lower plants and in some social insects haploid cells also divided by mitosis
III. Mitosis is essential for the cell to restore the nucleos-cytoplasmic ratio
IV. Mitotic division in apical meristem lateral cambium results in a continuous growth throughout the
life
(A) All are correct (B) All are incorrect
(C) Only I and are correct (D) Only IV are correct
20. Significance of mitosis is in -
(A) Producing idnetical cells genetically similar to mother cell
(B) Increasing cellular mass
(C) In reducing the chromosome (2N  N)
(D) Swift division
1. D 2. C 3. B 4. C 5. A 6. B
7. A 8. B 9. C 10. A 11. A 12. C
13. D 14. C 15. B 16. A 17. C 18. D
19. A 20. A
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LEVEL - II
1. To form 16 cells how many times mitosis is supposed to occurs -

(A) 4 (B) 15 (C) 16 (D) 2
2. The members of a homologous pair of chromosomes -

(A) Are identical in size and appearance
(B) Contain identical genetic information
(C) Separate to opposite poles of the cell during mitosis
(D) Are found only in haploid cells
3. The four haploid nuclei found at the end of motisis differ from one another in their exact genetic
composition, some of this difference is the result of
(A) Cytokinesis (B) Replication of DNA during the S-phase
(C) Spindle formation (D) Crossing over during prophase I
4. A cell that passes the restriction point ? will most likely -

(A) Undergo chromosome duplication
(B) Have just completed cytokinesis
(C) Continue to divide only if it is a cancer
(D) Move into the G0 phase
5. Asexual reproduction produce genetically identical individuals because -

(A) Chromosome do not have to replicate
(B) It involves chromosomes replication without cytokinesis
(C) No meiosis or fertilization takes place
(D) The only cell division that occurs in meiosis
6. One difference between mitosis and meiosis I is that -

(A) Chromosomes do not replicate in the interphase preceding meiosis
(B) Chromosomes do not replicate in the interphase preceding meiosis
(C) Homologous chromosomes pairs synapse during meiosis but not mitosis
(D) Spindle composed of microtubules are not required during meiosis
7. The number of chromosomes is reduced to half during -

(A) Anaphase of mitosis and meiosis (B) Meiosis II
(C) Meiosis I (D) Fertilization
8. Which of the following is correct ?

(A) DNA replication occur before mitosis but not meiosis.
(B) In human cells, chromosome are visible only during mitosis and meiosis.
(C) During meiosis centromere divides in anaphase I.
(D) Crossing over takes place in meiosis II.
9. Chromosome number is reduced during meiosis because the process consisting of -

(A) Two cell divisions without any chromosome replication
(B) A single cell division without any chromosome replication
(C) Two cell divisions in which half of the chromosomes are destroyed
(D) Two cell divisions and only a single round of chromosome replication
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10. Which of the following is false ?
(A) The mitotic spindle is composed of microtubules
(B) In plant cells, cytokinesis is accomplished by the formation of a cell plates
(C) The distribution of mitochondria between the daughter cells during cytokinesis is random
(D) Chromatin condenses to form discrete, visible chromosomes early in G1
11. A reduction step during meiosis is important because -

(A) It returns the chromosome number to normal before fertilization
(B) There is a mechanism for this
(C) Only one copy of each chromosome is necessary
(D) Otherwise chromosomes copies would double each fertilization
12. The important of synapsis and the formation of chiasmata is that -

(A) Reciprocal exchange of chromosomal sections occurs
(B) The DNA on homologous chromosomes mix
(C) As a result an increase in the variation of progeny occurs
(D) All of the above
13. Which of the following is true for the meiosis?

(A) The chromosome number in the resulting cell is halved
(B) DNA replication occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II
(C) The homologous do not pair during prophase I
(D) The chromosome number of the resulting cells in the same as the that of the parent cell
14. Which of the following statements about meiosis is false ?

(A) Haploid cells cannot divide meiotically
(B) DNA replication does not occurs during interkinesis
(C) Assortment of homologous chromosome on the equatorial plate during metaphase I is indepen-
dent
(D) Of the four cells produced by meiosis, none are genetically identical to the parent cells but two
are indentical to each other.
15. Which one is correct about meiosis ?

(A) First division is reduction and second division is equational
(B) The best material for the study of meiosis is micropore (pollen) mother cell in microsporangium
of anther
(C) The important of meiosis lies in maintaing the chromosomal number from generation to genera-
tion in sexually reprodducing organisms
(D) All
16. Which one is correct about crossing over/genetic recombination ?

I. It occurs in tetrad stage. It occurs in pachytene of prophase I of meiosis I
II. It occurs between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes
III. It is the exchange of genetic material between the homologous chromosomes
IV. It is recombinase enzyme mediated process
V. Recombination nodule of synaptonemal complex between the homologous chromosomes is the
sire of crossing over.
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VI. It causes genetic variation which is important for evolution.
VII. It is also the reciprocal transfer of genes between the non homologous chromosomes
(A) All (B) All except VII
(C) II, IV and VII (D) I, III and VII
17. Recombination is caused by -

(A) Crossing over alone (B) Crossing over and independent assortment
(C) Independent assortment only (D) Chiasma formation
18. I. It is the final phase of prophase I

II. Termination of chiasmata occurs
III. Fully condensed chromosomes
IV. Spindle is assembled
V. Nucleolus and NM breaks down
The above characteristic are attributed to -
(A) Zygotene (B) Diakinesis (C) Diplotene (D) Metaphase I
19. Anaphase I is marked by -

(A) Movement of homologous chromosomes toward their respective pole
(B) Centromere division
(C) Sister chromatids remain associated at centromere
(D) A and C
20. Which one is correct about bivalent ?

I. Bivalent are tetrads
II. A bivalent means 4 chromatids and 2 centromere
III. One bivalent consists of 2 homologous chromosomes, each and sister chromatids
IV. Bivalents form in zygotene
(A) All (B) Only III (C) III and IV (D) Only IV
1. A 2. A 3. D 4. A 5. C 6. C
7. C 8. B 9. D 10. D 11. D 12. D
13. A 14. D 15. D 16. B 17. B 18. B
19. D 20. A
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LEVEL - III
1. Four different steps that occur during meiosis are given in the following list
I. Complete separation of chromatids.
II. Pairing of homologous chromosomes.
III. Lining up of paired chromosomes on equator.
IV. Crossing over between chromatids.
These steps would occur in the order -
(A) II, III, IV, I (B) III, II, IV, I (C) II, IV, III, I (D) III, I, II, IV
2. The DNA content of individual cells and the number of cells in each phase of a “cell cycle” can be
determined using flow cytometry. Which of the following combination of “phase of a cell cycle and
its corresponding DNA content” can be considered normal?
A. Diploid cells found in the ? or ? phase
B. Cells with twice the normal DNA content in the early M phase.
C. Cells with intermediate amounts of DNA content in the ? phase.
D. Cells with twice the normal DNA content in the ? phase.
(A) A and B (B) B and C (C) C and D (D) All
3. Sara would like to film the movement of chromosomes during cell division. Her best choice for a
microscope would be
(A) light microscope, because of its resolving power.
(B) transmission electron microscope, because of its magnifying power.
(C) scanning electron microscope, because the specimen is alive.
(D) light microscope, because the specimen is alive.
4. Let a cell`s generation time is 1 minute. In 20 minutes a culture tube (culture medium) is 1/8th filled
with cells. When the tube will be fulfilled?
(A) 21 minutes (B) 23 minutes (C) 60 minutes (D) 160 minutes
5. Number of chromatids at metaphase is :

(A) Two each in mitosis and meiosis (B) Two in mitosis and one in meiosis
(B) two in mitosis and four in meiosis (D) one in mitosis and two in meiosis
6. How many equation divisions are necessary in a cell of onion root tip to form 128 cells ?
(A) 64 (B) 128 (C) 7 (D) None of these
7. You are given 13 meiotic divisions. From these division how many seeds you can form ? How many
pollen grain will be wasted ?
(A) No. of seed - 13, No. of pollen grain - 13
(B) No. of seed - 10, No. of wasted pollen grain -2
(C) No, of seed - 2, No. of pollen grain - 10
(D) No. of seed - 52, No. of pollen grain - 52
8. What would be the number of chromosomes of the aleurone cells of a plant with 42 chromosomes in
its roots tip cells ?
(A) 21 (B) 42 (C) 63 (D) 84
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9. Select the correct option with respect to mitosis
(A) Chromosomes move to the spindle equator and get alingned along equatorial plate in metaphase
(B) Chromatids separate but remain in the centre of the cell in anaphase
(C) Chromatids start moving towards opposite poles in telophase
(D) Golgi complex and endoplasmic reticulum are still visible at the end of prophase
10. At metaphase, chromosomes are attached to the spindle fibres by their :

(A) Satellites (B) Secondary constrictions
(C) Kinetochores (D) Centromere
11. Meiosis results in

(A) Production of gametes (B) Reduction in the number if chromosomes
(C) Introduction of variation (D) All of the above
12. Meiosis occurs in organism during

(A) Sexual reproduction
(B) Vegetative reproduction
(C) Both sexual and vegetative reproduction
(D) None of the above
13. During anaphase - I of meiosis

(A) Homologous chromosomes separate
(B) Non-homologous autosomes separate
(C) Sister chromatids separate
(D) Non-sister chromatids separate
14. Meiosis is characterized by

(A) Double reduction division (B) Equal division only
(C) Both reduction and equal division (D) Homotypic division
15. Cells which are not dividing are likely to be at

(A) G1 (B) G2
(C) G0 (D) S phase
1. C 2. D 3. D 4. B 5. A 6. C
7. D 8. B 9. C 10. A 11. A 12. A
13. A 14. A 15. C
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CELL DIVISION
Every cell has the fundamental capability to divide. This led Virchow to make the famous conceptual
statement Ominis cellule (exception viruses), i.e. cells originate from pre-existing cells. Cell division
and reproduction has evolved over 4 billion years into a very precise, flaw less and efficient mecha-
nism. In fact it is a very intricate, sophisticated and controlled process involving biosynthesis, assort-
ment and distribution of thousand of biomolecules. Cell proliferation facilitates replacement, growth,
repair , regeneration and maintenance of cell population. A healthy human male weighing 70 kg has
1614 RBC which are derived from the single called zygote which during development undergoes
extensive cleavage. Likewise, o homeostatically maintain a population of RBC (4.5-5.0 million/cm3)
in blood, the haemopoietic tissue (bone marrow) have to maintain a turnover rate of 2.5 × 106 cells/
second. Similar activity occurs to replace epithelial cells (e.g. skin) which diet the rate of several
millions/day. Reproductive cells particularly sperm are produced in millions. They are ejaculated in
one intromission in several millions.
Cell division is of 3 types.
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AMITOSIS
In primitive, single called organisms such as bacteria, protozoa, and in the cells of the foetal mem-
branes of many amniotes, division of cells occurs by constriction of cytoplasm followed by spliting of
nucleus. The main stages are as follow :
(a) Nucleus elongates and assumes a dumb-bell shape.
(b) A constriction appears in the middle of elongated nucleus dividing it into two nuclei
(c) The cytoplasm also exhibit construction and this process is completed after formation of daughter
nuclei.
(d) No chromosomal division occurs and this facilitates formation of daughter cells of similar size.
(e) This division is characterized by no significant event of change in the nucleus.
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Cell Cycle
The interphase stage which exists between two mitotic division is not a ‘quiescent state’ as was
believed earlier. Daniel Mazia and others showed that although in this phase there is no division of
chromosomes and cytoplasm yet considerable anabolic. catabolic activities occur which leads to
augmentation of cell volume. Further, interphase is of longest duration as well.
Cell Cycle consists of four well defined phases :
G0 No significant metabolic activity occurs during this Quiescent period. In fact it is the initial stage
of G1 (held at special point where the process of cell division is inhibited.
G - 1 Phase is marked by storage/synthesis of a variety of enzyme, precursor nitrogenous bases,
pentose sugar, phosphoric acid, ATP, Mg2+ /Ca2+ needed, for DNA replication. The duration of this
stage depends on the physiological status of cell. This stage occurs between the end of one nitotic
division and DNA biosynthesis of another. In some cells its duration is 10 hours (4-9 hours, duration
40-50 %)
S - Phase is characterized by duplication of chromosomes. Thus each chromosome has a similar
copy. Histone synthesis also occur and they become associated with replicated DNA (new).
In some cells duration of this stage is about 9 hours (5-7 hours; 30-45 %)
G - 2 Phase It is also called post- DNA replication stage. It is marked by increase in volume of
cytoplasm, macromolecules, and cell organelles (duration in % is 10-20 %).
M - Phase This is the stage of initiation of cell division and comprises of (a) Prophase, (b) Metaphase,
(c) Anaphase, (d) Telophase. Significant changes occur in nuclear membrane, nucleolus, chromo-
somes, centriole and other organelles. A variety of enzymes; protein; ATP, Ca2+/Mg2+ etc. are in-
volved in these intricate mechanism (Duration 5-10 %)
Interphase
1. Nucleus enveloped completely by nuclear membrane
2. Chromosomes long and coiled, chromatids threads are not distinct
3. Amount of DNA is doubled (in- S-phase)
4. Nuclear volume increase due to accumulation of rRNA and ribosomal proteins.
Duration of cell cycle in some typical cell
Cell Cycle
S. No Cell Type
G1 S G2 M Total
1 Hela cell line 14 8 5 1 28
2 Leucocytes 21 28 6 2 57
3 Meristem cells of root of Vicia faba 6 6 5 1 18
* Same in kidney cells of Frog.
Mitotic cell division is regulated by a variety of specific proteins. Phosphokinin and cyclin act
initiator of mitosis. A matutation promoting factor (= specific protein) is biosynthesized at the end
G2-phase of cell cycle and before prophase. In plants, gibberellins and cytokinins act as mitogenic
substances.
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MITOSIS
It occurs in somatic as well as in germ cells. It comprises of two stages.
1. A very intricate nuclear division called karyokinesis.
2. Division of cytoplasm called cytokinsis.
Mitotic cell division ensures distribution of exact copy of DNA, cell organelles and large biomolecules
to daughter cells. No change occurs in the shape, size number of chromosomes and in the sequence
of genes. Thus a daughter cell can be called an exact copy of parental cell in as far as chromosome
number is concerned.
During mitosis, significant and complex changes occur in
(a) nuclear membrane, (b) chromosomes
(c) nucleolus (d) cell organelles.
There are four main phase of mitosis. They are
1. Prophase 2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase 4. Telophase
Prophase
The distinguishing features of this stage are :

1. Cells becomes spherical and cytoplasm becomes refractive and viscous. Nuclear membrane begin
2. Nucleous breaks and the broken fragments are dissoluted.
3. Chromosomes progressively become large and restricted.
4. Mitotic spindle is formed by microtubules present in cytoplasm. (not in plant cells). In animal cells,
the centriole divides into two (diplosome). Each centriole then migrates to opposite poles and
replicate.
5. Chromosomes are condensed. Each chromosome comprises of two chromatids which are bound
together by centromere. They called sister chromatids.
6. Chromatids are attenuated in size and are thick.
7. The centriole present between 2 centriole. very fine nicrotubules (= aster) extend from it and form
the spindle.
Metaphase
1. formation of a mitotic spindle which consist of 3 types of fibres (i) chromosomal (ii) continues (iii)
inter zonal.
2. All the chromosomes migrate to equatorial region.
3. Chromosomes appear very distinct can be easily counted.
4. Nuclear membrane disappears completely.
5. Nucleolus disintegerates and disappears.
Anaphase
1. The centromere divides to initiate the first significant change of this stage, (due to DNA replication
in this region).
2. The spindle fibres pull the sister chromatids to opposite poles. This force of repulsion is so strong that
it snaps the connection of centromere with the bound sister chromatids.
3. According to the position of centromere chromosomes acquire special forms, e.g. J-shape
(submetacentric), rod-shaped (telocentric) or V shaped (metacentric)
4. The chromotids and two chromosomes are formed.
5. Chromosomes becomes short and thick; and migrate to opposite poles of cells due to contraction of
chromosomal fibres and inter zonal fibres.
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Telophase
This is the last stage of mitosis and can be easily identified b the following features:
1. Collection of homologous chromosomes at opposite poles.
2. Chromosomes becomes decondensed, and uncoil to acquire a form similar to one seen in interphase.
3. Degeneration of mitotic spindle.
4. Biosynthesis of nucleolus.
5. Formation of nuclear membrane around chromosome resulting in the formation of two daughter
nuclei.
Cytokinesis
In animal cells, division of cytoplasm occurs by cleavage furrow. This process is initiated concomi-
tantly with telophase and is accomplished along with the formation of daughter nuclie. This results in
the formation two of daughter cells. DNA replication and cytokinesis are two separate and indepen-
dent events.
In plant cells, the cell plate made up of pectin is formed between cells and facilitates division.
Subsequently, cellulose and other chemicals (e.g. lignin, mucopolysaccharide etc.) join with cell wall.
The two daughter cells are not of the same size. Further, they do not receive equally the cytoplasm
and cell organnels. However, they have similar genetic constitution since they similar (a) number of
chromosomes and (b) genetic capabilities.
Significance of Mitosis
1. All the cell of the body have the same number of chromosomes. Mitosis ensure that this trait does
not alter.
2. Mitosis ensures growth of tissues/organs by increasing the number of cells.
3. There is no change in the genetic capability due to mitosis.
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MEIOSIS
All biological organism (except viruses) have fixed number of chromosomes. Thus, the diploid
number (2n) of chromosomes in human in 46 (= 23 pairs); in Drosophila melanogaster 8; in pisum
sativum
Sexually reproducing animal produce sperm (by spermatogenesis) and ovum (by oogenesis) which
unite to form zygote. The sex cells (sperm and ovum) contain half the chromosomes present in
somatic cells, e.g. human sperm and ovum has 23 (n) chromosomes each. When these sex cells
unite the ‘2n (diploid) number i.e., 23 + 23 = 46 ( or 23 pairs) is restored. This means that during
spermatogenesis and oogenesis reduction division occur which halves the chromosomes number
(2n  n). Thus, reduction division is just reverse of fertilization (n + n = 2n).
Meiosis or reduction occurs only in seminiferous epithelium of testes in male, and in the germ cells of
ovary in female. In plant, these occur in pollen mother cells (present in microsporangia of anther
lobe) and in megasporangia of carpels. The end product of these are pollen grains (= sex cell of
male); and ovule (sex cell of female).
During meiosis chromosome divide only once but cytokinesis occurs twice. Thus, there are two
divisions during meiosis.
1. Meiosis I (Reduction division) also called heterotypic
2. Meiosis II (Equational division) = homotypic
Meiosis occurs in animal and plant cells. It is categorized into 3 types
I. Sporogenetic meiosis occurs during spore formation in only some plants.
II. Gametic meiosis occurs in majority of animals and lower plants during gametogenesis.
III. Zygotic meiosis occurs in lower plants in egg soon after fertilization.
Animal cells that undergo meiosis are called meiocytes. In male, these are primary spermatocytes
of testes and in female primary oocytes.
Meiosis is triggered by a variety of factors in animals.
1. Balance of nuclie acids in nucleus
2. Some parasitic flageppate protozoans undergo meiosis in response to stimulating action of insect
hormone called ecdysone.
3. Imbalance in amounts of DNA (more) and RNA (less).
4. Meiosis initiating factors.
1. Meiosis I ( = Reduction division) = Heterotypic

It has 4 main phases:
(a) Prophase I (b) Metaphase I
(c) Anaphase I (d) Telophase I
Meiosis I 1. Prophase I
(i) Pre-Leptotene (ii) Leptotene
(iii) Zygotene (iv) Pachytene
(v) Diplotene (vi) Diakinesis
2. Metaphase - I
3. Anaphase - I
4. Telophase - I
Cytokinesis- leads to the formation of 2 haploid and genetically different daughter cells. Before the
start of Meiosis I (M-I) the cells are in the interphase stage where DNA replication occurs (in S
stage only) by semi-conservative process. Two double-stranded DNA are produced from one double
stranded DNA. In this there is one earlier strand and one new synthesized strand. Each
chromosome has several replicating units called replicon. DNA synthesis occurs simultaneously in
both strand in 5' 3' direction. Small fragments of DNA are synthesized and are joined by Ligase.
The synthesis of DNA coincides with synthesis of histones.
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Prophase I
It is the longest stage. It is divided into the following six sub stages.
Pre-Leptotene
Can be identified by the following features
1. Chromosome have two strands. This is due to DNA replication in interphase.
2. Nuclear volume is large
3. Chromosomes are filamentous. Only sex chromosomes are visible. ( not autosomes)
Leptotene
1. Chromosomes are easily distinguishable and their diploid state is clear in many animals.
2. Chromosomes contain serially arranged granular structures called chromomeres.
3. Each chromosome contains an axial filament around which chromatin fibres are attached in
sequence of lateral loops.
4. Homologus chromosomes are attached to nuclear membrane.
Zygotene
1. Chromosomes become shorter and thicker.
2. Homologus chromosome synapse length-wise. One of the homologus (of the pair) is of paternal
origin and the other maternal origin.
3. The homologus chromosomes are bounde all along their length. When the pairing starts from the
centromere and extends upto the other end it is called Procentric.
Pairing may occur in homologus regions of chromosomes. When this occurs synaptonemal
complex can easily seen.
Pachytene
1. This is longest stage f prophase-I in the spermatogenesis of mammals.
2. The chromosome appear as bivalents. The number of bivalents is half of diploid number of
chromosomes.
3. The chromosomes are so condensed that appear in the form of thick threads. This change of form
is further faciliated by longitudinal contraction.
4. The two homologus chromosomes of a bivalent become coiled together. Homologus chromosome
is made up of two chromatids which are connected with each other by centromere.
5. Crossing over of genetic material occurs between two homologus chromosomes.
6. Genetic exchange occurs via very specific sites of synaptic chromosome called chiasmata.
Diplotene
1. Synaptic chromosomes separate.
2. Terminalisation occurs during the stage. The terminal chiasmata is displaced and its place is taken
up by interstitial chiasmata become smaller. At the end of terminalisation process the homologus
chromosome remain in contact with each other via terminal chiasmata.
3. The synaptonemal complex degenerates and disappears.
4. A chromatoid body make its appearance.
Diakinesis
1. Chromosomes becomes more constricted.
2. The bivalent chromosome migrate to periphery of the nucleus.
3. The homologus chromosome maintain their contact via terminal chiasmata.
4. Nucleolus dissociates from chromosome and disappear.
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Metaphase -I
1. Nuclear membrane disappears

2. The chromosomes are excessively constricted
3. The process of spindle formation is initiated and completed
4. The chromosomes orient themselves in the equatorial region of the spindle.
5. The spindle fibres attach to centromere of two homologus chromosome in opposite direction.
6. Active repulsion between homologus chromosome lead to their separation.
Anaphase - I
1. Each homologus chromosome migrates to opposite poles of the cell. In this stage each chromosome
is made of two chromatids. Migration of chromosomes is irregular.
2. Chromosomes do not separate together. Small chromosome separate rapidly while longer ones take
more time to do so because of the presence of internal chiasmata
3. Extensive genetic changes occur in the genetic make up of chromosomes due to crossing over.
Telophase - I
1. The chromosome migrate to opposite pole and remain in a condensed state for sometime. After
some time they begin to undergo despirilisation and become long.
2. Nuclear membrane is reconstituted.
3. Nucleous is not synthesized.
In animal cell, karyokinesis in telophase ends with initiation of cytokinesis and its completion. The
resulting daughter cells (2) have haploid number of chromosomes (n).
Meiosis II
This is almost similar to mitosis. In this centromere duplicates but not DNA. There is a short
interphase but no duplication of DNA occurs in it.
Prophase II
1. It lacks the complexity of chromosome and nuclear behavior as seen in Prophase- I

2. The arms of chromosome are longer in this stage.
3. Spindle is formed.
4. Nuclear membrane disappears.
Metaphase II
Chromosomes are arranged on equatorial plate. All other features are similar to Metaphase of
mitosis.
Anaphase II
1. Division of centromere take place.

2. The two sister chromatids of a chromosome migrate to opposite poles of cell. After their separation
they assume the form of a chromosomes.
Telophase II
1. Reconstruction of nucleus in a manner similar to mitosis.

2. Nucleus, centrole, and chromosomes enter interphase stage.
3. Each nucleus contains haploid number of chromosomes.
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Significance of Meiosis
1. It maintains the constancy of chromosome number in sexually reproducing organisms.

2. Genetic variation in organisms due to exchange of genetic material (crossing over) during synapsis
of homologus chromosomes. Such variation is the base of evolutionary developmental process and
facilitate emergence of new strains/variates/species consequent to Natural/artificial selection.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS
Meiosis Mitosis
1. Cells divides twice 1. Divides only once
2. It occurs in organsims 2. Occurs in all cells of body
that produce sexually of organisms irrespective of
of whether they reproduce
sexually or asexually
3. DNA replication occurs only 3. DNA replicate once in inter
in Interphase-I and never in phase
interphase-II
Meiosis Mitosis
4. Prophase is long (of several 4. Prophase is only of few
days), complex and has many hours duration. It has no
substages. Pre-lepotene, substages
lepotene, zygotene, pachytene,
diplotene and drakinesis.
5. Cell divides twice but chromo- 5. Cell and chromosomes
some divided only once divide only once.
6. Pairing (Synapsis) of homologus 6. No synapsis.
chromosomes occurs during
Zygotene.
7. Synaptic pair during pachytene 7. No such exchange occurs
exchange genetic material (glued between chromatids
chromosome segment) via
chiasmata.
8. The 2 homologus bivalent form 8. Each chromosome has 2
tetrad (4 chromatids and 2 sister chromatids attached
centromere). by centromere.
9. Centromere divide only in Ana- 9. Centromere divided in
phase II and not in Anaphase I anaphase
10. Smaller chromosome separate 10. Chromosome separation
before longer ones. occurs simultaneously
11. Spindle fibres do not disappear 11. Disappear completely in
completely in Telophase- II. telophase
12. Nucleolus is not formed after 12. Nucleolus is resynthesized
Telophase-I. Telophase
13. 2n  n 13. 2n  n
14. The genetic constitution of 14. Daughter cells have the
daughter cell is different than same genetic constitution as
parental cell due to crossing over. parent cell.
www.etoosindia.com
18
Transport in Plants
Topic Page No.
01
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis 04
3. Plasmolysis 08
4. Transpiration 10
5. How do Plants absorb
water? 14
6. Water Movement up a 18
Plant (Ascent of sap)
7. Guttation
20
Syllabus
Transport in Plants
Diffusion, Osmosis,Plasmolysis,Transpiration, Hoe do plants absorb
water?,Water movement up a plant, Guttation.
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
ETOOSINDIA.COM
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PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
The study of various vital activities and metabolism of plant is known as Plant physiology.
Stephan Hales is known as father of plant physiology.
J.C. Bose is known as father of Indian plant physiology.
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
In a flowering plant substances that would need to be transported are water, mineral nutri-
ents, organic nutrients and plant growth regulators/ hormones.
The small distance transport means transport with in the cell or across the membrane or from cell to
cell in a tissue occurs by diffusion, facilitated diffusion (passive transport) and by Active transport.
Transport over longer distances proceeds through the vascular system (the xylem and the phoem)
and is called translocation.
In rooted plants transport in xylem (of water and minerals) is unidirectional, from roots to stem.
Transport in phloem means transport of organic compounds synthesised in the photosynthetic leaves
is Bidirectional (from leaves to storage organs and later from storage organs to other growing
parts).
Means or types of transport

Transport in plants is of two types :
(A) Short distance transport
(B) Long distance transport
(A) Short distance transport

If transport occurs within the cell or from one cell to another cell then it is considered as short
distance transport. Further it is of two types
(1) Passive transport
(2) Active transport
(1) Passive transport
If transport occurs according to concentration gradient (High concentration to low concentration)
without expenditure of ATP. It occurs by following methods
(i) Diffusion (ii) Facilitated diffusion
DIFFUSION
“The movement of molecules or atoms or ions of a material from an area of higher concentration to
an area of thier lower concentration is called diffusion”.
The diffusion is continue till the dynamic equilibrium is not established. At this stage the movement of
molecules is equal in both direction so net movement become zero.
The kinetic energy, which is present in the molecules of material is distributed equally in thier avail-
able space by their nature.
Diffusion is obvious in gases & liquids but diffusion in solid is more likely rather than of solid.
Diffusion rate  Gas > Liqiud > Solid
Diffusion of a substance is independent from the diffusion of other substance.
Diffusion of each substance is free from diffusion other substance like diffusion of CO2 & O2 occurs
at the same time in different directions through stomata.
Diffusion can occur in both manners  without any membrane or through the membrane.
Diffusion is a slow process and is not dependent on a ‘living system’.
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Diffusion is very important to plant since it is the only means for gaseous movement within the plant
body.
Diffusion rates are affected by the gradient of concentration, the permeability of the membrane
separating them, temperature, pressure.
The diffusion molecules or ion exert a pressure, on the substance or medium in which diffusion takes
place, known as diffusion pressure.
Water molecules move from their higher concentration (high DP) to their lower concentration (low
DP) in plants.
SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFUSION
 Exchange of gases like CO2, O2 takes place through diffusion. It is the only means for gaseous
movement within the plant body.
 The process of transpiration is also a diffusion. The evaporation of water from the intercellular
space is linked with diffusion during the transpiration.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Diffusion of any substance is depends upon solubility in main constitution of membrane, lipid. Lipid
soluble substance rapidly diffuse through membrane.
Moiety of which substance is hydrophilic, diffusion diffcultly through membrane. So there is the need
to simplify its movement. Membrane proteins provide space for transfer of these molecules. This
process of diffusion with the help of membrane proteins is called facilitated diffusion.
In facilitate diffusion, specific proteins helps in transfer of substances across the membrane and no
ATP consume. These specific proteins do not setup a concentration gradeint, a concentration gradeint
must already be present for molecules to diffuse even if facilitated by the proteins.
Extracellular molecules bind with transport proteins and later this transport proteins release the
molecules inside the cell by rotation movement.
Transport rate reaches a maximum when all of the protein transporters are being used (saturation).
Facilitated diffusion is very specific, it allows cell to select substances for uptake. It is sensitive to
inhibitors which react with protein side chains.
The proteins form channels in the membrane for molecules to pass through. Some channel are
always open others can be controlled. Some are large, allowing a veriety of molecules to cross.
The porins are proteins that form huge pores in the outer membranes of the plastids, mitochondria
and some bacteria allowing molecules up to the size of small proteins to pass through.
Eg. Water channels made up of 8 different types of aquaporins.
In symport, two molecules move across the membrane in similar direction, while in antiport they
move in opposite directions. When a molecule moves freely across the membrane then this method
is called uniport.

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(2) Active transport
Active transport uses to pump molecules against a concentration gradeint. Active transport is carried
out by membrane proteins. Hence different proteins in the membrane play a major role in both active
as well as passive transport.
Pumps are proteins that uses energy to carry substances across thecell membrane. These pumps
can transport substance from a low concentration to a high concentration (‘uphill’ transport).
Transport rate reaches a maximum when all the protein transporters are being used or are saturated.
Like enzymes the carrier protein is very specific in what it carries across the membrane. These
protein are sensitive to inhibitors that reac. with protein side chains.
Comparison of Different Transport Mechanisms

Property simple Diffusion Facilitated Transport Active Transport
Requires special membrane proteins NO Yes Yes
Highly selective NO Yes Yes
Transport saturates NO Yes Yes
Uphill transport NO NO Yes
PERMEABILITY
 The exchange of materials in and out through the membrane is called pereability :
The membranes are divided in the following types on the basis of permeability
(i) Permeable membrane :-

Such membrane are permeable for both - soltes and solvent e.g. cell wall, filter paper
(ii) Semipermeble membranes :-

Such membrane allow diffusion of solvent molecules, but do not allow the passage of solutes e.g.
artficial membranes like Cellophane and Copperferrocyanide membranes, parchment paper, goat
bladder.
(iii) Selective permeable membrane or differentially permeable membrane :-

Such membranes allow some selective solutes to pass through them along with the solvent mol-
ecules. e.g. Cell membrane , tonoplast, Organeller membrane.
These membrane are permeable for CO2, N2, O2 gases alcohol, ether and water, but impermeable
for polysaccharides and proteins.
(iv) Impermeable membrane :-

membrane which do not allow solute & solvent to pass through it.
e.g. Rubber membrane, Al-foil, Suberised cell wall, lignified cell wall.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
(i) Isotonic solution :
if solution in which a cell is placed, has equal osmotic concentration to that of cell sap, then this
solution is called isotonic solution.
(ii) Hypotonic solution :

If the osmotic concentration of a solution is lesser than that of the cell sap, then this solution is called
hypotonic solution. If a cell is placed in such solution endosmosis takes place, and as result cell swells
up and become turgid. e.g. Swelling of dried grape (resins) in water.

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(iii) Hypertonic solution :
If the osmotic concentration of a sloution is higher than that of the cell sap then this solution is known
as hypertonic solution. If a cell placed in this type of solution, exomosis takes place. It means water
of the cell sap diffused out into the outer solution and as result cell v\become plasmoysed.
OSMOSIS
 “Osmosis is defined asd the special diffusiion of solvent *(water in this context) from the
solution of lower concentration (Hypotonic) to the solution of higher concentration (Hy-
pertonic) when both the solutions are separated by a semipermeable membrane”.
The water moves into the cell during the osmosis is called endosmosis.
Ex. Resin placed in water.
When the water starts moving out of the cell then it is called exomosis.
Ex. grapes kept in salt solution
The net direction & rate of osmosis depends on both the pressure gradient & concentration gradient.
“O.P. of solution is equal to that external pressure, which required to be applied on a hypertonicsolution
in order to prevent osmosis or entry of water in it when the hypotonic and hypertonic solution are
separated by a semipermeable membrane”.
The osmotic pressure of pure water is zero. O.P. is due to presence of solute into the solution.
The osmotic pressure of a solution is directly proportional to the concentration of solute in it.
Seuence of OP = Hydrophytes < Mesophytes < Xerophytes < Halophytes.
The highest osmotic pressure is found in the halophytes group. Atriplex confertifolia (202 atm.)
Osmotic pressure of a solution is measured by osmometer.
According to Harris, the osmotic pressure is highest in leaves & lowest in roots.
 The formula of Vont Hoff for measuring O.P. :
OP = mRT
Here - m = moler concentration

R = Gas constant [0.082 mole/molecules]
T = Absolute temperature
the osmotic pressure of 1 mole glucose solution at 0oC
OP  1 × 0.082 × 273  22.4 atm., for non electrolytes
The O.P. of electrolytes is find out by the following formula
OP = MRTI
Where I is the constant of ionisation of electrolytes.

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The osmotic pressure of electrolytes is higher than that of non electrolytes.
For example-solution of 1 M NaCl and 1 M glucose. The molar concentration ofboth solution are
equal but
O.P. of 1 M NaCl is higher O.P. towards the higher O.P.
TURGOR PRESSURE OR T.P. AND WALL PRESSURE OR W.P

 “When a cell is immersed in water, then enter into the cell because osmotic pressure of
the cell sap is higher. The cell content press upon the wall or develop a pressure against
the cell wall, which is called turgor pressure.”
The turgor pressure is balanced by an equal but opposite pressure of the thick cell wall, it is known
as wall pressure. Wall pressure & turgor pressure are equal but the direction is opposite.
TP =WP
Turgor pressure is not applicable for free solution. This is only applicable for osmotic system. Turgor
pressure is also known as hyfrostatic pressure.
Plant cell does not burst, when placed in a pure water due to wall pressure, but an animal cell burst
when placed in pure water because wall pressure is absent due to absence of cell wall. It can be
demonstrated by placeing RBCs of human blood in distilled water. When examined after some time,
the RBCs are found to have burst.
The value of turgor pressure is normally from zero to in between the osmotic pressure in plants cell.
A flaccid cell has zero turgor pressure.

The highest value of turgor pressure is found in fully turgid cell and it is equal to the osmotic pressure
Fully turgid cell has OP = TP
The value of turgor pressure is assumed as negative (–ve) during the plasmolysis of the cell.
 Significance of T.P.
1. Maintains the normal shape of the cell
2. Turgorpressure helps in cell elongation or growth of cell.

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DIFFUSION PRESSURE DEFICT (DPD) OR SUCTION PRESSURE (SP)
 DPD : The decrease inthe diffusion pressure of any system due to addition of solute is
called DPD
DPD determines the direction of osmosis and it is the power of absorption of water for
the cell. (Suction pressure)
This is also known as demand of water in cell
DPD  concentration of solute
The diffusion of water takes place from the region of lower DPD to the region of higher DPD in the
process of osmosis.
SPM
Lower DPD H O Higher DPD
2
SPM = Semi Permeable Membrane

Normally, osmotic pressure is greater than the tugor pressure in a cell. The difference between
osmotic pressure and turgor pressure is called suction pressure or DPD.
DPD = OP – TP or WP
The DPD of any free solution is equal to the osmotic pressure of that solution because for free
solution TP = O
DPD = OP
(i) DPD in partially turgid or normal cell :
DPD = OP – TP
(ii) DPD for fully turgid cell :
When a cell is palced in pure water or hypotonic solution then water enter into the cell, result turgor
pressure develop in the cell. THe cell starts swelling due to the turgor pressure. Simultaneously ,
concentration of cell sap this, when value of TP will be equal to the OP then DPD will be zero.
At this stage cell becomes fully turgid. Therefore in a fully turgid cell
DPD = OP – TP
When, OP = TP or OP – TP = O
So that DPD = 0
(iii) DPD in flaccid cell :
If, the cell is in placed state then its T.P or W.P would be zero and value of DPD would be equal to
OP.
TP or Wp = O
Therefore, DPD or S.P = OP
If a flaccid cell placed in water then waters enter into cell because DPD of the cell sap is higher.
(iv) DPD for plasmolysed cell :
The value of turgor pressure is negative in plasmolysed cell. In this state
DPD = OP – TP
 [TP = –Ve]
DPD = OP – [–TP] OP + TP
DPD = OP + TP
Demand of water = Plasmolysed cell > Flaccid cell > Partially turgid cell >? Fully turgid cell
A - Cell B - Cell
OP = 25 atm OP = 30
TP = 10 atm OP = 25
DPD = 15 atm DPD = 5
H2O
Greater DPD Lesser DPD

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WATER POTENTIAL OR W
 “The difference between the free energy of molecules of pure water and free energy of
the solution is called water potential of the system”.
Now a days according to concept of free energy and thermodynamics DPD of a solution is also
representd by water potential.
The water potential of pure water is maximum because the pure water has a great free energy. The
free energy, lower down by additional of solute. THe value of water potential of pure water is taken
to be zero.
Water potential is represented by Greek word  (Psi)  W and it is measured in bars or Pascal (Pa)
water potential is equal to DPD but opposite in sign. Its value is negative.
 W = – DPD
Water potential has following components :
1. Osmotic potential/ Solute potential ( S ) :

Osmotic potential or solute potential represents the concentration of the solute. Water potential
(  W ) is negative negative in the presence of solutes. So that osmotic potential is also negative.
More the solute less the solute potential.
2. Pressure potential (  P ) :
Turgor pressure is also known as pressure potential according to concept of free energy.
S = Solute potential = – O.P..
 P = Pressure potential = T.P..
 W = S   P   g   m
 g ,  m is negligible
so  W  S   p
 W = –ve
S = –ve
 p = +ve or –ve
Water always move from higher water potential towards towards the lower water potential.
For example if the water potential of ‘A’ cell is 10 bars and water potential of ‘B’ cell is - 12 in two
cells, then water will be flow from ‘A’ cell to the ‘B’ cell.

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PLASMOLYSIS
 If a plant cell placed in a hypertonic solution, water molecules diffused out from the cell.
As a result of exosmosis, the protoplasm of the cell detached from the cell wall and starts
shrinking. This is called plasmolysis.
various steps of plasmolysis are as follows
(i) Limiting Plasmolysis : This is the first step of plasmolysis. At this stage the cell wall has con-
tracted to maximum.
(ii) Incipient Plasmolysis : Continued exosmosis beyond the limiting plasmolysis decrease the size of
protoplast beacuse no further concentration in cell wall is there, so gap is produced between cell wall
& cell membrane. The concentration of cell membrane is intially from the corners.
(iii) Evident Plasmolysis : The shrinking of protoplast is continued due to continuous exosmosis so it
become detached from the cell wall & assume a spherical shape.
 Hypertonic solution get filled between the cell wall & shrunken protoplast in plasmolysed cell.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PLASMOLYSIS :
 If plasmolysis continues for long duration in a cell then it dies. To destory weeds, salt is used
around their root.
 Fishes & meat are prevented from spoilage by salting ,which inhibit the growth of bacteria &
fungus.
 Higher concentration of sugar in jams & jellies stop the growth of bacteria & fungi.
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 Higher amount of chemical fertilizer near the root cause death or browing of plant due to plas-
molysis.
IMBIBITION
(i) Adsorption of liquid by any solid material is called imbibition or adsorption of water by
hydrophilic colloids is known as imbibition.
(ii) This is a physical process by which a dry solid colloid material swells up by adsorption of water. The
cell wall is made up of colloidal substances as cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose etc. and they imbibe
water. Proteins, Agar- agar, starch etc, these are all imbibant materials. Agar -agar can adsorbs 99
times more water than that of its weight. Some of the proteins adsorb 15 times more water.
Imbibition power = Agar – agar > Pectin > Protein > Starch > Cellulose
(iii) Water or any other liquid which is adsorbed is known as imbibate & the solid adsorbent which cause
imbibition or adsorption is called imbibant.
(iv) Affinity is must between imbibant & liquid material & movement of water occurs according to water
potential gradeint. (These are 2 pre-requistie for imbibition)
Imbibition is also a type of diffusion since water movement is along a concentration gradient ;
the seeds and other such materials have almost no water hence they adsorb water easily.
Water potential gradient between the adsorbent and the liquid imbibed is essential for
imbibition. In addition, for any substance to imbibe any liquid, affinity between the adsorbent and
the liquid is also a prequisite.
The heat released during the imbibition is called heat of wetting.
A huge pressure is developed in material due to imbibition. This pressure is called Imbibition pres-
sure (IP).
IP is also called as matric potential with respect to water potential. DPD = IP or  w   m
The imbibition is less in compact arranged material like wood, and more in lighter or soft material like
gelatin.
 Significance of Imbibition :
(1) Example of imbibition are adsorption of water by seeds and dry wood. The pressure is pro-
duced by the swelling of wood had been used by prehistoric man to split rocks and boulders.
If it were not the pressure due to imbibition, seedings would not have been able to emerge
out of the soil into the open; they probably would not have been able to establish.
(2) Breaking of seed coat during the seed germination is due to imbibition process. Proteins, fats and
starch is present in the kernel. This kernel swells up more as compared to the seed coat which
breaks the seeds coat.
(3) Initial process of water absorption in roots by the root hairs is imbibition.
(4) Resurrection in many plants like Selaginella, Lichen, takes place due to the process of imbibition.
(5) The water enter into the aerial roots due to imbibition.
Movement of water molecules :

Higher D.P.  Lower D.P.
Lower O.P.  Higher O.P.
Lower DPD  Higher DPD
Higher (less –ve)  w  Lower (more –ve)  w
Higher T.P.  Hypertonic
Lower conc. of solution  Higher conc. of solution.

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TRANSPIRATION
 Loss of water in form of vapour , from the aerial parts (organs) of living plants is known
as Transpiration.
Only 1-2 % of absorbed water is used by the plants , while remaining [98-99 %] of water lost
in atmosphere.
“Transpiration is an essential evil” - by Curtis

“Transpiration is an unavoidable evil” - by Stewards.
The minimum transpiration is found in succulent xerophytes.
Maximum transpiration is found in mesophytes.
→ Transpiration is absent in algae, fungi & submerged aquatic plants.
TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION
 Transpiration is of the following three types :

(i) Stomatal transpiration :
Transpiration takes place through the stomata which are present on the leaves of the plants and
delicate organs, is called stomatal transpiration. The maximum amount of water is lost by this
transpiration. About 80 % to 90 % transpiration is occurs through the stomata.
(ii) Cuticular Transpiration :

Loss of water through the cuticle which present on the herbaceous stem and leaves. Cuticle is a
wax like thin layer present on epidermis. About 9 % to 9.9 % transpiration is cuticular.
(iii) Lenticular Transpiration :

Minute pore like structure found on the stem of woody plants and epidermis of some fruits called
lenticles. Some amount of water is lost by lenticles is known as lenticular transpiration. However it
is approximately 0.1 % to 1 % of the total water lost.
Folier transpiration : Total transpiration takes place through the leaves is called as foliar transpi-
ration.
Foliar transpiration (from the leaves) = Stomatal + Cuticular
Stomata are found on the aerial delicate organs and outer surface of the leaves in the form of
minute pores. Stomatal pore is surrounded by two specialised epidermal cells called as guard
cell. They are kidney shaped or crescent shape.
The shape of guard cells in monocots (Gramineae) is dumbel shaped
Guard cells are epidermal cells. But due to presence of chloroplast they are differ from
other epidermal cells.

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The outer wall of the guard cells is thin and elastic, while inner wall is thick and elastic.
Guard cells are surrounded by some specialised epidermal cells called subsidiary cells or acces-
sory cells.
Stomata are found on both upper and lower surface. Stomata attached with air chambers which
forms a cavity that is called sub-stomatal-cavity.
MECHANISM OF OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA
 The cause of the opening or closing of stomata is a change in turgidity of the guard cell. When
guard cell become turgid, stomata opens and when guard cell become flaccid, stomata closes.
 When osmotic concentration (OP) of guards cell is high, then guard cell become turgid by absorp-
tion of water through endosmosis from near by cells (subsidary cells)
 When OP of guard cell decreases then guard cell become flaccid. Due to flaccidity of guard cell,
inner thick wall of both guard cell become fused & stomata closes.
 The opening of stomata is also aided due to orientation of the microfibrils in the cell wall of the
guard cell. Cellulose microfibrils are oriented radially rather than longitudnally making it easier for
the stomata to open.
 Active K+  H+ exchange theory or active proton transport mechanism

This is mordern & most accepted theory for stomatal movement
 First of all Fujino observed influx of K+ ions in guard cell during stomatal opening. Detail study of
this phenomenon was done by Levitt. According to him stomata open by following mechanism :

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Closing of stomata : Plant hormone ABA-acts on guard cells, which interfere the exchange of
K+ 
H+ ions in guard cells, results in reserve of reaction of opening of stomata, hence stomata closed.
 High concentration of K+ ion in guard cell is electrically balanced by uptake of (–ve & malate
ions which are (+ve) in guard cells.
FACTORS AFFECTING STOMATAL OPENING AND CLOSING

(1) Light :
In most of the plants stomata open during the day and close during the dark (except succulent
xerophytic plants). Opening of stomata completes in the presence of blue and red light.
Blue light is most effective and causing stomatal opening.
(2) Temperature :
Loft field show temperature quotient of opening of stomata is [Q10] = 2
(3) CO2 concentration :

Stomata opens at low concentration of CO2 while closed at high concentration of CO2
CO2 is antitranspitrant gas.
(4) Growth Hormones :

Cytokinin hormone induce opeing of stomata. It increase the influx of K+ ions and stimulate the
stomata for opening.
While ABA stimulate the stomata for closing. This hormone oppose the induction effect of
cytokinin.
ABA affects the permeability of the guard cells. It prevent the out flux of H+ ions and increase the
out flux of K+ ions. Because of this pH of the guard cells decreased.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION
(A) EXTERNAL FACTORS :
1
(1) Atmospheric humidity : Tr  Relative humidity
This is the most important factor. The rate of transpiration is higher in low atmospheric humidity
while at higher atmospheric humidity, the atmosphere is moistened, resluts in decrease of rate of
transpiration.
Therefore, the rate of transpiration is high during the summer and low in rainy season.
(2) Temperature : Tr  Temperaturee

The value of Q10 for transpiration is 2. It means by increasing 10oC temperature, the rate of transpi-
ration is approximately double. (By Loftfield)
Water vapour holding capacity of air increased at high temperature, resulting therate of transpiration
increased. On contrary vapour holding capacity of air decreased at low temperature so that the rate
of transpiration is decreased.
(3) Light :
Light stimulates, transpiration by heating effect on leaf.
Action spectrum of transpiration is blue and red.

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Rate of transpiration is faster in blue light than of red light. Because stomata are completely
opened as their full capacity in the blue light.
(4) Wind velocity : Tr  Wind velocity

Transpiration is less in constant air but if wind velocity is high the rate of transpiration is also high,
because wind removes humid air (saturated air) around the stomata.
Transpiration increases in the begining at high wind velocity [30 - 35 km/hour] But latter on it cause
closure of stomata sue to water stress and transpiration decrease.
(5) Atmospheric Pressure :

At low atmospheric pressure, rate of the diffusion increase which increase the rate of transpiration.
By carrying a plant from Kota, to hill station, rate of transpiration increased.
Transpiration ratio (TR) : Moles of H2O transpired/moles of CO2 assimilated

Ratio of the loss of water to the photosynthetic CO2 fixation is called TR.
TR is low for C4 plants (200-350) while high for C3 plants (500-1000). It means C4 conserve
water with efficient photosynthesis
CAM plants posses minimum TR (50-100)
(B) INTERNAL OR PLANT FACTORS :
(1) Number & distribution of stomata

(2) Number of opened stomata
(3) Water status of the plant
(4) Canopy structure
(5) CO2 concentration : stomata are sensitive towards the internal CO2 conc. in the leaves.
 Stomata open at low concen. of CO2 while close at high conc. of CO2
Anti transpirants :
Chemical substance which reduce the rate of transpiration are known as antitranspirants. Anti
transpirants are as follows :
Phenyl Mercuric Acetate [PMA], Aspirin, (Salicylic acid), Abscisic Acid [ABA], Oxi-ethyl-
ene, Silicon oil,CO2 and low viscous wax
Antitranspirantss are used in dry farming.
TRANSPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS A COMPROMISE

(1) Inregulation of temperature :
Cooling effect on the surface of leaves is produced by the process of tranpiration, due to which
temperature remains constant in plants.
(2) Translocation of minerals in plants body
(3) In ascent of sap
(4) Supplies water for photosynthesis
(5) In water absorption
(6) Maintain the shape and structure of the plants by keeping cells turgid.

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HOW DO PLANT ABSORB WATER ?
ORGAN FOR WATER ABSORPTION
 Roots have four different regions :

(i) Root cap region
(ii) Meristematic region
(iii) Elongation region
(iv) Root hair region
The maximum absorption of water takes place from root hair region. These root hairs increases
the absorption area of root.
PATH OF WATER ABSORPTION

Soil solution  Root hairs  Epiblema/Epidermis  cortex  Cortex  Endodermis
(passage cells)  Pericycle cells  Protoxylem  Metaxylem.

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 The responsibility of absorption of water & minerals is more specifically the function of the root
hairs that are present in millions at the tips of the roots.
 Root hairs are thin-walled slender extensions of root epidermal cells that greatly increase the
surface area for absorption.
 Once water is absorbed by the root hairs, it can move deeper into root layers by 2 distinct
pathway:
* apoplast pathway
* symplast pathway
 The apoplast is the system of adjacent cell walls that is continuous throughout the plant, except at
the casparian strips of the endodermis in the roots.
 Apoplastic movement of water occurs exclusively through the intercellular space & the walls of
the cells.
* Movement through apoplast does not involve crossing the cell membrane.
* This movement is dependent on the gradient.
 The apoplast does not provide any barrier to water movement & water movement is through
mass flow.
 Mass flow of water occurs due to adhesive & cohesive property of water.
 The symplastic system is the system of interconnected protoplast.
Neighbouring cells are connected through cytoplasmic strands that extend through Plasmodesmata.
 During symplastic movement, the water travels through thecells their cytoplasm ; intercellular
movement is through the plasmodesmata.
 Water has to enter the cells through the all membrane, hence the movement is relatively slower.
Movement is again down a potential gradient.
* symplastic movement may be aided by cytoplasmic streaming.
 Most of the water flow in the roots occur via apoplast since the cortical cells are loosely packed,
& hence offer no resistance to water movement.
* However, the inner boundary of the cortex, the endodermis is impervious to water because of a
band of suberised matrix c/d the casparian strip water molecules are unable to penetrate the layer, so
they are directed to wall regions that are not suberised, into the cells proper through the membranes.
 The water then moves through the symplast & again crosses a membrane to reach the cells of
the xylem.
 The movement of water through the root layers is ultimately symplastic in the endodermis.This is
the only way water & other solutes can enter the vascular cylinder.
 Once inside the xylem, water is again free to move between cells as well as through them. In
young roots, water enters directly into the xylem vessels and/or tracheids. These are non-living
conduits & so are part of apoplast.
 Some plants have additional structures associated C them that help in water (& mineral) absorp-
tion.
 A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association of a fungus C a root system.
The fungus provides minerals & water to the roots, in turn the roots provide sugar & N-containing
compounds to the mycorrhizae.
Some plants have an obligate association & the mycorrhizae. For eg : Pinus seed cannot germinate
& estabilish C out the pressure of mycorrhizae.

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Factors affecting water absorption
(1) Available soil water :

Plant absorbs capillary water, which is present in soil. Absorption of water depends on the amount
of capillary water present in the soil. Absorption increases by increasing amount of capillary water.
If, water is present in higher amount in the soil then such type of soil is called “ Water logged soil”
. This soil is physiologically dry and lack oxygen. Because of this anaerobic respiration takes place
in roots, and alcohol is formed. Roots can be degenerate due to form alcohol. (Dry soil is physically
dry.)
(2) Soil temperature (Suitable temperature - 20 to 35oC) :

Soil temperature affects the following mechanisms :
(i) Low temperature decreases the permeability of cell membrane.
(ii) It is essential for the activity of enzymes for the formation of root hairs.
(iii) At low temperature viscosity of capillary water is increased.
Cold soil is as physiologically dry.
(3) Soil Air :

Absorption of water proceeds more rapidly in well aerated soil.
Deficiency of oxygen in soil causes improper respiration in roots. Poorly aerated soil is physi-
ologically dry.
(4) Soil Concentration :

The rate of the absorption is inversely proportional to the concentration of minerals present in soil.
1
Water Absorption  concentration of soil minerals
Water absorption is only take place in appropriate soil solution. If the concentration of soil minerals is
high. It decreases the rate of absorption. Therefore saline soil is physiologically dry. Only Halo-
phytes can grow in this soil because they maintain high OP.
(5) Transpiration :
According to Kramer the rate of water absorption is directly proportional to the rate of
transpiration.
The rate of absorption increases due to increase in the transpiration. Because passive water absorp-
tion increases due to transpiration.
LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT OF WATER :
 Long distance transport of substance within a plant cannot be by diffusion alone. Diffusion is a
slow process. It can account for only short distance movement of molecules.
 In large & complex organisms, often substance have to be moved across very large
distancesometimes the site of production or absorption & site of storage are too far from each other,
diffusion or active transport would not suffice.
 Special long distance transport systems become necessary so as to move substances across long
distance & at a much faster rate.
Mass flow is the movement of substance in bulk from one point to another as a result of pressure
differences between 2 points.

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 It is a characteristic of mass flow that substance, whether in solution or in suspension are swept
along at the same pace, as in flowing river.
 This is unlike diffusion where different substance move independently depending on their concen-
tration gradients.
 Bulk flow can be achieved either through a positive hydrostatic pressure gradient (pushing pres-
sure) or a negative hydrostatic pressure gradient (e.g. suction through a straw).
 The bulk movement of substance through the conducting or vascular tissue of plants is called
translocation.
 The higher plants have highly specialized vascular tissue - xylem & phloem
WATER MOVEMENT UP A PLANT (ASCENT OF SAP)

Upward movement of absorbed water against the gravitational force upto top parts of plants
is called ascent of sap.
Experiment on Balsam plant by using eosin dye proved that xylem is path of ascent of sap.
MECHANISM OF ASCENT OF SAP :

Cohesion - tension - transpiration pull model : By Dixon & Jolly
 Most accepted or universally accepted theory for explaining mechanism of ascent of sap.
* According to it following components are involved in ascent of sap :
(a) Cohesion : Mutual attraction between the wate molecules is K/a cohesion which helps to form a
continuous water column in xylem elements.

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(b) Adhesion : Attraction between xylem walls & water molecules is C/d adhesion force, which help in
upward maintenance of water column in the xylem.
(c) Surface tension
(d) Transpiration Pull : A negative pressure (pulling pressure) develop in xylem due to rapid transpiration
in leaves, this is c/d transpiration pull which is responsible for pulling of water column in xylem.
 Ascent of sap is constitutive effect of cohesion, surface tension, adhesion & transpiration pull.
Measurements reveal that the force generated by transpiration can create pressure sufficient to lift
a xylem sized column of water over 130 metres high.
 Cohesion, adhesion & surfacetension properties give water high tensile strength means ability to
resist pulling force & also give water high capillarity means ability to rise in thin tubes.
* In plants capillarity is aided by small diameter of tracheids & vessels.
Root pressure :
As various ions from the soil are actively transported into the vascular tissue of the roots,
water follows (its potential gradient) and increases the pressure inside the xylem. The
positive pressure is called root pressure, and can be responsible for pushing up water to small
height in the stem.
Root pressure can, at best , only provide a modest push in the overall process of water
transport.
They obviously do not play a major role in water movement up tall trees.
Thre greatest contribution of root pressure may be to re-establish the continuous chains
of water molecules in the xylem which often break under the enormous tensions created
by transpiration.
Root pressure does not account for the majority of water transport; most plants meet their
need by transpiratory pull.
PHLOEM TRANSPORT (TRANSLOCATION IN PLANTS)
Food/organic material condition in plants mainly occurs by phloem. (Proved by Girdiling experiment).
Food conduction occurs in between source and sink.
Generally green photosynthetic plant parts like leaves acts as source while non photosynthetic parts
like root, shoot, fruits acts as sink.
Food conduction may may be in any required direction unlike the water coduction which is a unidi-
rectional process.
Translocation of food mainly occurs in the form of sucrose because it is non-reducing sugar and
chemically inert in pathway of coduction.
Phloem sap is mainly water & sucrose but other sugar hormones & amino acid are transported or
translocated through phloem.
 Pressure flow/mass flow hypothesis of food/sucrose translocation - Given by E. Munch.
This is the most accepeted theory of food conduction in plants.

According to it food translocation occurs in between source and sink in order of turgor
pressure gradient i.e., high T.P to low T.P

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Leaf Mesophyll Cells
Photosynthesis
Glucose
Sucrose
Rise in osmotic pressure
Endosmosis
Endosmosis
Rise in Turgor pressure of mesophyll cell
Mass flow of H2O & Sucrose due to Turgor Gradient

ATP
ADP
LOADING
'en mass' comes in Sieve tube cell from Xylem and increase
Turgor pressure Gradient
Water comes in Sieve tube cell from Xylem and increase

Water comes in Sieve tube cell from Xylem and increase

UNLOADING
Sucrose comes to Root cell and convert into starch or

energy or get consumed in Respiration
Decrease in O.P of Root Cells
H2 O
Water moves to Root Xylem
Sucrose translocation in plants

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GUTTATION
 Loss of water from the uninjured part or margin of leaves of the plant in the form of water
droplets is called guttation.
Guttation occurs when transpiration is low and water absorption is high.
Liquid of guttation along with water contains some organic and inorganic (dissolved) substances.
It means it is not pure water.
Normally, guttation process is found in herbacious plants like grasses, tomats, balsum, Naustertium,
Colocasia, Sexifraga and in some of the plants of Cucurbitacease family.
Guttation occurs from the margins of the leaves through the special pore (always open) like struc-
tures called hydathodes or water stomata. Generally guttation occurs during mid night or early
morning.
Parenchymatous and loose tissue are lie beneath the hydathode, which are known as epithem or
transfer tissues.
The process of guttation take place due to root pressure.
EXUDATION/BLEEDING
 If liquid ooze out from the injured or cut parts of the plants is called bleeding or exudation.
This process takes place due to high root pressure.
Sugar is obtained from the sugar mapple by this process. Opium. Latex of rubber is obtained by
this process.
The highest bleeding is found in Caryota urens (Toddy palm) (about 50 liter per day).
 Wilting :
SOME EXTRA POINTS

Cobalt-chloride test : This method is used for the comparision of transpiration at both the surface
of the leaves.
Porometer is used to find out the area of stomata on the leaf.
Transpiration measuring instrument is called potometer. The rate of absorption of water is mea-
sured through this instrument because rate of water absorption is proportional to the rate of
transpiration.
Manometer is used to measure root pressure.

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS
Topic
1. Introduction 01
2. Where does photosynthesis takes 03
place? 05
3. What is Light reaction? 08
4. Cyclic Photophosphorylation
5. Where are the ATP and NADPH 10
used?
6. Factors affecting Photosynthesis 17
Syllabus
Photosynthesis in higher Plants
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
ETOOSINDIA.COM
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS
INTRODUCTION
“Photosynthesis is a Physico - chemical or photo-biochemical process in which the organic
compound (carbohydrates) are synthesised from the inorganic raw material (H2O & CO2) in the
presence of light & pigments. O2 is evolved as by product or one of the net products”.
Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O Chlorophyll C 6H 12O 6 + 6H2O + 6CO 2
 Light energy is converted into chemical energy by photosynthesis.

 First of all photosynthesis started in eubacteria.
 First true & oxygenic (O2 evolving) photosynthesis started in cyanobacteria. (BGA)
 Photosynthesis is a redox reaction during which oxidation of H2O occurs (as it provides H
+
and e–) during light reaction and reduction of CO2 occurs (as it accepts H+ & e–) during
dark reaction (biosynthetic phase)
 Photosynthesis is a Anabolic (synthesising) & Endergonic (Energy absorbing) process.
WHAT DO WE KNOW
 Some simple experiments show that chlorophyll (green pigment of the leaf), light and CO2 are
required for photosynthesis to occur.
 Look for starch formation in two leaves - a variegated leaf or a leaf that was partially
covered with black paper and one that was exposed to light. On testing these leaves for starch
it was clear that photosynthesis occured only in the green parts of the leaves in the
presence of light.
 Another experiment is the half-leaf experiment, where a part of a leaf is enclosed in a test
tube containing some KOH soaked cotton (which absorbs CO2), while the other half is exposed
to air. The setup is then place in light for some time. On testing for starch later in the two halves
of the leaf, the exposed part of the leaf test positive for starch while the portion that was in the
tube, tested negative. This shows that CO2 is required for photosynthesis.
EARLY EXPERIMENTS
 Stephen Hales (1727) :- Recognised the important of air (CO2) and light for photosynthesis
(nourishment) in plants. He is considered as discoverer of photosynthesis and “ Father of
plant physiology”.
(Father of Indian plant physiology - J.C. Bose)
J. Priestley (1770) :- He carried out very interesting exp. with Bell jar, Rat, Pudina &
Candle. He came conclusion that plants purify the air (gaseous exchange), during
photosynthesis. Discoverer of oxygen Phlogiston ⇒ Bad air from candles, Dephlogiston
⇒ Good air
Experiment by Joseph Priestley :
Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) in 1770 performed a series of experiments that revealed the essential
role of air in the growth of green plants.
Priestley observed that a candle curning in a closed space - a bell jar, soon gets extinguished.
ETOOSINDIA.COM Photsynthesis in Higher Plants # 1

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Similarly, a mouse would soon suffocate in a closed space. He concluded that a burning candle or
an animal that breathe the air, both some how ,damage the air. But when he placed a mint plant in
the same bell jar, he found that the mouse stayed alive and the candle continued to burn.
Prisetley hypothesised as follows : plants restore to the air whatever breathing animals
and burning candles remove.
Jan Ingenhousz (1779) :- Importance of light and green colour. O2 is released in the presence
of light by green parts.
Experiment by Jan Ingenhouzs :

Using a similar setup as the one used by Priestley, but by placing it once in the dark and once in the
sunlight, Jan Ingenhouzs (1730 - 1799) showed that sunlight is essential to the plant process
that somehow purifies the air fouled by burning candles or breathing animals.
Ingenhouzs in an elegant experiment with an aquatic plant showed that in bright sunlight, small
bubbles were formed around the green parts while in the dark they did not . Later he identified these
bubbles to be of oxygen. Hence he showed that it is only the green part of the plants
that could release oxygen.
J.V. Sachs (1854) :- Recognised the relation among photosynthesis, chloroplast and starch. First
visible product of photosynthesis is starch.
Engelmann (1888) :- Described Action spectrum of photosynthesis by using Cladophora, Spiro-

gyra algae and aerobic bacteria experiment.
Experiment by Engelmann :
T.W. Engelmann (1843 - 1909) Used a prism to split light into its spectral components and
then illuminated a green algae. Cladophora placed in a suspension of aerobic bacteria. The
bacteria were used to detect the sites of O2 evolution. He observed that the bacteria accumulated
mainly in the region of red and blue light of the split spectrum. A first action spectrum of
photosynthesis was thus described. It resembles roughly the absorption spectrum of chlo-
rophyll a and b.
Van Neil (1931) :- O2 release from water not from CO2 . Experiment on purple and green
sulphur bacteria.
H2A = suitable oxidisable compound or H-Donor
2H2O + CO2  Light
 2A + CH2O + H2O
6CO2 + 12H2S 
Bacteria
 C6H12O6 + 12S + 6H2O
ETOOSINDIA.COM Photosynthesis in Higher Plants # 2

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Ruben, Hassid & Kamen (1941) :- Used O18 (radioisotopic technique) to show
experimentally that O2 in photosynthesis released from water.
Light
6CO162  12H 2 O18 Chlorophyll C 6 H12 O166  6H 2 O16  6O 218
Robert Hill & Bendal (1937) :- Detailed study of light reaction in isolated chloroplast of Stellaria
plant.
Photolysis of H2O is the chief role of chloroplast and evolution of O2 occurs only in the presence of
suitable e– acceptor from water in photosynthesis. (Hill-reaction). Electron acceptors = Potassium
Ferricyanide. NADP+ and DCPIP (Dichlorophenol Indophenol -a dye)
WHERE DOES PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKE PLACE

Photosynthesis does take place in the green leaves of plants but it does so also in other
green parts of the plants.
Within the chloroplast there is the fluid stroma and the membranous system consisting of grana
and the stroma lamelle. There is a clear division of lobour within the chloroplast.
The membrane system is responsible for trapping the light energy and also for the synthesis
of ATP and NADPH + H+ [Light reaction]. In stroma, enzymatic reactions incorporate CO2 into
the plant leading to the synthesis ofsugar, which in turn forms starch. (Biosynthetic phase/
Dark reaction)
400 - 700 nm light is used in photosynthesis, so it is known as PAR (Photosynthetic active radiation).
HOW MANY PIGMENTS ARE INVOLVED IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthetic pigments are special molecules those absorb, transmitt and reflect different
colours of light from the visible spectrum of light. pigment appears in the colour which it reflect
and uses the colour which it absorbs.
Photosynthetic Pigments are of following types :-
1. Chlorophylls
2. Carotenoids
3. Phycobillins - > Present in lower plant
1. Chlorophylls -
Chlorophyll are of following types
Chl. a, Chl - b, Chl - c, Chl - d, Chl - e, Bacterio Chl. - a, Bacterio Chl. - b and Bacterioviridin
(Chlorobium chlorophyll)
Bacterio Chl. - a, Bacterio Chl. - b, are of purple colour. Remaining chlorophylls are of green
colour of various shades (Chl. a - bright or blue green in chromatogram and Chl. b - yellow
green).

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Structure of Chlorophyll -
Chlorophylls are magnesium porphyrin compounds. Porphyrin ring consist 4-pyrrole rings
(Tetrapyrrole).
Chlorophyll molecule has a Mg - porphyrin head & phytol tail. Head is hydrophillic & phytol
tail is lipophillic (Hydrophobic).
Size of chlorophyll molecule - head (15 Ao × 15 Ao) and tail (20 Ao)
Cholorophyll (a)
Chlorophyll - a C55H72O5N4Mg  CH3 group in IInd pyrrol ring

Chlorophyll - b C55H70O6N4Mg  CHO group in IInd pyrrole ring
Chl -a is universal pigment, which is found in all O2 librating photosynthetic organisms.
Chlorophyll synthesis -
light
Succinyl CoA + Glycine  Protochlorophyll (Protochlorophyllide)
Chlorophyll
2H
2. Carotenoids (Yellow to yellow orange) -

The first carotenoid was discovered in carrot by Wackenroder and was named carotene.
Carotenoids are the first type of Carotenoids. These are yellow orange in colour. It contains
carbon and hydrogen.
Another carotenoid is xanthophyll that contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. These are usu-
ally yellow in colour.
Among carotenoids, - carotene (type of carotene) and luttein (type of xanthophyll) are
common in plants
Graph (a) showing the ability of pigments to absorb lights of different wavelengths (absorption
spectrum) Chl. - a shows maximum absorption at blue light. It show another absorption at
blue light. It show another absorption peak at red light.
Graph (b) showing the wavelengths at which photosynthesis occurs in a plant (Action spectrum).
The wavelengths at which there is maximum absorption by chlorophyll a, i.e. in the blue
and the red regions, also show higher rate of photosynthesis. Hence, we can conclude that
chlorophyll - a is the chief pigment associated with photosynthesis.

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Absorption spectrum of photosynthesis - Blue red.
Action spectrum of photosynthesis - Red blue
These graphs, together show that most of the photosynthesis takes place in the red and blue
region of the spectrum; some photosynthesis does take place at the other wavelengths of
the visible spectrum. It happens because accessory pigment also absorb light of these
regions and transfer the energy chlorophyll.
Accessory pigments (mainly carotenes), also protect chlorophyll -a (reaction centre) from
photo-oxidation
WHAT IS LIGHT REACTION

Emerson & Arnold worked on chlorella and gave concept of two photosystem or two pig-
ment system.
The groups of photosynthetic pigments in thylakoid membranes are known as photosys-

tem.
The pigments are organised as two discrete photochemical light harvesting complexes (LHC)
within the Photosystem I (PS I) and Photosystem II (PS II).
Photosystem = Reaction centre + LHC
In every photosystem there is a reaction centre (molecule of chlorophyll -a) surrounded by
accessory pigments. The accessory pigments absorb light energy and transfer it to the
reaction centre. These pigments help to make photosynthesis more efficient by absorbing
different wavelengths of light. These molecules are known as antenna molecules or LHC. The
LHC are made up of hundreds (250 - 400 molecules) of pigment molecules bound to proteins.

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The reaction centre is different in both the photosystem. In PS I the reaction centre chlorophyll-
a has an absorption peak at 700 nm. hence is called P700, while in PS II it has absorption peak
at 680 nm, and is called P680.
These are named in the sequence of their discovery, and not in the sequence in which
they function during the light reaction.
The PS II is located in the appressed region of granal thylakoids and PS I is non appressed
region of grana and in stroma thylakoids. (In the other way we can say that granal thylakoids
have both PS I and PS II whereas stroma thylakoids have only PS I).

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THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT, SPLITTING OF WATER AND PHOTO-
PHOSPHORYLATION
(A) Light Rxn./Hill reaction/Photochemical reaction/ Generation of assimilatory power
(NADPH2 + ATPS) photophase.
(I) Z-Scheme/Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation-
Both PS - I and PS - II are involved in Non cyclic photophosphorylation. So It occurs at

grana thylakoids on not in stroma thylaloids because stroma thylakoids lack PS -II as
well as NADP reductase enzymes
Primary e– acceptor from PS -II is pheophytin, which passes electrons to an electrons
transported system (ETS) consisting of cytochromes. This movement of electrons is
downhill, in terms of oxidation-reduction or redox potential.
The electrons emitted from PS -II pass through the electron transport chain to the pigments
of PS I
Simultaneously, electrons in the reaction centre of PS I are also excited when they
receive red light wavelength 700 nm and are transferred to another acceptor molecule (FRS)
and then to Fd. The electrons then move downhill again, this time to a molecule of energy
rich NADP+. The addition of these electrons reduces NADP+ to NADPH + H+ (Protons
from stroma). At every oxidation/reduction of e– carrier take place and energy released which
is utilized in creation of proton gradient to form ATP
This whole scheme of transfer of electrons, starting from the PS II, uphill to the acceptor, down
the electron transport chain to PS I, excitation of electrons, transfer to another accepter, and
finally down hill to NADPH called the Z-scheme, due to its characteristic shape.
This Z-shape is formed when all the carriers are placed in a sequence on a redox
potential scale
The e– ejected from PS- II by absorption of light energy never comeback to Chl-a-680
(reaction centre), gap of e– in PS-II is filled by photolysis of water, as a result, oxygen
evolution occurs in Z-scheme.
Photolysis or splitting of water occurs on the inner side of thylakoid membrane thus
protons and O2 are released in the lumen of thylakoid.

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Quantum Requirement
The no. of light Quanta or photons required for the evolution of 1 molecule of O2 in photo-
synthesis photons.
Quantum Yield
The no. of oxygen molecule evolved by one quantum of light in photosynthesis is called as
Quantum yield. 8 quanta evolve 1 O2. Hence the qunatum yield is 1/8 or 0.125 or 12.5 %)
(II) Cyclic Photophosphorylation
In cyclic photophosphorylation, only PS-I (LHC-I) works.
A possible location where this could be happening is in the stroma lamellae.
During Cyclic ETS, the electron ejected from reaction centre of PS- I, returns back to
its reaction centre. At every step oxidation and reduction of each e– carrier take place which
release the energy and this energy is utilized in creation of proton gradient to form ATP.
In cyclic ETS, no oxygen evolution occurs beacuse photolysis of water is absent.
NADPH + H+ (Reducing power) is not formed in cyclic process. There is only formation of
ATP.
S. No Cyclic photophosphorylation Non Cyclic photophosphorylation

1 Only PS- I is involved in cyclic process Both PS-II & PS-I are involved in non-cyclic process
–
2 First e– acceptor from PS-I is FRS First e aceptor from PS-II is pheophytin
–
The e expelled from reaction center is not cycled
3 The e– expelled from P700 is cycled back. –
back. Its loss is compensated by e from H2O
4 Photolysis of water and evolution of O2 does Photolysis

not take place
of water and evolution of O2 takes place.
+ +
5 NADP+ is not reduce NADP is reduced to NADPH + H

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Chemiosmotic Hypothesis
Proposed by Peter Mitchell (1961) to explain the mechanism of ATP formation (Phosphory-
lation) in chloroplast (During respiration).
According to this hypothesis ATP synthesis is linked to development of a proton

gradient (Difference) of proton (H+) concentration) across a membrane. In chloroplast
these are membranes of the thylakoid.
The steps that cause a proton gradient to develop
(a) Since splitting of water molecule takes place on the inner side of the membrane, the hydrogen
ions that are produces by the splitting of water accumulate within the lumen of the
thylakoids.
(b) As electron move through the photosystems, protons are transported across the membrane.
This happen because the primary accepter of electron (Pheophytin) which is located
towards the outer side the membrane transfers its electron not to an electron carrier but to an
H carrier (Plastoquinon). Hence this molecule removes a proton from the stroma while
transporting an electron. When Plastoquinon passes on its electron to the electron carrier (Fe
protein ‘or’ Cyto-chrome) on the inner side of membrane, the proton is released into the inner
side of the membrane or the lumen side of the membrane
(c) The NADP reductase enzyme is located on the stroma side of the membrane.Along
with electron that come from the accepter of electrons (Fd) of PS I, protons are necessary
for the reduction NADP+ to NADPH+ + H+. These protons are also removed from the
stroma.
Hence within the chloroplast, protons in the stroma decrease in number, while in the lu-
men the accumulation of protons. This creates a proton gradient across the thylakoid
mem-brane as well measurable decrease in pH in the lumen.
This gradient is important because it is breakdown of this gradient that leads to release
of energy. The gradient is broken down due to the movement of protons across the
membrane to the stroma through the transmembrane channel of the F0 of the ATPase

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The ATPase enzyme consists of two parts: one called the F0 is embedded in the membrane
and and forms a transmembrane channel that carries out facilitated diffusion of protons
across the membrane. The other portion is called F1 and produced on the outer surface of
the thylakoid membrane on the side that faces the stroma.
The break down of the gradient provides enough energy to cause a conformational change in the
F1 particle of the ATPase, which makes the enzyme, synthesise several molecules of
energy -packed ATP.
Chemiosmosis require a membrane, a proton pump/H-carrier, a proton gradient and

ATPase.
Energy is used to pump protons across a membrane, to create a gradient or a high concen-
tration of protons within the thylakoid lumen.
WHERE ARE THE ATP AND NADPH USED ? (Dark Reaction/ Biosynthetic phase)
In this process CO2 is reduced to sugar. It is known as dark reaction but it doesn`t mean that
it occurs in dark. This process does not directly depends on the presence of light but is
dependent on the products of the light reaction like ATP and NADPH2 so immediately after light
becomes unavailable, the biosynthetic process continues for some time and then stops.
Reduction of CO2 is a multistep process which waas described by Melvin Calvin and Benson.
Calvin presented these reactions in cyclic manner & thus called as Calvin cycle.
Biosynthetic phase completes in different plants by 3 different pathways -

1. C3 pathway 2. C4 pathway 3. CAM pathway
In C3 pathway, Biosynthetic phase has only Calvin cycle. In C4 and CAM pathway, some
additional reactions also occur before Calvin cycle, during biosynthetic phase.
The CO2 reduction or assimilation into glucose in all photosynthetic plants take place by Calvin
cycle as it is the ultimate pathway of glucose synthesis operated in C3, C4 & CAM Plants.
1. C3 pathway or The Calvin cycle :- /Dark reaction/ Blackman reaction/Biochemical Phase
C3 pathway occurs in stroma of chloroplast of mesophyll cells.

Ist stable compound of Calvin cycle is 3 carbon compound -PGA (Phosphoglyceric acid or
phospho-glycerate) thus Calvin cycle is called C3-cycle. (First compound is unstable, 6C keto
acid-carboxy ketoribitol biosphosphate).
Calvin studies the dark reaction in green algae Chlorella & Scenedesmus. During his experiment
he used chromatography & radioisotopy (C14 radioisotope) techniques for detecting reactions of
C3-cycle
RuBisCO (Ribulose-1, 5-bis-Phosphate carboxylase-oxygenase) is main enzyme in C3-cycle

which is present in stroma. RuBisCO is the most abudant enzyme and protein on earth.

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6 turns of Calvin cycle are required for the formation of one glucose or Fructose as 6 CO2 are
required for the synthesis of one hexose.
12 NADPH + H+ 18 ATP are required as assimilatroy power to produce one Glucose or Fructose
in dark reaction in C3 cycle.
2. C4 pathway/CO2 concentration mechanism/Co-oprative photosynthesis/Dicarboxylic acid

cycle(DCA cycle)/Hatch & Slack Pathway
Kortschak and Hartt first observed that 4C OAA (Oxaloacetic Acid) is formed during dark
reaction in Sugarcane leaves.
Hatch & Slack (1967), Studies it in detail and proposed cyclic pathway for dark reactions in
sugar-cane & maize leaves.
First stable product of this pathway is OAA, which is a 4C, DCA (Dicarboxylic Acid), thus Hatch
& Slack pathway is called C4 cycle or DCA cycle.
C4-cycle occurs in about 1500 sps. of 19 families of Angiosperm, but most of the plants are
monocots (Tropical grasses), which belong to Gramineae & Cyperaceae families. C4 plants are
adapted to hot and dry environment.
E.g. of C4 plants- sugarcane, Maize, Sorghum.

Wheat, Rice and Barley (monocot) are C3 species.
Kranz (Wreath) Anatomy - Presentin leaves of C4 plants. In these plants special green large
cells are found around the vascular bundles in leaves , these are called bundle sheath cells, and the
leaves, which have such anatomy are said to have ‘Kranz anatomy’. ‘Kranz’ means ‘wreath’ and
is reflec-tion of the arrangement of cells.

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The bundle sheath cells may form several layers around the vascular bundles, they are characterised
by-
(i) having a large number of chloroplasts
(ii) thick walls impervious to gaseous exchange
(iii) no intercellular spaces
Dimorphric chloroplasts are present in leaf cells. Chloroplast of B.S. cells or Kranz cells are larger
& without grana (Agranal) but the thylakoids are present only as stroma lamellae. Mesophyll chloro-
plast are small & with grana.
Two types of photosynthetic cells involved in dark reaction of C4 plants, Bundle sheath cells and
mesophyll cells. Thus operation of Hatch and slack pathway requires cooperation of both photosyn-
thetic cells i.e. Mesophyll cells and BS cells. Initial CO2 fixation occurs in mesophyll cells By PEPcase
and final CO2 fixation in BS cells by RuBisCO.
Detail form of C4 Pathway/Hatch and Slack Pathway

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First CO2 acceptor in C4 plants is PEP (Phosphoenol Pyruvate) (3C-compound) in mesophyll
cells, while second CO2 acceptor in RuBP (5C-compound), in bundle sheath cells.
Initial fixation of CO2 in mesophyll cells is catalysed by PEPcase (PEP carboxylase), which results
in the formation of OAA (4C), So called C4 pathway.
Then reduction of OAA take place by NADPH2 results in formation of malic Acid (4C) or transami-
nation of OAA resulting in formation of Aspartic acid (4C).
The malic acid or Aspartic acid (4C) formed in mesophyll cells is transfered to bundle sheath
cells. In B.S. cells the oxidative decarboxylation of malate takes place and CO2 is released
along with pyruvic Acid (3C).
Released CO2 in B.S. Cells isaccepeted by RUBP, catalysed by RuBisCO. The C3 cycle/calvin
cycle operates in B.S. cells with utilization of assimilatory power (18 ATP & 12 NADPH2) resulting
in formation of glucose or fructose.
Pyruvic acid from B.S. cells return to mesophyll cells. It regenerate the PEP (pri. CO2 acceptor) by
utilization of 12 ATP, catalysed by enzymes PPDK (Pyruvate phosphate dikinase). So in C4 plants
total 30 ATP and 12 NADPH2 aree utilized for synthesis of one glucose or Fructose.
C4 plants are twice as efficient as C3 plants in terms of fixing carbon (making sugar). C4 plant loses
only half as much water as a C3 plant for the same amount of CO2 fixed.
C4 plants are special :

(i) They have a special type of leaf anatomy (Kranz anatomy)
(ii) They tolerate higher temperature
(iii) They show a response to high light intensities
(iv) They lack a process called photorespiration so have greater productivity of biomass.

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Photosynthetic carbon oxidation (PCO) cycle/C2 Cycle/Photorespiration/Gly-
colate-Metabolism
The light dependent uptake of O2 & released of CO2 in C3 photosynthetic cells is called
Photorespiration. RuBisCO is characterised by the fact that its active site can binding to both
CO2 andO2 -hence the name. This binding is competitive. It is the relative concentration of O2
and CO2 that determines which of the two will bind to the enzyme. (Usually RuBisCO has a much
greater affinity for CO2 than for O2). Internal CO2 conc. is constant around RubisCO, but
internal O2 conc. is variable due to variable rate of light reaction. When O2 conc. is higher than
CO2 conc. then RubisCO perform oxygenation of RuBP, which leads to phenomenon of
photorespiration.
The reason of photorespiration is same site of O2 evolution/photolysis of H2O and catalytic
activity of RubisCO, this site is Chloroplast of Mesophyll cells.
Conditions for photorespiration - High O2, Low CO2, High light intensity and high temperature.

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Characteristics C3 Plants C4 Plants Choose from
Cell type in which the Calvin
Mesophyll Bundle sheath Mesophyll/Bundle sheath/both
cycle take`s place
Cell type in which the initial
Mesophyll Mesophyll Mesophyll/Bundle sheath/both
carboxylation reaction occurs
Two: Bundle sheath and
mesophyll
How many cell types does One: Mesophyll
One Two
the leaf have that fix CO2 Three: Bundle sheath, palisade,
spongy mesophyll
Which is the primary CO2 acceptor RuBP PEP RuBP/PEP/PGA

Number of carbons in the
5 3 5/4/3
primary CO2 acceptor
Which is the primary CO2
PGA OAA PGA/OAA/RuBP/PEP
fixation product
No. of carbons in the primary CO2
3 4 3/4/5
fixation product
Does the plant have RuBisCO ? Yes Yes Yes/No/Not always
Does the plant have PEP Case ? Yes Yes Yes/No/Not always
Which cells in the plant have Rubisco ? Mesophyll Bundle sheath Mesophyll/Bundle sheath/none
CO2 fixation rate under high
Medium High Low/high/medium
light conditions
Whether phorepiration is present
Negligible Negligible High/neglibible/sometimes
at low light intensities
Whether phorepiration is present
High Negligible High/neglibible/sometimes
at high light intensities
Whether photorespiration would
High Negligible High/neglibible/sometimes
be present at low CO2 concentrations
Whether photorespiration would
Negligible Negligible High/neglibible/sometimes
be present at high CO2 concentrations
o o
Temperature optimum 20-25 C 30-40 C 30-40 C/20-25C/ above 40 C
Examples Wheat Rice Maize Sugarcane Sorghum
In C3 plants some O2 does bind to RuBisCO and hence CO2 fixation is decreased. Here the RuBP
instead of being converted to 2 molecules of PGA, binds with O2 to form one molecule of
phospho-glycerate (3C) and one mole of phosphoglycolate (2C).
In the photo-respiratory pathway there is neither synthesis of sugars, nor of ATP and
NADPH2. Rather it results in the release of CO2 with the utilization of ATP. Therefore, photo
respiration is a wasteful process.
It occurs in chloroplast, peroxisome & mitochondria.
In C4 plants photo-respiration does not occur. This is because they have a mechanism that
increases the concentration of CO2 at the enzyme site. This takes place when the C4 acid (malic
or aspartic acid) from the mesophyll cell is broken down in the bundle sheath cells to release CO2
(CO2 pump-ing), this results in increasing the intracellular concentration of CO2. In turn, this
ensures that the RuBisCO functions as a carboxylase minimizing the oxygenase activity.
Also, in C4 plants, site of O2 evolution (mesophyll cell) and site of RuBisCO activity (Bundle sheath
cell) are different.

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3. CAM-Pathway/ Crassulacean Acid Metabolisn / Dark CO2 fixation
Oleary and Ruhani discovered CAM-process in membranes of of Crassulaceae family. (Succulent
xerophyte plants).
Eg. are - Kalanchoe, Bryophyllum, Sedum, Kleinia , Opuntia, Crassula, Agave, Aloe, Euphorbia spa,
Pineapple, Welwitschia (Gymnosperm) etc.
Primary acceptor of CO2 is PEP (Phosphoenol pyruvate) and OAA (oxaloacetic acid) is the first
product of carboxylation reaction.
In CAM plants stomata are of Scotoactive type (open in night, closed during day) so initial CO2
fixation occurs in night but light reactions and Final CO2 fixation (C3 cycle) occurs in day time.
PEPcase induces carboxylation reaction in night, RuBisCO catalyses the final CO2 fixation in day
time.
PEP carboxylase (PEP case) & RuBisCO both are present in mesophyll cells. (No Kranz-Anatomy)
Final CO2 fixation i.e. calvin cycle occurs during daytime as ATP and NADPH2 are synthesized
during day time.
In CAM plants total 30 ATP and 12 NADPH2 are required for 1 Hexose synthesis.
CAM pathway helps in water conservation.
CAM Pathway

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FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Law of Limiting Factors (by Blackman) :- When a process is affected by a number of factors,
then the rate of process at a time is limited by the factor which is at suboptimal level(less than
optimum value).
CO2 is limiting in clear sky but light becomes limiting in cloudy days and in dense forest or for
plants growing in shade.
EXTERNAL FACTORS -
(1) Light -
With increasing light intensity, rate of photosynthesis also increases but upto a limit, after which other
factors becomes limiting and rate does not increase further. At higher light intensity photooxidation
(solarization) of pigments may occur.
Intensity of light at which rate of photosynthesis becomes equal (or compensate) to rate of
respiration in plants (True respiration + photorespiration) is known as light compensation point.
(Net photosyn-thesis or Net Primary productivity at this point is zero). No exchanges of gases
with atmosphere. This happens at the time of evening & morning.
(2) Temperature -
The dark reactions being enzymatic are temperature controlled. Through the light reactions are also
temperature sensitive they are affected to a much lesser extent.
The C4 plants respond to higher temperature (30o - 40oC) and show higher rate of photosynthesis
while C3 plants have a much lower temperature optimum (20o - 25oC).
CO2 -
Carbon dioxide is the major limiting factor for photosynthesis. The concentration of CO2 is very low
in the atmosphere (between 0.03 and 0.04 percent). Increase in concentration upto 0.05 percent can
cause an increase in CO2 fixation rate, beyond this the levels can become damaging over longer
periods.
The C3 and C4 plants respond differently to CO2 concentrations. At low light conditions neither group
responds to high CO2 conditions. At high light intensities, both C3 and C4 plants show increase in the
rates of photosynthesis
C4- Plants show saturation at about 360lL–1 (0.036% or 360 ppm) while C3 responds to increased
CO2 concentration and saturation is seen only beyond 450lL–1 (0.045% or 450 ppm). Thus current
availability of CO2 levels is limiting to the C3 plants not for C4 plants.
CO2 concn at which CO2 fixation in photosynthesis becomes equal to volume of CO2 released in
respiration is CO2 compensation point.

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CO2 compensation point of C4 plants is 0-10 ppm, for C3 is 25-100 ppm and for CAM is 0-5 ppm.
The fact that C3 plants respond to higher CO2 concentration by showning increased rates of photo-
synthesis leading to higher productivity has been used for some greenhouse crops such as tomatoes
and bell pepper. They are allowed to grow in carbon dioxide enriched atmosphere that leads to higher
yields (CO2 fertilizing effect).
Atmospheric CO2 is not limiting factor for C4 plants and Submerged hydrophytes.
(3) Water -
Less availability of water reduces the rate of photosynthesis (stomata get closed). Besides, water
stress also makes leaves wilt, thus reducing the surface area of the leaves and their metabolic
activity as well.
INTERNAL (PLANT) FACTORS -
(i) Amount of Chlorophyll
(ii) Leaf factor :-
Various leaf factors like number size, leaf age and leaf orientation (leaf angle) affects the photosyn-
thesis.
Internal factors are dependent on genetic predisposition and growth of the plant.
INHIBITORS -
DCMU (Diuron/Dichlorophenyl Dimethyl Urea), CMU (Monuron), PAN, Atrazine, Simazime,
Bromocil, Isocil- inhibits the photosynthesis by blocking PS-II. These stop e– flow between P-680
& PQ.
Diquat, Paraquat (Viologen dyes) inhibit PS-I by stopping e– flow between P-700 & Fd.
All these chemicals are used as herbicides (weedicides) which mostly block ETS.
RED DROP AND EMERSON ENHANCEMENT EFFECT :-

Emerson & Arnold worked on Chlorella and gave the concept of two photosystem or two
pigment systems
When they gave only monochromatic red light, longer than 680 nm wavelength, then quantum
yield suddenly dropped down , this phenomenon was called red drop.
When Emerson gave light, shorter and greater than 680 nm (combined light) then
photosynthetic activity increases, it became more than the sum total of the photosynthetic yield
which was obtained separately in the light of more than 680 nm and less than 680 nm. This was
called Emerson enhance-ment effect.

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FULL FORMS
Pheo. - Pheophytin
PQ. - Plastoquinone
PC - Plastocyanin
LHC - Light Harvesting Complex
OEC - Oxygen Evolving COmplex
Cyto. - Cytochrome
Fd - Ferredoxin
FRS - Ferredoxin
PS - Pigment System
PGA - Phosphoglyceric Acid/Phosphoglycerate
PGAL - Phosphoglyceraldehyde
RUBP - Ribulose-1, 5-Bis Phosphate
RuBisco - Ribulose-1, 5-Bis Phosphate Carboxylase-Oxygenase
PEP - Phosphoenol Pyruvate
OAA - Oxaloacetic Acid
PEPcase - Phosphoenol Pyruvate Carboxylase
PPDK - Pyruvate Phosphate Dikinase
CAM - Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
NADP/TPN - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate/Triphospho pyridine
nucleotide
NAD+/DPN - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide/ Diphospho pyridine nucleotide
FAD Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
-

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RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
Topic Page No.
Introduction 01
Do Plants Breathe? 02
Types of respiration 03
Diagram of Kreb's cycle 06
Shuttle system 09
Fermentation 11
Amphibolic Pathway 12
Respiratory quotient 13
Syllabus
Meristem Atic Tissue, Permanent Tissue, Complex Permanent Tissue,

Tissue System, Dicot Stem, Monocot Stem, Dicot-Root, Monocot root & Leaf of
Structure, Secondary Growth
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
ETOOSINDIA.COM
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RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
INTRODUCTION
Resipration process is connected to the release of energy from food, all the energy re-
quired for life processes is obtained by oxidation of some biomolecules called food.
To get energy there is the requirement of food for all living orgainsms. The photosynthetic organisms
synthesis there food, but animals are heterotrophic, they obtain food from plants direclty (herbi-
vores) or indirectly (carnivores).
Saprotrophs like fungi are dependent on dead and decaying matter.
Ultimately all the food that is respired to release energy for life process, comes from photo-
synthesis.
Steps of respiration in plants -
Exchange of gases b/w plant & enviroment.
Very little transport of gases (If required)
Cellular respiration
In this chapter we deal with the step of respiration which occurs in a cell i.e. cellular respira-
tion.
The breaking of C - C single bond of complex compounds through oxidation within the cells,
leading to release of considerable amount of energy and the trapping of this energy for synthesis of
ATP is called cellular respiration.
During cellular respiration or oxidation within a cell, all the energy contained in compound in com-
pounds is not released in a single step because in single if the complete energy is released it, may
be converted into heat. So the energy during cellular respiration is released in a series of
slow step wise reactions controlled by enzymes and it is trapped as chemical energy in the form
of ATP.
ATP thus synthesised, is broken down whenever and whereever energy needs to be utilised, hence
ATP acts as the energy currency of the cell.
Respiration is a Amphilobic and exergonic cellular process.
The compounds that are oxidised during during the process of cellular respiration are
called respiratory substrates, these are usually carbohydrates but excepts these fats, pro-
teins & organic acids can also be used as respiratory substrates.
Primarly carbohydrates (mainly glucose) are used as respiratory substrate. In the absence or
less availability of carbohydrates, the respiratory substrates can be be fats & proteins.
The sequence of use of repiratory substrates -

(i) Carbohydrate (ii) Fat (iii) Protein
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The amount of energy released by respiratory substrates -
1 gm Fat = 9.45 Kcal (Calorific value) and 9.0 Kcal (Physiological value)
1 gm Protein = 5.65 Kcal (Calorific value) and 4.0 Kcal (Physiological value)
1 gm Carbohydrate = 4.1 Kcal (Calorific value) and 4.0 Kcal (Physiological value)
Organic acids such as malic acid etc. are used as respiratory substrates in succulent xero-
phytes (CAM plants) during day time.
When respiratory substrates are carbohydrates like glycogen, starch , sucrose, hexose or fats, the
respiration is known as Floating respiration.
When protein is oxidised in respiration, then respiration is Known as protoplasmic respiration,

protoplasmic components or cellular proteins may oxidised at the time of starvation & disease.
Oxidation of proteins in legume seeds is floating respiration (stored protein).
SIGNIFICANCE OF RESPIRATION -
1. The energy released during respiration is used for the various metabolic processes.
2. Various chemical substances are formed in this process (carbon skeleton - intermediates
of respiration) which are precursors for synthesis of cellular compounds.
DO PLANTS BREATHE ?
Plants, unlike animlas, have no specilised organs for gaseous exchange but they have sto-
mata and lenticels for this purpose.
There are several reasons why plants can get along without respiratory organs. First, each
plant part takes care of its own gas-exchange needs. There is very little transport of gases
from one plant part to another.
Second, plants do not present great demands for great demands for gas exchange. Roots,
stem and leaves reprise a rates far lower than animals do. Only during photosynthesis are large
volumes of gases exchanged and each leaf is well adapted to take care of its onw needs during these
periods. When cells photosynthesise, available of O2 is not a problem in these cells since O2 is
released within the cell.
Third, the distance that gases must diffuse even in large, bulky plants is not great. Each
living cell of a plant is located quite close to the surface of the plant. In stems, the ‘living’ cells are
organised in thin layer inside and beneath the bark. They also have opening called lenticels. The cells
in the interior are dead and provide only mechanical support. Thus, most cells of a plant have at least
a part of their surface in contact air. This is also facilitated by the loose packing of parenchyma cells
in leaves, stems and roots, which provides interconnected network of air spaces.
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TYPES OF RESPIRATION
Aerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration
(A) Aerobic respiration :- The complete oxidation of food with the use of oxygen and all carbon
released as CO2 is called as aerobic respiration. It occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria.
Enzyme
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O   6CO  + 12H O + 686 Kcal E (38/36 ATP)
cyto & mito 2 2
(B) Anaerobic respiration :- This is incomplete oxidation.
When food is oxidized into alcohol or organic acids without use of oxygen.
During it most of the energy is lost in form of heat. It occurs in cytoplasm and only 2ATP are
produced
Enzyme
C6 H12 O6   2C2 H5OH  2CO2 + less than 7 % of total energy of glucose
cytoplasm
(Ethanol) or (2 ATP)
2C3H6O3
(Latic acid)
MECHANISM OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

(1) Glycolsis/ EMP (Embden, Meyerhof, Parnas) pathway -
In all living organisms whether it is aerobic or anaerobic, the first step in cellular respiration is
partial breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid. It is called glycolsis.
The term glycolysis has originated from the greek words glycos -sugar , lysis means splitting.
The scheme of glycolsis was given by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof & J. Parnas so glycolsis
is often called EMP pathway.
In plants the glucose is derived from sucrose (product of photosynthesis) of from starch
(storage carbohydrate). Sucrose is converted into flucose and fructose by the enzymes
invertase and these two monosaccharides enter the glycolytic pathway.
The glycolysis is common phase between aerobic & anaerobic respiration.
In anaerobic organisms, it is the only process in respiration.
Glycolsis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell, this process is independent of oxygen , it means it
can occurs in both conditions, presence of O2 or absence of O2.
Glycolysis involved a series of ten biochemical enzymatic reaction in cytoplasm.
In Glycolysis, no consumption of oxygen & no libration of CO2 takes place.
In glycolysis, 1 glucose (6C), break down into 2mol. of pyruvic acid (3C) (Partial oxidation).
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2 NADH2, produced during the process enter into ETS (In mitochondria) to produce 4 ATP (if
glycerol phosphate shuttle is present) or 6ATP (if malate aspartate shuttle is present), this ATP
formation is called oxidative phosphorylation.
Substrate level phosphorylation [When the substrate release energy for phosphorylation of ADP
(formation of ATP) without ETS is called as substrate level phosphorylation) forms 4 ATP, 2
ATP consumed , so 2 ATP gained by SLP. (Direct gain).
Two redox equivalent are removed (is the form of two hydrogen atoms) from PGAL and transfered
to a molecule of NAD+.
CONTROL OF GLYCOLYSIS :
In glycolysis first, third and last step are irrversible, these are control point of glycolsis, where
process can be checked of stopped if required.
Step third is the most important control point of glycolsis, this step is regulated by an allos-
terically inhibited by ATP. This enzyme is called pacemaker enzyme of glycolsis.
FATE OF PYRUVIC ACID :

The fate of pyruvic acid depends on the cellular need. On the basis of fate of pyruvic acid,
respiration mechanisms is following 3 types - Aerobic respiration, Alcoholic Fermentation,
Lactic acid Fermentation.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION :
Different steps are -
(1) Glycolsis - Occurs in cytosol/cytoplasm
(2) Formation of Acetyl CoA (Link Reaction) - Matrix of mitochondria
(3) TCA cycle or Kreb`s cycle - Matrix of mitochondria
(4) ETS (Electron Transport System) or ETC (Electron transport Chain) - Occurs in cristae or
inner membrane of mitochondria and Oxidative phosphorylation - Occurs in Oxysome head (F1
particle)
(2) Formation of Acetyl-Co-A : (Link/Gateway reaction)
This process connects Glycolsis and Kreb`s cycle so it is called Link reaction or Gateway
reaction During this process Ist time CO2 is evolved during respiration.
Acetyl Co-A is a connecting link between glycolsis & kreb`s cycle. Decarboxylation and
dehydrogenation (Oxidation decarboxylation) takes place during formation of acetyl Co-A.
Acetyl Co-A is formed in the matrix by enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. (mg++,
LA(Lipoic Acid), TPP (Thiamine pyrrophosphate), NAD+, CoA)
Pyruvate dehy. Complex
2 Pyruvic Acid + 2 Co-A Mg++, LA, TPP 2 Acetyl Co-A + 2CO
(3C) 2NAD+ 2NADH2 (2C)
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(3) Kreb`s cycle / TCA (Tricarboxylic acid) Cycle / CA (Citric acid) cycle :
This cycle was discovered by H.A. Krebs. (Noble prize)
TCA cycle occurs in mitochondria matrix. All the enzymes of TCA cycle cycle, except Suc-
cinate dehydrogenase (in the inner mitochondria membrane) present in matrix.
During Kreb`s cycle acetyl Co-A is completely oxidised into CO2
Kreb`s cycle is also called Citric acid (CA) cycle because Ist Compound is Citric acid (6C) . In
this acid 3 carboxylic group (COOH) are found so process is also called TCA (Tricarboxylic
Acid) cycle
O.A.A. (4C) is the acceptor molecule of Acetyl CoA (2C) in the Krebs cycle. OAA is
reobtained the end of Kreb`s cycle.
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Oxidation or dehydrogenation occurs at 4 places in one Krebs cycle, resluts in the formation of
3NADH2, 1FADH. Along with 1 GTP (ATP) produces by substrate level phosphorylation in each
turn of TCA cycle ( = 12 ATP)
Mitochondria
Pyruvic acid + 4NAD+ + FAD + 3H2O + GDP + Pi matrix
 3CO2 + 4NADH + 4H+ +
FADH2 + GTP (C3H4O3)
(Above equation include both link reaction & Kreb`s cycle)
Mitochondria
Acetyl CoA + 3NAD+ + FAD + 3H2O + GDP + Pi 
matrix 
 2CO + 3NADH + 3H+ + FADH
2 CoA 2
+ GTP
(Above equation is only for Krebs cycle)
Link reaction and kreb`s cycle occurs two times during complete oxidation of 1 hexose
molecule becuase by glycolsis one hexose converts into two pyruvic acid and both the
molecules undergoes separate link reaction and kreb`s cycle.
(4) ETS & Oxidation Phosphorylation (Terminal Oxidation of NADH2 & FADH2) :
All the reduced hydrogen acceptors like NADH + H+ and FADH2 move to the ETS where they
release their hydrogen and get reoxidised to NAD+ & FADH2 . During this process hydrogen
acceptors get reoxidised and ATP are produced.
ETS is the chain of some hydrogen and electron carriers present in the inner mitochon-
drial membrane.
The significance of ETS is to remove hydrogens from reduced hydrogen acceptor NADH
+ H+ & FADH2. During this process hydrogen acceptors get reoxidised and ATP are pro-
duced.
ETS (Respiratory chain) consists of following types of components -

(i) FP (Flavoprotein)/FMN(Flavin Mono Nucleotide)
(ii) Fe-S Protein
(iii) Co-Q (UQ - Ubiquinone)
(iv) Cytochromes
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Now components of ETS and ATP synthase are categorised as follow :
Name of complexes Components of ETS

Complex - I FMN, Fe-S, NADH Dehydrogenase
Complex - II Succinate dehydrogenase, FADH2
Complex - III Cytochrome b-Cyte c 1
Complex - IV (Cytochrome c oxidase) Cyt. a and Cyt a 3 , 2Cu centres
Complex - V ATP synthase / ATPase
CoQ/UQ is a mobile H(e– + H+) carrier and cyt-c is moblie e– carrier. UQ is located within the inner
mitochondrial membrane, cyt-c is a small protein attached to the outer surface (towards PMS) of the
inner membrane.
O2 is last acceptor in oxidative phosphorylation & due to its reduction water is formed.
During each step of mitochondrial ETS, redox reaction occurs and energy is released which is
utilized in creation of proton gradient for the synthesis of ATP in presence of oxygen (Oxidative
phosphorylation).
During the ETS, NADH + H+ gives it`s 2e– /2H+ to FMN in the respiratory chain, thus 3 ATP are
generated, while FADH2 give it`s 2e– /2H+ to CoQ hence only 2 ATP formed during the process of
oxidative phosphorylation.
Enzyme Cytochrome oxidase is responsible for oxdiation fo cyt.a & reduction of O2. (Transfer
of electrons from cytochrome a3 to O2)
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Cyanide (CN) inhibits the activity of cytochrome oxidase (inhibits the oxidation of cyt-a3 &
Reduction of O2)
In mitochondria of some plants alternative oxidase system is present in which ETS continues even
in the presence of cyanide. This type of respiration is known as cyanide resistant respiration or
Alternate electron pathway. Ex. Spinach, Pea.
Chemiosmotic theory / Coupling theory of Oxidative phosphorylation :
During the ETC, of respiration FMN & CoQ can releases H + ions in perimitochondrial
space aross innner mitochondrial membrane leads to creation of proton gradient (pH
gragient) and Electrical potential (difference in charge). Both are collectivelly known as
Proton motive force (PMF).
PMF does not allow stay of H+ ions in Perimitochondrial space (PMS), so they return towards
the matrix through F0 particles selectively. (Facilitated diffusion)
Passage of 2H+ through F0 particle or coupling factor or proton channel leads to synthesis of 1
ATP
Photophosphorylation Oxidative phosphoryration

Occurs in chloroplast during Occurs in mitochondria
photosynthe sis during re spiration
Proton gradient deve lops across the Proton gradient develops across the inner
thylakoid m em brane m itochondrial m e mbrane
For A TP production the source of For A TP production the source of
energy is light e ne rgy e ne rgy is oxidation
SHUTTLE SYSTEM -
Cyosolic or extra mitochondrial or glycolytic 2NADH2 comes at ETS by two type of shuttles
(only in eukaryotes), as mitochondrial membranes are impermeable for NADH2.
(i) Glycerol phosphate shuttle :- (In most of the Eukaryotic cells)
 2NADH2  2FADH2 = 4ATP 1 Glucose = 36 ATP
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Plant Growth & Development # 9
9
(ii) Malate aspartate shuttle :- In Liver Kidney and Heart cells.
 2NADH2 = 6ATP 1 Glucose = 36 ATP
In prokaryotes, shuttle mechanism is absent as there are no membrane bound cell organelles.
The always get 38 ATP from aerobic respiration of 1 glucose molecule.
The Respiratory Balance sheet

(1) EMP - Pathway
(i) ATP forms at substrate level phosphorylation  4 ATP
(ii) ATP produces via ETS (2NADH + H+)  4 ATP or 6 ATP
(iii) ATP consumed in glycolysis  2 ATP
8 ATP or 10 ATP – 2 ATP = 6 ATP or 8 ATP (Net or Total gain)
(2) Link Reaction or Gateway Reaction -

2 NADH + H+ = 6 ATP (via ETS)
(3) Kreb`s Cycle -

(i) ATP produces at substrate level phosphyrylation = 2 GTP/2ATP
6NADH  H   18ATP
(ii) ATP Produces via ETS 
2FADH 2   4ATP
Total by Krebs cycle = 24 ATP
Total   36 ATP or 38 ATP
It is possible to make calculations of the net gain of ATP for every glucose molecule oxidised;
but in reality this can remain only a theoretical exercise. These calulations can be made only
on certain assumptions that :
There is a sequential, orderly pathway functioning, with one substrate forming the next and with
glycolsis, TCA cycle and ETS pathway following one after another.
The NADH synthesised in glycolsis is transfered into the mitochondria and undergoes oxidative
phosphorylation.
None of the internediates in the pathway are utilised to synthesise any other compound.
Only glucose is being respired - no other alternative substrates are entering in the apathway at any of
the intermediary stages.
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10
But this kind of assumptions are not really valid in a living system; all pathways work simul-
taneously and do not take place one after another; substrates enter the pathways and are withdrawn
from it as ans when necessary; ATP is utilised as and when needed; enzymatic rates are controlled
by multiple means. Yet, it is useful to do this exercise to appreciate the beauty and effciency
of the living system in extraction and storing energy.
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION OR FERMENTATION
Fermentation takes place under anaerobic conditions in many prokaryotes, unicellular

eukaryotes and in germinating seeds.
Examples of Anaerobic respiration or fermentation :
(1) Lactic acid anaerobic, respiration : In human mus les (during exercise when oxygen is
inadequate).
(2) Alcoholic fermentation : In yeast.
Alcoholic fermentation is used in the formation of beverages (alcoholic drinks) and Bread.
Break become puffed or spongy due to release of CO2 during the process.
In Anaerobic respiration or fermentation the net gain of ATP is 2 ATP because during the
process in glycolysis, 4 ATP are synthesised by the substrate level phosphorylation and 2 ATP are
consumed, so net gain = 4 – 2 = 2 ATP
(The 2 NADH + H+ produced during glycolysis do not enter into ETS, but they are utilised
in order to form alcohol or lactic acid)
Lactic acid fermentation is also performed by bacteria Clostridium butyricum. It is used in

curing of tea tanning of leather, retting of fibres, processing of tobacco.
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In areobic respiration, there is an external final electron acceptor .e. O2.
In fermentation, there is no external electron accepetor. The final electron acceptor is

organ intermediate of the process.
Aerobic Respiration Fermentation

1. In the presence of O2 In the absence of O2
2. Glucose completely oxidised Partially oxidised
3. Products are CO2, H2O & energy Products are lactic acid or ethly alcohol & CO2
and energy
4. Net gain of 36 or 38 ATP Net gain of 2 ATP
5. Completes in cytoplasm & mitochondria Completes in cytoplasm only
6. Oxidation of NADH + H+ to NAD+ is NADH.H+ is oxidised to NAD+ slowly.
very Vigorous (fast)
RESPIRATION - AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY

Respiration is not only catabolic process but also anabolic process as it provides many
intermediates for biosynthesis of complex organic compound like fat, proteins etc.
Succinyl Co-A is important for the synthesis of porphyrin ring containing compounds like
Chlorophylls, a-ketoglutaric acid (5C) is involved in various amino acid formation.
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12
RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (R.Q)
ternal elongation just prior to flowering in Rosette plants (Beet and Cabbage), this phenom-
enon is known as Bolting effect.
The ratio of the volume of CO2 released to the volume of O2 consumed, in respiration is called R.Q.
vol.of CO 2 liberated
R.Q. 
vol.of O 2 consumed
Value of R.Q. depends upon the type of respiratory substrate used & measured by Ganong`s
respirometer.
(1) Carbohydrates :- R.Q. = 1

C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O  6CO2 + 12 H2O + E
(2) Fat / Oil  R.Q. = 0.70 or R.Q. < 1

2C51 H98 O6 (Tripalmitin) + 145O2  102 CO2 + 98 H2O + E
Fatty seeds germination -cator, R.Q. < 1
(3) Incomplete oxidation of carbohydrates :-
In CAM plants during night :- R.Q. = 0

2C6H12O6 + 3O2  3C4H6O5 + 3H2O + Energy
(4) Organic acids :- (In succulent xerophytes (CAM plants) at day time)
Malic acid :- R.Q. = 1.33

C4H6O5 + 3O2  4CO2 + 3H2O + Energy
Oxalic acid R.Q. = 4

2(COOH)2 +O2 
 4CO2 + 8H2O + Energy
Citric acid R.Q. 1.3

2C6H8O7 + 9O2 
 12CO2 + 8H2O + Energy
(5) Protein :- R.Q. = 0.9 or < 1
(6) Anaerobic respiration :- RQ =  (Infinite)

C6H12O6  2C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + Energy

2CO 2
RQ =   (Infinite)
0O 2
RESPIRATION EFFICIENCY :
273.6 Kcal
1 glucose = 686 Kcal. 36 ATP × 7.6 Kcal. = × 100 = 39.88 = 40 %
686
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13
PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Topic
1. Growth 01
2. Differentiation, dedifferentiation, 03
redifferentiation
3. Plant Growth regulators 05
4. Gibberelins 06
5. Ethylene 08
6. Photoperiodism 10
Syllabus
Plant growth and development
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
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PLANT GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH
Growth is a characteristic feature of all living organisms.
Growth is an irreversible increase in size of an organ or its part or even of an individual cell.
Growth is accompanied by metabolic processes, that occurs at the expense of energy.
PLANT GROWTH GENERALLY IS INDETERMINATE

In plants growth continues throughout their life, so it is called as indeterminate or unlimited
growth.
Meristem continously divides and add new cells to the plant body, such activity of meristem is called
as open form of growth or indeterminate growth.
Growth is diffused in animals but growth in plant is localised. (Presence of meristem at certain
locations in plant body.)
Seed germination is the first step of plant growth. Almost all the plants face a period of
suspended growth.
If the suspension of growth is due to exogenously controlled factors (environmental factors) then
it is called quiescence.
When the suspension of growth is due to endogenously controlled factors (hormonal, genetic)
then it is termed as dormancy.
GROWTH IS MEASURABLE
At cellular level growth can be measured by measuring the increases in the amount to
protoplasm but it is very difficult to measure directly, so growth is measured by a variety of
parameters, they are
(a) Increase in fresh weight
(b) Increase in dry weight
(c) Increase in surface area/volume
(d) Increase in number or size of cells
Growth is measured by Auxanometer.
PHASES OF GROWTH
(1) Cell division or cell formation or meristematic phase: Number of cells is increased by
cell division in this phase. The cells of this region have rich protoplasm and conspicuous
nuclei, thin and primary cell wall & abundant plasmodesmatal connections.
(2) Cell enlargement or cell elongation phase: Size of cells is increased due to vacuolation &
TP (Tugor pressure) and new cell wall depositions in this phase.
(3) Cell maturation or differentiation phase : Cell wall thickening and Protoplasmic
modifications.
Qualitative changes in cells is important feature of this phase. It leads to formation of
mature tissues.
GROWTH RATE
Increased growth per unit time is termed as growth rate.
The growth rate shows an increase that may be arithmatic or geometric.
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(a) Arithmatic growth : In arithmatic growth only one daughter cell among the two further di-
vides while other differentiates and become mature (stop dividing).
Meristematic cell/Cells capable of division
Differentiated cell/Cells that lose capacity to divide
Ex. Root & Shoot elongation at constant Rate.
Height of plant
It is methamatically expressed as
Lt = L0 + rt where Lt : length at time ‘t’
L0 - length at time ‘zero’
r - growth rate/elongation per unit time.
It`s curve is linear. Time
(b) Geometric Growth : Here both the progeny cells following mitotic divisions retain the ability
to divide and continue to do so.
Ex: Early embryonic development/division in zygote, division in unicellular organism.

It is mathematically represented as
W1 = W0ert
where W1 - final size (weight, height, number etc.)
W0 - initial size at the begining of period.
r - growth rate
e - base of natural logarithms.
Steady/ stationary phase

S iz e/w t. of organ
Log/Exponential phase
Lag phase
Time
In most systems the initial growth is slow (lag phase) and it increases rapudly thereafter at an
exponential rate (log or exponential phase), it is also called as “grand phase of growth”.
However, with limited nutrient supply, the growth slows down leading to a stationary phase or
steady phase. If we plot the parameter of growth against time, we get typical sigmoid or S-curve.

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A sigmoid curve is a characteristic of living organisms growing in a natural enviroment. It is typical
for all cells, tissue and organs of a plant.
r = relative growth rate and is also the measure of the ability of the plant to produce new
plant material, referred to as efficiency index.
Absolute and Relative growth rates :

Absolute growth rate : Total growth which occurs in unit time in plant or plant parts.
Relative growth Rate : Total growth which occurs in unit time with respect to initial param-
eter in plant or plant parts. Relative growth rate is generally high young developing plant parts.
10 cm2
55 cm2
5 cm
2
50 cm
2 Time period = 7 days
Ex:
B
A
Both posses same absolute growth rate i.e. 5 cm2 in 7 days.

But high relative growth rate is in leaf ‘A’ about 100 % while in leaf ‘B’ it is about 10 %.
CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH -

Water, oxygen and nutrients are very essential for growth. The plant cells grow in size by cell
enlargement which in turn requires water. Turgidity of cells helps in extension growth. Thus,
plant growth and further development is intimately linked to the water status of the plant.
Water also provides the medium for enzymatic activities needed for growth.
Oxygen helps in releasing metabolic energy essential for growth activities. Nutrients (marco
and micro essential elements) are required by plants for the synthesis of protoplasm act as
source of energy.
DIFFERENTIATION, DEDIFFERENTIATION AND REDIFFEREN-

TIATION -
Cells produced after divison (mitosis) in meristem transform or differentite theirselves according
to speed function. This act leading to maturation of cells is called as differentiation e.g.
formation of primary permanent tissues like parenchyma etc.
The living and differentiated cells sometimes again have to divide according to the requirements of
plants. For this purpose these cells regain their dividing capacity, this phenomenon is called as
dedifferentiation.
e.g formation interfascicular cambium from the differentiation permanent parenchymatous cells
are formation of cork cambium from hypodermis.
Such dedifferenttiated cells divide and produce the cells that once again lose the capacity to divide,
but mature to perform specific functions, this is called as redifferentiation. Example of redifferentiated
tissues and secondary xylem, secondary phloem, secondary cortex etc.

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Differentiation in plants is open, because cells/ tissue arising out of the same meristem
have different structures at maturity and some of them have the ability to return to division stage.
The final structure at maturity of a cell/tissue is also determined by the location of the
cell within For example, cells positioned away from root apical meristems differentiate as root-
cap, while the pushed to the periphery mature as epidermis.
DEVELOPMENT
Cell division Death
Senescence
Meristematic cell Plasmatic growth Differentiation
Expansion (Elongation) Maturation Mature cell
Plants follow different pathways in response to environment or phases of life to form differ-
ent kinds of structures. The ability is called plasticity, e.g. heterphylly in cotton, conriander
and larkspur. In such plants, the leaves of the juvenile plant are different in shape from those in
mature plants. (Internal plasticity)
On the other hand, difference in shapes of leaves produced in air and those produced in water in
buttercup also represent the heterophyllous development due to environment (Environmental
plas-ticity). This phenomenon of heterophylly is an example of plasticity.
Development is considered as as the sum of growth and differentiation, which is controlled

by both extrinsic (environmental) and intrinsic (internal) factors.
(i) Extrinsic factors - light, temperature, water, oxygen, nutrition.

(ii) Intrinsic factors - genetic factor (intracellular) and PGR (Intercellular)
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PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS (PGRs)
PGRs are also called plant growth substances or plant hormones or phytochormones.
PGRs are of two types -
(1) Plant growth promotors :

(i) Auxins (ii) Gibberellin (iii) Cytokinin
(2) Plant growth inhibitors :

(iv) Abscisic acid (v) Ethylene
Characteristic ‘or’ chemical nature pf plant growth regulators :

The plant growth regulators (PGRs) are small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition.
They could be
(i) Indole compounds (indole-3-acetic acid = IAA) Auxin
(ii) Adenine derivatives (N6-fufurlamino purine = kinetin) Cytokinin
(iii) Derivatives of carotenoids (abscisic acid = ABA)
(iv) Terpenes (gibberellin acid = GA3) Gibberellin
(v) Gases (ethylene = C2 H4 ).
AUXIN
DISCOVERY
Term Auxin derived from Greek word ‘auxein’ which means to grow.
First of all Charles Darwin & Francis Darwin (son of C. Darwin) observed the process of
phototropism.
They observed coleoptile bending in Canary grass (Phalaris), responded to unilateral
illumination.
After a series of experiments, it was concluded that the tip of coleoptile washe site of
transmittable influence (Auxin) that caused the bending of the entire coleoptile. Auxin was
isolated by F.W. Went from the tips of coleoptiles of oat seedlings..
Biosynthesis of auxin occurs by tryptophan Aminoacid in the presence of Zn++ ion.
Now IBA (Indole Butyric acid) have also been isolated from plants (natural auxin) but IAA
(Indole Acetic Acid) is mostly widely occuring auxin in plants.
Biosynthesis of auxin occurs at both shoot and root apex and transport of auxin is basipe-
tal.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF AUXIN -

(1) Apical Dominance (Characteristic function of auxin) :- The phenomenon in which apical bud
dominates the growth of lateral buds is called Apical Dominance.
Removal of shoot tips (decapitation) usually results in the growth of lateral buds. It is
widely applied in tea plantations, hedge-making.
(2) Cell Division & Cell Enlargement: Mainly cell elongation. Help in cell division. Auxin also
controls the xylem differentiation.
(3) Root initiation :- Rooting on stem cuttings (widely used in plant organs propagation) is
promoted by IBA & NAA.

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(4) Preventtion of Abscission :- IAA, NAA prevent premature abscission of plant organs. Pro-
mote the abscission of older mature Leaves & Fruits.
(5) Flower initiation : - Auxin promotes flowering in Pineapple & Litchi plants.
(6) Parthenocarpy :- Seed less fruits can be produced by spray of IAA e.g. Tomato.
(7) Selective weed killer :- 2, 4-D is widely used to kill Dicot weeds, does not affect monocot
plants.
2, 4-D + 2, 4, 5-T = Agent orange. It is used to prepare weed free lawns.
Synthetic Auxins -
NAA - Napthalene acetic acid.
2, 4-D - 2, 4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid.
2,4,5-T - 2, 4, 5-Trichloro phnoxy acetic acid.
GIBBERELLINS
DISCOVERY -
First of all Japanese farmers observed symptoms of the disease in rice seedlings & called it bakanae
disease (Foolish seedling disease)
Kurosawa and Sawada confirmed that rice plants become thin, tall & pale due to infection of
fugus Gibberella fujikuroi (Ascomycetes).
Yabuta and Sumiki were first to extrat a crystalline substance from the Gibberella fungus to which
named Gibberellin.
More than 100 type of Gibberellin (GA1, GA2 GA3 ...........GA100) are known. GA3 [C19H26O6] is
representation of all Gibberellins.
They are synthesised in buds, shoot, root and germinating seeds.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF GIBBERELLINS -

(1) Stem/internode elongation (characterstic function of gibberellins) :- Gibberellins induce in-
ternal elongation just prior to flowering in Rosette plants (Beet and Cabbage), this phenom-
enon is known as Bolting effect.
(2) Elongation of genetically dwarf plants :- When gibberellins are applied to dwarf Maize, Pisum
plants then they become tall.
(3) Seed germination :- Gibberellins induces the synthesis of hydrolysing enzymes like a-amylase,
Lipas Proteases in seeds and these enzymes help in seed germination by promoting breakdown of
endosperm.
(4) Fruit & Flower enlarger :- Size of grape fruits and length of stalk of bunch is increased by
GA Pomalin  GA +CK – used as apple enlarger..
(5) In fermentation : - GA increases malt formation. (Malting process) so helpful in brewing

(wine) inducance

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(6) Increase height of Sugarcane plant :- GA can increase the yield in sugarcane upto 20
tonnes acre.
(7) GA delays the senescence in plant parts so the fruits can be left on the tree longer so as to
extend market period ny application of GA.
(8) Spraying juvenile conifers with GAs, hastens the maturity period, thus leading to early
seed duction.
CYTOKININ (CK)
DISCOVERY
F.Skoog and his coworrker observed in tobacco that callus can proliferate only if, in addition to
auxin nutrient medium was supplemented with one of the substance like extract of vascular
tissues, extract , coconut milk of DNA.
Skoog and Miller later identified and crystellised an active substance from autoclaved DNA
of Herring sperm , which stimulated cell division (mainly Cytokinesis). They named this
substance as kinetin does not occur naturally in plants.
The first natural cytokinin was identified & crystalized from immature corn grains (corn ker-
nels) coconut milk by Letham & named it as Zeatin.
Cytokinins are derivative of Adenine nitrogen base.
Root tips are major sites of biosynthesis of CK. Also synthesised in developing shoot
buds,fruits etc.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CYTOKININS -

Cell Division (Characteristic function of cytokinin)
Morphogenesis :- Morphogenetic changes (root and shoot development) are induced by CK in
presence of IAA in tissue culture.
Low CK High CK
  shoot differentiation
High Auxin root differentiation Low Auxin
Counteraction of apical dominance :- C.K. promotes growth of lateral buds.

Delay in senescence (Richmond Lang Effect) :- Senescence is delayed by CK because they
improves the pholem condition and nutrient mobilisation. Also help to produce chloro-
plasts in leaves.
Promots lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot formation.
ABSCISIC ACID (ABA)

DISCOVERY -
First Growth Inhibitor -was identified and isolated by Bennet Clark (1953) and Ketford
from dormant Potato tuber and called Inhibitor-B.
Addicott & Okhuma isolated a substance from mature cotton fruits and named it as
Abscission - II.
Warning & Robinson isolated a growth inhibitor from old Betula leaves & called it Dormin.
Later it was proved that inhibitor - B, Abscission-II & Dormin are same and they were

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regarded as Abscisic acid.
ABA is mainly synthesised in senescent organs, old leaves.
ABA is also known as stress hormone because it protects plants from adverse conditions
like water stress by inducing closing of stomata. ABA increases tolerance of plants to
varioustype of stresses.
Common growth inhibitor in plants is ABA.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ABA -
Induces senesence and abscission - ABA cause senscence and abscission of leaves and fruits
by increasing the activity of cellulase & pectinase enzymes.
Induce Bud &Seed Dormancy - ABA increases bud & seed dormancy (Inhibits seed ger-
mination).
ABA plays a major role in seed maturation enabling seeds to become dormant. Stomatal
closing - ABA close stomata under the water stress conditions. (Anti transpirant).
In most situations ABA act as an antagonist of GAs (Anti GA)
ETHYLENE
DISCOVERY -
Ethylene can be included in both groups growth promotor and growth inhibitor but
mainly it is a growth inhibitor hormone.
Ethylene is a simple gaseous PGR. It is a hydrocarbon reported as a fruit ripening hormone.
H.H. Cousins confirmed the release of volatile substance from ripened oranges that has-
tened the ripening of stored unripened bananas. Later this volatile substance was identified as
ethylene, a gaseous PGR.
Biosynthesis of Ethylene takes place by methionine amino acid. Ethylene is synthesised in large
quantity by ripening fruits and senescent organs.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ETHYLENE -
(1) Post harvest ripening of fruits - Citrus, Oranges , Banana, Apple, Tomato etc. Now a
days Ethephonyl CEPA (Chloroethyl Phosphonic acid) is used at commerical level as
source of ethylene. Ethylene enhancement the respiration rate during ripening of the fruits. this
is called respiratory climactic.
(2) Stimulation of senescence & abscission of flower and fruit. Thinning of cotton, cherry,
walnut.
(3) Flowering and synchronising fruiting in pineapple. Flowering in mango.
(4) Triple response on stem :- (i) Apical hook formation in dicots seedlings
(ii) Swelling of axis
(iii) Horizontal growth of seedlings

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(5) Promotes root growth :- Ethylene promotes root growth and also stimulates the formation of
root hairs, thus helping the plant to increase their absorption surface.
(6) Femaleness (Ferminising effect) in cucumbers. (Promotes female flowers to increase the
production
(7) Ethylene breaks seed and bud dormancy, initiates germination in peanut seeds, sprouting
of potato tubers.
(8) Ethylene promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation in deep water rice plants. It helps
leaves/upper parts of the shoot to remain above water.
PHOTOPERIODISM
Effect or requirement of relative length of day (photoperiod) & night (dark phase) on flowering of
plants called as photoperiodism.
The phenomenon of photoperiodism was first discovered by Garner & Allard on Maryland mam-
moth (mutant veriety of Tobacco) and Biloxy soyabean.
Garner & Allard classified the plants in following groups -
(1) SDPs (Short Day Plants) :-
These plants flower on exposure to photoperiod shorter than their Critical day length.
In SDPs the dark period is critical and must be continuous. Thus SDP are also called as LNP
(Long Night Plants). If this dark period is interrupted even with a brief exposure of light,
the SDP will not flowering.
Examples of SDPs :- Tobacco, soyabean, Viola Xanthium (Cocklebur), Chrysanthemum, Can-

nabis Coleus, Chenopodium, Musturd, Dahlia, Sugarcane, Strawberry, Cosmos, Rice, Bryo-
phyllum etc.
(2) LDPs (LongDay Plants) :-
These plants flowers when they are exposed to photoperiod longer than their critical day
A brief exposure of light in the dark period stimulates flowering in LDPs.
The light period is critical for LDPs.
Gibberellin can induce flowering in LDPs even under non-inductive photoperiod condi-
tion.
Ex. : Henbane (Hyoscyamus), Spinach, Sugarbeets, Radish, Carrot, Wheat, Larkpur, Bar-
ley, Avena Potato.

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(3) DNPs (Day Netrual Plants) :-
These plants do not need a specific light period for the flowering.
Ex. Maize, Cotton, Tomato, Sunflower, Cucumber
Phytochrmoe :-
A light sensitive pigment phytochrome is responsible for flowering induction and present in
leaves.
Phytochorme exists in two different forms -
Pr (Phytochrome Red)
Pfr (Phytochrome Far Red)
Both forms of phytochrome are photobiochemically interchangeable into each other.
Pr Red light (660 NM) Pfr

In LDP flowering inhibit Far red light (730 NM) In SDP flowering inhibits
Dark
In SDP stimulates In LDP stimulates
Phytochrome - Pfr (P730) is active form which controls many photophysiological processes in plants
like - flowering, seed germination etc.
Stimulation of Critical photoperiod is perceived by leaves.
“Florigen”, Hypothetical hormone (not isolated yet from plants) which migrates from leaves
to shoot apical for inducing flowering.
VERNALISATION OR YAROVIZATION
Effect of low temperature on the initiation and development of flowers, was first realised
by Klippart (Experiments on winter wheat and Spring wheat)
Mainly embryo tip, shoot apex & leaves perceive stimulus of low temperature.
Concept of hormone ‘Vernalin’ in vernalisation was given by Melcher. This is a hypothetical

plant hormone because has not been isolated.

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Vernalisation of seeds or plant propagules in laboratory can be induced at 1oC to 10oC in pres-
ence of O2 & H2O.
If vernalized plant propagules are kept at high temperature then effect of vernalisation is reversed,
this is called devernalization.
Two types of varieties are found in wheat, barley and rye (cereal) -winter and spring vari-
ety. Winter varieties require vernalisation whereas spring varieties do not.
Sugar beet, Cabbage, carrot etc. are biennial plants.
Significance :-
(i) Better & early flowering.

(ii) Prevention of precocious reproductive development late in the growing season.
(iii) Shorting the life span of the plants.
PLANT SENESCENCE
Period from maturity to death of an organ or plant is know as senescence.
During the senescencem higher rate of catabolism is started, under the control of growth hormones
like ABA and ethylene. Senescence occurs as a result of ageing and leads to the death of plant
parts or whole plant. (Study of senescence and ageing is Phy-Gerontology)
ABSCISSION
Detechment of senecent or mature plant organs like leaves, fruits, flowers due to change
in hormonal activity.
There is the formation of separation layer (Abscission layer) at the region of attachment of these
parts. Cell wall layers and middle lamella are dissolved by the activity of cellulase and
pecitinases enzymes during the abscission.
Hormone ABA is main controller of abscission process.

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Transport In Plants
Topic Page No.
Ascent of SAP 01- 05

Exercise - I 06 - 28
Answer Key 29 - 29
Exercise - II & Answer Key 30 - 36
Exercise - III & Answer Key 37 - 39
Mineral Nutrition 40 - 49
Plant Water Relation 50 - 58
Absorpstion of water by Plants 59 - 64
Transpiration 65 - 73
Syllabus
Transport In Plants
Mineral Nutrition, Plant Water Relation, Absorpstion of water by Plants,
Transpiration
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
ETOOSINDIA.COM
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ASCENT OF SAP
INTRODUCTION
 Upward conduction of water from roots to leaves through stem against force of gravity is called ascent
of sap.
 The inorganic substances dissolved in xylem water are called sap.
PROBLEMS RELATED TO ASCENT OF SAP

(A) Path of Ascent of sap (B) Mechanism of Ascent of Sap
(A) Path of Ascent of Sap :

 The path of ascent of sap is xylem though exact mechanism is not clear.
 Important evidences -
(i) Ringing or Girdling Experiment (ii) Staining Experiment
(i) Ringing or Girdling Experiment :
Plant
Bark removed
Water
Fig.: Girdling Experiment : To show xylem as path of ascent of sap
 Malpighi (1671), Stephen Hales (1731) and Hartig (1837) proved by ringing experiment that ascent
of sap not occurs through phloem or food conduction occurs by phloem.
 When ring or girdle upto 2-3cm of Bark (Secondry Phloem) is removed, the branches remain healthy.
 Ringing experiment cannot be performed in monocots due to presence of scattered vascular bundles
in stem.
 Conclusion - Phloem is food conducting tissue or phloem is not water conducting tissue.
(ii) Staining Experiment–
 When a cut shoot of Balsam plant is dipped in solution of Eosine, only xylem tissue is found stained.
 Blockage experiment - By Dixon, xylem is blocked by wax.
 From above observations following conclusions can be drawn-
Main path for ascent of sap is through xylem cavities.
1
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Fig.: Phloem blocked Fig.: Xylem blocked
MECHANISM OF ASCENT OF SAP

Two types of theories have been proposed for the mechanism of ascent of sap.
(i) Vital Force Theory (ii) Physical Force Theory
(i) Vital Force Theory :
According to this theory ascent of sap is due to vital activities of cells or living cells are responsible
for ascent of sap. Main Supporters of this theory are -
 Westermaier (1884) was of the opinion that xylem parenchyma is responsible for ascent of sap.
Tracheids and vessels only function as water reservoir.
 Godlewski (1884) gave clambering force theory or relay pump theory :
(i) According to this theory cells of xylem parenchyma and medullary rays shows rhythmic changes
in osmotic pressure which causes upward movement of water.
(ii) When O.P. value of parenchyma rises, they absorb water from adjoining xylem vessel. Water rises up
in parenchyma due to atmospheric pressure.
 J.C. Bose - Pulsation theory :
Fig : Electric Probe Experiment
(i) According to which innermost layer of cortex (=just outside the endodermis) is responsible for ascent of sap.
(ii) He concluded that these cells pulsate like heart and push water into the xylem cavity leading to
ascent of sap.
(iii) He verified this with the help of electric-probe experiment. When electric probe reached in innermost
layer of cortex, vibrations in galvanometer were observed.
(iv) Bose performed his experiment in Desmodium gyrans (a member of Papilionatae).
 Strasburger (1891) proved experimentally that living cells are not essential for ascent of sap.
Ascent of sap can occur even after making the live cells dead by poisoning them (using Picric acid,
HgCl2 etc.)
 Root Pressure Theory (By Priestlye) :
Root pressure is respobsible for ascent of sap.
2
Objections -
 Root pressure is absent in woody plants, as secondry growth occurs in wood plant roots.
 When root pressure is high, during night, then ascent of sap is low.
(ii) Physical Force Theories :
Supporters of this theory are of opinion that forces responsible for upward conduction of water are
physical in nature and even dead cells can conduct water.
 Capillary force theory : - Proposed by Boehm. Xylem vessels acts as capillaries and water rises
up due to capillary action.
 Jamin’s Theory : - Also known as chain theory.
 According to Jamin, there are alternate regular layers of water and air in vessels.
 Ascent of sap occurs due to expansion of air.
 Imbibition force theory :
 Proposed by Unger (1868) and supported by Sachs (1878).
 According to this theory imbibition by thick walls of xylem vessels is responsible for ascent of sap.
 Sachs considered hydrophilic colloidal substances present in cell wall of vessels to be responsible
for this process.
 Transpiration pull-cohesion force theory :
 This theory was proposed by Dixon and Jolly (1894).
 Most accepted or universally accepted theory of ascent of sap. According to it three components
are involved in ascent of sap.
(a) Cohesion : Mutual attraction between the water molecule is called cohesion force, which helps
in forming water coloum in xylem elements.
(b) Adhesion : Attraction between xylem walls and water molecules is called adhesion force,
which helps in maintainance of water coloumn of xylem.
(c) Transpiration Pull : A tension or negative pressure develops in xylem due to rapid transpiration in
leaves (because of high DPD), this creates a transpiration pull, which is responsible for the pulling up of
water column in xylem. So ascent of sap is constitutive effect of cohesion, adhesion and transpiration pull.
Water loss due to
Transpiration
Water loss due to

Transpiration
Leaf
Stem
Xylem strand
From roots
Towards roots
Ascent of sap Transpiration pull

(Water moving towards leaves) (Water moving towards leaves)
Transpiration pull (tension) and ascent of sap
3
FACTORS AFFECTING ASCENT OF SAP
 Amount of water in Soil
 Temperature
 Atmospheric humidity
 Atmospheric pressure
 Movement of wind
 Number of stomata in leaves
 Besides them, all other factors which affects root pressure and transpiration process, also affects
ascent of sap directly or indirectly.
FOOD TRANSILOCATION IN PLANTS
 Food/organic material conduction in plants mainly occurs by phloem. (Proved by Girdling experiment).
 Food conduction occurs in between source and sink. Source is net exporter while sink is net importer.
 Generally green photosynthetic plant parts acts as source like leaves while non photosynthetic parts
like root, shoot, fruits acts as sink.
 Food conduction may be in any required direction or bidirectional unlike the water conduction which
is a unidirectional process.
 Translocation of food mainly occurs in the form of sucrose or it is non-reducing sugar and chemically
inert in it’s pathway of conduction.
 Pressure flow/mass flow hypothesis of food/sucrose translocation - Given by E. Munch (1930).
This is the most accepted theory of food conduction in plants.
According to it food translocation occur in between source and sink in order of turgor pressure gradient
i.e., high T.P. to low T.P.
 Phloem loading/sucrose loading at source  It is an active process occurs with expenditure of ATP
and helped by carrier molecules. At source due to phloem loading concentration of sieve cells increase,
results in increase in osmotic pressure and water will moves from nearby xylem into sieve cells results
in increase in turgor pressure (T.P.) and increase in water potential ( W ). It establish a higher T.P
at source end in sieve tubes. Sucrose moves from source in sieve tube towards sink from high T.P./
High to towards the low T.P./low W.
 Phloem unloading/sucrose unloading at sink  It is also active process occurs with expenditure
of ATP and helped by carrier molecules. At sink sucrose is unloaded results in decrease in osmotic
pressure (O.P.), it results in exit of water into near by xylem leads to decrease in Turgor pressure (T.P.)
and water potential ( W ) of phloem. In sink cells the unloaded sucrose is either changed into starch
(as starch not change O.P.) or consumed, to maintain low O.P. and continuous unloading .
 The translocation of food between source and sink end is passive process as occurs in order of T.P.
or  W gradient.
 So, the process of sucrose loading at source and unloading at sink continues. This turgor pressure
difference will maintained and water will continue to move in at soure and out at sink.
 This mechanism was experimentally demonstrated by Bimodel exp. of Munch.
4
 According to evidences of modern research phloem conduction is an active process (only phloem
loading and unloading) and it required metabolic energy of phloem cells.
High T.P./High w
H2O
Carriers
Glucose
O.P., T.P.  ADP
w 
Source - Phloem Loading
H2O
Sucrose
ATP
Low T.P. Low w

H2O
O.P. , T.P. ADP Carriers
w 
Sucrose
H2 O ATP
Sink - Phloem Unloading
Starch,
Consumed
Xylem Phloem
Fig.: Sucrose Translocation in Plants
5
EXERCISE - I
DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS & RELATED TERMS Q.8 What statement can be cited for 10% sodium
Q.1 The physical process involved in the release chloride solution and 10% sugar solution
of molecular oxygen from leaves is : - present ?
(1) Diffusion (2) Transpiration (1) Both have equal OP
(3) Osmosis (4) Capillarity (2) The concentration of sodium chloride
solution will be less than concentration
Q.2 Who is called father of plant physiology ? of sugar solution
(1) K.V. Thimann (2) Stephan Hales (3) The OP of sugar solution will be higher
(3) M. Calvin (4) E. Rabinowitch than OP of sodium chloride solution
(4) DPD of sodium chloride solution will be
Q.3 Who is called father of Indain plant physiology? higher than DPD of sugar solution
(1) J.C. Bose (2) Calvin
(3) R. Mishra (4) K.K. Nanda Q.9 If a plant cell is immersed in water, the water
continues to enter the cell until the : -
Q.4 One molar solution of which substance will (1) Concentration of the salts is the same
have maximum O.P : - inside the cells as outside
(1) NaCl (2) Glucose (2) Cell bursts
(3) Fructose (4) Starch (3) Concentration of water is the same inside
the cell as out side
Q.5 Pieces of beet root do not lose their colour in (4) Diffusion pressure deficit is the same
cold water, but so in boiling water because :- inside the cell as out side
(1) The cell wall is killed in boiling water
(2) Hot water can enter cells readily
Q.10 If a cell swells, after being placed in solution,
(3) The plasma membrane gets killed in the solution is : -
boiling water and becomes permeable
(1) Neutral (2) Hypotonic
(4) The pigment is not soluble in cold water
(3) Hypertonic (4) Isotonic
Q.6 The movement of molecules from their higher

concentration to lower concentration is called- Q.11 Osmosis means : -
(1) Osmosis (2) Diffusion (1) Solute from low concentration to higher
(3) DPD (4) DPG (2) Solute from higher concentration to low
(3) Solvent from low concentration of solution
Q.7 Osomosis is the diffusion of a solution of a to higher conc. of solution
weaker concentration when both are (4) Solvent from higher concentration solution
seperated by semi-permeable membrane. to low concentration solution
What is error in the statement ?
(1) The movement of solvent molecule is not Q.12 If cell is reduced in size (shirnks) of placing
specified in a solution of sugar, the solution is : -
(2) There is no mention of DPD
(1) Hypertonic
(3) Behavior of semipermeable membrane is
(2) Hypotonic
not specified
(3) Isotonic
(4) The exact concentration of solutions are
not indicated (4) None of the above
6
Q.13 The process of osomosis involves : - Q.20 Potato slices are immersed in a series of
(1) Mov ement of solute through a solution of diffferent osmotic concentrations.
semipermeable membrane No change in volume or weight is observed
with slices in a 0.3 M solutions. The osmotic
(2) Mov ement of solv ent through a
concentration of vacuolar sap, therefore : -
semipermeable membrane
(1) 0.3 M
(3) Mov ement of solution through
(2) Greater than 0.3M
(3) Less than 0.3 M
(4) None of the above
(4) Not related at all to the out side solution
Q.14 A cell increases in volume if the external
medium is Q.21 Which helps in maintaining form and structure
(1) Hypotonic of cells & soft parts of plants ?
(2) Slightly hypertonic (1) Osmotic pressure (2) Turgor pressure
(3) Isotonic (3) Atmospheric (4) DPD
(4) Much more concentrated than the
protoplasm of the cell Q.22 Who propounded the concept of osmosis ?
(1) Abbe Nollet (2) Mayer
Q.15 Osmosis involves diffusion of : -
(3) Dixon and jolly (4) Renner
(1) Suspended particles from higher to lower
concentration
(2) Suspended particles from lower to higher Q.23 In terms of permeability, the cell wall and
concentration plasmalemma are : -
(3) Water from more to less conentration (1) Permeable and differentially permeable
solution respectively
(4) Water from less to more concentrated (2) Both semipermeable
solution (3) Semipermeable and permeable
(4) Both differentially permeable
Q.16 A cell placed in a strong salt solution will
shrink because : -
Q.24 Plasma membrane controls : -
(1) They cytoplasm will be decomposed
(2) Mineral salts will break the cell wall (1) Passage of water only
(3) Salt will enter the cell (2) Passage of water and solutes in and out
(4) Water will move out the cell by exosomosis of the cell
(3) Passage of water and solutes into the cell
Q.17 Grapes placed in salt solution shrink due to : (4) Movement of cell contents out the cell
(1) Imbibition (2) Endosmosis
(3) Exosmosis (4) Osmosis Q.25 Which process occurs against a concentration
gradient of solute ?
Q.18 Process of selective transmission of a liquid (1) Diffusion (2) Osmosis
through semi permeable membrane is called :-
(3) Transpiration (4) Translocation
(1) Diffusion (2) Osmosis
(3) Plasmolysis (4) Transmission Q.26 When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic
solution, which of the following will not apply?
Q.19 Water enters into the root hair from the soil
in its normal condition because the osmotic (1) Wall pressure is decreased
pressure of the soil solution :- (2) The cell become turgid
(1) Remains lesser than that of root hair sap (3) Suction pressure of the cell sap will
(2) Remains equal to that of root hair sap decrease
(3) Remains higher than that of root hair sap (4) Water potential of the cell sap will
(4) And that of root hair sap remains zero increase
7
Q.27 When beet root slices are washed and then Q.34 If the molar concentration of the given sugar
placed in cold water, anthocyanin does not solution is 0.3 M, find out the osmotic
come out, because plasma membrane is ? pressure of this solution : -
(1) Differentially permeable to anthocyanin (1) 6.72 atm (2) 67.2 atm
(2) Dead structure (3) 2.24 atm (4) 5.60 atm
(3) Impermeable to anthocyanin
Q.35 Osmosis is the phenomenon expressed by :-
(4) Permeable to anthocyanin (1) Solutes present in the solution
(2) Solution
Q.28 Osmotic pressure is highest in : - (3) Semi-permeable membrane
(1) Xerophytes (2) Lithophytes (4) O2
(3) Halophytes (4) Mesophytes
Q.36 The osmotic pressure of the cell is measured
Q.29 If osmotic potential of a cell is – 10 bars and by : -
its pressure potential is 5 bars, its water (1) Plasmolysis method
potential would be :- (2) Osmometer
(1) – 5 bars (2) 5 bars (3) Molar concentration of the cell sap
(3) – 10 bars (4) 10 bars (4) Deplasmolysis
Q.30 Osmosis means : - Q.37 When grapes are placed in water, then which
(1) Movement of molecules from higher process occurs ?
concentration to lower concentration (1) Plasmolysis
(2) Uptake of water by roots (2) Exomosis
(3) Passage of solvent from a weaker solution (3) Endosomosis
to stronger solution across a (4) None of the above
(4) Passage of solvent from a weaker to a Q.38 Maximum osmotic pressure is found in : -
stronger solution separated by a (1) Root hair
membrane (2) Cortex cell of the root
(3) Passage cell of the root
Q.31 The osmotic pressure of distilled water will (4) Mesophyll cell
be : -
(1) Zero Q.39 The osmotic pressure is due to : -
(2) Maximum (1) Solute
(3) Higher than any solution (2) Semi permeable membrane
(4) Variable (3) Hypertonic solution
(4) Water
Q.32 Tonoplast is : -
DPD (SP)
(1) Permeable membrane
(2) Semi permeable membrane Q.40 When a cell is fully turgid which of the
(3) Impermeable membrane following will be zero ?
(4) Selectively permeable membrane (1) Turgor pressure (2) Wall pressure
(3) Suction pressure (4) Osmotic pressure
Q.33 If in a cell suction pressure value is 30 atm.
W hile osmotic pressure 42 atm. then Q.41 Water from the soil enters in to the root hairs
calculate the turgidity developed in form of on account of : -
TP in the cell : - (1) Turgor pressure
(1) 12 atm. (2) 72 atm. (2) Suction pressure DPD
(3) Barometric pressure
(3) – 12 atm. (4) 1.4 atm.
(4) Osmotic pressure
8
Q.42 In a fully turgid cell the values of DPD, OP Q.50 What is the value of DPD of a cell ?
and TP should be : - (1) DPD = OP × TP (2) DPD = OP + TP
(1) DPD = 10 atm., OP = 15 atm., TP = 5atm (3) DPD = OP – TP (4) DPD = OP  TP
(2) DPD = 5 atm., OP = 12 atm., TP = 7atm
(3) DPD = 10 atm., OP = 15 atm., TP = 5atm Q.51 Under natural conditions the osmotic
(4) DPD = 0 atm., OP = 15 atm., TP = 15atm pressure is : -
(1) More than turgor pressure
Q.43 When the cell is placed in water, it takes
(2) Less than turgor pressure
water this is due to ?
(3) Equal to turgor pressure
(4) Zero
(2) Suction pressure
(3) Diffusion
Q.52 What maintains the shape of a cell ?
(4) Water potential and TP
(1) Osmotic pressure (2) Turgor pressure
Q.44 What is the direction of the movement of (3) Suction-pressure (4) Wall-pressure
water if two cells have the same OP but
differ in TP ?
Q.53 Osmotic potential is numerically equal to :-
(1) No net flow
(1) Turgor pressure (2) Wall pressure
(2) From lower T.P to higher TP
(3) Osmotic pressure (4) D.P.D
(3) From higher TP to lower TP
(4) Data insufficient
Q.54 You are given three cells, a root hair, a cell
of the inner cortical layer and a cell of the
Q.45 The hydrostatic pressure developed in the cell
mesophyll arrange them in ascending order
is called : -
of DPD : -
(1) Turgor pressure (2) Wall pressure
(1) Root hair < Cortical cell < Mesophyll
(3) Osmotic pressure (4) Suction pressure
(2) Cortical cell < Mesophyll < Root hair
Q.46 In fully turgid cell : - (3) Mesophyll < Root hair < Cortical cell
(1) DPD = WP (2) DPD = OP (4) Root hair < Mesophyll < Cortical cell
(3) DPD = OP - TP (4) DPD = 0
Q.55 Osmotic pressure is highest in : -
Q.47 In flaccid cell : - (1) Atriplex confertifolia
(1) DPD = WP (2) DPD = OP (2) Salsola foetida
(3) DPD = 0 (4) DPD = OP - TP (3) Rhizophora
(4) Chenopodium
Q.48 Turgor pressure of a plasmolysed cell is : -
(1) Positive (2) Zero
Q.56 The direction of the movement of water : -
(3) Negative (4) None of these
(1) From low OP to high OP
(2) From low DPD to high DPD
Q.49 When water enters into a cell what happens
to its OP, TP and DPD ? (3) From high DP to low DP
(1) OP & TP increase & its DPD increase (4) All of the above
(2) OP & DPD increase & TP decrease
Q.57 The term “DPD” was coined by : -
(3) TP & DPD decrease & OP increase
(1) Renner (2) Kamer
(4) OP & DPD decrease & TP increase
(3) B.S. mayer (4) Stephen hales
9
Q.58 The entry of water from the soil up to xylem Q.65 In which condition the Turgor pressure of the
elements of root is due to : - cell becomes equal to the osmotic pressure : -
(1) Gradient of suction pressure (1) In flaccid cell
(2) Turgor pressure (2) In plasmolysed cell
(3) Degree of imbibition (3) In fully turgid cell
(4) Concentration of ions in water (4) It never happens
Q.59 The three cells A, B & C are joined in a Q.66 Select the correct statement -
linear manner. Demostrate the movement of (1) Pure water has minimum  w
water & direction in these ?
(2) Pure water has maximum  w
(1) A  B  C
A B C (3) Pure water has maximum D.P.D
(2) A  B  C OP = 50 OP = 40 OP = 20 (4) Pure water has variable  w & D.P.D.
(3) A  B  C TP = 40 TP = 20 TP = 18
(4) A  B  C Q.67 The best condition by which fully turgid cell

can be identified is : -
Q.60 When the solute has been added in the (1) TP is minimum (2) SP is maximum
solution, then following observation can be (3) OP less than SP (4) TP = OP
made ?
(1) The DPD of the solution decreases PLASMOLYSIS & PERMEABILITY
(2) The  w of the solution increases
(3) DPD of the solution decreases while its Q.68 Plasmolysis can be used for : -
w increases (1) Good growth of plants
(4) DPD of the solution increases while its (2) Good growth of weeds
w decreases (3) Killing the weeds
Q.61 If the given solution is of 25% concentration;
then what cannot be presented for this :-
Q.69 Along with plasmolysis which decreases in
(1) OP (2) DPD
the cell -
(3) Solute potential (4) TP
(2) Diffusion pressure
Q.62 In a flaccid cell which condition does not
occur - (3) Imbibition pressure
(1) TP = 0 (2) SP = 0 (4) Turgor pressure
(3) WP = 0(4) SP = OP
Q.70 If a plasmolysed cell is placed in distilled
water then it returns to its original state &
Q.63 Osmotic pressure of a cell is zero when :-
become turgid, this is called as : -
(1) T.P. is maximum
(1) Plasmolysis (2) Exosmosis
(2) DPD is maximum
(3) Endomosis (4) Deplasmolysis
(3) T.P. is zero
(4) Not possible Q.71 If there is high amount of fertilizer present in
soil & it is deficient in water then what will
Q.64 The accurate relationship between SP, OP,
be the effect
TP can be expressed as -
(1) Over growth (2) Under growth
(1) SP = OP + TP (2) OP = SP – TP
(3) No effect (4) Wilting of plants
(3) TP = SP – OP (4) SP = OP – TP
10
Q.72 Plant cells do not burst in distilled water Q.80 Water potential () of a solution is always :-
because : - (1) + Ve (2) – Ve
(1) Cell wall is permeable (3) Zero (4) Variable
(2) Cell wall is living
(3) Cell wall is elastic, rigid and get stretched Q.81 When the water potential of a cell become
(4) Cell wall is dead and impermeable zero, it is said to be in ?
(1) Fully turgid state
Q.73 When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic (2) Flaccid state
solution it becomes plasmolysed what shall
(3) Incipiently plasmolysed state
be present between cell wall and
plasmalemma at this stage ? (4) Completely plasmolysed state
(1) Water and air (2) Cell sap
Q.82 A root hair cell under ordinary coditions have
(3) Hypertonic solution (4) Solutes a water potential in the range of : -
Q.74 Bacteria can not survive in a highly salted (1) – 1 to – 4 atm. (2) – 1 to + 4 atm.
pickle. Because (3) 1 to 2 atm. (4) – 1 to 2 atm.
(1) Salt inhibits reproduction of bacteria
Q.83 Why hygroscopic water is not available to
(2) Enough light is unav ailable f or
plants ?
photosynthesis
(3) They become plasmolysed and death (1) Because its  is greatly increased
occurs (2) Because its DPD is greatly decreased
(4) Nutrients in the pickle medium can not (3) Because its becomes strongly negative
support life (4) Because its  is increased and DPD is
decreased
WATER POTENTIAL
Q.75 Value of water potential for pure water is : - Q.84 The concept of water potential was
propounded by : -
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) Zero
(1) Robert mayer (2) Abbe Nollet
Q.76 Water potential is affected by : - (3) Slatyer & Taylor (4) Levitt
(1) Osmotic potential (2) Matric potential
(3) Pressure potential (4) All of the above Q.85 The solute potential can be determined in a
simple manner by : -
Q.77 When the solute has been added to the (1) Water potential (2) DPD
solution; it water potential will ? (3) Osmotic pressure (4) Suction pressure
(1) Increases
(2) Decreases
Q.86 The accurate equation for presenting water
(3) Remains unchanged potential is : -
(4) First increases then decreases (1)  = s + p + m
Q.78 Water potential of a cell when its placed in (2) s =  + p + m
hypertonic solution : - (3)  = s – p – m
(1) Decreases (4)  = – s – p – m
(2) Increases
(3) First increases then decreases Q.87 The direction of the water flow in given cells
(4) No change X,Y & Z can be presented as : -
(1) X  Y  Z X Y Z
Q.79 Osmotic potential (S) of a solution is always : - (2) X  Y  Z s = –30 s = –50 s = –40
(1) Positive (2) Negative (3) X  Y  Z TP = 10 TP = 20 TP = 30
(3) Zero (4) Variable (4) X  Y  Z
11
Q.88 The water potential & osmotic potential of Q.94 In 0.1M solution of a none electolyte,w value
pure water is : - will be : -
(1) 100 & zero (2) Zero & zero (1) zero bar (2) +2.3 bar
(3) 100 & 200 (4) Zero & 100 (3) – 2.3 bar (4) –22.4 bar
Q.89 The relationship between DPD & w can be Q.95 If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution
expressed as : - then w of the cell will be : -
(1) DPD = w (2) w – DPD = 0 (1) Increased
(2) Decreased
DPD
(3) w = 0 (4) w = – DPD (3) Unchanged
(4) First increases then decreases
Q.90 Solute potential can be presented as : -

Q.96 The  w of pure water is : -
(1) s = – OP (2) w = OP
(1) Minimum (2) Less than DPD
s
(3) OP – s = 0 (4) = 0 (3) Maximum (4) Variable
OP
Q.97 If the OP of any osmotic system is 35 atm

Q.91 In plant water relations,  indicates - and its turgor pressure 9 units. Find out water
(1) DPD (2) Solute potential pontential present in the osmotic system : -
(3) Water potential (4) Suction pressure (1) – 44 unit (2) – 26 unit
(3) 26 unit (4) – 3.88 unit
Q.92 If the solute is added in the given solution
than what osbervation can be made - IMBIBITION
(1) Its DPD decreases
Q.98 Seeds swell when placed in water due to : -
(2) It’s water potential decreases
(1) Osmosis (2) Imbibition
(3) DPD & water potential remains unchanged
(3) Hydrolysis (4) All of these
(4) Its water pontential increases
Q.99 During rainy season wooden doors generally

Q.93 If three cells X, Y and Z are joined to each
swell up due to : -
other & their solute potential & Turgor
pressure values are given in the figure; then (1) Osmosis (2) Imbibition
demonstrate the direction of flow of water in (3) Bad wormanship (4) Wood quality
this system : -
Q.100 Imbibition process involves : -
(1) X Y X Y
Z s = –50 s = –40 (1) Both diffusion and capillary action
TP = 25 TP = 30
(2) Only diffusion
(2) X Y Z
s = –20 (3) Only capillary action
Z
TP = 5 (4) None of the above
X Y
(3)
Z Q.101 The most powerful imbibant is : -
X Y (1) Agar - agar (2) Proteins

(4) (3) Cellulose (4) Lignin
Z
12
Q.102 Swelling of wooden planks and door-penals
Q.110 Which of the following statement is not
during the rainly season is due to : - correct ?
(1) Imbibition (2) Endosmosis (1) Plants absorb excess quantity of water
(3) Deplasmolysis (4) Diffusion (2) Plants take small quantity of mineral salts
through soil water
Q.103 First step of influx of water into a plant (or) (3) Water and inorganic salts may also
a root hair cell (or)a seed is : - simultaneously by root hair
(4) Plant absorb only one thing at a time
(1) Osmosis (2) Imbibition
water or inorganic salts
(3) Absorption (4) Suction
Q.111 Which of the following is a rapid type of
Q.104 Which of the following is imbibiant ? absorption ?
(1) Proteins(2) Pectin (1) Passive absorption (2) Active absorption
(3) Starch (4) All of the above (3) Salt absorption (4) Root absorption
Q.112 The form of water absorbed by plant’s root

Q.105 Which of the following seeds develope a
system, from the soil is : -
greater imbibition pressure ?
(1) Hygroscopic water
(1) Wheat seed (2) Gram seed
(2) Gravitational water
(3) Rice seed (4) Mustard oil seed (3) Capillary water
(4) All of these
Q.106 Swelling in wooden block placed in water is
due to Q.113 The pathway of water from soil upto the
(1) Endosmosis (2) Capillarity secondary xylem : -
(1) Soil  root hair  cortex  endodermis 
(3) Absorption (4) Imbibition
pericycle protoxylem Meta xylem
(2) Metaxylem protoxylem pericyle cortex
Q.107 The right sequence for imbibition is : - endodermis soil root hair
(1) Agar agar > cellulose > protein (3) Cortex root hair endodermis pericycle 
protoxylem metaxylem
(2) Protein > cellulose > agar agar
(4) Pericycle  soil  root hair  cortex 
(3) Agar agar > protein > cellulose endodermis protoxylem metaxylem
(4) Agar agar < protein < cellulose
Q.114 Humus in soil is necessary for plant growth
because it : -
Q.108 To initiate cell plasmolysis, the salt
concentration must be : - [MPPMT-2002] (1) Increase aeration and water absorption
capacity of soil
(1) Isotonic (2) Hypotonic (2) Makes soil compact
(3) Hypertonic (4) Atonic (3) Makes soil sterile
(4) Decreases rate of percolation
Q.109 When a plasmolysed cell is placed in a
hypotnonic solution then water will move Q.115 Water will be absorbed by root hairs when : -
inside the cell this will happen due to which (1) Concentration of salts in the soil is high
force [RPMT-2002] (2) Concentration of solutes in the cell sap is
(1) DPD (2) OP high
(3) The plant is rapidly respiring
(3) W.P (4) None of them
(4) They are separated from the soil by a
13
Q.116 Water in plants is transported by ascent of Q.124 Suitable temperature for active absorption of
sap takes place through : - water by root is : -
(1) Cambium (2) Phloem (1) 40-45ºC (2) 10-15ºC
(3) Xylem (4) Epidermis (3) 20-35ºC
(4) Can take at any temperature
Q.117 In poorly aerated soil, the rate of water
absorption will : - Q.125 “Osmotic theory” for an active absorption of
(1) Increase (2) Decrease water was given by : -
(3) Remains the same (4) None of these (1) Thiman (2) O. Hertwig
(3) Atkin & Priestley (4) J.C. Bose
Q.118 Which of the following water comes under
echards ? Q.126 Root cap plays no role in the absorption of
(1) Available to the plant water in a plant because : -
(2) Whole of the soil water (1) Its cells are loosly arranged
(3) Amount of water not available to the plant (2) It has no root hairs
(4) None of the above (3) It has no connection with xylem tissue
(4) it’s cells are dead
Q.119 W hich plant hormone help in activ e
absorption of water ? Q.127 Energy dependent absorption of water against
(1) Auxin (2) GA osmotic phenomenon is : -
(3) Cytokinin (4) ABA (1) Active absorption
(2) Passive absorption
Q.120 What is true for the water available in the (3) Imbibition
soil ? (4) Bulk absorption
(1) Holard = Chresard + Echard
(2) Holard = Chresard – Echard Q.128 In a yound root the most active absorption of
(3) Chresard = Holard + Echard water takes place through : -
(4) Echard = Holard + Chresard (1) Root cap region
(2) Root hair region
Q.121 Passive absorption of water takes place by : - (3) Zone of elongation
(1) Osmosis (4) Mature region with a corkly layer
(2) The presence of energy
(3) Root pressure Q.129 Water is actively absorbed by root when : -
(4) Transpiration pull (1) Soil solution is hypotonic
(2) Soil solution is hypertonic
Q.122 Root hairs occurs in : - (3) Transpiration rates are high
(1) Meristematic zone (4) Shoot pressure is high
(2) Cell elongation zone
(3) Cell maturation zone Q.130 Maximum absorption of water by a root occur
(4) Old root in the region of : -
(1) Cell division
Q.123 All the following involves osmosis except :- (2) Cell elongation
(1) Movement of water from soil to root (3) Cell maturation
(2) Movement of water from root hair to (4) Cell division and root cap togther
endodermis and pericycle
(3) Movement of water between xylem Q.131 Absorption of water is increased when : -
elements (1) Transpiration is increased
(4) Movement of water from xylem to (2) Photosynthesis is increased
mesophyll cells of the leaves (3) Respiration is increased
(4) Root pressure is increased
14
Q.132 Passive absorption of water from the soil by Q.139 When the temerature of soil becomes 1ºC
the root is mainly effected by : - then ?
(1) Typical tissue organisation (1) Absorption of water increases
(2) Respiratory activity of root (2) Absorption of water decreases
(3) Tension on cell sap due to transpiration (3) Absorption of water remains unaffected
(4) None of the above (4) Both (2) and (3) are correct
Q.140 When the concentration of the soil solutes is

Q.133 Active absorption of water from the soil by
low, the absorption of water is ?
the root is mainly effected by : -
(1) Retarted (2) Increase
(1) Typical tissue organisation
(3) Remains normal (4) Stopped
(2) Resipiratory activity of root
(3) Tension on cell sap due to transpiration Q.141 Which type of plant are physiologically dry ?
(4) None of the above (1) Hydrophytes (2) Epiphytes
(3) Lithophytes (4) Halophytes
Q.134 The water held tightly by the soil particles
around them is known as : - Q.142 Which method is responsible for most of the
(1) Field capacity (2) Run away water absorption in higher plants?
(3) Hygroscopic water (4) Capillary water (1) Active absorption
Q.135 Percentage of water left in the soil when a (3) Osmotic absorption
plant begins to wilt is known as : - (4) Non osmotic absorption
(1) Wilting coefficient
Q.143 The absorption of water due to expenditure of
(2) pH value of soil energy is called : -
(3) Field capacity (1) Non osmotic active absorption
(4) Water holding capacity (2) Osmotic active absorption
Q.136 Which of the following factors inhibit the (4) All
absorption of water by roots ?
(1) Low soil temperature Q.144 Halophytes can grow on physiologically dry
(2) High concentration of soil solution soil due to -
(3) Low soil aeration (1) Dry soil
(4) All of the above (2) Excessive humidity outside
(3) Excessive salts in plants
Q.137 Which of the plants can absorb water in the
(4) Excessive salts in water
form of vapour from its atmosphere ?
(1) All xerophytes ASCENT OF SAP
(2) Low transpiring cacti
(3) Succulents plants Q.145 Water rises in the stem due to : -
(4) Epiphytes & Lichen (1) Cohesion and transpiration pull
(2) Turgor pressure
Q.138 “Non-osmotic” theory for an active absorption (3) Osmotic pressure
of water was given by : - (4) None
(1) Thimann & Bennet clark
(2) Atkin & Priestley Q.146 Sap ascends in woody stem because of : -
(3) J.C. Bose (1) Transpiration pull (2) Capillarity
(4) O. Hertig (3) Molecular adhesion (4) Photosynthesis
15
Q.147 Pulsation theory to explain ascent of sap in Q.155 Transpiration - cohesion - tension theory
Desmodium was proposed by : - operates in : -
(1) Dixon and Jolly (2) Curtis (1) Active absorption
(3) J.C. Bose (4) None of these (2) Passive absorption
(3) Active & passive absorption
Q.148 Dixon and Jolly are associated with : -
(1) Light reaction photosynthesis Q.156 Attractive forces of cell for water molecules
(2) An aerobic respiration is termed as : -
(3) Cohesion and transpiration pull theory of (1) Adhesion (2) Cohesion
ascent of sap (3) Osmosis (4) Plasmolysis
(4) Apical dominance
Q.157 The imbibition theory for the ascent of sap
was suggested by : -
Q.149 The continuity of water column in xylem is (1) Sir J.C. Bose (2) Strassburger
maintained due to : - (3) Sachs (4) Dixon and Jolly
(1) Presence of air bubbles
(2) Cohesive property of water Q.158 If all the tissue of a plant to certain points
(3) Evaporation power of water are removed except the xylem which is left
intact : -
(1) The leaves will wilt
(2) The stem will die first
Q.150 Relay pump theory of ascent of sap was (3) The root will die first
proposed by : - (4) The whole plant will die at the same time
(1) Boase (2) Godlewsky
(3) Westermaier (4) Von sachs Q.159 Which of the following is incorrect match ?
(1) Pulsation theory - J.C. Bose
Q.151 The first vital theory to explain ascent of sap (2) Relay pump theory - Godlewsky
was proposed (3) Imbibition theory - Von sachs
(1) J.C. Bose (2) Godlewski (4) Capillary theory - Priestley
(3) Westermaier (4) Dixon and Jolly
Q.160 Which tissue are removed when a plant is
girdled ?
Q.152 Capillary force theory to explain ascent of (1) Xylem & pith
sap was proposed by :- (2) Xylem & Phloem
(1) Boehm (2) Sachs (3) Phloem to epidermis
(3) Jamin (4) Priestley (4) Phoem to pith
Q.161 Removal of a ring of bark from the trunk of a

Q.153 Ringing experiment to explain ascent of sap tree eventually kills it because : -
path was firstly done by : - (1) Water can not go up
(1) Hartig, Malpighi (2) Fungi & insects attack exposed parts
(2) Dixon & Jolly (3) Food does not travel down & root becomes
(3) Godlewski & J.C. Bose starved
(4) Stephen hales and Boehm (4) Air blocks the xylem
Q.162 Which would do maximum harm to a tree ?

Q.154 Passage of ascent of sap is shown by :-
(1) The loss of half of its leaves
(1) Osmometer (2) Porometer
(2) The loss of all its leaves
(3) Manometer (3) The loss of half of its branches
(4) Blockage experiment (4) The loss of its bark
16
Q.163 Ringing experiment can not be done on a Q.171 By which process absorbed water reaches
sugar cane plant because : - upto the leaves ?
(1) Its xylem is scanty (1) Transpiration (2) Guttation
(2) Its phloem is with out phloem parenchyma (3) Root pressure (4) Ascent of sap
(3) Its vascular bundles are sacttered
(4) Its phloem is present inside the xylem
Q.172 Ringing experiment was performed in : -
(1) Balsom plant
Q.164 In plants the translocation of organic solutes
take place through : - (2) Mirabilis plant
(1) Epidermis (2) Xylem (3) Indian telegraph plant
(3) Phloem (4) Pith (4) Avena plant
Q.165 Most accepted theory for Ascent of sap given TRANSPIRATION

by : -
Q.173 Opening of stomata is due to : -
(1) Godlewski & Sacks
(2) J.C. Bose (1) Turgidity of guard cells
(3) Stephan Hales (2) Size of guard cells
(4) Dixon and Jolly (3) Number of gurad cells
(4) Amout of CO2 in the atmosphere
Q.166 Ringing experiment is to show : -
(1) Path of ascent of sap Q.174 Transpiration in plants will be lowest when :-
(2) Comparision of transpiration
(1) There is high humidity in the atmosphere
(2) High wind velocity
(4) Stomatal opening & closing
(3) There is excess of water in the soil
Q.167 The conduction of water from root hair to root (4) Environmental conditions are very dry
xylem is :-
(1) Symplastic Q.175 The metal ion involved in the stomatal
(2) Apoplastic regulation is
(3) Osmotically (1) Iron (2) Magnesium
(4) Symplastic + Apoplastic (3) Zinc (4) Potassium
Q.168 Dixons blockage experiment is concerned

Q.176 The following percentage of water absorbed
with : -
by herbaceous plants is lost in transpiration :-
(1) Transpiration
(1) 80% (2) 60% (3) 40% (4) 99%
(3) Path of ascent of sap
Q.177 Transpiration from plants would be most rapid
(4) Vital theory for ascent of sap when
(1) There is lot of humidity in atmosphere
Q.169 The pulsation theory is related with : -
(1) Guttation (2) The air is more humid
(2) Bleeding (3) There is excess rain fall
(3) Vital theory for ascent of sap (4) Environmetal conditions are dry
(4) Physical theory for ascent of sap
Q.178 Processes occur in leaves, which may lower
Q.170 Root pressure theory was proposed by : - their temperature is : -
(1) Priestley (2) Stephen Hales (1) Respiration (2) Photosytnhesis
(3) Levitt (4) Sachs (3) Hydrolysis (4) Transpiration
17
Q.179 When Oak leaf stomata opens, process is :- Q.186 Which of the following wall of guard cells is
(1) Water molecules enter adjacent guard thick ?
cells (1) Outer (2) Inner
(2) Atmosphere outside stomata become less (3) Sidewall(4) All the three
humid
(3) Auxins are accumulated in guard cells Q.187 Potometer and Clinostat are used to study :-
(4) Salt molecules are excreted by adjacent (1) Photosynthesis and respiration
gurad cells (2) Transpiration and growth
(3) Phototropism and Geotropism
Q.180 Wilting of a plant result from excessive : - (4) Transpiration and Geotropism
(1) Respiration (2) Photosynthesis
(3) Absorption (4) Transpiration Q.188 The rate of transpiration will be high when
there is ?
Q.181 The rate of transpiration is high when : - (1) Rainy season (2) Winter season
(1) The atmosphere is saturated with water (3) Summer season (4) None of these
vapour
(2) Light is very dim Q.189 Which type of transpiration is more commen -
(3) The temperature is low (1) Cuticular
(4) The atmosphere is dry and the temperature (2) Stomatal
is high (3) Lenticular
(4) Bark transpiration
Q.182 Excessive loss of water causes wilting of
leaves, it can be prevented by : -
Q.190 Maximum transpiration is taking place
(1) Keeping the plant in bright light through the
(2) Spraying the plant with alcohol (1) Stomata(2) Lenticel
(3) Applying vaseline on the leaf surface (3) Hydathode (4) Cuticle
(4) Adding high amounts of fetilizers to the soil
Q.191 The inter conversion of sugar & starch is
Q.183 Leaves which appear wilted in the day time dependent on pH changes in the guard cells;
recover at night because : - was demonstrated by : -
(1) Light is esstential for photo synthesis (1) Levitt (2) Lloyd
(2) The stomata close down, temperature (3) Sayre (4) Steward
decrease, transpiration is reduced and
the plant is able to absorb more water
from the soil Q.192 The spray of PMA causes :-
(3) Respiration and translocation of organic (1) Decrease in transpiration
substance both increases (2) Increase in transpiration
(4) The plant is sleeping because of dark (3) Increase in absorption
conditions (4) Increase in guttation
Q.184 Conversion of starch to organic acid is Q.193 When the stomata are opening; we observe
essential for following changes in the gurad cells ?
(1) Stomatal closure (2) Stomatal opening (1) OP increase, TP decreases
(3) Stomatal initiation (4) Stomatal growth (2) OP & TP increases
(3) OP decreases, TP increases
Q.185 Increase in CO2 concentration around leaf (4) OP & TP decreases
results in : -
(1) Rapid opening of stomata Q.194 The pH in the guard cells was observed when
(2) Partial closure of stomata stomata were open it ranges : -
(3) Complete closure of stomata (1) 9 - 10 (2) 4 - 5
(4) No effect on stomatal opening (3) 7.5 (4) 2 - 4
18
Q.195 What will be the effects on stomata, if relative Q.204 Transpiration is a non-enzymatic process its
humidity is 100% in atmosphere ? Q10 value is : -
(1) Completely open (2) Partially open (1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3.5 (4) Zero
(3) No effects (4) Closed
Q.205 The most important f actor af f ecting
Q.196 Which of the following is produced during transpiration is
water stress condition ? (1) Light
(1) Cytokinin (2) ABA (2) Temperature
(3) Phytochrome (4) ATPase (3) Wind
(4) Atmospheric humidity
Q.197 W hich chemical is used to detect
transpiration comparatively ? Q.206 Presence of thick cuticle, hairs, scales &
(1) Calcium carbonate (2) Cobalt carbonate fewer sunken stomata are found in the leaves
(3) Cobalt chloride (4) Mercuric acetate of xerophyte it is to : -
(1) Stop transpiration
Q.198 Active K+ ion exchange mechanism of opening (2) Facilitate transpiration
and closing of stomata was given by :- (3) Store water
(1) Khorana(2) Scrath (4) Chck excessive transpiration
(3) Levitt (4) Kohli
Q.207 Which factor regulates the loss of water
Q.199 Cuticular transpiration is observed mainly in :- through transpiration : -
(1) Xeropytes (1) Nitrogen(2) Humidity
(2) Herbaceous plants (3) Level of O2 in air (4) Xylem
(3) Trees
Q.208 With increase in temperature the rate of
(4) Shrubs
transpiration becomes : -
(1) Low
Q.200 What is action spectrum of transpiration ?
(2) High
(1) Green and U.V (2) Blue and Yellow
(3) Low in herbs and high in tress
(3) Blue and far red (4) Blue and red
(4) Immediately stopped
Q.201 In which of the f ollowing plants, the Q.209 Which of the following plant do not transpire ?
metabolism will be hindered if upper surface (1) Alage
of leaves are coated with wax ?
(2) Fungi
(1) Hydrilla (2) Nelumbium
(3) Submerged hydrophytes
(3) Vallisneria (4) Utricularia
(4) All the above
Q.202 Which of the following substance serve as Q.210 Wilting of plant results from an excessive :-
an anti-transpirant in plant ? (1) Absorption
(1) Phenyl mercuric acetate
(2) Photosynthesis & poor osmosis
(2) Asprin
(3) Respiration
(3) Silicon oil (4) Transpiration
(4) All of these
Q.211 Transpiration is completely absent in : -
Q.203 Which of the factor acts as anti-transpirant? (1) Xerophytes
(1) SO 2 (2) CO (2) Mesophytes
(3) CO 2 (3) Sumerged hydrophtes
(4) All pollutant gasses (4) Succulents at night
19
Q.212 W ho states “Transpiration to be an Q.220 Stomata open at day because in day the
unavoidable evil’ ? guard cells have :-
(1) Blackman (2) Steward (1) To help gas exchange
(3) Priestley (4) Curtis (2) A low pH
Q.213 Which pigment regulates opening and closing (3) A high level of sugar, organic acid ATP &
of stomata ? K+ ion
(1) Chlorophylls (2) Carotenoids (4) Unequally thickened walls
(3) Phytochrome (4) Flavines
Q.221 Basic of stomatal opening is : -
Q.214 Which photoreceptor controls the opening & (1) Exosmosis
closing of stomata ? (2) Endosmosis
(1) Chlorophyll-a (2) Chlorophyll-b (3) Decrease in cell sap concentration
(3) Phytochrome (4) Carotene
(4) Plasmolysis of guard cells
Q.215 For plants transpiration is : -
Q.222 Guard cells are found in : -
(1) Not very important
(1) Stomata
(2) Important to same
(3) A neccessary evil (2) Hydathodes
(4) An important burden (3) Both
Q.216 Significance of transpiration lies in : -
(1) Circulation of water Q.223 Shape of guard cells in gramineae family :-
(2) Absorption and distribution of water (1) Kidney shaped (2) Oval
(3) Regulating the temperature of the plant
(3) Round (4) Dumbel shaped
body
(4) All of the above
Q.224 Scotoactive stomata are occurs in : -
(1) Sacculent xerophytes
Q.217 In apple type of stomata : -
(2) Hydrophytes
(1) Stomata are present only on the upper
surface of leaf (3) Mesophytes
(2) Stomata are present only on the lower (4) None of the above
surface of leaf
(3) Stomata are present on both surfaces of Q.225 With decrease in atmospheric pressure the
leaf rate of transpiration will : -
(4) Stomata are vestigeal (1) Remain unaffected
(2) Increased
Q.218 Which of the following plant product act as
an internal anti-transpirant ? (3) Decrease slowly
(1) Phenyl mercuric acetate (4) Decrease rapidly
(2) CO2 and malic acid
(3) Abscisic acid Q.226 Which of the following statement is not true ?
(4) Ferulic acid (1) Transpiration is increased when root shoot
ratio is increased
Q.219 In the mechanism of the opening to stomata, (2) Transpiration is increased when latex &
the important factor is : - mucilage is increased in tissue
(1) Turgidity of the guard cells (3) Transpiration is decreased when stomata
(2) Chlorophyll content of the guard cells are sunken
(3) Hormone content of the subsidary cells (4) Transpiration is decreased when leaves
(4) Protein content of the epidermal cells becomes leathery of hairy
20
Q.227 Which one of the following will reduce the Q.235 Guard cells differ from other epidermal cells
rate of transpiration ? in having :-
(1) Increase in wind velocity
(1) Large vacuoles
(2) Rise in temperature
(3) Increase in water uptake by plants (2) Secondary walls
(4) Decrease in light intensity (3) Chloroplast with PEP-carboxylase enzyme
(4) Absence of mitochondria
Q.228 The most important fuction of transpiration in
plants is to cause : -
(1) Loss of surplus water Q.236 The trunk of a tree shrinks in day due to : -
(2) Cooling of the plant (1) Rapid translocation of food
(3) Rapid ascent of sap
(2) Transpiration induced tension
(4) Rapid rise of minerals
(3) Rapid growth in day hours
Q.229 Which of the following plants economises (4) Light induced elongation of plant
transpiration loss of water ?
(1) C3-plants (2) C4-plants
(3) Both equally (4) C2-plants Q.237 Apparatus used f or measuring the
transpiration : [RPMT-2002]
Q.230 The change in turgor pressure which causes the (1) Evapometer (2) Potometer
opening and closing of Stomata is caused by-
(1) Reversible starch-sugar conversions (3) Osmometer (4) Tensiometer
(2) Reversible absorption and loss of K-ions
(3) Loss of chloride ions Q.238 Transpiration occures from : -
(4) None of these (1) Leaves (2) Stems
Q.231 The “proton transport concept” for the opening (3) All parts (4) All aerial parts
of photoactive stomata was given by :-
(1) Yin tung (2) Levitt Q.239 Leaves of submerged hydrophytes are : -
(3) Sachs (4) Sayre (1) Epistomatic (2) Hypostomatic
Q.232 According to Scarth the opening & closing of (3) Astomatic (4) Above 1 & 2
stomata is governed by :-
(1) pH (2) Phosphorylation Q.240 The diffusion of water vapours through areial
(3) NaDPH2 (4) Enzymes parts of the plants is called : -
(1) Osmosis (2) DPD
Q.233 Before opening of stomata accumulation of
the following ion is seen in : - (3) Transpiration (4) All
(1) PO 4 (2) K+ (3) Mg++ (4) Na+
Q.241 If the absorption is more, but transpiration is
Q.234 In sacculent plants the stomata opens at
night and closes by day. Which of following less; then process affected will be : -
would be best hypothesis to explain the (1) Root pressure (2) Guttation
mechanism of stomata opening at night only? (3) Bleeding (4) All
(1) CO2 used up, increased pH results in
accumulation of sugars Q.242 Active K+ H+ exchange theory explained -
(2) CO2 accumulates, reduces pH stimulates
enzymes resulting in accumulation of (1) Ascent of sap
carbohydrate (2) Phloem conduction
(3) Increase in CO2 concentration, conversion (3) Ion absorption
of organic acids in to starch resulting in
the increased uptake of potassium ions (4) Stomatal movement
and water
(4) High CO 2 concentration causes Q.243 Transpiration is a necessary evil, given by -
accuumulation of organic acids in guard (1) Levitt (2) Curtis
cells resulting in to the increased (3) Steward (4) Sachs
concentration of cell sap
21
Q.244 Which of the following theory gives the latest Q.252 Transpiration increases when atmospheric
explanation for closure of stomata ? temperature rises, due to : -
[BHU 2002] (1) Wider opening of stomata
(1) ABA theory (2) Stomatal opening becomes narrow
(2) Munch theory (3) Water holding capacity of the air increases
(3) Starch-glucose theory (4) More photosynthesis in guard cells
(4) Active K+ transport theory
Q.253 The names of Yin & Tung are assoicated
with findings of : -
Q.245 Potassium ions concentration is more in
guard cells when stomata are open but less (1) Phosphorylase enzyme
when stomata are closed. This was reported (2) Sugar-starch conversion
by :- (3) Localization of phosphorylase enzyme in
(1) Hsio, Fisher (2) Fujino guard cells
(3) Levitt (4) Lloyd (4) Exchange of K+ & H+
Q.254 Due to more wind velocity, the transpiration

Q.246 The loss of water in the form of water drops rate will be : -
is taking place through the : - (1) Less
(1) Hydathodes (2) Lentical (2) More
(3) Stomata (4) All (3) Unaffected
(4) First increases then decreases
Q.247 The potometer is based on the principle
that : - Q.255 Foliar transpiration : -
(1) Transpiration is based on stomatal (1) Includes stomatal and cuticular
opening transpiration
(2) Stomata open during day time (2) Does not occur
(3) Absorption = Transpiration (3) Includes all type of transpiration
(4) Transpiration tension present in leaves (4) Shows stomatal transpiration
Q.248 Gutaation is dependent on : - Q.256 Radial micellation of cellulose occurs at :-

(1) Root pressure (1) Outer wall of guard cells
(2) Active absorption (2) Inner wall of guard cells
(3) Flaccidity of root cortical cells (3) Inner wall subsidiary cells
(4) High rate of transpiration (4) None of the above
Q.249 Due to increasing temperature, transpiration:- Q.257 The Sugarcane plant has : - [AIIMS-2004]
(1) Increases (1) Dumb-bell shaped guard cells
(2) Decreases (2) Pentamerous flowers
(3) First increases then decreases (3) Reticulate venation
(4) Unaffected (4) Capsular fruits
Q.250 If temperature remains constant then with

GUTTATION, BLEEDING, ROOT
increasing alttitude, the transpiration will : - PRESSURE, WILTING
(1) Increases Q.258 Root presence is maximum, when : -
(2) Decreases (1) Transpiration is high and absorption is
(3) First decreases then increases very low
(4) Unaffected (2) Transpiration is very low and absorption
is high
Q.251 The conversion of starch to organic acid is (3) Absorpton is very high and transpiration
essential for stomatal : - is also very high
(1) Closure (2) Growth (4) Absorption is low and transpiration is alwo
(3) Initiation (4) Opening very low
22
Q.259 Wilting in plant occurs when : - Q.267 Which conditions favours “Guttation” ?
(1) Xylem is blocked (1) High water absorption
(2) Epidermis is pealed off (2) High transpiration
(3) Pith is removed (3) Low transpiration
(4) Phloem is blocked (4) (1) and (3) both
Q.260 Pressure exerted on the fluid contents of the Q.268 When stem of a herbaceous plant is cut,
cortical cells of root by turgidity. Which forces water or sap oozes out, this is due to ?
the water in to xylem vessels and upward in (1) Guttation (2) Transpiration pull
the stem for a certain height is : - (3) Root pressure (4) Imbibition
(1) Imbibition (2) Root pressure
(3) Capillarity (4) Turgor pressure Q.269 Maximum bleeding occurs in : -
(1) Agave (2) Vitis
(3) Betula (4) Caryota urens
Q.261 The process of the escape of liquid from the
tip of uninjured leaf is called : -
Q.270 Guttation usually occurs in a well watered
(1) Evaporation herbaceous plant and well drained soil only
(2) Transpiration in : -
(3) Guttation (1) Morining hours (2) Evening hours
(4) Evapo-transpiration (3) Noon hours (4) Day hours
Q.262 Guttation take place during night when : - Q.271 Hydathodes open during : -
(1) Root pressure is positive (1) Hight hours (2) Day hours
(3) Noon hours (4) Always open
(2) Root pressure is negative
(3) Always take place
Q.272 The “Guttation” word was given by : -
(4) It does not takes place at all
(1) Bergerstein (2) Sayre
(3) Scarth (4) Stephen hales
Q.263 The hydathodes are related with : -
(1) Transpiration (2) Guttation
Q.273 Which of the following is not a rhythmic
(3) Bleeding (4) All phenomenon ?
(1) Stomatal opening & closing
Q.264 Who discovered the root pressure :-
(2) Guttation
(1) Stephen hales (2) Priestley
(3) Nyctinasty
(3) Dixon (4) Renner
(4) Photonastic movments
Q.265 Root pressure can be measured by the
Q.274 Water of guttation is : -
instrument
(1) Pure water
(1) Potometer (2) Auxenometer
(2) Water with dissolved salts
(3) Manometer (4) Barometer
(3) Solution of organic food
Q.266 In summer afternoon, rate of transpiration is (4) Condensed water vapour
greater than the rate of absorption then what
Q.275 Cells present on hydathodes is -
happens to plants : -
(1) Complementary cells
(1) Temporary wilting
(2) Epithem cells
(2) No effect
(3) Guard cells
(3) Leaves becomes yellow
(4) Kranz cells
(4) Plant will die
23
Q.276 The process involved in the formation of Toddy Q.285 W hich element is not considered as
is : - macronutrient ?
(1) Guttation (2) Transpiration (1) Mg (2) Ca (3) Mn (4) P
(3) Bleeding (4) All
Q.286 The element which can not be placed along
Q.277 The whitish powder around hydathode is due with micronutrients : -
to : - (1) Mn (2) Mo (3) Cu (4) Ca
(1) Guttation
(2) Salt depositon from air Q.287 The amino acid having S in its composition
(3) Salt formation over surface is -
(4) Bleeding (1) Cystine (2) Cysteine
(3) Methionine (4) All
MINERAL ABSORPTION & NUTRITION
Q.288 Which elements are considered as balancing
Q.278 Which of the group of elements is not elements ?
essential for a normal plant ? (1) Ca & K (2) C & H
(1) K, Ca, Mg (2) Fe, Zn, Mn, B (3) N & S (4) Mg and Fe
(3) Pb, I, Na (4) Mg, Fe, Mo
Q.289 The group of mineral nutrients known as
frame work elements : -
Q.279 Hydroponics is a technique in which plants
are grown in ? (1) N, S, P (2) C, H, O
(1) Green house (3) Mg, Fe, Zn (4) Zn, Mn, Cu
(2) Water saturated sand
Q.290 Which element essential for stability of
(3) Balanced nutrient solution
chromosome structure ?
(4) Purified distilled water
(1) Zn (2) Ca (3) Mo (4) Fe
Q.280 For cholrophyll formation a plant needs :- Q.291 “Reclamation” and “Little leaf” disease,
(1) Fe, Ca & light (2) Fe, Mg & Light caused by deficiency of -
(3) Ca, K & light (4) Mn & Cu (1) Zn and Mo (2) Cu and Zn
(3) Cu and B (4) Mn and Cu
Q.281 Brown heart rot of beets is due to deficiency of-
(1) B (2) P (3) Mg (4) Mo Q.292 Which element is required in comparatively
least quantity for the growth of plant ?
Q.282 Die back disease in citrus is due to deficiency (1) Zn (2) N (3) P (4) Ca
of : -
(1) Mo (2) B (3) Cu (4) Zn Q.293 Which of the following essential element is
not properly placed in the given category ?
(1) Cu (2) Zn (3) Mg (4) Mn
Q.283 The disease related with deficiency of
molybdenum is : -
(1) Whiptail disease of cauliflower Q.294 Criteria for essentiality in mineral nutrition
were shown firstly by : -
(2) Little leaf disease
(1) Arnon (2) Liebig
(3) Reclamation disease of cereals
(3) Steward (4) Levitt
(4) Brown heart disease
Q.295 Which mineral nutrients are called critical
Q.284 Protoplasmic elements are : - element for crops ?
(1) C, H, O, P, N, S (2) C, H, O, Fe, N (1) N, P, K (2) C, H, O
(3) N, S, Fe, P, K (4) Fe, Mg, Ca, N, P (3) N, S, Mg (4) K, Ca, Fe
24
Q.296 The mineral nutrient mainly concerning with Q.306 Who proposed the protein lecithin theory ?
apical meristematic activity is : - (1) Sachs (2) Lundegradh
(1) K (2) Ca (3) N (4) S (3) Bose & Renner (4) Bennet & Clark
Q.297 Little leaf disease is caused by - Q.307 Carrier protein helped in : -

(1) Zn - deficiency (2) Cu - deficiency (1) Active absorption of ions
(3) Mo - deficiency (4) Mn - deficiency (2) Passive ions absorption
(3) Water absorption
Q.298 Which of the following does NPK denote ? (4) Vaporization
(1) Nitrogen, Potassium, Kinetin
(2) Nitrogen, Protein, Kinetin Q.308 Active uptake of minerals depends upon :-
(3) Nitrogen, Protein, Potassium (1) Active water absorption
(4) Nitrogen,Phosphours, Potassium (2) Transpiration
(3) Photorespiration
Q.299 Plants absorb mineral salts from the soil (4) Dephosphorylation
solution through : - Q.309 When chlorophyll is burnt, which one obtained ?
(1) A semipermeable membrane into the (1) Fe (2) Mg (3) Ca (4) Mn
cytoplasm
(2) Perforations at the apex of root hair cells Q.310 Which element related with Khaira disease,
of Paddy & auxin synthesis : -
(3) The cell wall which is semipermeable
(1) Fe (2) Zn (3) B (4) Cu
(4) None of these
Q.311 Generally plants absorbed N2 in the form of :-
Q.300 Mineral salts which are absorbed by the roots
from the soil are in the form of : - (1) NO2– (2) NO3–
(3) N  N (4) HNO2
(1) Very dilute solution
(2) Dilute solution Q.312 Cobalt present in : -
(3) Concentrated solution (1) Vit. – A (2) Vit. – B2
(4) Very concentrated solution (3) Vit. – B12 (4) PC
Q.301 By which method ions are absorbed by the Q.313 Which is essential for N2 metabolism ?
plants ? (1) B (2) Mo (3) Cu (4) Mg
(1) Diffusion (2) DPD gradient
(3) Carrers proteins (4) Water pontential Q.314 The major portion of the dry weight of plants
comprises of : - [AIPMT-2003]
Q.302 Hydrophytes absorb salt and water by : - (1) Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
(1) Root and root hairs (2) Leaves and root (2) Calcium, magnesium and sulphur
(3) Roots and stem (4) General epidermis (3) Carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen
(4) Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Q.303 Active and passive absorption terms were
coined by : - Q.315 Which one of the following mineral elements
(1) Kramer (2) Deutrochet plays an important role in biological nitrogen
(3) Priestley (4) Renner fixation ? [AIPMT-2003]
(1) Copper (2) Manganese
Q.304 Which is free ion present in a cell ? (3) Zinc (4) Molybdenum
(1) P (2) K (3) Fe (4) B Q.316 Stomata of CAM plants : - [AIPMT-2003]
(1) Are always open
Q.305 Who give the Cytochrome pump theory ?
(2) Open during the day & close at night
(1) Sachs (2) Lundegradh
(3) Open during the night & close during the day
(3) Bose & Renner (4) Bennet - Clark
(4) Never open
25
Q.317 Stomata of a plant open due to : - Q.325 Farmers in a particular region were concerned
[AIPMT-2003] that pre-mature yellowing of leaves of a pulse
(1) Influx of potassium ions crop might cause decrease in the yield.
(2) Efflux of potassium ions Which treatment could be most beneficial to
(3) Influx of hydrogen ions obtain maximum seed yield [AIPMT-2006]
(4) Influx of calcium ions (1) Removal of all yellow leaves and spraying
the remaining green leaves with 2,4,5-
Q.318 Plants deficient of element zinc, show its
effect on the biosynthesis of plant growth trichlorophenoxy acetic acid
hormone [AIPMT-2003] (2) Application of iron and magnesium to
(1) Auxin (2) Cytokinin promote synthesis of clorophyll
(3) Ethylene (4) Abscisic acid (3) Frequent irrigation of the crop
(4) Treatment of the plants with cytokinins
Q.319 In which one of the following is nitrogen not
a constituent ? [AIPMT-2003] alongwith a small dose of nitrogenous
fertilizer
(1) Idioblast (2) Bacteriochlorophyll
(3) Invertase (4) Pepsin Q.326 Sulphur is an important nutrient for optimum
Q.320 Gray spots of Oat are caused by deficiency growth and productivity in [AIPMT-2006]
of- [AIPMT-2003] (1) Fibre crops (2) Oil seed crops
(1) Cu (2) Zn (3) Mn (4) Fe (3) Pulse crops (4) Cereals
Q.321 The most abundant element present in the Q.327 A plant requires magnesium for : [AIPMT-2007]
plants is - [AIPMT-2004]
(1) Cell wall development
(1) Iron (2) Carbon
(2) Holding cells together
(3) Nitrogen (4) Maganese
(3) Protein synthesis
Q.322 The ability of the Venus Flytrap to capture (4) Chlorophyll synthesis
insects is due to - [AIPMT-2005]
(1) Chemical stimulation by the prey Q.328 Which of the following is a flowering plant
(2) A passive process requiring no special with nodules containing filamentous nitrogen-
ability on the part of the plant fixing microoganism ? [AIPMT-2007]
(3) Specialized “muscle-like” cells (1) Cicer arietinum
(4) Rapid turgor pressure changes
(2) Casuarina equisetifolia
Q.323 The deficiencies of micronutrients, not only (3) Crotalaria juncea
affects growth of plants but also vital functions (4) Cycas revoluta
such as photosynthetic and mitochondrial
electron flow. Among the list given below, Q.329 About 98 percent of the mass of every living
which group of three elements shall affect organism is composed of just six elements
most,both photosynthetic and mitrochondrial including carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen oxygen
electron transport : [AIPMT-2005]
and : [AIPMT-2007]
(1) Cu, Mn, Fe (2) Co, Ni, Mo
(1) Calcium and phosphorus
(3) Mn, Co, Ca (4) Ca, K, Na
(2) Phosphorus and sulphur
Q.324 Potometer works on the principle of : (3) Sulphur and magnesium
[AIPMT-2005] (4) Magnesium and sodium
(1) Amount of water absorbed equals the
amount transpired Q.330 Which one of the following elements is not
(2) Osmotic pressure an essential micronutrient for plant growth ?
(3) Root pressure
[AIPMT-2007]
(4) Potential difference between the tip of the
tube and that of the plant (1) Ca (2) Mn (3) Zn (4) Cu
26
Q.331 Carbohydrates are commonly found as starch Q.338 Which one of the following structures between
in plant storage organs. Which of the following two adjacent cells is an effective transport
five properties of starch (a–e) make it useful pathway? [AIPMT-2010 (Pre)]
as a storage material ? [AIPMT-2008] (1) Endoplasmic reticulum
(I) Easily translocated
(2) Plasmalemma
(II) Chemically non-reactive
(3) Plasmodesmata
(III) Easily digested by animals
(4) Plastoquinones
(IV) Osmotically inactive
(V) Synthesized during photosynthesis Q.339 One of the free-living, anaerobic nitrogen-fixer
The useful properties are- is- [AIPMT-2010 (Pre)]
(1) (I), (III) and (V) (2) (I) and (V) (1) Rhizobium (2) Azotobacter
(3) (II) and (III) (4) (II) and (IV) (3) Beijernickia (4) Rhodospirillum
Q.332 Nitrogen flxation is root nodules of Anlus is Q.340 The common nitrogen-fixer in paddy field is-
brought about by : - [AIPMT-2008] [AIPMT-2010 (Pre)]
(1) Frankia (2) Azorhizobium (1) Oscillatoria (2) Frankia
(3) Bradyrhizobium (4) Clostridium (3) Rhizobium (4) Azospirillum
Q.333 Guard cells help in : - [AIPMT-2009] Q.341 Transport of food material in higher plants
(1) Fighting against infection takes place thrugh : [AIPMT-2010 (Mains)]
(2) Protection against grazing (1) Transfusion tissue
(3) Transpiration (2) Tracheids
(4) Guttation (3) Sieve elements
(4) Companion cells
Q.334 Manganese is required in : - [AIPMT-2009]
(1) Chlorophyll synthesis Q.342 Given below is the diagram of a stomatal
(2) Nucleic acid synthesis apparatus. In which of the following all the
(3) Plant cell wall formation four parts labelled as A, B, C and D are
correctly identified? [AIPMT-2010 (Mains)]
(4) Photolysis of water during photosynthesis
Q.335 An element playing important role in nitrogen

fixation is- [AIPMT-2010 (Pre)]
(1) Manganese (2) Zinc
(3) Molybdenum (4) Copper
Q.336 W hich one of the f ollowing is not a A B C D

micronutrient? [AIPMT-2010 (Pre)] (1) Guard cell Stomatal Subsidiary Epidermal
(1) Zinc (2) Boron aperture cell cell
(3) Molybdenum (4) Magnesium (2) Epidermal Guard cell Stomatal Subsidiary
cell aperture cell
(3) Epidermal Subsidiary Stomatal Guard cell
Q.337 The chief water conducting elements of xylem cell cell aperture
in gymnosperms are- [AIPMT-2010 (Pre)] (4) Subsidiary Epidermal Guard cell Stomatal
(1) Transfusion tissue (2) Tracheids cell cell aperture
(3) Vessels (4) Fibres
27
Q.343 Study the cycle shown below and select the Q.347 In land plants, the guard cells differ from other
epidermal cells in having : [AIPMT-2011 (Pre)]
option which gives correct words for all the
(1) Chloroplasts
four blanks A, B, C and D. (2) Cytoskeleton
[AIPMT-2010 (Mains)] (3) Mitochondria
(4) Endoplasmic reticulum
Q.348 A prokaryotic autotrophic nitrogen fixing sym-

biont is found in [AIPMT-2011 (Pre)]
(1) Pisum (2) Alnus
(3) Cycas (4) Cicer
Q.349 Which one of the following is not a biofertilizer ?

[AIPMT-2011 (Pre)]
(1) Mycorrhiza (2) Agrobacterium
(3) Rhizobium (4) Nostoc
Q.350 Guttation is the result of : [AIPMT-2011 (Mains)]

(1) Root pressure (2) Diffusion
(3) Transpiration (4) Osmosis
Option :
A B C D Q.351 Function of companion cells is :
(1) Dentrification Ammonification Plants Animals [AIPMT-2011 (Mains)]
(2) Nitrification Dentrification Animals plants (1) Loading of sucrose into sieve elements
(3) Dentrification Nitrification Plants Animals (2) Providing energy to sieve elements for ac-
(4) Nitrification Ammonification Animals plants tive transport
(3) Providing water to phloem
Q.344 Leguminous plants are able to fix atmospheric (4) Loading of sucrose into sieve elements by
nitrogen through the process of symbiotic passive transport
nitrogen fixation. Which one of the following
statements is not correct during this process Q.352 Which one of the following is not an essential
of nitrogen fixation? [AIPMT-2010 (Mains)] mineral element for plants while the remaining
(1) Nodules act as sites for nitrogen fixation three are ? [AIPMT-2011 (Mains)]
(2) The enzyme nitrogenase catalyses the (1) Phosphorus (2) Iron
conversion atmospheric N2 to NH3 (3) Manganese (4) Cadmium
(3) Nitrogenase is insensitive to oxygen
Q.353 Leghaemoglobin in root nodules of legumes
(4) Leghaemoglobin scavenges oxygen ans
(1) protects nitrogenase [RPMT-2011]
is pinkish in colour. (2) converts N2 to NH3
(3) oxidises NO2 to NO3
Q.345 The function of leghaemoglobin in the root nod-
(4) helps in development of infection threads
ules of legumes is : [AIPMT-2011 (Pre)]
(1) expression of nif gene
Q.354 The chief sinks for the mineral elements are -
(2) inhibition of nitrogenase activity
[RPMT-2011]
(3) oxygen removal
(4) nodule differentiation (1) Senescent leaves (2) Ripe fruits
(3) Lateral meristems (4) Bark
Q.346 Which one of the following elements is plants
is not remobillised ? [AIPMT-2011 (Pre)]
(1) Sulphur (2) Phosphorus
(3) Calcium (4) Potassium
28
ANSWER KEYS
EXERCISE - I
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 2 1 1 3 2 1 4 4 2 3 1 2 1 4 4 3 2 1 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 3 1 4 1 1 3 1 3 4 1 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 4 2 3 1 4 2 3 4 3 1 2 3 1 1 4 3 1 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 4 2 4 4 3 2 4 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 2 1 2 2
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 3 3 3 1 1 2 4 1 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 1
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 1 1 2 4 2 4 3 3 1 4 1 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 1 1
Ques. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 4 3 3 3 3 2 1 2 2 3 1 3 2 3 1 4 4 1 2 2
Ques. 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
Ans. 4 2 1 3 1 1 3 3 2 2 3 1 1 4 2 1 3 3 4 3
Ques. 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
Ans. 3 4 3 3 4 1 4 3 3 1 4 3 1 1 4 4 4 4 1 4
Ques. 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200
Ans. 4 3 2 2 2 2 4 3 2 1 3 1 3 3 1 2 3 3 2 4
Ques. 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220
Ans. 2 4 3 2 4 4 2 2 4 4 3 2 3 3 3 4 2 3 1 3
Ques. 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240
Ans. 2 1 4 1 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 1 2 4 3 2 2 4 3 3
Ques. 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260
Ans. 4 4 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 1 4 3 3 4 1 2 1 2 1 2
Ques. 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280
Ans. 3 1 2 1 3 1 4 3 4 1 4 1 2 2 2 3 1 3 3 2
Ques. 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 4 4 1 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 1 4 1 1
Ques. 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320
Ans. 3 4 4 2 2 4 1 4 2 2 2 3 2 4 4 3 1 1 1 3
Ques. 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340
Ans. 2 4 1 1 2 2 4 2 2 1 4 1 3 4 3 4 2 3 4 1
Ques. 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354
Ans. 3 3 1 3 3 3 1 3 2 1 2 4 1 3
29
EXERCISE - II
Q.1 When stomata open, the pH of guard cells : - Q.9 Which of the following element is most mobile
[Uttaranchal PMT 2004] in plant metabolism :
(1) Increases (2) Decreases [Uttaranchal PMT 2006]
(1) Calcium (2) Phosphorus
(3) Remains same (4) Both ‘A’ and ‘B’
(3) Carbon (4) Magnesium
Q.2 Water lost in guttation is : - Q.10 The process of converting ammonia to nitrate
[Uttaranchal PMT 2004] by bacteria is known as :
(1) Pure water (2) Impure water [Uttaranchal PMT 2006]
(3) In vapour form (4) Either ‘A’ and ‘B’ (1) Ammonification (2) Nitrification
(3) Nitrogen fixation (4) Denitrification
Q.3 Which of the following elements are essential Q.11 Root nodules which are present in plants are
of the photolysis of water : - meant for fertilizers and are found in/on :
[Uttaranchal PMT 2004] [Uttaranchal PMT 2006]
(1) Ca and Cl (2) Mn and Cl (1) Certain leguminous plants
(3) Zn and I (4) Cu and Fe (2) Casurina
(3) Alanus
Q.4 What will happen if plant cells are placed in (4) All of the above
hypertonic solution :
Q.12 Agriculturists have reported about 40-50%
[Uttaranchal PMT 2004] higher yieds of rice by applying :
(1) Turgid (2) Plasmolysed [Uttaranchal PMT 2006]
(3) Deplasmolysed (4) Lysed (1) Azolla
(2) Cyanophycean members
Q.5 Loss of water from tips of leaves is called : (3) Mycorrhizae
[Uttaranchal PMT 2005] (4) Thorn forest
(1) Bleeding (2) Guttation Q.13 A nutrient element essential for the formation
(3) Respiration (4) Transpiration of micro-tubules of the mitotic spindle
apparatus during cell division is :
[Uttaranchal PMT 2006]
Q.6 Root pressure is measured by :
(1) Phosphorus (2) Sulphur
[Uttaranchal PMT 2005]
(3) Clacium (4) Zinc
(1) Manometer (2) Potometer
(3) Auxanometer (4) Osmometer Q.14 Non-symbiotic N2 fixer is :
[West Bengal JEE 2007]
Q.7 Which of the following is releated with transfer (1) Anabaena (2) Rhizobium
of food material : [Uttaranchal PMT 2005] (3) Azotobactor (4) Azolla
(1) Xylem (2) Collenchyma Q.15 Leaves of Nelumbo plant are :
(3) Phloem (4) Parenchyma [West Bengal JEE 2007]
(1) Epistomatic (2) Hypostomatic
Q.8 Which of the following apparatus is commonly (3) Amphistomatic (4) None of these
used to measure the rate of transpiration is :
[Uttaranchal PMT 2006] Q.16 The N2 fixing bacterium associated with root
(1) Porometer (2) Altimeter nodules of legumes is known as :
(3) Potometer (4) Luxmeter [C.G. PMT 2004]
(1) Azotobacter (2) Nitrobacter
(3) Lactobacillus (4) Rhizobium
30
Q.17 The bacteria which convert nitrate in to Q.25 Supply ends in transport of solute are :
molecular nitrogen is called : [C.G. PMT 2005]
[C.G. PMT 2004] (1) Green leaves and storage organs
(1) Nitrifying bacteria (2) Root and stem
(2) Methanobacteria (3) Xylem and Pholem
(3) Diazotrophic bacteria (4) Hormones and enzymes
(4) Denitrifying bacteria
Q.26 Sotmata can open at night also in
Q.18 The bacterium capable of anaerobic N 2 [C.G. PMT 2005]
Fixation is known as : [C.G. PMT 2004] (1) Xerophyte (2) Gametophyte
(1) Clostridium (2) Bacillus
(3) Hydrophyte (4) None of these
(3) Azotobacter (4) Rhizobium
Q.19 0.1 M solution has water potential of : Q.27 Who had said that “transpiration is necessary
evil” : [C.G. PMT 2005]
[C.G. PMT 2004]
(1) Curtis (2) Steward
(1) –2.3 bars (2) 0 bar
(3) 22.4 bars (4) +2.3 bars (3) Andersen (4) J.C. Bose
Q.20 A small mesophytic twig with green leaves is Q.28 Which of the following is a biofertilizer :
dipped into water in a big beaker under [C.G. PMT 2006]
sunlight. It demonstrates : [C.G. PMT 2004] (1) Funaria (2) Fern
(1) Photosyntesis (2) Respiration (3) Anabaena (4) Fungus
(3) Transpiration (4) None of the above
Q.29 Stomata opens during day because the guard
Q.21 Which one is not related to transpiration : cells have : [C.G. PMT 2006]
[C.G. PMT 2004] (1) Outer walls thin (2) Kidney shape
(1) Regulation of plant body temperature
(3) Chlorophyll (4) Large nuclei
(2) Absorption and distribution of mineral salt
(3) Circulation of water
Q.30 Mo is related with : [C.G. PMT 2006]
(4) Bleeding
(1) N2 fixation
(2) Flower induction
Q.22 Which element is essential for photolysis of
water [C.G. PMT 2004] (3) Chromosome contraction
(1) Nitrogen(2) Manganese (4) Carbon collection
(3) Carbon (4) Oxygen
Q.31 Which one of the following elements is
Q.23 Which of the following can utilize molecular present in chlorophylls : [C.G. PMT 2006]
nitrogen (N2) as nutrient for growth
(1) Manganese (2) Magnesium
[C.G. PMT 2004]
(3) Copper (4) Iron
(1) Rhizobium (2) Spirogyra
(3) Mucor (4) Methancoccus
Q.32 Which one of the following bacteria has
Q.24 Sinks are related to : [C.G. PMT 2005] potential for nitrogen fixation :
(1) Transport of organic solutes [C.G. PMT 2006]
(2) Stomata (1) Nitrosomonas (2) Nitrobacter
(3) Enzymes (3) Nitrosococcus (4) Rhizobium
(4) phytochrome
31
Q.33 Stomata open and close due to : Q.41 Rate of transpiration is measured by :
[Jharkhand 2006] [Jharkhand 2003]
(1) Manometer (2) Auxanometer
(1) Turgor pressure change
(3) Potometer (4) Barometer
(2) Hormone change
(3) Temperature change
Q.42 If a cell shrinks when placed in a solution,
(4) All of the above this solution is : [Jharkhand 2003]
(1) Hypotonic (2) Hypertonic
Q.34 For nitrogen fixation, pigment useful is :
(3) Isotonic (4) Pure solvent
[Jharkhand 2006]
(1) Nitrogenase (2) Haemoglobin Q.43 If a cell A with DPD 4 bars is connected to cell
(3) Myoglobin (4) Leghaemoglobin B, C, D whose osomotic pressure and turger
pressure are respectively 4 and 4, 10 and 5, 7
Q.35 In plasmolysed cell, the space between cell and 3 bar, the flow of water will be :
wall and Protoplasm is occupied by : [Jharkhand 2002]
[Jharkhand 2006] (1) B to A, C and D (2) A to D, B and C
(3) C to A, B and D (4) A to B, C and D
(1) Hypotonic solution
(2) Hypertonic solution
Q.44 Guard cell controls : [Bihar 2004]
(3) Isotonic solution (1) Intensity of light entering
(4) Distil water (2) Photosynthesis
(3) Closing and opening of stomata
Q.36 In CAM plants stomata are :
(4) Change in green colour
[Jharkhand 2005]
(1) Closed at night and open during the day
Q.45 Active transport : [Bihar 2003]
(2) Closed at the day and open at night (1) Releases energy
(3) Never closes (2) Requires energy
(4) Never opens (3) Produces ATP
(4) Produces a toxic substance
Q.37 The real force resposible for the movement of
Q.46 The metal ion involved in stomatal regulation
water from cell to cell is : [Jharkhand 2005] is [Bihar 2002]
(1) OP (2) TP (3) DPD (4) WP (1) Fe (2) Mg (3) Zn (4) K
Q.38 Which of the following is symbiotic bacteria :
[Jharkhand 2005] Q.47 Valamen tissues are associated with
(1) Rhizobium (2) Azotobactor [Bihar 2002]
(3) Clotrisdium (4) Streptomyces (1) Hautorial function
(2) Assimilation
Q.39 Which of the following have sunken stomata : (3) Aborption of moisture
[Jharkhand 2003] (4) Nutrition
(1) Nerium (2) Mangifera
(3) Hydrilla (4) Zera mays Q.48 Cohesion-tension theory regarding ascent of
sap was given by : [Bihar 2001]
Q.40 When a plasmolysed cell is placed in a
hyotonic solution then water will move inside (1) Dixon and Jolly (2) J.C. Bose
the cell. Which force causes this : (3) Cristian Wolf (4) Godlewski
[Jharkhand 2003]
Q.49 Velamen tissue is found in : [Bihar 2004]
(1) DPD (2) OP
(1) Mesophytes (2) Epiphytes
(3) WP (4) None of these
(3) Hydrophytes (4) Xerophytes
32
Q.50 In a fully turgid plant cell which one is zero : Q.58 Increased humidy in atmosphere decreases
[Bihar 2001] rate of : [UP CPMT 2003]
(1) Trugor pressure (2) Wall pressure (1) Transpiration (2) Photosynthesis
(3) Suction pressure (4) None of these (3) Glycolysis (4) Growth
Q.51 Who proposed the ‘Chohesion Theory of Q.59 In osmosis there is movement of :
ascent of sap: [Bihar 2006] [UP CPMT 2003]
(1) Strasburger (2) Godlewski (1) Solute only
(3) Western (4) Dixon and Jolly (2) Solvent only
Q.52 The most accepted theroy for ascent of sap (3) Both (1) and (2)
is : [UP CPMT 2001] (4) Neither solute nor solvent
(1) Relay pump theory Q.60 Which of the following is a nitrogen fixing
(2) Pulsation theory organism [UP CPMT 2003]
(3) Root pressure theory (1) Some BGA (2) Rhizobium
(4) Transpiration pull cohesion theory theory (3) Both (1) and (2) (4) Aspergillus
Q.53 Legume plants are important f or crop Q.61 Which of the following of bacteria is involved
production because they : [UP CPMT 2002] in two step conversion of NH3 into nitrate :
(1) Help in NO2 Fixation [UP CPMT 2004]
(2) Do not help in NO2 Fixation (1) Azotobacter and nitrosomonas
(3) Increase soil fertility (2) Nitrosomoans and Nitrobacter
(4) All of these (3) Azotobacter and Achromobacter
(4) Pseudomonas and Nitrobacter
Q.54 Transport of water and salt is mediated by :
[MP PMT 2006] Q.62 A metal ion involved in stomatal regulation is :
(1) Xylem (2) Sieve tubes [UP CPMT 2004]
(3) Sclerenchyma (4) Phloem (1) Iron (2) Potassium
(3) Zinc (4) Magnesium
Q.55 Removal of ring wood of tissue outside the
vascular cambium from the tree trunk kills it
Q.63 The plant ash is an indication of :
because : [UP CPMT 2002]
[UP CPMT 2005]
(1) Water cannot move up
(1) Organic matter of plant
(2) Food does not travel down and root
become starved (2) Waste product
(3) Shoot become starved (3) Mineral salts absorbed by plants
(4) Annual ring are not produced (4) None of these
Q.56 Wilting of plant is present in : Q.64 Guttation takes place through :

[UP CPMT 2002] [UP CPMT 2005]
(1) Moss (2) Fern (1) Lenticels (2) Phenumatophores
(3) Algae (4) Angiosperm (3) Stomata(4) Hydrathodes
Q.65 Plant ash has maximum content of :

Q.57 Root hair absorb water from the soil on
[UP CPMT 2006]
account of :
(1) Mg (2) Fe (3) K (4) B
(1) Turgor pressure (2) Osmotic pressure
(3) Suction pressure (4) Root pressure Q.66 Which of the following is part of cytochrome:
[UP CPMT 2006]
(1) Mg (2) Zn (3) Fe (4) Ca
33
Q.67 Food in plants is translocated in the form of : Q.74 W hat happened when we inoculated
[UP CPMT 2006] Rhizobium in wheat field : [MP PMT 2007]
(1) Glucose (2) Starch (1) No increase in production (nitrogen
(3) Sucrose (4) Fructose content of soil remains same)
(2) A lot of increase in production (nitrogen
Q.68 Which of the following statements is correct ? content of soil increase)
[UP CPMT 2003] (3) Fertility of soil decreases
(1) Cell membrance is involved only in (4) Fertilite of soil increases
exosmosis
Q.75 Nitrifying bacteria are able to :
(2) Cell membrance is involved only in
endosmosis [MP PMT 2007]
(3) Cell membrance is involved both in (1) Convert atomospheric nitrogen into soluble
exosmosis and endosomosis form
(4) None of the above (2) Convert ammonia to nitrate
(3) Ammonia to nitrogen
Q.69 Which of the following is not related to N2 (4) Nitrate to nitrogen
fixation [UP CPMT 2006]
Q.76 Plant cell plasmolysed in a solution which is :
(1) Rhizobium (2) Anabaena
[MP PMT 2006]
(3) Pseudomonas (4) Azotobacter
(1) Hypotonic
(2) Hypertonic
Q.70 The root hairs absorb which of the following (3) Isotonic
type of water : [UP CPMT 2006]
(4) Concentration no means
(1) Capillary water
(2) Hygroscopic water
Q.77 Nitrogenase enzyme is found in Nostoc in
(3) Gravitational water the cell of : [MP PMT 2001]
(4) All of the water (1) Vegetative
(2) Heterocyst
Q.71 If flowers are cut and dipped in dilute NaCl
(3) Both vegetative and heterocyst
solution, then : [UP CPMT 2007]
(4) None of these
(1) Transpiration is low
(2) Endo-osmosis occurs Q.78 Turgidity in guard cells is controlled by:
(3) No bacterial growth takes place (1) Chloride
(4) Absorption of solute inside flower cell (2) Malic acid
takes place (3) Potassium
(4) Potassium, chloride and malic acid
Q.72 Which of the following is not caused by
deficiency of mineral : [MP PMT 2007] Q.79 Magnesium is found in : [MP PMT 2001]
(1) Chlorosis (1) Chlorophyll (2) Carotenoid
(2) Etiolation (3) Phycobilin (4) Cytochrome
(3) Shortening of internodes
Q.80 Stomata are not found in : [MP PMT 2001]
(4) Necrosis
(1) Algae (2) Mosses
(3) Ferns (4) Liverworts
Q.73 The mineral present in cell walls is :
[MP PMT 2007]
Q.81 In which of the f ollowing the rate of
(1) Na (2) Ca transpiration is high : [MP PMT 2001]
(3) K (4) Mg (1) CAM plant (2) C3 plants
(3) C2 and C4 plants (4) C4 plants
34
Q.82 Which of the following is a trace element : Q.91 Essential mineral nutrients are the element
[MP PMT 2001] [MP PMT 2005]
(1) S (2) Mg (3) Cu (4) P (1) In the absence of which plants cannot
complete their life cycle
Q.83 Cell sap is found in which cell organelle : (2) W hich cannot be replaced by other
[MP PMT 2001] element in its function
(1) Nucleous (2) Chloroplast (3) The element which is directly associated
with metabolism of the plant
(3) Vacuole (4) Golgi Apparatus
Q.84 Which one of the following fixes nitrogen
Q.92 Plants absorb carbon dioxide from :
[MP PMT 2002]
[MP PMT 2005]
(1) TMV
(1) Millets
(2) Yeast
(2) Cereals
(3) Nostoc
(3) Carbohydrates present in the soil
(4) Denitrifying bacteria (4) Aotmosphere
Q.85 Active transport of ions by the cell requires : Q.93 Stomatal movement is controlled by :
[MP PMT 2002]
[MP PMT 2005]
(1) High temperature (2) ATP
(1) Na (2) Mg (3) K (4) P
(3) Alkaline pH (4) Salts
Q.94 Which of the following enzyme fixes nitrogen
Q.86 To initiate cell plasmolysis, the salt [MP PMT 2005]
concentration must be : [MP PMT 2002]
(1) Nitrate reductase (2) Nitrogenase
(1) Isotonic (2) Hypotonic
(3) PEP caboxylase (4) Rubisco
(3) Hypertonic (4) Atonic
Q.95 Transpiration will increase with the increase
Q.87 Which one of the following organisms may of : [MP PMT 2005]
respire in the absence of oxygen : (1) Humidity (2) Temperature
[MP PMT 2002] (3) Carbon dioxide (4) Sulphur dioxide
(1) Azotobacter (2) Clostridium
Q.96 If is possible to drop a small particle through
(3) Rhizobium (4) Lactobacillus
the stomata of leaf, what will you conclude :
Q.88 Which of the following is not a trace element : [MP PMT 2005]
[MP PMT 2003] (1) It will fall on the earth surface
(1) Zn (2) Mn (3) Mg (4) Cu (2) It will stop on lower epidermis
(3) It will stop on mesophyll cells
Q.89 Symbiotic microorganism is : (4) It will stop on vascular tissue
[MP PMT 2003]
Q.97 The bacterium capable of anaerobic nitrogen-
(1) Clostridium (2) Azotobacter
fixation is : [MP PMT 2006]
(3) Rhizobium (4) Chromatium
(1) Azatobacter (2) Rhizobium
Q.90 The basis of stomatal opening is : (3) Bacillus (4) Clostridium
[MP PMT 2004] Q.98 In plant metabolism phosphorus play a major
(1) Endosmosis role to : [MP PMT 2006]
(2) Plasmolysis of guard cells (1) Evolve oxygen during photosynthesis
(3) Decrease in cell sap concentration (2) Create aerobic condition
(4) Exosmosis (3) Generate metabolic energy
(4) Evolve carbon dioixde during respiration
35
Q.99 Photosynthetic food material is transported Q.101 Chlorosis is caued due to deiciency of
in the form of : [MP PMT 2006] [MP PMT 2006]
(1) Glusose (2) Sucrose (1) Mg (2) Ca
(3) Starch (4) Fructose (3) B (4) Mn
Q.100 During transpiration turgidity in guard cells is Q.102 What will happen if plant cells are placed in
controlled by : [MP PMT 2006] hypertonic solution :
(1) Potassium (2) Bromine [Uttaranchal PMT 2004]
(3) Sodium (4) Oxalic acid (1) Turgid (2) Plasmolysed
(3) Deplasmolysed (4) Lyse
ANSWER KEYS
EXERCISE - II
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 2 2 2 2 1 3 3 2 2 4 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 1 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 4 1 4 2 2 3 1 1 1
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 2 1 3 2 4 3 1 2 3 4 4 3 1 2 4 3 1 2 3
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 2 2 3 4 1 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 4 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 2 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 1 4 4 3 2 2 3 4 3 2 1
Ques. 101 102
Ans. 1 2
36
EXERCISE - III
These questions consist of two statements each, printed as “ASSERTION” and “REASON”. While
answering these Questions you are required to choose any one of the following responses.
(1) If both Assertion and Reason are True and the Reason is a correct explanation of the
Assertion.
(2) If both Assertion and Reason are True but Reason is not correct explanation of the Assertion
(3) If Assertion is True but the Reason is False.
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false.
Q.1 Assertion : Rate of water absorption Q.10 Assertion : In a plasmolysed cell the space
decreases by decrease in temp. of soil. between cell wall and plasma membrane is
Reason : Permeability of cell membrane occupied by hypertonic solution.
decreases at low temperature. Reason : Cell wall is permeable.
Q.2 Assertion : Most available form of water in plants Q.11 Assertion : Root pressure is maximum during
is capillary water. noontime.
Reason :   of capillary water is highly Reason : Temperature & light intensity is higher
negative. during noontime.
Q.3 Assertion : Ascent of sap takes place by Q.12 Assertion : T.P. of Guard cells determines the
vessels & trachieds. mechanism of opening and closing of stomata.
Reason : These are non living elements of Reason : Inner wall of Guard cell is thin.
phloem.
Q.13 Assertion : Plant leaves become wilted after
Q.4 Assertion : Endosmosis causes flaccidity in girdling or ringing.
Guard cells. Reason : Ascent of sap is taking place by
Reason : Stomata opens due to flaccidity in phloem.
Guard cells.
Q.14 Assertion : DPD in plasmolysed cell is higher
Q.5 Assertion : Plant ash contains many inorganic than O.P.
substances or mineral elements. Reason : T.P. is negative in plasmolysed cell.
Reason : All the elements presents in plant ash
are essential. Q.15 Assertion : The movement of ions from
epidermis to xylem elements is an active
Q.6 Assertion : Chlorine, Calcium & Manganese are
process.
important for light reaction.
Reason : It requires the metabolic energy.
Reason : Photolysis of water is helped by these
elements. Q.16 Assertion : Ringing Experiment is impossible
Q.7 Assertion : Osmotic pressure of solution is in sugarcane plants.
always higher than pure solvent. Reason : Vascular bundles in sugarcane are
Reason : O.P. is property of solvent molecules. scattered.
Q.17 Assertion : Ascent of sap is function of Xylem

Q.8 Assertion : In transpiration water, vapour diffuses
parenchyma.
from leaves in atomosphere.
Reason : Xylem parenchyma is non living
Reason : Diffusion takes place from higher
element.
conc. to lower conc.
Q.18 Assertion : Active absorption of water takes
Q.9 Assertion : Ascent of sap continues, after the
place in Halophytes.
living cells of xylem are killed by poison.
Reason : Halophytes can absorbe water non-
Reason : Path of ascent of sap is symplastic.
osmotically.
37
Q.19 Assertion : O.P. of pure water is higher. Q.29 Assertion : Water is mainly absorbed by passive
Reason : O.P. is property of solvent. process in plants.
Reason : Passive absorption occurs by
Q.20 Assertion : Root cells have lower  than leaf expenditure of metabolic energy.
cells.
Reason : Root cells have greater solute Q.30 Assertion : Cold soil is physiologically dry.
concentration as compared to leaf cells. Reason : Viscosity of water is higher in cold
soil.
Q.21 Assertion : Rate of transpiration is higher in
dry & hot atmosphere. Q.31 Assertion : Ascent of sap occurs by xylem
Reason : Diffusion of water vapour is rapid in tissue.
dry atmosphere. Reason : Xylem is presents only in dicot plants.
Q.22 Assertion : Guttation occurs during night & Q.32 Assertion : Root hair cells absorb water from
morning. soil.
Reason : Hydathodes remain open during all Reason : O.P. of soil is lower than root cells.
time.
Q.33 Assertion : Ascent of sap is stopped by killing
the xylem parenchyma.
Q.23 Assertion : Minerals mainly absorbed by
Reason : Ascent of sap occurs by parenchyma.
Meristematic zone of roots.
Reason : Metabolic energy is produced by
Q.34 Assertion : Passive absorption of H2O increases
photosynthesis in meristematic part of roots.
by increase in transpiration.
Reason : Passive absorption of water requires
Q.24 Assertion : The movement of ions from soil to ATP.
endodermis & Xylem elements is an active
process.
Q.35 Assertion : O.P. of leaf cells is lower than root
Reason : It requires metabolic energy.
cells.
Reason : Root cells has more solute.
Q.25 Assertion : Wooden doors and windows are
hard to open or close in moist season.
Q.36 Assertion : Ascent of sap occurs by living part
Reason : They imbibe water in humid rainy
of xylem.
season and increase in volume.
Reason : Ascent of sap requires metabolic
energy.
Q.26 Assertion : Guttataion is loss of water in liquid
form from the hydathodes.
Q.37 Assertion : Maximum transpiration takes place
Reason : Hydathodes open during day time.
through the stomata.
Reason : Stomatal transpiration occurs through
Q.27 Assertion : Halophytes can grow on salty soil.
the leaves.
Reason : Osmotic pressure in halophyte is
higher as comapred to normal plants.
Q.38 Assertion : Rate of transpiration decreases with
increase in conc. of CO2.
Q.28 Assertion : Transpiration is higher in humid
Reason : CO2 reacts with ABA in subsidiary
climate.
cells.
Reason : Rate of water absorption is higher in
heliophytes.
38
Q.39 Assertion : Potamogeton possesses non- Q.42 Assertion : Ascent of sap occurs by xylem
functional stomata. vesseles ad tracheids.
Reason : Potamogeton is submerged Reason : These are living elements of xylem.
hydrophyte.
Q.43 Assertion : Orchids or epiphytes can absorb
Q.40 Assertion : Transplanted plant can not grow atm. humidity.
easily. Reason : Orchids are photosynthetic plants.
Reason : Uptake of CO2 is not possible at new
places. Q.44 Assertion : Rate of transpiration decreases with
increase in atm. humidity.
Q.41 Assertion : Rate of water absorption decreases
Reason : At high atm. humidity sotmata close.
at low temp.
Reason : Viscocity of water is increased at low
temp.
ANSWER KEYS
EXERCISE - III
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 3 3 4 3 1 3 1 3 1 4 3 4 1 1 1 4 1 4 4
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 2 3 1 1 3 1 4 3 1 3 1 4 3 4 4 2 3 1 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44
Ans. 1 3 2 3
39
MINERAL NUTRITION
INTRODUCTION
 Soil the main source of mineral nutrients. These mineral nutrients are mainely absorbed by the
meristemetic region of roots.
 Mineral nutrients are present with soil particles in colloidal form and in water as soil solution. Conduction
of mineral nutrients is done through the xylem.
 Absorption of meneral in plant is an active process.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
About 50-60 elements are present in plant body but 16 elements are considered as essential elements
According to Arnon-Criteria of essentiality of minerals:
 The element must be neccessary for normal growth and reproduction of all plants.
 The requirement of element must be specific for plant life. That is indespensible element to plant.
 The Element must be directly involved in metabolism of plant.
C, H, O, N, K, S, Ca, Fe, Mg, P, Cu, Mn, B, Cl, Zn, Mo, Ni
CLASSIFICATION OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
Arnon divides these necessary elements in two group on the basis of requirement of plant
 Major element/Macro nutrients: Concentration must be 1-10 mg L–1 more than 10 m mole
kg–1of dry matter. (mmole-Milimolar)
C, H, O, N, P, Mg, S, K, Ca
 Minor element/Micro nutrients: (Concentration present 1.0-0.1 mg L–1 less than 10 m mole kg–1 per
gram of dry matter)
Cu, Zn, N, Mo, Mn, B, Cl, Fe
General functions of essential elements-
1. Protoplasmic elements - C, H, O, N, P, S
2. Elements of Redox Reaction - Fe, Cu, Mn, Cl
3. Balancing / Antagonetic - K, Ca
4. Membrane Permeability - K, Ca
5. Co-factor of enzymes - All micronutrients except B
6. Osmotic pressure of cell.
Benificial nutrients: Mineral elements other than essential elements, which satisfy specific additional
nutrient requirement of some specific plants.
Ex. Na - Halophytes (eg. Atriplex - helps in C4 pathway)
Si - Grasses (Provides mechanical strength)
Se - Astragalus
Co - Leguminous plants (root nodule formation)
 Toxic elements/Toxicity:- Any mineral ion concentration in plant tissue, that reduces the dry weight
of tissue by about 10 percent is considerd as toxic or toxic element and this effect is called toxicity.
40
 Most of the micronutrients become toxic as their required amount for plants is very low. This excess
concentration inhibits activity of other essential elements.
Ex : Toxicity of Mn (Manganese) may induce deficiency of iron, magnesium and calcium cause
appearance of brown spots surrounded by chlorotic veins. Mn competes with iron (Fe) and magnesium
(Mg) for uptake and for binding to enzymes. Mn also inhibits, calcium translocation into the shoot apex
and causes disease 'Crickle leaf '.
So the dominant symptoms of Mn toxicity may actually be the symptoms of Fe, Mg and Ca deficiency.
Deficiency symptoms and mobility of minerals.
 The deficiency symptoms of highly mobile elements in plants like N, P, K, Cl and Mg first appear
in older plant parts. These minerals are present as structural constituent of biomolecules of mature
plant parts and when plant parts become older, these biomolecules broken down making these elements
available for younger plant parts.
 The deficiency symptoms of immobile elements like Ca, S, B, Fe first appear in young plant parts,
as they are not transported from older plant parts.
MINERAL SALT ABSORPTION/M ECHANISM OF MINERAL ABSORPTION
(A) Passive absorption of minerals : (Without expenditure of ATP)
(1) By simple diffusion : According to this method mineral ions may diffuse in root cells from the soil
solution. Facilitated diffusion of minerals also occurs with help of carrier proteins.
(2) By mass flow : Proposed by Hymo (Supported by Kramer) According to this method mineral ions
absorption occurs with flow of water under the influence of transpiration.
(3) By ion exchange : By Jenny and Over street. This is exchange of mineral ions with the ions of same
charge.
(i) By contact exchange : When the mineral ion exchange occurs with the H+ and OH– ions.
(ii) Carbonic acid exchange : When the mineral ion exchange takes place with the ions of carbonic acid.
(4) By Donnan equilibrium : This theory explains the passive accumulation of ions against the
concentration gradient or electrochemical potential (ECP) without ATP. At the inner side of cell membrane,
which separates from outside (external medium), there are some anions, which are fixed or non
diffusible and membrane is impermeable to these anions, while cations are diffusible.
 In such condition, for maintenance of equilibrium additonal cations are needed to balance negative
charges of anions (at inner side of membrane). Thus some cations moves, inside the cell from soil
solution.
 So according to this theory Donnan equilibrium is attained, if the anions and cations in the internal
solution become equal to the anions and cations in external solutions.
Objections for passive mineral absorption / evidences in favour of active mineral absorption :
(1) Absorption of K+ions in Nitella algae is observed against the concentration gradient.
(2) Rate of respiration of a plant is increases, when plant transferred to mineral solution. (Salt respiration)
(3) Factors like deficiency of oxygen, CO, CN, which inhibits rate of respiration, these factors also inhibit
the absorption of mineral ions in plants.
Thus ion absorption in plants is considered mainly as an active process.
(B) Active ion absorption : (By expenditure of ATPs)
(1) Cytochrome pump theory : By Lundegardh and Burstrom (1933) according to this theory, only
anions are absorbed by active mechanism through cytochrome pumping and absorption of cation is
passive process.
According to cytochrome pump theory salt respiration is called as anion respiration.
41
(2) Carrier concept : By Vanden Honert. According to this theory some specific carrier molecules made
up of proteins are present in cell membrane of root cell, which absorb both the ions and form
ion-carrier complex. This complex is broken inside the cell membrane with the use of energy.
(3) Protein - Lecithin theory : By Bennet Clark
According to this theory a phospholipid lecithin in root cell membrane works as carrier for both type of
ions.
Lecithin has two type of groups:
Phosphate group ( ions absorption)

Lecithin
Choline group ( ions absorption)
 Goldacre - A contractile protein is associated, with absorption of minerals.

Mineral absorbed by the roots of plants are carried by xylem by two pathways, apoplastic and
symplastic pathway.
 P.R. Stout and Hoagland (1939) proved that mineral salts are translocated through xylem along
with transpiration pull (exp. with help of radioisotopes).
SPECIFIC ROLES OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS
Mineral Element Principl Functions Deficiency symptoms

1. Nitrogen (a) All living matter Chlorosis first in older leaves, premature leaf fall
NO3 / Nitrate form (b) Amino acids, proteins reduced yield.
(c) Purines, pyrimidines Development of anthocyanin pigment (Mottled chlorosis)
(d) Early defoliation
(e) NAD, NADP, FMN, FAD
(f) Chlorophyll, cytochromes
2. Phosphorus (a) Nucleic acids Chlorosis with necrosis, premature abscission of leaf,
H2PO4 & HPO 4 (b) Nucleoproteins poor vasculature.
orthophosphate (c) Phspholipids
anion form (d) AMP, ADP, ATP,
(e) NAD, NADP
(f) Indispensible role in
energy metabolism
3. Potassium (a) Permeability Mottled chlorosis, premature death, loss of apical

K+ in free form (b) Osmotic regulation and dominance lodging in cereals. Bushy habit.
hydration Cotton rust
(c) Commonest free ion in cell
(d) Stomatal movements
(e) Translocation of sugars
(f) Enzymes concerned with
photosynthesis, nitrate
reduction, protein bio
-synthesis, respirations, etc
42
4. Calcium (a) Cell wall Structure Stunted growth, degeneration of meristems, chlorosis,
Ca++ form (b) Membrane structure curling first in young leaves. Black heart of Celery.
(c) Influence nitrate reductase
(d) In ion transport
(e) In cell elongation and
spindle formation
(f) Activators of amylases,
adenyl kinase, ATPase, etc.
5. Magnesium (a) Component of chlorophyll Marginal curling, interveinal chlorosis with anthocyanin
Mg++ form (b) Activators of a number of accumulation first appearing in older leaves.
photosynthetic and 'Sand drown' of Tobacco.
respiratory enzymes
(c) Combiness the subunits of
ribosomes
(d) Synthesis and hydrolysis
of ATP
6. Sulphur (a) Part of CoA, Ferredoxin, Chlorosis first in young leaves, reduced nodulation in legume.
SO24 form Vit. H, Thiamine, Lipoic Tea yellow, extensive root system.
(Sulphate) acid.
(b) Amino acids e.g. Cysterine,
Cystine, methionine
7. Iron (a) Structural component of Interveinal chlorosis first in young leaves.

Fe++/Fe+++ porphyrin molecules, cytoch Green Netting of Citrus.
Form -romes, catalase, peroxidase
leghaemoglobin
8. Molybdenum (a) Component of nitrate Mottled chlorosis, whiptail of cauliflower, loosening of

MoO24 form reductase inflorescence of cauliflower. Scald of beans.
(b) Important in N2 fixation
9. Boron (a) Translocation of sugars Brown heart of turnip, internal cork of apple, heart rot of
H3BO3 / BO33 sugarbeet, decreased nodulation in legumes. Hollow stem of
(Borate) form caulifilower, stem crack of Celery.
(b) For seed, pollen and spore
germination
(c) Enzymes of phosphorylation
(d) RNA metabolism
(e) Phenol metabolism and cell
differentiation
(f) Regulates pentose phosphate
pathway
(g) Flowering and fruiting
10. Copper (a) Oxidase enzyme: tyrosinass Dieback, exantheme, reclamation disease, blackening of
CU++ form plastocyanin, cytochrome potato, tubers, chlorosis
oxidase.
43
11. Manganese (a) In chlorophyll synthesis Interveinal chlorosis, grey speck of oat, marsh spot
Mn++ form (b) In photolysis of H2O in disease of pea.
phtosynthesis
(c) Maintenance of chloroplast
membrane structure
(d) Enzyme systems; RNA
polymerase, NAD-malic
enzyme in C4 plants
12. Zinc (a) Tryptophan synthesis Little leaf, leaf rosettes leaf malformations. White bud, whip
Zn++ form (precursor of auxin) tip of maize, sickle leaf of cocao, khaira disease of rice.
(b) Dehydrogenase enzymes,
pyriding nucleotide, alcohol,
glucose-6-p and triose
phosphate
(c) Carbonic anhydrase
(d) Promotes synthesis of
cytochromes
(e) Stabilizes ribosomal fractions.
13. Chlorine (a) In the transfer of electron Bronze colour in leaves, chlorosis, necrosis, swollen root
from water to PS ll flower abscission.
(Photolysis)
(b) Maintain cation-anion balance
14. Nickel (a) Urease and hygrogenase It helps in germination and early seeding growth of
activity Jack Bean seeds. It causes necrotic spots.
N2 METABOLISM
Role of Nitrogen in Plants:- Constituent of proteins, nucleic acids ATP, GTP, Vitamins, chlorophyll,
alkaloids, cytochromes, hormones. Nitrogen is necessary to plants for heridity, reproduction, growth
metabolism and development.
Sources of Nitrogen to plants :
(1) Atmospheric nitrogen:

N  N (Molecular, inert or elemental form) used by Rhizobium (Legumes), BGA, Lichens.
 These converts atm. N2 into metabolically usefull ammonia(NH3). This process is called
as biological nitrogen fixation.
(2) NO3 ,NO2 ,NH4 in soil:
These are major source of nitrogen to plants.
 Nitrate ions (NO3 ) are cheif form of nitrogen used by majority of plants.
Plants grow in acidic soil & found in forest use ammonium ions (NH4 ) as major N2 source.
Nitrate ions are cheif source of N2 for plants but they can not be used directly in metabolic pathway
in plant cells, as it is highly oxidised form. so NO3 (Nitrate) first converted into NO 4 (ammonium ions)
called nitrate reduction. So NH4 ions enters in plant metabolism.
(3) Organic nitrogen in soil: as amino acids, protein body.
Due to death & decay of organisms. This is not a major source of N2.
(4) Insect bodies: for some plants (insectivorous plants)
(5) Urea as chemical/artificial fertilizers
44
Nitrogen (N2) Cycle:
(1) Biological Nitrogen Fixation/Diazotrophy (N2  NH3):- Conversion of molecular or elemental nitrogen
(N  N) into inorganic nitrogenous compounds (NH3) through agency of living organisms is called as
biological nitrogen fixation or Diazotrophy
Nitrogen Fixing organisms (Diazotrophs):
 Free living diazotrophs carry out diazotropy only in free living condition while symbiotic diazotrophs only
in symbiotic condition.
Free living/Nonsymbiotic
Azotobacter, Aerobacter, Beijerinckia, clostridium Rhodospirillum,
Diazotrophs Chromatium, Chlorobium, Rhodopseudomonas
Symbiotic Non nodule Forming

Anabaena, Nostoc, Caulothrix,
Aulosira, Tolypothrix
Nodule Forming Stem nodule-in sesbania

Leaf nodule forming klebsiella
(in pavetta, Dioscorea Psychotria
Mycobacteria (in Rubiaceae))
Root Nodule Forming
with Leguminous with non leugume plants casurina,

plants (Leguminaceae) Alnus, Myrica Frankia
 Rhizobium Leguminosarum Filamentous bacteria.
Non filamentous
(= Bacillus radicicola bacteria)
(2) Ammonification: Conversion of dead organic nitrogenous compounds into ammonia. Bacillus mycoides,
B. ramosus.
(3) Nitrification: Oxidation of ammonia, produced by ammonification into nitrates by nitrifying bacteria
is called as nitrification.
(i) Nitrosomonas
2NH3 + 2O2     2NO2 + 2H2O + 2H+
Ammonia Nitrite ion
(ii) 2NO2 + O 2 Nitrobacter
   2NO3
Nitrate ions
Some fungi like Aspergillus, Penicillium can also carry out this process.
(4) Denitrification: Nitrates or nitrites converts back into molecular or atm. nitrogen by denitrifying
bacteria is denitrification. Ex. Pseudomonas denitrifications.
(5) Nitrate reduction:
 Plants take nitrogen from soil, chiefly in nitrate forms which is highly oxidised form.
so NO 3 converts in ammonia by following method
Nitrate reductase
(a) NO 3  NADH 2  H       NO2 + NAD + H2O
     
2e , 2H 2e , 2H 2e , 2H
(b) NO2   NOH   NH2OH   NH4
or 2NO2 + 6H2O + 4H+ 

Nitrate reductase
  

 2NH4 + 3O2 + 4H2O
 Nitrate reductase is Molybdo flavoprotein isolated by Evans and Nason 1953 from Neurospora and
Glycin max.
45
ion
if icat P. Denitrificans
r
nit
De
NN
Nitrification Bio. N2 Fixation/Diazotrophy
Nitrogenase
Nitrobacter Nitrosomonas Ammonification
NO3 NO2 NH3 Dead organic matter
B.Mycodes, B.ramosus
Ammonia
Ni Reduction 
tr ite Reductive Anination
Red
Ni

uction NH4 + -ketoglutarate + NADPH2 Glutamic Acid + NADP + H2O
R
Ni
tra Transamination
te
R 
NR eductio Oxaloacetate + Glutamate  Aspartate + -ketoglutarate
n
Pyruvate + Glutamate  Alanine +  -ketoglutarate
Catalytic Amidation

In temperate origin legume crops-Pea, clover
Aspartate + Glutamate/Glutamine + ATP A.S Asparagine
+ -ketoglutarate/glutamate + ADP
Legume crops, soyabean, cowpea  In tropical origin
G.S.
 Glutamic Acid + NH4 + ATP Glutamine + ADP 
Urea/Allantoin/Allantoic Acid Ureides
Symbiotic N2 fixatiion (Diazotrophy): It is done by symbiotic bacteria & free living bacteria. In
leguminous plants (Fabaceae) by symbiotic bacterium Rhizobium, which form nodules in their roots.
 N2 convert into NH3 ion, which is used in plant metabolism.

 Root nodules act as site for N2 fixation. It contains all necessary biochemical components like enzyme
Nitrogenase, Leghaemoglobin, required in N2 fixation.
NODULE FORMATION
It is due to interactions between bacteria and host root. It occurs in following steps:
 Multiplication & colonization of Rhizobia at Rhizosphere and attachment to epidermal root hair
cells. Initial attraction of Rhizobia to host root is chemotactic (Rhicadhesin protein of bacterial cell
identify host root) as root exude amino acids, sugars, organic acids and flavonoids.
 Characterstic curling of root hairs and invasion of the bacteria to form an infection thread, by
the invegination of plasma membrane of root hair cells and it reaches up to the cortex of roots.
Curling of root hairs is stimulated by specific complex polysaccharides found on the surface of
rhizobia, recognised by Lectins (small proteins of host plant roots).
 Nodule initiation & development in root cortex. Mitogenic agents secreted (Kinetin) by bacteria
& auxin produced by plant cell promotes cell division & extension leading to nodule formation.
Nodule establishes direct vascular connection with host for exchange of nutrients. Root nudule cells
have chromosome in double to other somatic cells. Thus nodule cells are polyploid specially Tetraploid.
46
Development of root nodules in soyabean : (a) Rhizobium bacteria contact a susceptible root hair,
divide near it, (b) Upon successful infectionof the root hair cause it to curl, (c) Infected thread carries
the bacteria to the inner cortex. The bacteria get modified into rod-shaped bacteroids and cause inner
cortical and pericycle cells to divide. Division and growth of cortical and pericycle cells lead to nodule
formation, (d) A mature nodule is complete with vascular tissues continuous with those of the root
Release of bacteria from infection thread and they differentiable as specilized nitrogen fixing cell.
 Bacteria continue to multiply during it's path in root thair cells & bacteria distribute in most of cells.
 The membrane of infection thread bud off to form small vesicles with containing one or more bacteria.
Then bacteria stop dividing & enlarge & differentiate in nitrogen fixing cells called bacteroid & it's
membrane called peribacteroid membrane.
MECHANISM OF BIOLOGICAL N2 FIXATION

By Burris. The atm. N2 is reduce by the addition of hydrogen atoms.
 The three bonds between two nitrogen atoms N  N or dinitrogen are broken & ammonia (NH3) is
formed by reduction of N  N.
N  N  8H  8e   16 ATP    2NH3  H2  16 ADP

Nitrogenas e
(1) Nitrogenase: Exclusively present in prokaryotes

Inducible enzyme
Larger sub unit/SU-I Mo-Fe-protein
smaller Subunit / SU-II-Fe-S-protein/ ferredoxin
Both Subunits bind togather at the time of N2 fixation.
 Oxygen sensitive enzyene
(2) O2 Regulation: Most of diazotrophs are obligate anaerobes
Some diazotrophs are facultative like Rhizobium, perform anaerobic respiration at
the time of diazotrophy
In root nodule of leguminous plants - O2 Scavenger Leghaemoglobin (lhb) (similar to
haemoglobin of animals) is present, bind with O2 to become oxyleghaemoglobin
(olhb) and regulates minimum O2 concentration.
  Leghaemoglobin is synthesized by combined activity of host (gives protein part
globin) and bacteria (gives haem' part).
 In the Heterocyst- Non photosynthetic and thick walled.
(3) Source of H+ and e–
 Reducing agents NADH2/FADH2/NADPH2 obtained from Photosynthesis and
respiration
47
(4) Source of ATP From Photosynthesis and respiration
Host-NOD(Nodulin protein forming gene)

(5) Genes
Bacteria-nod (Nodule forming gene)
Fix nif (nitrogenase inducing factor)
Fix (Nitrogen fixation gene)
Nitrogenase N2 complex
Nitrogenase
Mo-Fe protein Atm. N2 + 8H+
Fe-s-protein
S-U-II(S.S.U.) S.U.I. (L.S.U.)
e e–
ATP
ADP+ip 8H+
8e– 2NH3 + H2
ATP
ADP+ ip
2NH4  2e
NADH2/FADH2/NADPH2
Biological N2 fixation
Mechanism of nitrogen fixation

(a) The 2nd unit (ferredoxin) of nitrogenase, receive electrons from e– donar (FADH2/NADH2/NADPH2)
and become reduced.
(b) This reduced 2nd unit is now activate by ATP and form a complex called ferredoxin ATP complex.
(c) On other side unit 1st (Fe-Mo protein) of nitrogenase, reacts with molecular nitrogen to form
nitrogenase-nitrogen complex.
(d) Ferredoxin ATP complex then transfer electron to nitrogenase-nitrogen complex, so that the later
gets reduced. This reaction utilize of ATP.
(e) The reduced nitrogenase-nitrogen complex now receives proton (H+) resulting in formation of ammonia
(NH3).
SYNTHESIS OF AMINO ACIDS & NITROGEN ASSIMILATION

Nitrogen assimilation:- Inorganic NH3 (Produced by nitrate reduction or biological fixation or obtained from
soil as NH4 ) reacts with a TCA cycle intermediate--ketoglutaric acid to form an amino acid glutamic
acid.This process known as Reductive amination or Amino acid Biosynthesis.
Glutamate
-Ketoglutaric acid + NH4 + NADPH2 Glutamic acid + H2O + NADP
dehydrogenase
Transamination:- Transfer of Amino group from glutamic acid to other keto acid is known as
transamination. This is a process of formation of other amino acids in plats. (transaminase enzyme) Ex.
Glutamic acid + Pyruvic acid a Alanine + -ketoglutarate
Glutamic acid + OAA Aspartic acid + -ketoglutaric acid.
 Glutamic acid is first formed amino acid in plants & can synthesize different amino acids by
transamination.
48
Catalytic Amidation:
Transportation of fixed N2/Assimilated N2 in plats occurs mainly in form of amides especially in leguminous
plants as amides are more stable than amino acids and posses high Nitrogen to Carbon ratio
(2N to 4C - in Asparagine, 2N to 5C in glutamine (as glutamate posses 1N to 5C)
Formation of amides from amino acids catalysed by enzymes called as catalytic amidation.
In legumes of temperate origine like pea and clover-Asparagine is translocated in non nodulated plant parts.
In legumes of tropical origin like soyabean and cowpea-ureides are translocated in non nodulated plant parts.
Glutamine synthesis:
Gluta min e ( G.S.) Synthase
Glutamic acid/Glutamate + NH4  ATP       Glutamine + ADP + iP
Asparagine syntnesis:
Asparagine ( A.S.) Synthase
Glutamine/Glutamate + Aspartate + ATP         Asparagine + ADP + iP +
Glutamate/-Ketoglutaric acid
SPECIAL POINTS
 C, H, O, N and P are main constituents of protoplasm (organic materials). So they are called
protoplasmic elements. C, N & O from atmosphere and H2O from soil for H & O.
 C, H and O are the main components of nucleic acid, proteins, enzymes, carbohydrates, fats.
(frame work elements)
 Mostly soil is deficient of NPK and these elements are known as critical elements, NPK-fetilizer is
good for crop yield.
 Silica (SiO2) is present in cell wall of diatoms grasses and paddy straw.
 A present in pteridophytes i.e. - Lycopodium.
 Mo, required in minimum quantity.
 Hydroponics/solution culture/soil less growth/tank farming and ash analysis is a technique which
determines the role of nutrients in plants. (By Geriack)
 Gold (Au) present in Equisetum, mustard plants.
 Na+ found in halophytes for their grawth (marine plants).
 Trace - elements are micro-nutrients, while while tracer-elements are radio-isotopes.
 Mg present in chlorophyll, as non-ionic form.
 Mg remains after chlorophyll burning.
 One abundant and stable from of Fe in leaves is stored in chloroplasts as an iron protein complex called
phytoferritin (Seckback 1983).
 C, H, O are provided by H2O, O2 and CO2, but 13 elements essential to all plants are absorbed as
ions from the soil solution, is called a solution mining. (N2 from soil & atm.)
 Putrification/proteolysis:- Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Clostridium.
 Proteins Proteases
 peptides Peptidase
  amino acids (conversion of proteins in to amino acids) smell
of dead bodies.
 Deamination:- Removal of amino group as NH3 from an amino acid.
 Root pressure is measured by manometer
49
PLANT WATER RELATIONS
INTRODUCTION
 The study of various vital activities and metabolism of plants is know as Plant physiology.
 Stephan Hales is known as father of plant physiology.
 J.C. Bose is known as Father of Indian Plant physiology.
 Plants grow in soil and absorb water and minerals, which are available in soil. So that water has great
importance for plant. Water forms 80-90% of fresh weight of plant body. The method or technique, plant
cells obtain water, comes under the heading of Water relation.
 To understand the plant water relations, we should know the following process-
DIFFUSION
“The movement of molecules or atoms or ions of a materials from an area of higher
concentration to an area of their lower concentration is called diffusion.
 The diffusion is continue till the dynamic equilibrium is established. At this stage the net movement
of molecule is equal in both direction.
 The kinetic energy, which is present in the molecules of material is distributed equally in their available
space by their nature.
Diffusion rate  Gas > Liquid > Solid
Diffusion pressure :
“The diffused molecules or ions exert a pressure on the substance or medium in which
diffusion take place, known as Diffusion pressure.”
 This is developed due to difference in the concentration of molecules of the material. Diffusion pressure
of a pure solvent (1236 atm) is always higher than its solution.
 Water molecules moves from their higher concentration to the their lower concentration in plants.
 The rate of diffusion decrease with increasing size of molecules.
 The speed and direction of movement of molecules of substances depends upon the concentration of
the molecules.
 Due to the difference in the concentration of molecules, diffusion pressure results.
 The potential ability of a substance to diffuse from an area of its greater concentration to an area of
less concentration, is called diffusion pressure.
 D.P.  concentration of substance.
Significance of diffusion :
 Exchange of gases like CO2, O2 take place through the diffusion.
 The distribution of hormones in the plants takes place through the diffusion.
 The process of transpiration is a diffusion process. The evaporation of water from the intecellular spaces
is linked with diffusion during the transpiration.
 The ions of the minerals may diffused into the plant body.
 The process of osmosis is a special type of diffusion of solvent molecules through semi-permeable
membrane.
50
OSMOSIS
“Osmosis is defined as the special diffusion of solvent (water in this context) from the solution
of lower concentration to the solution of higher concentration when both the solutions are
separated by a semipermeable membrane.”
 Osmosis was discovered by Abbe Nollet.
 The detailed explanation of osmosis was given by Traube and Duterochat.
 Passing of solvent through the semipermeable membrane is the example of osmosis.
 The water moves into the cell during the osmosis is called endosmosis.
Ex.: Grapes placed in water.
 When the water starts moving out of the cell then it is called exosmosis.
Ex.: Grapes kept in salt solution.
Types of membrane :
The exchange of materials in and out through the membrane is called permeability.
 The membranes are divided in the following types on the basis of permeability :-
(i) Permeable membrane :
Such membranes are permeable for both - solutes and solvent. e.g. cell wall, filter paper.
(ii) Semipermeable membrane :
Such membranes allow diffusion of solvent molecules, but do not allow the solutes. e.g., artificial
membrane like Cellophane and Copper ferrocyanide membranes, parchment paper, goat bladder.
(iii) Selective permeable membrane OR differentially permeable membrane :
Such membranes allow some selective solutes to pass through them along with the solvent molecules.
e.g., Cell membrane, Tonoplast, Organelles membrane.
 These membranes are permeable for CO2, N2 O2 gases, alcohol, ether and water, but impermeable for
polysaccharides and proteins.
(iv) Impermeable membrane : Rubber membrane, Al-foil, Suberised cell wall, cork wall.
Types of Solution :
(i) Isotonic solution :
If solution in which a cell is placed, has equal osmotic concentration to that of cell sap, the outer
solution is called isotonic solution.
(ii) Hypotonic solution :
If the osmotic concentration of outer solution is lesser than that of the cell sap, the outer solution is
called hypotonic solution. If a cell is placed in such solution endosmosis takes place, results, cell
swells up.
(iii) Hypertonic solution :
If the osmotic concentration of a solution is higher than that of the other (cell sap), solution is known
as hypertonic solution.
 If a cell placed in this type of solution, exosmosis takes place. It means water of the cell sap diffused
out into the outer solution, resulting cell become flaccid.
e.g., Grapes placed in higher concentration of sugar solution becomes flaccid (contracts).
51
Osmotic pressure or O.P. :
 Osmotic pressure is the pressure developed in a solution when solution, and water are separated
by semipermeable membrane (given by Pfeffer)
or “O.P. of solution is equal to pressure, which required to be applied on a solution in order
to prevent an increase in it’s volume due to tendency of solvent to enter in when the two are
separated by a semipermeable membrane.”
 The osmotic pressure of pure water is zero. O.P. is due to presence of solute into the solution.
 The osmotic pressure of solution is directly proportional to the concentration of solute in it.
 The osmotic pressure shows maximum variation in the plants cells.
 According to Hariss the osmotic pressure is highest in leaves and lowest in roots.
 The highest osmotic pressure is found in the halophyte group. Atriplex confortifolia (202 atm).
 The lowest osmotic pressure is found in aquatic plants or hydrophytes.
 Hydrophytes < Mesophytes < Xerophytes < Halophytes.
 Generally osmotic pressure is lesser during the night and higher at noon.
 Osmotic pressure of a solution is measured by osmometer. O.P. of cell is measured by incipient
plasmolysis. First osmometer was made by Pfeffer.
 The osmotic pressure can be measured by various methods.
The formula of Vont Hoff for measuring O.P. :
OP = mRT
Here m = Molar concentration
R = Gas constant [0.082 mole/molecules]
T = Absolute temperature
the osmotic pressure of 1 mole. glucose solution at 0ºC-
OP  1 × 0.085 × 273  22.4 atm., for non electrolytes.
The O.P. of electrolytes is find out by the following formula-
OP = MRT I
Where I is the constant of ionisation of electrolytes.
 The osmotic pressure of electrolytes is higher than that of non electrolytes.
 For example - solution of 1 M NaCl and 1 M glucose. The molar concentration of both solutions are
equal but O.P. of 1 M NaCl is higher than solution of 1 M glucose.
 Water moves from lower O.P. towards the higher O.P.
Significance of Osmosis / Osmotic Pressure :
 Water absorption from the soil by the plants.

 Transport of water from cell to cell in plants.
 To maintain turgor pressure.
 Origin of root pressure.
 Opening & Closing of stomata is affected by Osmosis.
52
TURGOR PRESSURE OR T.P.
“When a cell is immersed in water, then water enter into the cell because osmotic pressure
of the cell sap is higher. The cell content press upon the wall or develop a pressure against
the cell wall, which is called turgor pressure.”
 Turgor pressure is not applicable for free solution. This is only applicable for osmotic system of a
plant cell. Turgor pressure is also known hydrostatic pressure.
 The turgor pressure in encounter balanced by an equal but opposite pressure of the thick cell wall on
the enclosed solution or protoplasm is known as wall pressure. It means whatever the amount of
pressure exerted inner side on the cytoplasm.
Cell wall Plasma membrane
Vacuolar sap
Wall pressure
Osmotic
Pressure Turgor pressure
TURGOR PRESSURE
 Therfore, wall pressure and turgor pressure are equal to each other but W.P. is inward in direction.
TP  WP
 Plant cell does not burst, when placed in pure water due to wall pressure, but an animal cell burst when
placed in pure water because wall pressure is absent due to absence of cell wall.
For example the consequence of endosmosis in animal cell can be demonstrated by placing RBCs
of human blood in distilled water.
 A flaccid cell has zero turgor pressure.
 The highest value of turgor pressure is found in fully turgid cell and it is equal to the osmotic
pressure. Fully turgid cell has TP = OP
 The value of turgor pressure is normally from zero to in between the osmotic pressure in plant
cell.
 The value of turgor pressure is assumed as negative (–ve) during the plasmolysis of the cell.
Significance of T.P. :
 Protoplasm of the cell attached with the cell wall due to turgidity of the cell and cell is in stretched
condition. It maintains the normal shaped of the cell in which physiological processes are going on.
 The 3-D structure of mitochondria, chloroplast and microbodies is maintained due to turgor
pressure, which is essential for their physiological activities.
 Turgor pressure is essential for maintaining definite shape of delicate organs.
 Turgor pressure helps in cell elongation or growth of cell.
 Plant movement like, movement of guard cells of stomata, wilting movements and seismonastic
movements etc. depend upon turgor pressure.
 Turgor pressure provides essential power to the plumule to coming out from the soli and help in
penetration of radicle into the soil.
53
DIFFUSION PRESSURE DEFICIT (DPD) OR SUCTION PRESSURE
DPD : The difference between the diffusion pressure of the solution and it’s pure solvent at
particular temperature and pressure is called DPD.
or The DPD of any solution is the difference between the diffusion pressure of the water,
which is present in the solution and diffusion pressure of pure water.
 The term Diffusion Pressure deficit (DPD) is used by B.S. Mayer. Renner named as Suction
Pressure (S.P.) in cell.
 DPD determines the direction of osmosis and it is the power of absorption of water for the cell
(Suction Pressure)
 This is also known as demand of water in cell. DPD  concentration of solute.
 The diffusion of water takes place from the region of lower DPD to the region of higher DPD
in the process of osmosis.
SPM
Lower DPD H
O
 Higher DPD
2
 Normally, osmotic pressure is greater than the turgor pressure in a cell. The difference between
osmotic pressure and turgor pressure is called suction pressure or DPD.
DPD = OP – TP
 The DPD of any free solution is equal to the osmotic pressure of that solution.
DPD = OP
(i) DPD in partialy turgid or normal cell :
DPD = OP – TP
(ii) DPD for fully turgid cell :
 When a cell is placed in pure water or hypotonic solution then water enter into the cell, results turgor
pressure develop in the cell. The cell starts swelling due to the turgor pressure. Simultaneously,
concentration of cell sap decreases due to continuous inflow of water. Therefore OP is goes on
decreasing and T.P. increase due to this, when value of TP will be equal to the OP then DPD will
be zero.
At this stage cell becomes fully turgid. Therefore in a fully turgid cell.
DPD = OP – TP
When, OP = TP or OP – TP = O
So that DPD = O
(iii) DPD in flaccid cell :

 If, the cell is in flaccid state then its T.P. or WP would be zero and value of DPD would be equal to O.P.
TP or WP = O
Therefore, DPD or S.P. = OP
 If a flaccid cell placed in water then waters enter into cell because DPD of the cell sap is higher.
(iv) DPD for plasmolysed cell :
 Sometimes the value of turgor pressure is negative as in plasmolysed cell. In this state
DPD = OP – TP
 [TP = – Ve]
DPD = OP – [– TP] = OP + TP
54
 So that the DPD of the plasmolysed cell is greater than osmotic pressure.
It means - DPD = OP + TP
Demand of water = Plasmolysed cell > Flaccid cell > Partially turgid cell > Fully turgid cell
 The demand of water in plasmolysed cell is highest.
 It means, when the osmotic pressure and turgor pressure will be equal, then the DPD will be zero.
Water will not enter in this type of cell and cell become fully turgid.
 But, when turgor pressure is lesser than the osmotic pressure, in normal cell then some DPD will be
definitely present in the cell and water would enters into the cell.
For Ex.
A - Cell B - Cell
OP = 25 atm OP = 30 atm
TP = 10 atm TP = 25 atm
DPD = 15 atm DPD = 5 atm
Greater DPD H2O Lesser DPD

WATER POTENTIAL OR  W
“The difference between the free energy of molecules of pure water and free energy of the
solution is called water potential of the system.”
 Now a day according to concept of free energy and thermodynamics DPD of a solution is also
represented by water potential. (Given by Taylor and Slatyer)
 The water potential of pure water is maximum the pure water has greater free energy. The free
energy, lower down by addition of solute.
 Water always flows from higher water potential to lower water potential.
 Water potential is represented by Greek word  (Psi)/ W and it is measured in bars or Pascal (Pa).
Water potential is equal to DPD, but opposite in sign. Its value is negative.
W =  S +  P +  g and DPD = O.P. – T.P.
So,  W  DPD S = Solute potential = – O.P.
 P = Pressure potential = T.P.
g, m is neglesible
 Water potential has following components :
1. Osmostic potential (s) :
 Osmotic potential or solute potential represents the concentration of the solutes. Water potential (W)
is negative in the presence of solutes. So that osmotic potential is also negative.
 According to thermodynamics, osmotic pressure is called solute potential or osmotic potential. It
is represented by S and shown by negative sing (–ve) or it is better to say osmotic potential on the
basis of free energy.
 Osmotic potential or solute potential measured in bars. (1 Bar = 0.987 atmospheric pressure)
 OP = 22.4 atm => osmotic potential = –22.4 atm. (1 M glucose solution)
2. Pressure potential (P)
 Turgor pressure is known as pressure potential. It is shown by positive sign (+ve).
 1 Bar = 106 dynes/sq. cm. or 0.987 atm. (1 megapascal = 10 bars)
 According to this concept their relation is as follows.
Water potential = Osmotic potential + pressure potential + matric potential
 or W = S + P + m
55
 W  S   P As m and g (Matric potential and gratitational potential) are negligible
 W   ve
 S   ve
 P   ve
 According to the above concept the relation of the three phases of the cell by the water potential will
be as follows :-
[A] In case of fully turgid cell -
 There is no flow of water in a fully turgid cell, because the cell is in equilibrium condition with water
which is present out side the cell. So that water potential will be zero at this state. Because osmotic
potential and pressure potential are equal in the cell.
 For example - If the value of osmotic potential of a cell is – 10 and pressure potential (P) is + 10,
then water potential will be zero as-
 W  S   P
 W  10  10
W  0
[B] In case of flaccid cell -
 Turgor pressure is zero at this stage. It means pressure potential is zero. If osmotic potential of the
cell is – 10 bar then, W = S
 W  S   P
 W  10  10 bar
P = 0 = TP
 W  10 bar
[C] In Plasmolysed cell-
 The pressure potential (P) means turgor pressure is negative in this stage. Therefore water potential
(W ) of this cell will be more negative [more – ve].
 If the value of osmotic potential is –10 bar of a plasmolysed cell and value of pressure potential is
–2 bars then its water potential (W) will be –12 bars.
 W  S   P
 W  10  (2) bar
 W  12 bar
 So, this is the conclusion that water always move from higher water potential towards the lower
water potential.
 For example if the water potential of ‘A’ cell is –10 bars and water potential of ‘B’ cell is –12 in two
cells, then water will be flow from ‘A’ cell to the ‘B’ cell.
PLASMOLYSIS
“If a plant cell placed in a hypertonic solution, water molecules diffused out from the cell. As
a result of exosmosis, the protoplasm of the cell detached from the cell and starts shrinking.
This is called plasmolysis.
 The various sequences of plasmolysis are as follows -
(i) In a turgid cell, the cell sap pushed away the protoplasm, so that it is in close contact with cell wall.
56
(ii) When it placed in a hypertonic solution, the volume of the cell reduces due to shrinking of cell
because some amount of water of cell sap diffuses out by exosmosis. Turgor pressure decreases
by which cell wall is not pushed by the protoplasm, so that shrinking cell membrane reduces in
total volume of the cell. This situation is called the first stage of plasmolysis or limiting
plasmolysis.
Chloroplast
Vacuole filled with cell sap
Elastic force
A of cell wall
Turgor pressure H2 O
Nucleus
Cell placed in pure water

Result : Increased turgor pressure
Hypertonic solution
H2O
C
Cell placed in strong salt solution
Result : Plasmolysis
Plasmolysis :
A - A cell in normal stage, B - A cell placed in pure water and resulting in increased turgor pressure
and C - A cell placed in strong salt solution leading to plasmolysis
(iii) If the diffusion of water to the outside is continue by the exosmosis then central vacuole contracts
and with this protoplasm also shrinks but cell wall is not contracting. So that protoplasm is seems
to detach from the corners of cell wall. This condition is known as second phase of the
plasmolysis or incipient plasmolysis.
(iv) The shrinking of protoplasm is continuous due to continuous exosmosis, it detaches from the cell
wall and assumed a spherical shape. This phase is known as evident plasmolysis / full plasmolysis.
 Hypertonic solution is present in between the cell wall and protoplasm.
Significance of plasmolysis
[i] A living cell is distinguished from the non living [dead] cell through the plasmolysis. Because plasmolysis
does not occur in dead cell.
[ii] The osmotic pressure of any cell can be measured by incipient plasmolysis.
57
[iii] If the plasmolysis remains for long duration in a cell then it dies. To destroy the weeds, salts puts in
their roots.
[iv] Fishes and meat are prevented from spoilage by salting, which inhibits the growth of bacteria and
fungus.
[v] Higher concentration of sugar in jams and jellies stops the growth of bacteria and fungus.
[vi] High amount of chemical fertilizers near the root causes death or browning of the plant due to
plasmolysis.
[vii] The fresh water growing plants are either wilted or die when they are kept in marine water.
IMBIBITION
Adsorption of undissolved liquid by any solid material is called imbibition or adsorption of
water by hydrophilic colloids is known as imbibition.
 This is a physical process by which a dry solid colloid material swells up by adsorption of water.
 The cell wall is made up of colloidal substance as cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose etc. All they are
hydrophilic in nature. Therefore they imbibe water.
 Proteins, Agar - agar, starch etc, these are all imbibant materials.
Agar - agar can adsorbs 99 times more water than that of its weight. Some of the proteins adsorb
15 times more water.
Imbibition power = Agar – Agar > Pectin > Protein > Starch > Cellulose
Affinity must be between imbibant and liquid material and movement of water occurs in order
of water potential gradient.
 The heat released during the imbibition is called heat of wetting.
 A huge pressure is developed in material due to imbibition. This pressure is called Imbibition
pressure (IP).
 IP is also called as matric potential with respect to water potential. W =  m
 The imbibition is less in compact arranged material like wood, and more in lighter or soft material like gelatin.
 Imbibition decreases with increasing pressure on imbibant material.
Significance of Imbibition :
 Absorption of water during due the seed germination is only initiate through the imbibition.
 Breaking of seed coat during the seed germination is due to imbibition process. Proteins, fats and
starch is present in the kernel. This kernel swells up more as compared to the seed coat which breaks
the seed coat.
 Initial process of water absorption in roots by root hairs is imbibitions.
 Resurrection in many plants like Selaginella, Lichen take place due to the process of imbibition.
 The water enter into the aerial roots and dry fruits is due to imbibition.
 Newly formed wood swells up in rainy season.
 Dry wood is filled in the natural grooves of rocks and watered them. The rocks are broken due to their
swelling.
Movement of water molecules :
Higher D.P.  Lower D.P.
Lower O.P.  Higher O.P.
Lower DPD  Higher DPD
Higher (less –ve)  W  Lower (more –ve)  W
Higher T.P.  Lower T.P.
Hypotonic  Hypertonic
Lower conc. of solution  Higher conc. of solution.
58
ABSORPTION OF WATER BY PLANTS
SIGNIFICATION OF WATER IN PLANTS
 75-80% part of cells is water. In aquatic plant cells, upto 95% water may be present.
 Water is a universal solvent.
(a) Gases, solids, minerals and organic compounds are found dissolved in it. Their transfer in plants
occurs through aquetic medium.
(b) Water is essential for metabolic reactions occuring in plants.
 Water is used in many reactions (hydrolysis, photosynthesis etc.)
 The cells remain turgid due to water, so that shape of cells/organs is maintained. Many types of
movements, opening and closing of stomata, metabolic reactions, growth etc. are affected by turgidity.
 Water protects the plants from harmful effects due to high and low temperatures.
 Water is essential for seed germination.
FORM OF WATER
 Water is mainly obtained through rain. Some of the water goes into the reservoirs. This is called
run off water. Rest of the water enter into the land. Water present in soil is following type-
(a) Gravitational water :-
Form of water, which reaches at the soil water table due to the gravitational force after the rainfall. This
form is not available to plants but available by mechanical methods or by tubewell irrigation. Some
plants can absorbe this water - Calotropis, Prosopis, Capparis, etc.
(b) Hygroscopic water :-
Thin film of water is tightly held by the soil particles is called hygroscopic water. This water is also
not available to the plants.
W of hygroscopic water is highly negative or very low.
(c) Chemically combined water :-
The amount of water present in the chemical compounds, which are present in the particles of soil.
This is not available to the plants ......................... 24 H2O, ................... 7 H2O
(d) Capillary water :-
Water exists between soil particles in small capillary pores is called Capillary water. It is the most
common available form to the plants. Plants only obsorb this form of water.
(e) Atmospheric humidity :-
This is water vapour present in air, which can be absorbed by hanging roots of the epiphytes due to
presence of velamen tissue and hygroscopic hairs.
Holard : It is the total amount of water presents in the soil.
Holard  Chresard  Echard

Chresard : This is the water available to the plants.
Echard : This water is not available to the plants.
59
CHEMICALLY FREE
HYGROSCOPIC CAPILLARY
COMBINED (GRAVITATIONAL)
WATER WATER
WATER WATER
WATER ABSORBING SYSTEM

 In thalophytes (fungi and algae) water absorption takes place through the whole surface of all cells.
 In Bryophyta it occurs by Rhizoids.
 In Pteridophyta & spermatophyta it occurs by roots.
 Root System consists of following parts -
(a) Root cap region or calyptra- Present at the apex of the root as a protective tissue ; it is impermeable
to water & solute absorption.
 It percept the stimuli of gravity.
Maturation
zone
Root hair
zone
Elongation
zone
Meristematic region
Root cap
Fig.: Water absorbing system
(b) Meristematic region-Region of active cell division situated above root cap.
 Mineral absorption mainly occurs from this region.
(c) Region of cell elongation - Next to meristematic region, here growth in length of the root takes place.
(d) Maturation region - The cells at this region are highly differentiated to carry out different function. It
includes root hair region.
 Root hairs are the water absorbing organs of plants.
60
PATH OF MOVEMENT OF WATER
 Water present in soil must reach the xylem of roots. Root hair is in contact with soil water. Their cell
wall is thin & water easily diffuses in.
 From root hairs water reaches epidermis & from their to cortex made of parenchymatous cells.
 From innermost layer of cortex water enters in endodermis consisting of thin walled passage cells
found against each protoxylem.
 In last, water reaches to xylem passing through thin walled pericycle.
In Short : -Soil water  Root hair  Epiblema  Cortex  endodermis (passage cells)  Pericycle  Xylem
Pericycle
Phloem
Passage cells
Soil
Xylem
Root
Endodermis Cortex
Fig.: Water Absorption Pathway
Pathway of Apoplast and Symplast :
(A) Symplast -
A substainable living path is known as symplast. This is the living passage. The movement of water
from cell to cell through plasmodesmata is called symplastic path in plant. This movement of water
through cell membrane is also called as transmembrane pathway.
(B) Apoplast -
This is the non living path in plants. Watered cell wall, intercellular space and xylem cavity associate
together to form apoplast.
Plasmodesmata Tonoplast
Vacuole Cell wall Cytoplasm
Apoplast pathway
Symplast pathway
Vacuolar pathway
 Term “apoplast” & “symplast” given by Munch

 The path of water from root hair to cortex, may be apoplastic or symplastic. In endodermis subarised
casparian strips blocks the apoplast, thus water must passes through passage cell via symplast.
61
MECHANISM OF WATER ABSORPTION
 Term active & passive absorption was proposed by Ranner.

 Water is absorbed by two different ways-
(1) Active water absorption (2) Passive water absorption
(1) Active absorption of water  According to this method water is absorbed due to the osmotic acitivity
of roots or by expenditure of ATPs.
(I) Osmotic active water absorption  This is given by Atkins & Priestley. According to this method
water is absorbed due to the osmotic activity of roots in order to O.P. & D.P.D. No direct ATP are
consumed in this method. It is effective during night in herbaceous plant and developes root pressure.
(A) Root Pressure :
Manometer
Water
Rubber
Stand
Twing
Pot
Fig.: Demonstration of root pressure
 Root pressure is the positive hydrostatic pressure which develops due to turgidity of cortical cells
of root which excert pressure on the xylem sap of roots due to accumulation of water absorbed by
roots, during night.
 Term root pressure was coined by Stephan Hales.
 Root pressure is developed when rate of osmotic active water absorption is more than the rate
of transpiration and due to which water is pushed up in tracheary elements of roots.
 When a plant is cut near the base, the oozing of the liquid from the cut end is called bleeding or
exudation. It is indicative of root pressure.
 The maximum value of root pressure can be upto 2 atm.
 Its maximum value is found in plants growing in well aerated, well watered soil under and moist
environment.
 Root pressure is absent in most of the conifers, woody plants and in rapidly transpiring plants
(negative pressure is effective).
 Guttation is also the result of root pressure.
 Root pressure is high under favourable conditions (rains and spring). At this time transpiration rate
is comparatively low. In summers, when there is greatest need for water, root pressure is lacking.
 Thus root pressure is not important in most plants. It may be effective in herbaceous plants which
transpire slowly, during night.
62
(B) Guttation :
Loss of water from the margin of leaves of the herbaceous plant in the form of water droplets
is called as guttation.
Upper Epidermis
Hydathode Pore
Xylem of Vein ending Epithem
Fig.: Hydrathode
 The term “Guttation” was coined by Burgerstein.

 Exuded liquid of guttation along with water contains some organic and inorganic (dissolved)
substances. It means it is not pure water.
 Normally, guttation process is found in herbaceous plants like Grasses, Tomatos, Balsum, Nausterium,
Colocasia, Sexifraga and in some of the plants of Cucurbitaceae family.
 Guttation occurs from the margins of the leaves through the special pore (always open) like structure
are called hydathodes or water stomata.
 Generally guttation occurs during mid night or early morning.
 Parenchymatous and loose tissue are lie beneath the hydathode, which are known as epithem or
transfer tissues.
 The process of guttation take place due to root pressure, develope in cortex cells of root.
(C) Bleeding :
Fast flowing of liquid from the injured or cut parts of the plants is called bleeding or exudation.
 This process takes place due to high root pressure.
 Sugar is obtained from the sugar mapple by this process.
 The highest bleeding is found in Caryota urens (Toddy palm) (about 50 liter per day)
 Bleeding is important in economic biology, because Opium, latex of rubber is obtained by this.
(II) Non osmotic active water absorption  Proposed by Thieman, Bennet-Clark. According to this
method absorption of water occur against the osmotic concentration by direct investment /
expenditure of metabolic energy in the form of ATPs. Generally this process present in Halophytes.
Only 4% of total absorbed water is taken by this process.
(2) Passive absorption of water  Given by Kramer. According to this method forces for the absorption of
water originates in aerial parts by rapid transpiration & roots remain as passive organ. According to
Kramer water absorption in plants is followed by transpiration. About 96% of water is absorbed by
passive method. Due to rapid transpiration, D.P.D. of leaf cells result in suction force, which suck the
water from roots.
63
50
Absorption
40
Transpiration
GRAMS OF WATER
30
20
10
0
6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6
Wilting :
 Drooping of soft parts of the plants due to loss of turgidity in their cells is called wilting. Wilting is
caused due to high rate of transpiration during mid-day or deficiency of water in soil and also in
prolonged drought condition.
 Wilting may be temporary or permanent.
 Incipient wilting : This is starting of wilting without any external symptom is called incipient wilting.
FACTORS AFFECTING WATER ABSORPTION
[1] Available soil water :-
 Plant absorbs capillary water, which is present in soil. Absorption of water depends on the amount
of capillary water present in the soil. Absorption increases by increasing amount of capillary water.
 If, water is present in higher amount in the soil then such type of soil is called “Water logged soil”.
This soil is Physiologically dry and lack oxygen. Because of this an aerobic respiration takes place
in roots, and alcohol is formed. Roots can be degenerate due to form alcohol. (Dry soil is physically dry.)
[2] Soil temperature :-
 Soil temperature affects the following mechanisms-
[i] Low temperature decreases the permeability of cell membrane.
[ii] It is essential for the activity of enzymes for the formation of root hairs.
[iii] At low temperature viscosity of capillary water is increased.
 Generally, normal absorption of water take place at temperature of soil between 20 - 35ºC.
 Increasing or decreasing soil temperature of soil between 20 - 35ºC.
Cold soil is as physiologically dry.
[3] Soil Air :-
 Absorption of water proceeds more rapidly in well aerated soil. Deficiency of oxygen in soil causes
improper respiration in roots.
 Poorly aerated soil is physiologically dry.
[4] Soil Concentration :
 The rate of the absorption is inversely proportional to the concentration of minerals present in soil.
1
Water Absorption 
concentration of soil minerals
 Water absorption is only take place in appropriate soil solution. If the concentration of soil minerals
is high, it decreases the rate of absorption. Therefore saline soil is physiologically dry. Halophytes
can grow only in this soil.
[5] Transpiration :-
 According to Kramer the rate of water absorption is directly proportional to the rate of transpiration.
The rate of absorption increases due to increase in the transpiration. Because passive water absorption
increases due to transpiration.
64
TRANSPIRATION
INTRODUCTION
 Though large quantities of water is absorbed by the roots from soil, but only 2-5% of it is utilized by plant and
rest 95-98% is lost in form of transpiration.
 Definition :- The loss of water from the aerial parts of plant in the form of vapours is called transpiration.
 The instrument used for measuring transpiration is potometer.
 “Transpiration is an essential evil” - by Crutis.
“Transpiration is an unavoidable evil” - by Steward.
 The minimum transpiration is found in succulent xerophytes and no transpiration in submerged hydrophytes.
 Maximum transpiration is found in mesophytes.
Significance of transpiration :
[1] In regulation of temperature :
 Cooling effect on the surface of leaves is produced by the process of transpiration, due to which
temperature remains constant in plants.
 The plant are protected from the burning of heat due to transpiration. Evaporation of water produces
cooling effect.
[2] In mineral absorption :
 Mass flow of water is found during the passive absorption of water. Hence it is assumed that minerals
enter the roots through the water.
[3] In ascent of sap
[4] In water absorption
[5] Distribution of absorbed salts
[6] Gaseous exchange
[7] Control of hydrological cycle
TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION
(A) Lenticular transpiration :
 Loss of water through lenticles (pores found in epidermis of mature stems, some roots & some fruits)
 It results in 0.1% of water loss out of total transpiration.
(B) Cuticular transpiration :
 10% of total transpiration occurs from surface, outer wall of epidermis of aerial parts.
 The outer wall has cuticle which affects diffusion of water. It is inversely proportional to thickness of cuticle &
amount of water.
 Cuticle minimize stomatal transpiration.
(C) Stomatal transpiration :
 Loss of water through stomata (small opening on the epidermis of leaves).
 90% of total transpiration occurs through stomata.
 The water lost from leaves is called foliar transpiration.
65
Stoma Cuticle
Upper epidermis Guard cell
parenchyma
Palisade
parenchyma
Spongy
Air cavity
Co2
O2
O2 Co2
Lower epidermis H2O
STOMATA
 The name ‘stomata’ was given by Malpighie.

 Stomata was discovered by Pfeffer.
 Stomata cover 1-2% of leaf area.
 Algae, fungi and submerged plants do not possess stomata.
Structure of stomata :
Subsidiary cells
Epidermis cell
Stoma
Nucleus
Guard
cells
Chloroplast
(A) (B)
Fig.: (A) Lower epidermis of a leaf to show stomata
(B) Structure of one stomata
66
 Stomata are small elliptical pores found on the epidermis of plant leaves.
 The size of the pore varies from plant to plant for e.g. - In maize the size of pore is 4µ wide to 26µ long.
 This pore is surrounded by kidney shaped or bean shaped epidermal cells called guard cells.
 Guard cells are living & have nucleus, chloroplast, vacuole and cytoplasm.
 Chloroplast is functionally active only in dicots. In monocots it is either rudimentry or absent or functionally
inactive.
 Inner wall is thick & less elastic and outer wall is thin & more elastic in guard cells.
 Guard cells are surrounded by specialized epidermal cells called subsidiary or accessory cells.
 The pore opens or closes by the movement of guard cells.
 In the inner tangential walls of guard cells micro filaments of cellulose are present in circular form called as
radial micellation.
 The air cavities to which the stomata opens are called as substomatal cavity.
Distribution of stomata :
 In monocots, stomata are uniformly distributed and are present on the upper and lower surface of the leaf.
 In dicots, stomata are unevenly distributed and are present more on the lower surface.
 In dicots guard cells are kidney shaped, reniform or bean like.
 In monocots, guard cells are elliptical or dumbell shaped which are called as Graminaceous stomata.
 In xerophytes stomata are situated in a groove and are thus called as sunken stomata.
Types of Stomata :
 On the basis of distribution : 5 types
Apple or Mulberry Potato type Oat type Water lily type Potomogeton
or or or or or
Hypostomatous Amphistomatous Amphistomatous Epistomatous Astomatous
Stomata present Stomata present The no. of stomata Stomata on upper Stomata absent
onlyon lower sur- on both surface are equal on both surface only. or vestigeal.
face of leaf. of leaf but more sides.
on lower surface
e.g. Apple, Oxalis, e.g. : Potato, Pea, e.g. :- Oat & other e.g. :- Water lily, e.g.:- Potamoge-
Mulberry. Tomato, Cauliflower monocots like Lotus, Victoria. ton, Hydrilla,
& other dicots. grasses, cereals, Vallisneria.
Maize.
 On the basis of subsidiary cells :- 4 types

Anomocytic Anisocytic Paracytic Diacytic
Subsidiary cells Subsidiary cells Subsidiary cells Subsidiary cells are
are similar in are 3 in no. & one is two in no. & are situated two in no. & are longi-
structure & 5 or 6 bigger than other two. parallely with guard cells tudinal with guard cells.
in no. e.g.- Crucifereae family e.g. - Rubiaceae family e.g.- Caryophyllaeae
e.g.-Ranunculaceae family
family
67
 On the basis of daily stomatal movement :- 4 types (loftfield, 1912)
Alfa-Alfa type Potato type Barley Type Equisetum type
Stomata open in Stomata open in day & Stomata open for some- Stomata always remains
day. e.g.: Sunflower, night but get closed in the time in day & then remain open. e.g.: Amphibious
Pea, Apple, Grapes, evening for few hours. closed. e.g.: In Cereals, plants.
Mustard, Raddish. e.g.: Potato, Banana, Onion, like - Wheat, Maize, Barley
Cabbage, Cucurbita,
Pumpkin.
 On the basis of Light :- 3 types

Photoactive Scotoactive Hydroactive
Stomata opens in presence Stomata opens only at night. Stomata opens only in presence
of light of moisture.
e.g. In all normal plants e.g.- Opuntia e.g.- Some epiphytes plants
 On the basis of development (Pant , 1965) : 3 types

Mesogynous type Perigynous type Mesoperigynous type
In this type of stomata guard In this type guard cells are In this type guard cells & one
cells as well as subsidiary or formed from mother cell subsidiary cell is formed from mother
Accessory cells both are developed while subsidiary cells from cell while other subsidiary cells deve-
from one mother cell. nearby mother cells. lop Independently.
e.g. : Rubiaceace eg.: Cucurbitaceae family. e.g.: Ranunculaceae, Caryophyllaceae
& Brassicaceae family. family.
Stomata in Gymnosperms :
(i) Syndetochielic - When subsidiary cells & guard cells originate from single cell.
(ii) Haplochielic - Both cells arises from separate cells.
MECHANISM OF TRANSPIRATION
This involves 3 steps :
Osmotic diffusion of water in the leaf :
 Inside the leaf mesophyll cells are in contact with xylem & also with inter cellular spaces above the stomata.
 Mesophyll cells draw water from the xylem which makes the cells turgid. Their diffusion pressure deficit and
osmotic pressure decreases and in turn they release water in the form of vapours in intercellular spaces close
to stomata by diffusion.
 After releasing water the O.P. & D.P.D. of mesophyll cells increases & hence they draw water from xylem again.
Opening & closing of stomata :
 When guard cells becomes turgid stomatal pore opens, while when they becomes flaccid stomatal pore
closes.
 Stomata generally open during the day and closed during the night except in CAM plants. The important
theories of stomatal movements are as follows-
68
(1) Photosynthesis in guard cell hypothesis :
This theory was proposed by Schwendener and Von mohl. According to this theory guard cell chloroplast
perform photosynthesis during the day time. This produce sugars in guard cell which increases the O.P. of
GC, compared to adjacent epidermal cells (subsidiary cells). Water enters in guard cells form subsidiary
cells by endosmosis, due to this guard cells become turgid and stomata will open.
Objections -
(i) In CAM plants stomata open during dark/night.
(ii) Chloroplast of monocot guard cells are non-functional (inactive) photosynthetically.
(2) Starch  Sugar interconversion theory :
 This theory was proposed by Sayre (1926). First of all Lloyd stated that amount of sugar in GC is increases
during the day time and starch in night.
 Detail study of this change was done by Sayre & given starch hydrolysis theory. According to Sayre,
starch converts into sugar during day time when pH of guard cell is high. Sugar changes into starch
during night at low pH in guard cells (Supported by Scarth). Sayre clarified that CO2 reacts with water
during night. Due to accumulation of H2CO 3, pH in guard cell is decreases.
 Hanes - Stated that this change takes place by phosphorylase enzyme.
 Yin & Tung reported the presence of phosphorylase enzyme in guard cells.
Day ph 7.5
Starch + ip Glucose-1, P  conc. of GC increased  Entry of H2O in GC
Phosphorylase 
Night pH- 4.5-5 GC - Turgid Stomata open.
 Stewards modification - According to Steward (1964) appreciable change in O.P. of GC is possible

after the conversion of glucose - 1 P into Glucose & ip (inorganic phosphate)
(i) Glucose-1, P Mutase
  Glucose-6P
(ii) Glucose-6, P Phosphatas
 
e
 Glucose + iP
Conc. of GC increased

osmotic entry of H2O  GC-Turgid  open.
(iii) Glucose + ATP Hexokinase
   Glucose-1, P  Starch  Stomata closed
Objections -
(i) Starch is absent in GC of some monocots like onion.
(ii) Formation of organic acid is observed during stomatal opening.
(3) Active K+  H+ exchange theory or active proton pump mechanism-
 Given by Levitt (1973-74). This is modern and most accepted theory for stomatal opening and closing.
 First of all Fujino observed that influx of K+ions in guard cells during stomatal opening. (Supported by
Fisher and Hsiao). Detail study of this phenomenon was done by Levitt, who proposed this theory.
According to him stomata opens by following mechanism.
PEP
(i)   PEP + CO 2 Carboxylas
Cabohydrates Enzymes   e  OAA
H+  K +
(ii) O.A.A.  Malic Acid ATP
–
Malate
(iii) Malate + K+  K-malate  Conc. of GC increased


Entry of H2O in GC  GC turgid  Stomata open
69
 Closing of stomata :- Plant hormone ABA-acts on guard cells, which interfere the exchange of
K+  H+ ions in gurad cells, results in reverse of rxn. of opening of stomata, hence stomata closed.
pH of guard cells is decrease during night, which favours stomatal closing.
ADP + ip
+ +
H H Vacuole
+ +
K K
ATP
– –
Cl Cl
2H+
CO2 Malate
PEPcase
PEP Carbohydrates
Fig.: Role of potassium, chloride and malate ions in stomatal opening.

The ions accumulate in the vacuole of guard cells, lowering the water
potential and thereby increasing water uptake and subsequently opening
the stomata (PEPcase = Phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase)
 High concentration of K+ ions in guard cells is electrically balanced by uptake of Cl– and malate ions
in guard cells.
(4) Ca-ABA second messenger model - Given by Desilva & Cowan (1985) this is modern explanation
of stomatal closing only.
 Ramdas & Raghvandra suggested that ATPs for stomatal movement comes from cyclic ETC.
 Bowlings : Malate switch hypothesis.
Raschke : K+ ions in guard cells comes from subsidiary cells.
 Stomata opens during the night in succulent plants and closed during the day. This nature of stomata
in opuntia is called Scotoactive stomata.
 In CAM plants organic acid is formed during night which broken down during day and CO2 is liberated
which is used in photosynthesis.
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF TRANSPIRATION
Factors affecting stomatal opening and closing :

[1] Light :
In most of the plants stomata open during the day except succulent xerophytic plants and close during
the dark. Opening of stomata completes in the presence of blue and red light. Blue light is most
effective and causing stomatal opening.
[2] Temperature :
Loft Field show temperature quotient of opening of stomata is [Q 10] = 2
[3] CO2 concentration :
 Stomata opens at low concentration of CO2 while closed at high concentration of CO2.
[4] Growth Hormones :
 Cytokinin hormone induce opening of stomata. It increase the influx of K+ ions and stimulate the
stomata for opening.
70
 While ABA stimulate the stomata for closing. This hormone oppose the induction effect of cytokinin.
 ABA effects the permeability of the guard cells. It prevent the out flux of H+ ions and increase the out
flux of K+ ions. Because of this pH of the guard cells decreased.
Cl– ions also plays important role in stomatal movement. Above mentioned effects also found in high
amount of CO2
 ABA is formed due to high water stress in chloroplast of leaves.
[5] Atmospheric humidity :
 Stomata opens for long duration and more widen in the presence of humid atmosphere, while stomata
remains closed in dry atmosphere or partial opening at higher atm. humidity transpiration will be stop
but stomata remains completly open.
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration :
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration are divided into two types :
[A] External Factors (Environmental factor)
[B] Internal Factors
[A] EXTERNAL FACTORS (Environmental factor)
1
[1] Atmospheric humidity : Tr 
Relative humidity
 This is the most important factor. The rate of transpiration is higher in low atmospheric humidity while
at higher atmospheric humidity, the atmosphere is moistened, resulting decreasing of rate of transpiration.
 Therefore, the rate of transpiration is high during the summer and low in rainy season.
[2] Temperature : Tr  Temperature
 The value of Q10 for transpiration is 2. It means by increasing 10ºC temperature, the rate of transpiration
is approximately double. (By Loftfield)
 Water vapour holding capacity of air increased at high temperature, resulting the rate of transpiration
increased.
 On contrary vapour holding capacity of air decreased at low temperature so that the rate of transpiration
is decreased.
[3] Light :
 Light stimulates, transpiration by heating effect on leaf.
 Action spectrum of transpiration is blue and red.
 Rate of transpiration is faster in blue light than that of red light. Because stomata are completely
opened as their full capacity in the blue light.
[4] Wind velocity : Tr  Wind velocity
 Transpiration is less in constant air but if wind velocity is high the rate of transpiration is also high,
because wind removes humid air (saturated air) around the stomata.
 Transpiration increases in the beginning at high wind velocity [30-50 km./hour] But latter on it cause
closure of stomata due to mechanical effect and transpiration decrease.
[5] Atmospheric pressure :
 The speed of the air increase at low atmospheric pressure, due to this rate of the diffusion increase
which increase the rate of transpiration.
 The rate of transpiration is found maximum in the high intensity of light at high range of hills.
71
Traspiration ratio (TR) : Moles of H2O transpired/moles of CO 2 assimilated.
 Ratio of the loss of water to the photosynthetic CO2 fixation is called TR.
 TR is low for C4 plants (200-350) while high of C3 plants (500-1000). It means C4 conserve water with
efficient photosynthesis.
 CAM plants passes minimum TR(50-100)
[6] Anti transpirants :
 Chemical substances which reduce the rate of transpiration are known as antitranspirants. Anti
transpirants are as follows-
 Phenyl Mercuric Acetate (PMA), Aspirin, (Salicylic acid), Abscisic acid (ABA), Oxi-ethylene,
Silicon oil, CO2 and low viscous was.
 PMA closed the stomata for more than two weeks partially.
 Antitranspirants are used in dry farming.
[B] INTERNAL FACTORS :
 These factors are concerned with structure of plants. These are following types :
[1] Transpiration area :
Pruning increase the rate of transpiration per leaf but overall reduce the transpiration.
[2] Anatomical characteristics of leaf and leaf orientation :
Several structures of leaf effect the transpiration as follows :-
Stomatal characteristics :
Transpiration is effected by the structure of stomata, position of stomata, distance between the stomata,
number of stomata per unit area and activity of the stomata.
S
By Salisbury - Stomatal Index (SI) =
E S
SI = Stomatal index S = Number of stomata/unit area
E = Number of epidermal cells in same unit area.
[3] Water status of leaves
[4] Root - Shoot Ratio :
 The rate of transpiration decreases with decrease in root-shoot ratio.
 The rate of transpiration increases with increase in root-shoot ratio.
The following characteristics are found in leaf to reduce the transpiration.
(i) Leaves modify in spines.
(ii) Leaves transformed into needle e.g. Pinus
(iii) Folding and unfolding of leaves by bulliform cells. eg., Amophilla, Pea etc.
(iv) Small size of the leaves.
(v) Presence of thick waxy layer on leaves. eg., Banyan tree.
72
:: SPECIAL POINTS ::
 Transpiration in old stems and fruits occurs through lenticels.
 The loss of water through transpiration in increasing unit dry weight of the plant is called transpiration ratio.
 The quantity of water transpired by unit area of leaf surface in unit time is called transpiration flux.
 The diurnal periodicity was diagrammatically represented by Von mohl.
 Fresh weight of a plant would be maximum in the morning and minimum in the afternoon.
 The main reason of osmotic pressure for stomata is potassium chloride or potassium malate.
 Porometer is used to find out the area of stomata on the leaf.
 Transpiration measuring instrument is called Potometer. The rate of absorptioon of water is measured
through this instrument. In potometer rate of water absorption is proportional to the rate of transpiration.
 Cobalt-chloride test : This method is used for the comparision of transpiration at both the surface of the
leaves. It is first of all shown by Stall.
 Stomata covers 1-2% of total leaf area. Size of stomata is 10-40 (Length) × 3 – 12 (width)
 The photophosphorylation process in the guard cells is a energy metabolic process, not CO2-metaboic
process.
 The rate of transpiration of C4 plants is less as compared to C3 plants. In CAM plants minimum transpiration
occurs.
 Distribution of stomata on leaf surface :
Plant Type Stomata No./mm2
Dicots Upper epidermis Lower Epidermis
Sunflower 120 175
Alfa-Alfa 169 188
Geranium 29 179
Monocots
Wheat 50 40
Barley 70 85
Onion 175 175
 Auxins which increases metabolic activities of the cells stimulate absorption of water.
 Wilting Coefficient : The amount of water expressed as percentage of dry weight of soil, which is left
in soil at the time of permanent wilting is called wilting co-efficient.
 Value of Tensile strength of xylem sap is upto 300 atm.
 The maximum value of transpiration pull has been found to be 20 atm. 1 atm force can raise water upto
10 m height. Thus ascent of sap can occur upto 200 meters height by transpiration pull.
 Besides the translocation of water upwards, water is also translocated radially and downwards. Radial
translocation is more common.
 Cytokinin enhances opening of stomata while ABA induce closing of stomata.
 In moist environment, stomata open more widely and for longer time & opposite is the case in dry environment.
 The OP of guard cells when stomata open is 30-40 atm.
 During wilting rate of photosynthesis also decreases.
 The no. of stomata per unit area of leaf is called stomatal frequency. It depends on position of leaf,
external enviromment ect. In a leaf, it increases from base to tip and from midrib to lateral sides.
73
Skeletal System
Topic
Skeletal system Theory

Exercises
Syllabus
Skeletal System
skeletal system
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SKELETAL SYSTEM
DEFINITION AND INTRODUCTION
 The hard protective or supportive part of the animal constitute skeletal system.
 Study of skeleton is called Osteology or Skeletology.
 Design of the skeleton depends on the animals mode of life.
 Skeleton of different design are needed for the aquatic or terrestrial animals.
TYPES OF SKELETON
On the basis of location skeleton is of two types-
Exoskeleton Endoskeleton
1. Exoskeleton
 It is formed by secretion of the skin from epidermis.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
 It is always non living.
 It is found in invertebrate as well as vertebrate.
 It is composed of a non-living protein material called keratin or horn.
Epidermal exoskeleton
 Scales of reptiles are epidermal exoskeleton.
Exception - Crocodile and Tortoise. (mesodermal in origin)
 Beak, claws, horn hoof, feathers, hairs and nail are epidermal exoskeleton.
Dermal exoskeleton
Scales of fishes, crocodile and tortoise are dermal exoskeleton.
2. Endoskeleton
 The endoskeleton includes hard parts present inside the body. The bone and cartilage are example of
endoskeleton.
 It is always living.
 Some invertebrate like, corals, cuttle fish and Echinodermata also possess endoskeleton.
TOTAL NUMBER OF BONES

In adult total number of bones are - 206
Axial skeleton - 80
Appendicular skeleton - 126
----------------
206
----------------
In neonates total number of bones are - 306
On the basis of the position of skeletal structure in the body Skeleton system is divided into 2 parts-
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Head Glenoid cavity Pubis
Obturator
Humerus
Shaft Scapula foramen

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)
Metacarpals (5) Fibula
Phalanges (14) Tarsals (7)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
Pectoral girdle and arm bones Half part of pelvic girdle and leg bones
(Anterior view) (Anterior view)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

It is situated at lateral sides which extends outward from the principle axis. It is of composed of -
– Girdle bones – Limb bones
Girdle bones
These are of 2 types-
(A) Pectoral girdle (B) Pelvic girdle
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Pectoral girdle is formed of two bones clavicle and Clavicular facet
Superior
scapula. Supraspinatus Acromion
Clavical is also called collar bone.
Scapula is also called shoulder bone or shoulder Scapula Deltoid
blade. It is flat and triangular structure present at Spine
the back of shoulder. Glenoid cavity
At the junction of clavical and scapula a depression

is found in the scapula called glenoid cavity. Scapula
In a glenoid cavity head of humerus fits to form Infraspinatus
shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

 It is also called hip girdle. Fig. Scapula-Pectoral Girdle
 It is composed of 3 bones, which are as follows-
Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side
Ischium - Below the pubis
Human pelvis from anterior aspect
 At the junction of these 3 bones, a depression is found. Which is called acetabulum.

Femur fits in acetabulum to form hip joint.
 The pelvic girdle of female are broader than male.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

In each fore limb total 30 bones are found-
Upper arm - Humerus - 1
Fore arm - Radius (outer) - 2
ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
Palm - Metacarpals - 5
Fingers - Phalanges - 14
-----------------
30
-----------------
Phalangeal formula for human hand is 2,3,3,3,3.
The Humerus
 Head : It articulates with the glenoid cavity of
scapula to form shoulder joint.
 Deltoid ridge : Elevated rough part on the shaft

here deltoid muscle is attached.
 Lower end : Articulated laterally with radius &
medialy with ulna
 Coronoid fossa : depression just above the
anterior aspect of trochlea. It accomodated the
Coronoid process of ulna when elbow is flexed.
 Olecranon f ossa : It accomodatee the
olecranon process of ulna when Elbow is
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
 Radius : Its head is disc shaped, covered with
hyaline cartilage. it’s superior concave surface
articulates with the capitulum of humerus at
the elbow joint.
 Circumference of head is also articular, it fits
into socket formed by the radial notch of the
ulna to form radioulanar joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

 Olecranon process : Projects upwards from
shaft of ulna. It is responsible for making
elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
 Proximal Row : From lateral to medial -
Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisciform
 Distal Row : Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate,
Hammate.
 Metacarpal bones : 5 bones, numbered
lateral to medial.
 Phalanges : There are 14 phalanges in each
hand . 3 for each finger & for the thumb.
Bones of hind limb

In each hind limb total 30 bones are found.
Thigh - Femur - 1
Shank - Tibia (inner) - 2
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
In step - Metatarsal - 5
Toes - Phalanges - 14
Knee joint - Patella ( Knee cap) - 1
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
 Strongest heaviest and largest bone
 Articulates with acetabulum to form the hip
joint.
 Lower end of femur is widely expanded to
form two large condyles, one medial & one
lateral.
 Greater and lesser trochanter are rough
projections to prov ide attachement to
muscles.
Tibia
 Medial & larger bone of the leg.
 Upper end : Expanded from side to side fo from two
large condyles.
 Medial condyle : Its superior surface articulates
with medial condyle of femur.
 Lateral condyle : Superior surface of condyle
articulates with lateral condyle of femur.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
 Lateral & smaller bone of the leg.
 Its upper end articulates with the lateral condyle of
tibia.
Tarsus
 Tarsus is made of seven tarsal bones arranged in two
rows
 Proximal row : Talus above, Navicular in between and
Calcaneum below. Tarsal bones are larger &
stronger than carpal bones becuase they have to
support & distribute body weight.
Talus is second largest tarsal bone, lies between tibia
above & calcaneum below.
Calcaneum : Largest tarsal bone, forms the prominence
of heal.
 Distal row : Four tarsal bones lying side by side (three
cuneiform and one cuboid)
Meta tarsus
 Made of 5 meta tarsal bones which are numbered medial to lateral.
Phalanges
 14 Phalanges, 2 for great tow & 3 each for each othe four toes.
 As compared to Phalanges of hand these are small in size.
 Phalangeal formula for human foot is 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
AXIAL SKELETON
It is present on the median longitudinal axis of the body. It consists of -
– Skull – Ribs
– Sternum – Vertebral column
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
 Skull with two occipital condyles is called dicondylic. Human skull is dicondylic.
 Skull is formed of 29 bones.
 In rabbit 53 bones are found in skull.
 Skull is composed of 4 portions.
(a) Cranium (b) Face (c) Hyoid (d) Sensory capsule
(A) Cranium
 It is also called brain box.
 It is large and hollow round part of skull which encloses and protects the brain in the cranial cavity.
 It has large opening foramen magnum at the posterior end , through which brain is continuous with
spinal cord.
 Cranium is composed of 8 bones, which are as follows :
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
 These bones are joined by immovable fibrous joints called Sutures.
Coronal Suture lies between frontal and parietal.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
Lambdoidal suture lies between parietal and occipital bones.
Sella Turcica - depression in sphenoid bone of skull that lodges pituitary body.
largest foramen - foramen magnun which is present below brain box, through it the spinal chord
comes out.
(B) Face
Face is composed of 14 bones which are as follows -
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Inferior turbinal - 2
Zygomatic/malar bones - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
Mandible is movable to allow mastication and speech.(Only Movable bone apart from ear ossicles.) In its
posterior part a pair of condyle are present which fit in the cavity of temporal bone, so the lower jaw attaches
with the cranium. This type of suspension is called craniostylic.
(C) Hyoid bone

 It is also called tongue bone.
 It is situated in the wall of the upper part of the throat, just above the larynx.
(D) Sensory capsule

Ear is surrounded by bony auditory capsules, middle ear has 3 movable ear ossicles
(i) Maleus (Modification of articular bone)
(ii) Incus (Modification of Quadrate bone)
(iii) Stapes (smallest bone of body) modification of Hyomandibular bone.
RIBS
 There are 12 ribs on each side of thoracic cage
 First 7 which are connected throuhg cartilage to the sternum are called True Ribs.
(Vertebrosternal ribs)
 Remaining 5 are False Ribs, out of these cartilage of the 8th, 9th & 10th ribs are joined to the next
higher cartilage, 8th, 9th, 10th are called Vertebrochondral ribs. The anterior ends of 11th & 12th ribs
are free & are called floating ribs.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111

 Head - Has two parts. Lower part articulates with numerically corresponding vertebrae
.  While the upper part articulates with higher vertebrae.

Costal Cartilages
 Unossified anterior parts of ribs made of hyaline cartilage. These contribute to the elasticity of thoracic
wall.
 Medial ends of CC of first seven ribs are directly attached to sternum.
 8th, 9th & 10th CC articulate with one another. The cartilage of 11th & 12th ribs are small. Theri ventral
end are free and lie in the muscle of abdominal wall.
Note : Like human in rabbit also 12 pairs of ribs are found.
STERNUM
 It is also called breast bone.
 It is 15 cm long in man.
 In embryo sternum is made up of a series of bone called sternebra. In rabbit there is 7 sternebra while
in human there is 3 sternebra.
 It is composed of 3 parts -
Manubrium - Upper part
Body - Middle part
(It is largest part)
Cartilaginous Xiphoid - Lower part
(Xiphisternum)
Note : Sternum is absent in fishes.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
spine Cervical vertebrae
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
curve 7 (Chest region)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Neural Lumbar vertebrae
Lumbar 3 spine (1–5 )
curve 4 (Lower back)
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
vertebrae Fig.: Human vertebra with intervertebral foramina
(4 fused)
General facts
 Presence of vertebral column is characteristic feature of vertebrates.
 It is also called spinal column or backbone.
 The component of vertebral column are called vertebrae. Vertebrae of man is acoelus (centrum is flat with
cavity)
 In between vertebrae pads are found which are composed of fibrocartilage, called intervertebral pads.
These pads or disc acts as shock absorber.
Vertebral formula of man
The vertebral formula is C7T12L5S(5)Co(4) = 33 vertebrae.
Vertebral formula of rabbit
The vertebral formula is C7T12L7S4Co16 = 46 vertebrae.
Basic structure of vertebrae
(i) A vertebrae is typically a bony ring.
(ii) The two main portion of vertebrae is disc like centrum or body and neural arch.
(iii) Within neural arch a hole is found is called vertebral foramen. The vertebral formen of all the
vertebrae when intact form a vertebral canal, that encloses the spinal cord.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :
Centrum of man is flat with no cavity, such centrum is called Acoelus or Amphiplatyn.
Functions of vertebral column

(i) It encloses and protects the spinal cord.
(ii) It carries the weight of the body.
(iii) It helps in upright posture and locomotion.
(iv) It helps in free movement of the head.
Groups of vertebrae
The vertebrae of vertebral column can be put in 5 groups, according to their location, which are as follows-
(I) Cervical vertebrae

 Cervical vertebrae are present in neck.
 They are 7 in number. In most mammal number of cervical vertebrae is 7
SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
 All cervial vertebrae have apertures in their transverse process (Foramina transversalis which form
vertebraterial canal on either side for vertebral artery to pass through to supply brain & posterior spinal
cord).
 C1 & C2 = Atypical, C3 to C7 = typical
 Atlas : - Transverse process are wing like, centrum is absent, Ring like.
 Neural arch of this vertebrae is divisible in 2 parts with a ligament. In the upper part of the ligament,
Spinal cord is present. In lower part odontoid fossa is present in which odontoid process of axis is fitted
to make pivot joint. (Also called as median atlanto axial joint)
 On each surface of atlas a pair of articular process are present. The upper pair articulates with condyle
of skull to form Rt & Lt Atlantooccipital joints.
 Lower pair articulates with superior Articular process of axis to make Rt & Lt Lateral atlanto axial
joints.
 Axis : C2 - Centrum is present. At anterior surface of centrum a long odontoid process is present which
fits into odonotoid fossa of atlas vertebrae.
 Only C7 has demifacets where upper part of head of 1st Rib articulates.
Note : Cervical vertebrae are 7 in all mammals is despite of long or small neck.
(II) Thoracic vertebrae

 Thoracic vertebrae are present in chest.
 They are 12 in number.
 Presence of costal demifacets helps in their identification
(III)Lumbar vertebrae
 Lumbar vertebrae are present in the abdomen.
 Lumbar vertebrae are largest and heaviest.
(IV)Sacral vertebrae
 The 5 sacral vertebra fuse to form single bone.
Articular surface for

Superior articular body of last lumbar process
process Lateral part of
upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

(V) Coccygeal vertebrae
 These are 4 in number.
 The 4 vertebrae fuse to form curved and triangular bone, called the coccyx or tail bone.
JOINTS
Study of joints is called Arthrology.

Types of joints
Joints are mainly of 3 types-
1. Immovable or fibrous joints / Synarthroses
2. Slightly movable or cartilaginous joints / Amphiarthroses.
3. Freely movable or synovial joints/Diarthroses
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
Intervertebral Synovial
Synovial
disc (or joint)
membrane
cavity
Synarthroses Amphiarthroses Diarthroses
Structural Classification :
(A) Fibrous joints (Immovable) : Also called as Synarthrosis.
(i) Sutures : Eg. Skull
(ii) Syndesmosis : Bones are connected by interosseus ligament e.g. inferior tibio fibular joints.
(iii) Gomphosis : (Peg & Socket) – e.g. tooth in its socket
(B) Cartilagenous joints (Slightly movable) : also called as amphiarthrosis

(i) Primary : hyaline cartilage joints (synchondrosis). After certain age the cartilage is replaced by bone
e.g. jointbetween Epiphysis & Shaft.
(ii) Secondary : (Symphysis) fibro cartilagenous joints. Articular surface are covered by a thin layer of
hyaline cartilage & united by a disc of fibro cartilage. there joint are persistant throughout life.
e.g. Symphysis pubis, intervertebral joint.
(C) Freely movable or Synovial joint : also called as diarthrosis
 The ends of both the bones are covered by hyaline cartilage or articular cartilages.
 The cartilage provides smooth and elastic surface and reduce friction and acts as shock absorber.
 In between two bones a space is found called synovial space or cavity. This space provides free
movement to the bone.
 The synovial cavity is lined by a synovial membrane. Synovial membrane contains secretory cells.
Synovial membrane secrete or fluid called synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid lubricates and nourish the joints.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
Type of Synovial joints : (Most mobile) :
(i) Plain synovial or gliding joint : Permit slight gliding
movement e.g., joint between articular processes of
vetebrae and joints between Carpals.
(ii) Hinge joint : Movements are permitted in one plane
around transverse axis e.g. elbow, ankle, intephalangeal Hinge joints
joint.
(iii) Pivot joint : Articular surfaces comprise of
- a central bony pivot
- surrounded by osteoligamentous ring
movement are permitted in one plane around vertical Pivot or rotating joints
axis. e.g. radioulnar joint, median atlanto axial joint.
(iv) Condylar joint : Articular surface include two distinct
condyles and movement are permitted in both transverse
& vertical axis. Rt & left jaw joint.
(v) Ellipsoid joint : e.g. wrist, Metacarpophalengeal joint.
movement are permitted in both axis, but articular
surfaces are not in form of condyles. Saddle joints (Biaxial joints)
(vi) Saddle joint : Articulating surface are reciprocally
concavo convex. these are improperly developed ball &
socket joints e.g. first carpometacarpal joint and
calcaneocuboid joint.
(vii) Ball & socket joint : Here one articular surface is like
a ball and other of the shape of socket and movements
are possible around infinte axises. e.g. shoulder & Hip
joint.
ROLE OF MUSCLES AND BONES IN MOVEMENT
(i) Movement of an organ occurs due to the pulling of the bones caused by force generated due to
contraction in muscles. Movements take place along the joints which act as fulcrum of the lever.
(ii) Three types of lever functioning can be observed in movements of human joints .
(A) Class I lever : Here Fulcrum is between effort & resistance.
Example : Joint between the first vetebra (ATLAS) and occipital
bone of skull.
Fulcrum : is the joint
Effort : is contraction of back muscles.
Resistance : Weight of the facial bone of skull.
(B) Class II lever : Here resistance is between effort Y fulcrum.
Example : Human body restingh on toe.
Fulcrum : Is the toe
Effort : Is contraction of calf muscle.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

Resistance : Is body Weight.
(C) Class III lever : Here effort is between resistance and fulcrum.
Example : Flexing movement of the elbow of forearm.
Fulcrum : Is the elbow joint.
Effort : Is contraction in Bicep muscle.
Resistance : Weight of distal part of hand.
SKELETAL DISORDER
(i) Dislocation : It is displacement of bone from their normal position at joint.

(ii) Slipped disc : It is displacement of intervertebral fibrocartilage disc or vertebrae from their normal
position.
(iii) Sprain : It is stretching or tearing of tendons or ligaments.
(iv) Osteitis or Osteomyelitis : It is inflammation of bone.
(v) Spondylitis : It is inflammation of one or more vertebrae.
(vi) Osteoporosis : It is excessive loss of calcium and phosphorus from the bone.
(vii) Rickets : In this disease bones of leg get curved bowlegs, It is due to deficiency of vitamin D.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FEMALE'S SKELETON

(i) Skull - Female skull is lighter in comparison to male.
(ii) Shoulders - Female shoulder's are narrower.
(iii)Sacrum - Female sacrum is shorter and wider.
(iv) Pelvis - Female pelvis is lighter and broader.
(v) Pelvic cavity - The female cavity is wider in diameter to accommodate the growing foetus during
pregnancy and to facitilate the child birth.
(vi) Coccyx : Female coccyx is more movable than male coccyx.
TYPES OF BONES (ON BASIS OF SHAPE AND SIZE)

(i) Long bones
e.g. Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Tibia fibula, Femur.
(ii) Short bones
e.g. Carpals and tarsals.
(iii) Flat bones
e.g. Skull bone, sternum and ribs.
(iv) Irregular bones
e.g. Ear ossicles and vertebrae.
(v) Sesamoid bones
e.g. Patella (knee cap)., pisciform
SPECIAL POINTS
(i) The bones of a children have large amount of organic matter, so, their bones are very flexible and less
likely to break. (hence they may undergo green stick fracture)
(ii) In frog tibiofibula is the longest bone.
(iii) Bones formed by ossification in cartilages is called replacing bone e.g. Humerus, femur.
(cartilagenous bones)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
(iv) Bones formed by ossification in the dermis and sink to get attached over the cartilages. e.g. Frontals
and parietals is called investing bone of the skull.(Dermal bones or membranous bones)
(v) Bones formed by ossification in the tendons at the joint is called sesamoid bones e.g. Patella.
(vi) Skull of reptiles and birds possess one occipital condyles so the skull is called monocondylic, skull
of amphibians and mammals possess two occipital condyles, so the skull is called dicondylic.
(vii) Os penis : A bone supporting the penis of bats is called os penis.
(viii) Os cordis : A bone supporting the heart of cattle is called oscordis.
(ix) The end of two bones are connected by ligaments. While a muscle atlaches with bone through tendon.
(x) Procoelous - Centrum concave anteriorly but convex posteriorly 2nd to 7th vertebrae of frog. All reptilian
vertebrae are procoelous.
Amphicoelous - Centrum concave on both sides. 8th vertebrae of frog is amphicoelous.
Acoelous - Centrum remain flat. 9th vertebra of frog is acoelous.
Heterocoelous - Centrum partly convex and partly concave on both sides.
Vertebrae of birds are heterocoelous.
Coeloplatyn vertebrae - Centrum concave anteriorly but flat posteriorly.
Platycoelous vertebrae - Centrum flat anteriorly but concave posteriorly.
(xi) In Avian skull sutures remains absent.
(xii) Weberian ossicles - These are modified in vertebrae in cat and fishes. These help in sound production
by connecting air bladder and internal ear.
(xiii) Like mammals amphibian skull is also dicondylic.
Skull of reptiles and aves are monocondylic.
(xiv) The pelvic girdle of birds is attached to a complex structure formed by the fusion of last thoracic all
lumbar and first five caudal vertebra this structure is called synsacrum.
(xv) Talus in Rabbit is called as Astragalus.
(xvi) Weberian ossicles are found in fishes.
(xvii) Fontanelles are temporary apertures present in the skull of a new born baby.
(xviii) Superior and inferjor articular processes of vertebrae are also called as pre and post zygapophysis
respectively.
(xix) In rabbit elbow and knee joints are also called ginglymoid joints.
(xx) Cnenial crest is a ridge found is Tibia of Rabbit.
(xxi) Trochlear notch of Rabbit is also called as sigmoid notch.
(xxii) Zygomatic arch of rabbit is formed of maxilla, squamosal and jugal bone.
(xxiii) Pelvic girdles are made of two hip bones which are also called as Innominates.
(xxiv) Dentary is a membranous bone found in the lower jaw of same vertebrates like frog.
(xxv) Jaw suspension of mammals is craniostylic.
(xxvi) Pterygoid bone is a wing shaped extension of sphenoid bone in Rabbit’s skull.
(xxvii) Movement of hands while walking occurs for balancing.
(xxviii) A small sessamoid bone Fabella often develops in the tendon of lateral haed of gastromenius muscles
behind the knee joint.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
It is caused by the inflammation of the joints. This of several types, e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis
and gouty arthritis.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
(A) The Rheumatoid Arthritis
(Rheum = Watery secretion of the body) It is diagnosed by the presence of rheumatoid factor (a type of
immunoglobulin gM).
 It is the primary symptom of inflammation of synovial membrane.
 If it is left untreated, then the membrane thickens and synovial fluid increases, exerting pressure that
causes pain.
 The membrane then starts secreting abnormal granules, called pannus, which after accumulating on
the surface of the cartilage, cause its erosion.
 As a result, the fibrous tissues are attached with the bones and become ossified, making the joints
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
It is a degenerative joint disease characterised by the degeneration of the articular cartilage and
proliferation of new bones. Usually, afflicted joints are of spine, knees and hands.
(C) Gouty Arthritis or Gout
It is caused either due to excessive formation of uric acid, or inability to excrete it. It gets deposited in
joints as monosodium salt.
Treatment – Reduction of pain and inflammation by heat treatment and physiotherapy and, in extreme
cases, replacement of the damaged joints. Traditionaly the toxin of honey bee is also used.
2. Osteoporosis
 It is an age-dependent systemic disorder characterised by low bone mass, microarchitectural
deterioration of the bone, increased fragility and proneness or susceptibility to fracture.
 The elderly men and women are most susceptible.
 It may occur in a pregnant woman, In individuals under prolonged treatment of cortisone, the skeleton
fails to withstand the stress of the body and bones are easily fractured.
 Imbalances of hormones like thyrocalcitonin, parathyroid and sex-hormones, deficiencies of calcium
and vitamin D, menopause are the major causative factors.
IMPORTANT POINTS OF FROG SKELETON SYSTEM

(i) Total number of bones in frog are 150.
(ii) Total number of skull bones are 30.
(iii) Skull of frog is dicondylic.
(iv) In frog, ribs are absent.
(v) In frog, sternum is associated with pectoral girdle.
(vi) In frog, pectoral girdle is formed of episternum (cartilage), xiphisternum (cartilage) omosternum (bone),
mesosternum (bone).
(vii) Half of the pelvic girdle of frog is osinnominatum. Each os-innominatum is formed of ilium, pubis and
ischium.
(viii) Forelimb of frog includes humerus, radioulna, carpels, metacarpels and phalanges. Phalanges formula
of hand is 02233.
(ix) Hindlimb of frog includes. Femur, Tibia fibula, Astragalus, calcaneum and bones of foot.
Note :
In frog, largest and longest bone is tibia fibula.
Digital formula for foot in frog is 22343.
Vertebral column of frog is composed of 10 vertebrae 10th vertebrae is called urostyle.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
Q.1 Number of bones in the adult human body is- Q.14 The total number of vertebrae in man is-
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
Q.2 Comparative study of skulls is- Q.15 The number of ribs in human body is-
(1) Craniology (2) Conchology (1) 10 (2) 12 (3) 24 (4) 36
(3) Malacology (4) Osteology
Q.16 The number of 'true ribs' in a man is-
Q.3 Bone formed by ossification in a tendon is (1) 12 pair (2) 7 pair
called- (3) 3 pair (4) 2 pair
(1) Membrane bone (2) Dermal bone
Q.17 In man, the ribs are attached to-
(3) Cartilage bone (4) Sesamoid bone
(1) Clavicle (2) Sternum
Q.4 Extremities of long bones possess- (3) Scapula (4) Coracoid
(1) Calcified cartilage (2) Fibrous cartilage
Q.18 Movable joints are called-
(3) Hyaline cartilage (4) Elastic cartilage
(1) Synovial joints
Q.5 Number of bones in human axial skeleton is- (2) Fibrous joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
(4) Cartilaginous joint
Q.6 Epiphyseal plates at the extremities of long
bones help in - Q.19 At the articular surface of the bones, synovial
(1) Bone moulding fluid serve to-
(2) Elongation of bone (1) Seal (2) Lubricate
(3) Bone formation (3) Keep distance (4) Join
(4) Formation of haversian canals
Q.20 Articulation of ulna with humerus at the
Q.7 Patella, the knee cap is an example of- elbow joint is-
(1) Cartilaginous bone (2) Sesamoid bone (1) Hinge (2) Ball and socket
(3) Membrane bone (4) Investing bone (3) Pivotal (4) Gliding
Q.8 Human vertebra is an example of- Q.21 Pivot joint occurs at-
(1) Long bone (2) Flat bone (1) The hip and shoulder joints
(3) Seamoid bone (4) Irregular bone (2) Between the atlas and the odontoid
process of the axis
Q.9 The smallest irregular bone in man is- (3) Sternoclavicular joints
(1) Patella (2) Stapes (4) Temporomandibular joint
(3) Nasal (4) Palatine
Q.22 Synovial fluid is found in -
Q.10 The number of bone in the skull of man is- (1) Cranial cavity
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
(3) 8 (4) 20 (3) Immovable joints
Q.11 Foramen magnum is present at- (4) Freely movable joints
(1) Base of medulla Q.23 Stiffness of joints can be due to the -
(2) Base of skull (1) Decrease in synovial fluid
(3) Apex of vertebral column (2) Increase in synovial fluid
(4) Base of brain (3) Higher viscosity of synovial fluid
Q.12 The only movable bone in the skull is- (4) None of these
(1) Mandible (2) Maxilla Q.24 A disease associated with joint is-
(3) Ethmoid (4) None (1) Gloucoma (2) Arthritis
(3) Paget's disease (4) Horner's syndrome
Q.13 In man coccygeal bone is formed by the
fusion of- Q.25 Bone dissolving cells are known as-
(1) 3 vertebrae (2) 4 vertebrae (1) Osteoblasts (2) Chondroblasts
(3) 5 vertebrae (4) 6 vertebrae (3) Osteoclasts (4) Chondroclasts
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

Q.26 Ilium is a bone of- Q.39 Deltoid ridge of humerus is meant for-
(1) Cranium (2) Pectoral girdle (1) Articulation
(3) Pelvic girdle (4) Fore arm (2) Attachment of muscles
(3) Protection
Q.27 Number of cervical vertebrae in man is -
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
Q.40 Six of the 206 bones of human skeleton
Q.28 Clavicle is a bone of-
(1) Thigh (2) Shoulder occur in-
(3) Knee joint (4) Shank (1) Skull (2) Middle ear
(3) Pectoral girdle (4) Pelvic girdle
Q.29 Ankle joint is-
(1) Pivot joint Q.41 Long neck of Camel or Giraffe has-
(2) Ball and socket joint (1) Numerous cervical vertebrae
(3) Hinge joint (2) Development of extra large intervertebral pads
(4) Gliding joint (3) Longer vertebrae
(4) Development of extra bony plates between
Q.30 Astragalus and calcaneum occurs in- adjacent cervical vertebrae
(1) Shoulder (2) Hip
(3) Fore limb (4) Hind limb Q.42 Human vertebral formula is known as-
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
Q.31 Avian (bird) skull is- (3) C7T12L5S4C5 (4) C7T 12L5S(5)C(4)
(1) Monocondylic (2) Dicondylic
(3) Acondylic (4) None of these Q.43 Number of bones present in hind limb of
human being is-
Q.32 Coronary process is a part of- (1) 25 (2) 30 (3) 35 (4) 40
(1) Upper jaw (2) Lower jaw
(3) Hyoid apparatus (4) Cranium Q.44 The number of carpals in each fore arm of
human beings is-
Q.33 Joints between carpals are- (1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) Fibrous joints
(2) Cartilagenous joints Q.45 Patella, the knee cap is the example of-
(3) Angular joints (1) Cartilage gland (2) Replacing bone
(4) Gliding joints (3) Sesamoid bone (4) None of these
Q.34 The only movable bone in the skull is- Q.46 The joint present in the human neck is-
(1) maxilla (2) Frontoparietal (1) Angular (2) Pivot
(3) Mandible (4) Nasal (3) Hinge (4) Fibrous
Q.35 Immovable joints are called- Q.47 Coccygeal bone is formed by the fusion of
(1) Sutures bones in man-
(2) Amphiarthroses (1) 3 vertebrae (2) 6 vertebrae
(3) Diarthroses (3) 5 vertebrae (4) 4 vertebrae
Q.48 The central part of long bone is known as-
Q.36 Glenoid cavity is found in- (1) Diphysis (2) Epiphysis
(1) Humerus (2) Pectoral girdle (3) Hypophysis (4) Zygapophysis
(3) Pelvic girdle (4) Skull
Q.49 In body membrane surrounding the bone is
Q.37 The first vertebra of vertebrae column of man known as-
is known as- (1) Periosteum (2) Endo-oesteum
(1) Atlas (2) Axis (3) Perichondrium (4) Chondriocytes
(3) Thoracic (4) Lumbar
Q.50 The hardest substance in human body is
Q.38 The number of pairs of true ribs in man is - present in-
(1) 6 (2) 7 (1) Bone-Ossein (2) Chitin - Protein
(3) 9 (4) 10 (3) Tooth - Enamel (4) Muscle - Myosin
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
Q.51 Joints are lubricated by- Q.62 Skull is formed of-
(1) Epidermis (1) 58 bones (2) 28 bones
(2) Dermis (3) 29 bones (4) None
(3) Tympanic membrane Q.63 Number of bones found on face are-
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
Q.52 In mammals , the largest vertebra is- Q.64 Number of floating ribs in man is-
(1) Cervical (2) Lumbar (1) 7 pairs (2) 3 pairs
(3) Caudal (4) Sacral (3) 1 pair (4) 2 pairs
Q.53 Interphalangial joints are also called as- Q.65 Tongue bone is-
(1) Fixed joints (2) Hinge joints (1) Sensory capsule (2) Hyoid bone
(3) Movable joints (4) Straight joints (3) Manubrium (4) Palatine
Q.54 Presence of furcula is a characteristics feature Q.66 Number of thoracic vertebrae in man is-
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(3) Birds (4) Mammals Q.67 Number of vertebrae in rabbit is-
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
Q.55 Obturator foramen in pelvic girdle of mammals
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(1) Pubis and ischium Q.68 Digital formula of both limbs in man-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(3) Ilium and ischium (3) 3, 3, 3, 3, 2 (4) 2, 2, 3, 3, 3
(4) Ilium, ischium and pubis
Q.69 Which of the following is not a sesamoid
Q.56 When joint becomes inflamed and painful, bone-
condition is not called- (1) Patella (2) Fabella
(1) Rheumatism (2) Sprain (3) Radius (4) Pisciform
(3) Osteoarthritis (4) Gouty arthritis Q.70 Which of the following is a flat bone-
Q.57 In the ball and socket joint the friction of two (1) Tibia (2) Tarsal
(3) Malleus (4) Sternum
bones is lessened by-
(1) Pericardial fluid Q.71 Articular cartilage of synovial joint is-
(2) Pleural fluid (1) Fibrocartilage (2) Hyaline cartilage
(3) Synovial fluid (3) Elastic cartilage (4) All of these
(4) Coelomic fluid
Q.72 Which of the following joint is found between
Q.58 Twelve pairs of ribs and twelve pairs of cranial carpals and radius-
nerves are found in- (1) Ellipsoid (2) Pivotal
(1) Fish (2) Frog (3) Hinge (4) Gliding
(3) Lizard (4) Man Q.73 Joint of femur with pelvic girdle is-
Q.59 Incus is modified- (1) Ball and socket (2) Pivotal
(1) Parietal bone (2) Jugal bone (3) Saddle (4) Hinge
(3) Quadrate bone (4) Premaxilla bone Q.74 Immovable joint is-
(1) Synarthrodial (2) Amphiarthrodial
Q.60 Heaviest vertebra in man is-
(3) Diarthrodial (4) All of these
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
(3) Thoracic (4) Lumbar Q.75 Old people are, more liable to fracture of their
bones because-
Q.61 Beak, feathers, nails are- (1) Bones become soft and elastic
(1) Exoskeleton (2) Bone Calcium decreases
(2) Endoskeleton (3) Bones contain large quantity of organic
(3) Epidermal exoskeleton magnesium
(4) Dermal exoskeleton (4) None of the above
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

Q.76 Inflammation of one or more vertebrae is called- Q.86 Ribs are attached to -
(1) Osteitis (2) Osteoporosis [CPMT 1983, RPMT 1996, ardha 2001]
(3) Spondylitis (4) Dislocation (1) Scapula (2) Sternum
(3) Calvicle (4) llium
Q.77 Os-cordis a bone in-
(1) Whale (2) Bats Q.87 Vertebro-arterial canal occurs in -
[MPPMT 1990]
(3) Cattle (4) Polar bear
(1) Cervical vertebrae (2) Lumbar vertebae
Q.78 Which of the following is false regarding (3) Thoracis vertrae (4) sacral vertebrae
synovial fluid- Q.88 Which vetebra hat hte odontoid process -
(1) It is secreted by synovial membrane [CPMT 1990]
(2) Its deficiency leads to osteoporosis (1) 7th vertebra of Frog
(3) It lubricates joints (2) Second vertebra of Frog
(4) It nourishes the structure participating in (3) Second cervical vertebra of mammal
joint (4) Second thoracic vertebra of mammal
Q.79 Which one is bone of fore limb -
[CPMT 1991] Q.89 In human beings, the second cervical vertebra
(1) Humerus (2) Femur helps in rotatory movements of head through
(3) Tibia (4) Fibula knob-like process called -
[CPMT 1987]
Q.80 A cup shaped cavity for articulation of femur (1) Prezygapohysis (2) ostzygapolysis
head is - (3) Postzyapohysis (4) Odontoid process
[CPMT 1983]
(1) Acetabulum (2) Glenoid cavity Q.90 Pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle and limb bones
(3) Sigmoid notch (4) Obturator foramen constitude -
[CPMT 1987]
Q.81 Number of bones present in human cranium is- (1) Visceral skeleton
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
(4) Appendicular skeleton
Q.82 Number of bones present in forelimb of human Q.91 Joint between bones of human skull is -
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
(1) 30 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 40 (1) Hinge joint (2) Synovial joint
Q.83 Patellar groove is found on which bone - (3) Cartilaginous joint (4) fibrous joint
[CPMT 1972]
(1) Femur Q.92 Acromion process is part of -
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(1) Vertebral column (2) Pelvic girdle
(3) Depression between femur and tibio-fibula
(3) Femur (4) Pectoral girdle
(4) Tarsus
Q.84 Greater trochanter occures in - Q.93 Head of humerus is articulate with pectoral
[CPMT 1981] girdle by a joint - [CPMT 1996]
(1) Humerus (2) Radius (1) Hinge (2) Ball and socket
(3) Ulna (4) Femur (3) Immovable (4) Pivot joint
Q.85 Sella turcica is - Q.94 Sesamoid bone is derived from -
[BHU 1976,AIIMS 2001, Wardha 2001] [CPMT 1996]
(1) Depression of long bone (1) Cartilage (2) Areolar tissue
(2) Ridgee over a bone (3) Tendon (4) Ligament
(3) epression in the skull in the area of putuitary Q.95 Surface for attachment of tongue is -
gland [CBSE 1997]
(4) Rdige in the skull over the area of pituitary (1) Palatine (2) Sphenoid
gland (3) Pterygiod (4) Hyoid apparatus
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
Q.96 Inter-articular disc occcurs in - Q.106 Which one is a ball and socket joint -
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) Wall of heart (2) Wall of liver (1) Knee joint
(3) Pubic symphysis (4) Hyoid apparatus (2) Elbow joint
Q.97 Pelvic girdle consists of - (3) Humerus and pectoral girdle
[RPMT 1998] (4) skull and atlas
(1) llium
(2) llium and ischium Q.107 Bone related with skull of rabbit is -
[CBSE 2000]
(3) llium, ischium and pubic (1) Coracoid
(4) Ischium and pubis
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
Q.98 Coracoid is component of -
[BHU 1999] (4) Atlas
(1) Fore limb (2) Skull Q.108 An acromian process is characteristically
(3) Scapula (4) Pelvic girdle found in the - [CBSE 2005]
(1) Pectoral girdle of mammals
Q.99 Olecranon process occurs in - (2) Sperm of mammals
[BHU 1999, Manipal 2001]
(3) Pelvin girdle of mammals
(1) Femur (2) Radius
(4) Skull of frog
(3) Humerus (4) Ulna
Q.109 Which of the following pairs, is correctly
Q.100 Sutrual joints are present between - matched ? [CBSE 2005]
[MPMT 2000]
(1) Fibrous joint - between phalanges
(1) Thumb and metatarsal
(2) Cartilaginous joint - Skull bones
(2) Humerus and radio-ulna
(3) Gliding joint - between zygapophyses of
(3) Parietals of skull
the successive vertebrae
(4) Glenoid cavity and pectoral girdle
(4) Hinge joint - between vertebrae
Q.101 Coccygeal bone occurs in -
[CPMT 2000] Q.110 In human body, which one of the following is
(1) Skull (2) Pectoral girdle anatiomically correct ?
[CBSE 2007]
(3) Vertebral column (4) Pelvic girdle (1) Cranial nerve - 10 pairs
(2) Floating ribs - 2 pairs
Q.102 Synovial fluid is present in -
[Har. PMT 2000] (3) Collar bones - 3 pairs
(1) Spinal cavity (2) Cranial cavity (4) Salivary glands - 1 pair
(3) Freely movable joint (4) Fixed joints
Q.111 Three of the following pairs of the human skel-
Q.103 Zygomatic is part of - [B.V. 2000] etal parts are correctly matched with their re-
(1) Pelvic girdle spective inclusive skeletal category and one pair
(2) Skull is not matched. Identify the non-matching pair.
(3) Pectoral girdle [AIPMT MAINS 2011]
(4) Vertebral column Pairs of skeletal parts Category
(1) Malleus and stapes Ear ossicles
Q.104 Synovial fluid is secreted by -
[B.V. 2001] (2) Sternum and Ribs Axial skeleton
(1) Blood (2) Cartilage (3) Clavicle and Glenoid cavity Pelvic girdle
(4) Humerus and ulna Appendicular
(3) Bone (4) synovial membrane
skeleton
Q.105 llium of pelvic girdle is articulate with sacrum Q.112 The joint of Radio-ulna with the upper arm is
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
(1) Bending (2) Jumping (1) hinge joint (2) pivot joint
(3) Support (4) Running (3) socket joint (4) None of these
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

STATE PMT EXAMS EXERCISE#2
Q.1 the joint of radio-ulna with upper arm is - Q.9 Number of bones in skull is -
[Uttaranchal PMT 2005] [MP PMT 2007]
(1) Hinge joint (2) Gliding joint (1) 26 (2) 18
(3) Socket joint (4) Pivot joint (3) 107 (4) 29
Q.2 Obturator foramen is found in -
[UP CPMT 2001] Q.10 Hinge joint is present between -
(1) Frog’s pelbic girdle [MP PMT 2007]
(1) Femur and ulna
(2) Frog’s pectoral girdle
(2) Humerus and ulna
(3) Rabbit pelbic girdle
(3) Femur and pectoral girdle
(4) Rabbit’s pectoral girdle
(4) Femur and pelvic girdle
Q.3 Deltoid ridge is present in -
[UP CPMT 2004] Q.11 Thoracic cage in rabbit is made up of -
(1) Humerus (2) Tibia-fibula [UP PMT 2006]
(1) Ribs, vertebral column and diaphragm
(3) Radio-ulna (4) Femur
(2) Ribs, diaphgragm
Q.4 Pelvic girdle of rabbit consists of - (3) Vertebral column, diappragm and sternum
[UP CPMT 2004] (4) Ribs, vertebral column and sternum
(1) llium, ischium and pubis
(2) llium, ischium and coracoid Q.12 In which one of the following bones acromian
(3) Coracoid, scapula and clavicle process is found - [MP PMT 2005]
(4) llium, coracoid and scapula (1) Femur (2) Pelvic girdle
(3) Atlas (4) Pectoral girdle
Q.5 Structure responsible for formation fo signoid
notch is - [UP CPMT 2005] Q.13 The joint formed between humerus and radio
(1) Olecranon process of humerus ulna is - [MP PMT 2006]
(2) Olecranon process of femur (1) Gliding (2) Pivot
(3) Olecranon process of radius ulna (3) Hinge (4) Ball and socket
(4) Olecranon process of tibia fibula
Q.14 Fabellae bones are associated with
Q.6 Lumbar vertebrae are found in - [MP PMT 2002]
[UP CPMT 2005] (1) Elbow joint (2) Knee joint
(1) Neck region (2) Abdominal region (3) Neck joint (4) Angular joint
(3) Hip region (4) Thorax
Q.15 Thoracic cage of man is formed of -
Q.7 Innominate is - [UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
(1) A nerve and an artery (1) Ribs and thoracic vertebrae
(2) A nerve and a vein (2) Ribs, sternum and thoracic vertebrae
(3) A vein and an artery (3) Ribs and sternum
(4) A part of skeleton and an artery (4) Ribs, sternum and Lumbar vertebrae
Q.8 Sigmoid notch in Rabbit is present in - Q.16 Jaw suspension characteristic of mammals is
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
(1) Radius ulna (2) Tibia (1) Amphistylic (2) Craniostylic
(3) Humerus (4) Femur (3) Autodiastylic (4) Hyostylic
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1
STATE PMT EXAMS EXERCISE # 2

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
Intervertebral Synovial Synovial
disc (or joint) membrane
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

Respirition In Plants
Topic Page No.
Theory 02 - 13
Answer Key 30 - 30
Exercise - II 31 - 35
Answer Key 35 - 35
Exercise - III 36 - 37
Answer Key 37 - 37
Syllabus
Cell respirition
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
ETOOSINDIA.COM
HelpDesk : 92-14-233303
 Anaerobic respiration - This is incomplete oxidation.
 When food is oxidized into alcohol or organic acids without use of oxygen.
During it most of energy is lost in form of heat. It occurs in cytoplasm and only 2ATP are produced.
Enzyme
C6H12O6   
 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 21KCal (2ATP)
cytoplasm
 Anaerobic respiration was first reported by Kostytchev.
 Anaerobic respiration may takes place in bacteria, some lower parasitic animals (Ascaris, Taenia)
plants, R.BCs. & muscles of human body. When oxygen is not available, then food is incompletely
oxidised in to some organic compounds like ethanol, acetic acid, lactic acid.
 In muscle cells & some bacteria, the energy is produced by breaking of glucose into lactic acid inside
the cells.
 The amount of energy released in anaerobic respiration is much less than aerobic respiration.
 Fermentation is performed by some fungi & some bacteria (only by microbes) and is an extracellular
process. 2 ATP are produced.
C6H12O 6 Yeast
 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Heat (2 ATP)
Bact.
 Both anaerobic rspiration and fermentation are incomplete oxidations.
 Inhibitory effect on respiration (anaerobic respiration) of oxygen is called Pasteur effect.
(Anaerobic  Aerobic)
GLUCOSE
Common step of
aerobic and Glycolysis
anaerobic (independent of O2)
respiration
Pyruvic acid
+nt -nt
Aerobic O2 O2
Anaerobic
respiration respiration
Acetyl CoA Incomplete

oxidation
Kreb's cycle
(complete oxidation)
CO2 + H2O + E C2H5OH + CO2 + E
Fig : Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
2
 Initial steps of aerobic and anaerobic respiration are same i.e. Glucose is converted to pyruvic acid.
Further fate of pyruvic acid is dependent upon presence or absence of O2.
 There are 2 major pathways of respiration.
G Common Pathway
G Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)
An overview of Aerobic Respiration
Glucose Glycolysis Pyruvate Lactate
ATP
Acetyl-CoA
NADH NADH
H2O
Krebs ATP
Cycle
m
NADH yste
port S
rans
Plasma ctr on T
membrane Ele
Mitochondrion
ATP Cytoplasm
Extracellular fluid
CO2 O2
 Common Pathway :
 It has 3 main parts.
G Glycolysis
G Krebs Cycle
G Terminal Oxidation
4 GLYCOLYSIS
 Glycolysis was discovered by Embden, Meyerhoff and Parnas and hence it is called as EMP
pathway.
 Glycolysis is independent of O 2, hence it is common in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
 Glycolysis is completed in cytoplasm.
 Glucose is substrate of glycolysis. Most of enzymes requires Mg as cofactor.
 The glycolysis is common phase for aerobic & anaerobic respirations both.
 Glycolysis involves a series of ten biochemical reactions in cytoplasm.
 In glycolysis, neither consumption of oxygen nor liberation of CO2 take place.
3
 Phosphofructokinase and Hexokinase are allosteric enzymes. The steps catalysed by these
enzymes are considerd as control point reactions of glycolysis.
 Ist & 3rd and last reaction of glycolysis are considered as irreversible reactions of glycolysis.
 Further oxidation of puruvic acid and NADH2 after glycolysis in mitochondria requires oxygen. So the
fate of pyruvic acid is decided by presence or absence of Oxygen.
Glycolysis / EMP Pathway
Glucose
ATP
Mg++ Hexokinase
ADP
2,Pyruvic acid + 2ATP + 2NADH2
Glucose 6 phophate
Isomerase
Fructose 6 phosphate
ATP
Phosphofructokinase, Mg++
ADP
Fructose 1, 6 diphosphate
Aldolase
Isomerase
2, 3 Phosphoglyceraldehyde DHAP
2H3PO4(ip)
Enzymes in
Cytosol
2, 1,3-Diphosphoglyceraldehyde
2NAD
Dehydrogenase
2NADH2
Glucose + 2ADP + 2ip + 2NAD+
2, 1,3-Diphosphoglyceric acid
2ADP
Transphosphorylase
2ATP
2, 3 Phosphoglyceric acid
Mutase
Enolase
2, 2 Phosphoenolpyruvic acid
2ADP Pyruvic acid kinase
2ATP Mg++, K+
2, Pyruvic acid
4 KREBS CYCLE / TRICARBOXYLIC ACID (TCA) CYCLE / CITRIC ACID CYCLE

 Krebs cycle was discovered by Sir Hans Kreb in 1937 in pigeon muscles.
 It is also called citric acid cycle, citric acid being the first product of krebs cycle.
4
 Biochemical reactions in Krebs Cycle :
Citrate
G Acetyl Co  A  OAA   Citric acid  Co  A
(4C) Synthese
(2C) (TCA)
Aconitase
G Citricacid 

 Cisaconiticacid 
Isocitrate
Fe (6C)
Isocitric
G Isocitrate  NAD      Oxalosucci nic acid  NADH2
Dehydrogen ase (6C)
Mn
G Oxalosuccinic acid   α Ketoglutarate  Co 2
(6C) Decarboxylase (5C)
Dehydrogenase
G  Ketoglutaric acid Succinyl Co A + CO2
TPP, LA (4C)
Mg++, CoA
NAD NADH2
(This reaction similar to link reaction)
Thiokinase
G Succinyl Co A Succinic acid + Co A
(4C) (4C)
GDP + ip GTP
[Energy of thioester bond is released, which used in formation of GTP]
(GTP + ADP GDP + ATP)
The GTP formed in this reaction, reacts with ADP to form ATP and GDP, as GTP adn ATP have
approximatly same energy.
Succinic dehydrogenase
G Succinic acid Fumaric acid
(4C) (4C)
FAD FADH2
Fumarase
G Fumaric acid Malic acid
(4C) (4C)
dehydrogenase
G Malate Oxaloacetic acid (Acceptor of Acetyl CoA)
(4C) (4C)
NAD NADH2
5
4 TERMINAL OXIDATION
 It is combination of oxygen with electrons and protons released from reduced co-enzymes which
produces water (metabolic water).
 Terminal oxidation consists of two processes
G Electron Transport System (ETS)
G Oxidative Phosphorylation
 Electron Transport System (ETS) :
 NADH2 & FADH2 obtained from glycolysis and Kreb's cycle enter in electron transport chain and form
water molecule by oxidation with the help of molecular oxygen.
 In this process, energy is released which is used for the synthesis of ATP.
 Transfer of electrons from NADH2 or FADH2 occurs through a chain of electron acceptors and donors
arranged in a specific sequence.
 Electron transport chain is located in inner mitochondrial membrane in Eukaryotes and in inner
side of plasma membrane or in mesosome membrane in prokaryotes.
 ETS (Respiratory chain) consists of four components
G FP (flavoprotein) or FMN
G Fe-S Protein
G Co-Q
G Cytochromes.
 Cytochromes are cyto.-b, cyto.-C1 & cyto. C, cyto.-a & cyto a3 (cyto a & a3 – Cu containing)
 Now compounds of ETS are categories as follows :
Name of complexes Components of ETS Inhibitors
Complex-I FMN-NADH2 dehydrogenase Rotenone & amytal
Complex-II CoQ/UQ-FADH2 dehydrogenase /
Succinate dehydrogenase
Complex-III Cytochrome b-Cyto c 1 antimycin
Complex-IV Cyto. a – Cyto. a3 cyanide, CO
Complex-V ATP synthase / ATPase

 Two electron acceptors coenzyme Q or ubiquinone and cytochrome C can be easily separated from
respiratory chain, therefore they are called mobile carriers. CoQ functions for e– transport between
complex  and  and cyto.C transports e– between complex  and V.
 Hydrogen is transferred from NADH2 to FMN and NAD is obtained back from NADH2. FMN forms
FMNH2.
 Two protons and electrons are released from FMNH2. Two protons are transported out through
membrane and two electrons are taken up by Fe-S protein.
 Terminal oxidation of reduced coenzyme FADH2 also occurs at mitochondrial ETS. FADH2 gives its e–
& H+ to CoQ and become FAD.
 During the ETS, NADH2 gives it’s 2e– / 2H+ to FMN in respiratory chain, thus 3 ATP are generated,
while FADH2 give it’s 2e– / 2H+ to CoQ hence only 2 ATP are formed during the process of oxidative
phosphorylation.
6
 Glycerol Phosphate Shuttle :
OUTER INNER
CYTOSOL MEMBRANE MEMBRANE MATRIX
NADH2 NAD+
GLYCEROL-
GLYCEROL- FAD PHOSPHATE
DHAP GLYCEROL- PHOSPHATE
DEHYDROGENASE
PHOSPHATE
DHAP FADH2
GLYCEROL–PHOSPHATE SHUTTLE
Glycerol–Phosphate Shuttle Scheme
 It is less efficient and present in skeletal muscles and brain cells or most eukaryotic cells.
 In this NADH2 transfers electrons to FAD of mitochondria.
 Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and NADH2 react to form Glycerol-Phosphate in cytoplasm.
 Glycerol-Phosphate goes to outer surface of inner membrane of mitochondria, where it reacts with FAD
to form FADH2 and DHAP.
 FADH2 enters the electron system to form 2 ATP. DHAP gets transferred to cytosol.
 In the presence of this shuttle, 36 ATP are produced from one glucose molecule. (2 Glycolytic
NADH2 = 4 ATP)
 Note : When which shuttle will be functional, depends on the tissue and the species.
4 OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION AND CHEMIOSMOTIC THEORY
 By P.Mitchell
 The synthesis of energy rich ATP molecules with the help of energy librated by oxidation of reduced
coenzyme produced during respiration is called Oxidative Phosphorylation.
 The protons which are expelled out from inner mitochondrial membrane during electron transport,
produce proton gradient (pH) and membrane potential in the external environment.
 This creates proton motive force. This is utilized in the formation of ATP.
 ATP synthesis is explained by chemiosmotic theory.
 Oxidative phosphorylation occurs on F 1–F 0 particles (oxysomes or elementary particles) which are
located on inner mitochondrial membrane.
 ATPase activity is found in F1 (head) which is protruded towards matrix of the mitochondria. F0 (base)
which is embedded in inner membrane has proton channels.
 ATPase becomes active only when proton gradient develops.
 Passage of 2e– from NADH2 pushes out three pairs of protons to outer chamber of mitochondria causing
proton gradient and membrane potential. These collectively create proton motive force (pmf).
 pmf cause protons to move back only passing through F0, as inner membrane is impermeable for H+.
 Energy is released during transfer of protons to the matrix passing through F1 which is used for ATP
formation. Formation of ATP from ADP is induced by the enzyme ATP synthase (ATPase) present in F1.
7
 Chemiosmosis during oxidative phosphorylation :
 ATP synthesis during oxidative phosphorylation & Photophosphorylation is explained by Chemi-osmotic
theory of P.Mitchell 1978. According to this theory energy liberated during ETS, is used in creation of
proton gradient (pH gradient) & membrane potential which constitutes proton motive force (pmf) due to
this formation of ATP takes place in F1 particle of oxysome.
Inter Inner matrix

membrane Mitochondrial
space membrance
2 H+
ADP + ip
Head piece
F1
ATPASE
2H+
high [H+] 2H+
low [H+]
ATP
Base piece
Coupling F0
factor
Proton
2H+ 2H+
pump
2 H+
energy
 Coupling factor : ATP formation requires H+ transport. These H+ only passes through the proton tunnel
or coupling factor or F0 particle in mitochondrial membrane, and bacterial membrane
 The process of eldcron transport and oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria is tightly coupled. Some
chemicals like 2,4 Dinitrophenol (2, 4 DNP) and oligomycin acts as uncouplers for this process.
 Chemiosmosis during photophosphorylation :
 The synthesis of ATP is coupled with electron transport system and creation of proton gradient across
the membrane during photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorlaion. Both are same but the difference
is that during oxidative phosphorylation high H + ion concentration at intermembrane space/
perimitochondrial space and low H + concentration in mitochondrial matrix. W hile during
photophosphorylation High H+ conc. inside the thylakoid lumen (due to photolysis of water at thylakoid
lumen) and low H+ ion conc. in stroma.
8
4 BIOENERGETICS OF RESPIRATION - (1 MOL. OF GLUCOSE)
 This is a theoretical calculation based on some assumptions.
 EMP-Pathway -
G ATP formed at substrate level phosphorylation  4 ATP
G ATP produced via ETS (2NADH2)  4/6 ATP
G ATP consumed in glycolysis  2 ATP
10 ATP – 2 ATP = 6 / 8 ATP
Gross – Expenditure = Net or Total gain
Direct Gain = 2 ATP
 Link reaction or Gateway reaction -
2NADH2 = 6 ATP (via ETS)
 Kreb’s Cycle -
G ATP produced at substrate level phosphorylation  2GTP / 2ATP
6NADH2  18ATP
G ATP produced via ETS 2FADH  4ATP
 2
24 ATP
____________________
Total 36/38 ATP
9
 Pentose Phosphate pathway can be summarized as :
 6 Glucose-6-P + 12 NADP  6 CO 2 + 12 NADPH2 + 5 Glucose-6-P
or
 Glucose-6-P + 12 NADP  6CO 2 + 12 NADPH2
 Significance of PPP / HMP shunt :
 This pathway produces reducing power NADPH2 for the various biosynthetic pathways, other than
photosynthesis like fats synthesis, starch synthesis, hormone synthesis and chlorophyll synthesis.
 An intermediate erythrose-P (4C) of this pathway is precursor of shikimic acid, which goes synthesis
of aromatic compounds and amino acids.
 This cycle provides pentose sugars Ribose-p for synthesis of nucleotides, nucleosides, ATP and GTP.
 A five carbon intermediate Ribulose-5-phosphate may used as CO 2 acceptor in green cells.
 Intermediates like PGAL and fructose-6-phosphate of this pathway may link with glycolytic reactions.
4 OTHER METHODS OF RESPIRATION
 Respiration of Fats :
 It occurs during germination of fatty seeds and in plants when carbohydrates reserve declines.
 Fats are hydrolysed in presence of enzymes lipase to yield fatty acid and glycerol.
 Oxidation of Glycerol :
 Glycerol reacts with ATP in presence of glycerol kinase to form glycerol-3-PO 4, which is then
oxidised in presence of glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase and NAD to form dihydroxy acetone
phosphate (DHAP). DHAP enters into glycolysis.
Glycerol + ATP Kinase
  Glycerol-3-PO 4
Dehydrogenase
Glycerol-3-PO4 + NAD       DHAP/PGAL + NADH2
 Oxidation of Fatty Acids –oxidation) :

 It takes place in mitochondria and glyoxysomes.
 It involves sequential removal of 2C in the form of acetyl CoA molecules from the carboxyl end of
the fatty acid.
 Each turn of –oxidation generates one FADH2, one NADH2 and one acetyl CoA molecule. So each
turn of –oxidation generates 5 ATP molecules.
 Complete oxidation of one mole of acetyl CoA in TCA results in production of 12 ATP molecules, CO 2
and H2O.
Palmitic acid (16 C)
(1 mole)
7 turns of –oxidation 5 ATP per turn
= 35 ATP – 2 ATP (consumed in first turn) = 33 ATP

8 mole of Acetyl CoA
TCA cycle 12 ATP per cycle = 96 ATP
16 mole CO2 + 16 mole H2O Total = 129 ATP
10
 Acetic Acid Fermentation :
 It is a fermentation process which requires atmospheric oxygen.
 Ethyl alcohol is oxidized into acetic acid by the activity of acetic acid bacteria (Acetobacter aceti).
C6H12O6  yeast
 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Acetobacteraceti
2 C2H5OH + O2        CH3COOH + H2O
Acetic acid
 Butyric Acid Fermentation :
 Pyruvic acid is converted to butyric acid by the activity of anaerobic bacteria. Eg. Bacillus butyricus,
Clostridium butyricum.
 CO2 is liberated during such fermentation.
Pyruvic acid Acetoacetic acid  Butyric acid.
4 RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT
 The ratio of volume of CO2 released to the volume of O2 absorbed in respiration is called respiratory
quotient (RQ) or respiratory ratio.
Vol. of CO 2 released
RQ 
Vol. of O 2 absorbed
 Value of RQ measured by Ganong's respirometer.
 Value of RQ varies from one substrate to another.
 RQ gives the idea of nature of substrate being respired in a particular tissue.
 R.Q. value equal to unity (RQ = 1) :
 When carbohydrates are the respiratory substrate, as in green leaves, flowers, fruits, germinating seeds
of cereals etc.
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
RQ = 6 / 6 = 1
 RQ value less than unity (RQ < 1) :
 Fats as respiratory substrate
 When fats are respiratory substrate RQ is less than one because fats are poorer in oxygen and
hence require more oxygen for their oxidation. Eg. : germinating seeds of peanuts, mustard,
sunflower, castor etc.
2 C51H98O 6 + 145O2  102 CO 2 + 98H2O
Tripalmitin
RQ = 102/145 = 0.7
 Proteins as respiratory substrate –
 RQ value for proteins is also less than one. Value of RQ is between 0.8 and 0.9. Eg : germinating
seeds of gram, pea, bean etc.
11
 The inhibition of anaerobic respiration by O2 concentration is called as Pasteur’s effect.
 The minimum amount of oxygen, at which aerobic respiration takes place & anaerobic respiration
become extinct is called as extinction point.
 Oxygen concn at which both aerobic & anaerobic respiration take place simultaneously is called as
transition point.
 Carbondioxide :
 Increase in CO2 concentration reduces respiration. Consequently inhibits the germination of many
seeds and rate of growth falls down.
 Water :
 Proper hydration of respiring cells is must because decrease in water content, decreases respiratory
rate as water is necessary for the activity of enzymes.
 Dry seeds having 8–12% of water, have negligible respiratory rate but as the seeds imbibe water the
respiration increases.
 The rate of respiration of seeds increases with increase of water because water causes hydrolysis
and so enzyme activity increases. Oxygen also enters the seed through water.
 Light :
 Light has no direct effect.
 Under suitable light, rate of photosynthesis is optimun which supplies respiratory substrate at a
moderate rate and hence indirectly affects respiration.
 Injury :
 Injury or wounds causes increase in respiration because healing of wound needs more meristmatic
activity of cells which needs more energy provided by increased rate of respiration.
 After some time the rate of respiration returns to normal.
 Mineral Salts :
 If the plants are transferred from water to adequate salt solution, then rate of respiration increases.
This process is known as salt respiration.
 Hormones :
 IAA, GA & cytokinin increase the respiration rate.
 The rapid increase in rate of respiration during ripening of fruits and senscence of leaves and plant
organs is called as “Climacteric respiration”. The rate is decrease after sometime.
It is due to production of ethylene hormone.
 Inhibitors :
 CN, azides, DNP (Dinitrophenol) CO, rotenone, antimycin, amytal, etc inhibit the respiration.
 Heavy metals like lead and zinc inhibit respiration by inactivating respiratory enzymes.
12
 ATP discovered by Lohman, while importance of ATP in metabolism by Lipman.
 1 gram of fat equals to 9.8 K.Cal.
Proteins = 4.8 K.Cal.
Carbohydrate = 4.4 K.Cal (Old 3.8 K.Cal)
(Fat is energy rich respiratory substrate)
 Almost all enzymatic reactions are reversible type.
 Cytochromes are Iron-porphyrin protein discoverd by MacMunn (Termed by Keilin)
 When respiratroy substrate is fats or proteins, then level of Hg rises in Ganong’s respirometer,
because more O2 absorbed than CO2 released, If respiratory substrate is organic acids than Hg level
will fall.
 In bacteria site of ETS is mesosome.
 Respiration efficiency :
1 glucose = 686 K cal.
288 kcal
38 ATP × 7.6 K cal = × 100 = 42%
686
Thus efficiency of aerobic respiration is 42% ±.

 For the complete oxidation of one glucose if, option 38 or 36 ATP are not given, then the answer goes
to 32 or 30 ATP.
 Bichemical difference between Aerbic, Anoerobic respiration and fementation.
G Aerobic Respiration  The electron ejected by oxidation of organic ompound is terminally accepted
by external componant to organic compound or inorganic compound which is oxygen.
G Anaerobic Respiration  The electron ejected by oxidation of organic compound is terminally
accepted by external component to organic ompound or inorganic compound other than oxygen
NO2–, NO3–, SO 4–2, N2 etc.
G Fementation  The electron ejected by oxidation of organic compound is terminally accepted by
intermal component to organic compound or organic compund C2H5OH, Lactic Acid, etc
 During fermentation and anaerobic respiration only 2 ATP and 2NADH2 are produced during glycolysis.
The 2NADH2 produced terminally reduce the organic compound in fermentation and inorganic
compound, in anaerobic respiration and energy lost in form of heat as mitochondrial ETS not occurs.
13
EXERCISE-I
Q.1 What is the importance of respiration in Q.9 Aerobic respiration of glucose produces
organisms ? energy -
(1) It provides oxygen to plant (1) 637 K.cal (2) 640 K.cal
(2) It liberates energy (3) 686 K.cal (4) 693 K.cal
(3) It liberates CO2 Q.10 Succinyl Co-A is related to -
(4) All of the above (1) Krebs cycle
Q.2 Energy obtained by a cell from catabolic (2) Calvin cycle
reaction is stored immediatlety in the form (3) Glycolate cycle
of-
(4) HMP-cycle
(1) Pyruvic acid (2) Glucose
Q.11 According to chemisomotic theory of
(3) ATP (4) DNA P.Mitchell (1978), ATPs are synthesised on
Q.3 Which component of ETS is mobile, e– carrier ? membrance due to the -
(1) UQ (CO-Q) (2) Cyto a (1) Proton gradient
(3) Cyto - b (4) Cyto - f (2) Electron gradient
Q.4 Which of the following is the source of (3) Osmosis
respiration ? (4) From H2SO 4
(1) Stored food (2) RNA Q.12 A reducton of NADP to NADPH2 is associted
(3) DNA (4) ATP with-
Q.5 R.Q. is less than one at the time of (1) EMP-pathway
respiration of - (2) HMP-shunt
(1) Starch (2) Sugarcane (3) Calvin cycle
(3) Glucose (4) Ground nut (4) Glycolysis
Q.6 Number ATP produced from one pyruvic acid Q.13 Cut surface of fruit and vgetable often become
during conversion to actyl Co-A- dark because -
(1) 6 (2) 3 (3) 12 (4) 15 (1) Dirty knife makes it dark
Q.7 In succulent plants R.Q. is less than one (2) Oxidation of tannic acid in the presence
because of of trace of iron from the knife makes it
(1) Complete oxidation dark
(2) Complete reduction (3) Dust of the air makes it dark
(3) Incomplete reduction (4) None of the above
(4) Incomplete oxidation Q.14 An example of competitive inhibition of an
Q.8 The link between Glycolysis and Krebs cycle enzyme is the inhibition of :
is (1) Succinic dehydrogenase by malonic acid
(1) Citric acid (2) Cytochrome oxidase by cyanide
(2) Malic acid (3) Hexokinas by glucose-6 phosphate
(3) Fumaric acid (4) Carbonic anhydrase by carbon-dioxide
(4) Acetyl co-enzyme-A
14
Q.15 In hexose monophosphate shunt the number Q.22 End product of glycolysis is-
of CO2 molecules evolved is- (1) Citirc acid
(1) Same as in glyclysis (2) Glyceraldeyde
(2) Less than glycolysis (3) Phosphoglyceraldehyde
(3) More than glycolsis (4) Pyruvic acid
(4) Much less than glycolysis Q.23 First reaction in pentose phosphate pathway
Q.16 Conversion of pyuvic acid into ethyl alcohol is -
is mediated by - (1) Oxidation of glucose-6-phosphate
(1) Phosphatase (2) 6-Phosphogluconic acid
(2) Dehydrogenase (3) Ribose-5-phosphate
(3) Decarboxylase & dehydrogenase (4) Fructose-5-phosphate
(4) Catalase Q.24 Oxidation of one molecule of glucose in
Q.17 The commonest living, which can respire in aerobic respiration result in the formation of-
the absence of O2 is - (1) 36 ATP molecules
(1) Fish (2) Yeast (2) 40 ATP moleules
(3) Potato (4) Chorella (3) 3 ATP molecules
Q.18 The formation of Acetyl Co-A from pyuvic acid (4) 15 ATP molecules
is the result of its -
Q.25 In the electron transport chain during terminal
(1) Reduction oxidation, the cytochrome, which donated
(2) Dehydration electrons to O2 is ?
(3) Phosphorylation (1) Cytochrome-b
(4) Oxidative decarboxylation (2) Cyto-C
Q.19 W hich of the following is link between (3) Cyto-a3
carbohydrate and fat metabolism ? (4) Cyto-f
(1) CO 2 Q.26 Number of oxygen atoms required for aerobic
(2) Acetyl Co-A oxidation of one pyruvate-
(3) Pyruvic acid (1) 5 (2) 8
(4) Citric acid (3) 10 (4) 12
Q.20 Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is used in Q.27 Alternate name of Krebs cycle is -
converting- (1) Glyoxylate cycle
(1) Pyuvate to glucose (2) Glycolate cycle
(2) Glucose to pyruvate (3) Citric acid cycle
(3) Pyruvic acid to lactic acid (4) EMP Pathway
(4) Pyruvate to acetyl Co-A Q.28 Respiration in plants
Q.21 The first compound of TCA cycle is - (1) Occurs only during day
(1) Oxalo succinic acid (2) Results in the formation of vitamins
(2) Oxalo acetic acid (3) Is characteristic of all living cells
(3) Citric acid (4) Often requires CO2
(4) Cis aconitic acid
15
Q.29 In plants energy is produced during the Q.36 Carbon dioxide is liberated during -
process of - (1) Phtosynthesis (2) Transpiration
(1) Photosynthesis (3) Acent of sap (4) Respiration
(2) Transpiration Q.37 Common immediate source of energy in
(3) Respiration cellular acticity is -
(4) Water abosrption (1) glucose (2) aldohexose
Q.30 A very important feature of respiration is that (3) ATP (4) NAD
(1) It liberates energy Q.38 Energy obtined by a cell from catabolic
(2) It provides O2 reaction is stored immediataly in the form of
(3) Utilize CO 2 (1) Glucose (2) Pyruvic acid
(4) Synthesize complex compounds (3) ADP (4) ATP
Q.31 Complete oxidation of 1 gm mol of glucose Q.39 A.T.P. is

gives rise to - (1) A hormone
(1) 6860000 cals (2) 686000 cals (2) A protiein
(3) 68600 cals (4) 6860 cals (3) An enzyume which brings about oxidation
Q.32 The cell orgnelle in, which aerobic respiration (4) A molecule which contain high energy
occurs - bond
(1) Ribosome Q.40 In anaerobic respiration seeds respirs -
(2) Mitochondria (1) In presence of O 2
(3) Lysosmes (2) In presence of CO2
(4) Chloroplast (3) In absence of O2
Q.33 For the purpose of respiration in plants (4) In absence of CO 2
(1) Light is necessary Q.41 The following is required both by the process
(2) CO2 is necessary of respiration and phtosynthesis -
(3) O2 is necessary (1) Carbohydrates
(4) Chlorophyll is necessary (2) Sunlight
Q.34 The end products of respiration in plants are (3) Chlorophyll
(1) CO2, H2O and energy (4) Cytochromes
(2) Starch and O 2 Q.42 The net gain of ATP molecules in glycolysis
is -
(3) Sugar and oxygen
(1) Zero (2) Two
(4) H2O and energy
(3) Four (4) Eight
Q.35 The incomplete breakdown of sugars in
anaerobic respiration resulat in the formation Q.43 Cytochromes are concerned with -
of - (1) Protein synthesis
(1) Fructose and water (2) Cellular digestion
(2) Glucose and carbon dioxide (3) Cell division
(3) Alcohol and CO 2 (4) Cell-respiration
(4) Water and CO 2
16
Q.44 How is respiration affected on the basis of Q.52 The end product of fermentation when sugar
protoplasm activity ? are used as raw materials are -
(1) Rate of respiration in seed is found low (1) Alcohol and CO 2
(2) In dormant organs, rate of respiration is low (2) Alcohol, Pyruvate
(3) Rate of respiration is high in meristematic cells (3) CO 2
(4) All the above (4) Alcohol
Q.45 Number of every cytochrome molecule require Q.53 Iron-porphyrin protein complex occurs in -
for transfer of 2e– in ETS : (1) phytochrome (2) cytochrome
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) chlorophyll (4) both (1) and (3)
(3) 1 (4) 10 Q.54 Fermentation is conducted by
Q.46 Kreb’s cycle takes place in - (1) All bacteria
(1) Vesicles of E.R (2) All fungi
(2) Mitochiondrial matrix (3) Some fungi and some bacteria
(3) Dictyosomes (4) All microorganism
(4) Lysosomes Q.55 In the process of respiration in plants 180
Q.47 The respiration in germinating seeds gm of Glucose plus192 gm of oxygen
produces energy, which can be delflected in produce -
the form of - (1) 132 gm of CO2 , 54 gm of H2O & 483 Kcal.E
(1) water (2) O2 (2) 264 gm of CO2 , 108 gm of H2O & 686 Kcal.E
(3) Heat (4) CO 2 (3) 200 gm of C2H5OH, 72 gm of H2O & 21 Kcal.E
Q.48 In respiration pyruvic acid is - (4) None
(1) Formed only when oxygen is available Q.56 Respiratory enzymes are localised in -
(2) One of product of krebs cycle (1) Ribosomes (2) Chloroplast
(3) Broken down into Acetyl Co-A and CO2 (3) Mitochondria (4) None of the above
(4) a result of protein break down
Q.57 Respiration is an -
Q.49 Most of the energy of the carbohydrates is
(1) Exothermic process
released by oxidation when -
(2) Endothermic process
(1) Pyruvic acid is converted into CO2 and H2O
(2) Pyuvic acid is converted into acetyl Co-A (3) Anabolic process
(3) Sugar is converted into pyruvic acid (4) None of these
(4) Glucose is converted into alcohol and CO2 Q.58 In Opuntia during night the R.Q. will be -
Q.50 Glycolysis takes place in - (1) 1 (2) less than 1
(1) Cytoplasm (3) More than 1 (4) 0
(2) Chloroplast Q.59 Number of ATP molecules formed during
aerobic respiration in break down of one
(3) Ribosome
glucose molecule via malate aspartate shuttle -
(4) Mitochondria
(1) 38 (2) 18
Q.51 The universal hydrogen acceptor is -
(3) 28 (4) 4
(1) NAD (2) ATP
(3) Co-A (4) FMN
17
Q.60 During respiration pyruvic acid is formed by - Q.68 The tissue of highest respiratory activity is -
(1) Glycolysis (2) Kreb’s cycle (1) Meristem (2) Ground tissue
(3) TCA cycle (4) None of the above (3) Phloem (4) Mechanical tissue
Q.61 Enzyme involved in alcoholic fermentation - Q.69 Respiratory quotient is expressed as -
(1) Pyruvate decarboxylse (1) O2/CO2 (2) CO2/O 2
(2) Lactate dehydrogenase (3) O2/H2O (4) CO2-O2
(3) Hexoisomerase Q.70 What causes R.Q. to vary
(4) Both decarboxylase and dehydrogenase (1) Respiratory Substrate
Q.62 Kreb’s cycle is - (2) Light & O2
(1) Aerobic respiration (3) Respiratory Product
(2) Photosynthesis (4) Temperature
(3) Transpiration Q.71 The first preferred respiratory substrate is -
(4) Anaerobic respiration (1) Glucose (2) Fats
Q.63 The organism in which kreb’s cycle does not (3) Protein (4) Polypeptide
occur in mitochondria is - Q.72 Respiration results into -
(1) Yeast (1) Gain in weight
(2) E.coil (2) Loss in weight
(3) Ulothrix (3) No change in weight
(4) Molds (4) Loss of ATP
Q.64 Citric acid is produced in Q.73 Respiration occurs in -
(1) Bacterial episome (1) All living cells both in lights & dark
(2) Kreb’s cycle (2) Non green cells only in light
(3) Calvin cycle (3) Non green cells in light and dark
(4) Calvin + HSK cycle (4) All living cells in light only
Q.65 How many times CO2 released in aerobic Q.74 The value of RQ at compensation point is -
respiration -
(1) One (2) More than one
(1) One or two (2) Three
(3) Less than one (4) Inifinite
(3) Six (4) Twelve
Q.75 The value of RQ at compensation point is -
Q.66 Raw material for respiration is -
(1) Unity (2) Two
(1) Glucose & O2
(3) >1 (4) Zero
(2) Glucose & CO 2
Q.76 The value of RQ of starved cell is -
(3) Glucose & Carbon
(1) Zero (2) Less than one
(4) Glucose & sucrose
(3) 1 (4) infinite
Q.67 Slow respiring plant or plants tissues are -
Q.77 RQ of an activley phtosynthesizing tissue is-
(1) Promeristem
(1) Unity (2) < 1
(2) Cambium
(3) > 1 (4) Zero
(3) Leaf primordia & young plant
(4) Adult plants & matured tissues
18
Q.78 R.Q. of germinating ground nut & castor seed Q.86 Apparatus used to measure respiratory
is - quotient -
(1) 1 (2) < 1 (1) Potometer
(3) >1 (4) 0 (2) Auxanometer
Q.79 The value of RQ of a ripening fatty seed is- (3) Respirometer
(1) < 1 (2) > 1 (4) Warburg’s apparatus
(3) zero (4) Unity Q.87 Glycolysis involves the conversion of -
Q.80 When the evolution of CO2 is more than the (1) Protein into glucose
intake of O2 the respired substrate should be- (2) Glucose into fructose
(1) Fatty acid (3) Starch into glucose
(2) orgainc acid (4) Glucose into pyruvic acid
(3) Glucose Q.88 The end product of glycolysis is -
(4) Polysaccharides (1) Glycolate & ethanol
Q.81 The value of R.Q. of a succulent plant at (2) Glyoxylic acid & CO2
night is -
(3) Glucose or hexose units
(1) unity (2) >1
(4) Pyruvate
(3) Zero (4) Infinite
Q.89 The common phase between aerobic &
Q.82 Protoplasmic proteins are used as a anaerobic respiration is -
respiratory substrate only when -
(1) TCA cycle (2) Kreb’s cycle
(1) Carbohydrates are absent
(3) Glycolysis (4) Photo respiration
(2) Fats are absent
Q.90 Which of the follwing scientist discovered the
(3) Both 1 & 2 are absent conventional path of glycolysis -
(4) Fats & carbohydrates are abundant (1) Embeden, Myerhof and Parnas
Q.83 The term ‘’Protoplasmic respiratory’’ is used (2) Emerson, Hoffman and Peterson
when the respiratory substrate is -
(3) Embeden, Morrison and Pitcher
(1) Carbohydrates
(4) Warburg, Dickens and Horecker
(2) Portein
Q.91 What is active glucose -
(3) Organic acid
(1) FAD glucose
(4) Lipid
(2) NAD glucose
Q.84 The term ‘’Floating respiration’’ is used when
(3) Glucose-6-P
the respiratory substrate is -
(4) Glycerophosphate
(1) Carbohydrates (2) Fats
Q.92 The enzyme which converts glucose to
(3) Both 1 and 2 (4) Protein
glucose 6-phosphate-
Q.85 Respiration may take place -
(1) Phosphorylase
(1) In the presence of O 2
(2) Gluco-phosphorylase
(2) In the absence of O2
(3) Hexokinase
(3) In the presence or absence of O2
(4) Phospho glucomutase
(4) In the presence of CO2
19
Q.93 Glycolysis give rise to - Q.102 Which of the following cytochrome donated
(1) 8ATP, 2NADH2, 2 Pyruvate electron to oxygen -
(2) 2ATP, 2CoA, 2NADH2 (1) cyto.-a1 (2) cyto.-a3
(3) 2ATP, 2NADH2, 2 Pyruate (3) cyto.-b (4) cyto.-c
(4) 2ATP, 2 acetate, 2NADPH2 Q.103 The amount of energy given by one ATP
molecule is -
Q.94 The inhibitory effect of the presence of O2 on
anaerobic respiration is termed - (1) 67 K cal (2) 6.7 K cal
(1) Warburg effect (2) Pasteur effect (3) 7.6 K cal (4) 75 K cal
(3) Emerson’s effect (4) Oxygen effect Q.104 How many ATP molecules produced from the
complete oxidation of a molecule of active
Q.95 During glycolysis the mineral needed as an
acetate or acetyl Co-A -
enzyme activator is -
(1) 38 ATP (2) 15 ATP
(1) Mn++ (2) Fe++
(3) 12 ATP (4) 4 ATP
(3) Ca++ (4) Mg++
Q.105 How many ATP equivalents are produced by
Q.96 Green plants kept in light produce ATP from
the oxidation of succinate into fumarate -
the glucose. This process is -
(1) 1 ATP (2) 2 ATP
(1) Photophosphroylation
(3) 3 ATP (4) 4 ATP
(2) Hill reaction
Q.106 The product of aerobic respiration of glucose
(3) Oxidative phosphorylation
is -
(4) -oxidation
(1) CO2 + H2O + ATP
Q.97 Anaerobic respiration was reported for the
(2) CO2 + Pyruvic acid
first time by -
(3) CO 2 + ethyl alcohol
(1) Pasteur (2) Kostychev
(4) CO2 + Pyruvic acid + citric acid
(3) Klein (4) Pfeffer
Q.107 Product formed by the activity of malic
Q.98 W hich of the follwing ETS complex is
dehydrogenase is -
inhibited by cyanide -
(1) Fumaric acid (2) Malic acid
(1) Complex II (2) Complex V
(3) Oxaloacetic acid (4) Succinc acid
(3) Complex IV (4) Comlex III
Q.108 Which of the following is 5-carbon compound
Q.99 Final e– acceptor of mitochondria is -
of Kreb’s cycle -
(1) Pyruvate (2) NADP
(1) Citric acid
(3) O2 (4) OAA
(2) Furmaric acid
Q.100 The number of ATP molecules produced from
(3) Oxalosuccinic acid
one Kreb’s cycle are -
(4) -Ketoglutaric acid
(1) 15 (2) 30
Q.109 Energy for ATP synthesis is obtained from -
(3) 38 (4) 40
(1) Oxygen ion gradient
Q.101 How many molecules of ATP are produced
per molecule of FADH2 oxidised - (2) Heavy water grdient
(1) One (2) Two (3) Uranium ion gradient
(3) Three (4) four (4) Hydrogen ion gradient
20
Q.110 Mitochonderia is the site of - Q.119 Ganong’s respirometer used for -
(1) CO production (1) Respiration measuring
(2) Cell division (2) R.Q. measuring
(3) The release of energy during respiration (3) Transpiration measuring
(4) None of the above (4) All of the above
Q.111 Substrate level ATP molecules during Q.120 Direct gain of ATP from one mole of glucose
complete oxidation of 1 molecule of glucose- during glycolysis or EMP pathaway -
(1) 8 ATP (2) 6 ATP (1) 2 ATP (2) 6 ATP
(3) 4 ATP (4) 2 ATP (3) 36 ATP (4) 38 ATP
Q.112 How many ATP generates in aerobic Q.121 In glycolysis of aerobic respiration the ATP
respiration via glycerol phosphate shuttle in synthesized are -
eukaryotes ? (1) 2 ATP (2) 6 ATP
(1) 38 ATP (2) 36 ATP (3) 8 ATP (4) 30 ATP
(3) 40 ATP (4) 80 ATP Q.122 FADH2 Produced in Kreb’s-cycle from -
Q.113 How many ATP generates in aerobic (1) Isocitrate (2) -ketoglutarate
respiration of eukaryotic cell ?
(3) succinate (4) malate
(1) 28 ATP (2) 36 ATP
(3) 20 ATP (4) 40 ATP Q.123 Which 5-carbon organic acid of TCA-cycle is
Q.114 Respiration differs from burning in which of key compound in N2 -metabolism ?
the following ? (1) Cirtric acid
(1) Energy released in respiration (2) Fumaric acid
(2) Oxidation of substance occurs (3) Oxalosuccinic acid
(3) Enzymes are involved (4) -ketoglutaric acid
(4) All the above Q.124 1 mole of glucose when oxidised through
Q.115 Energy produced per gram is highest in - EMP & TCA-cycle would yield -
(1) Starch (2) Sucrose (1) 30 ATP gross
(3) Protein (4) Lipid (2) 40 ATP net
Q.116 Site of Kreb’s-cycle in respiration & ATP (3) 36 or 38 ATP net

synthesis is - (4) 38 ATP only
(1) Mitochondrial stroma Q.125 When 100% carbon is oxidised to CO2 the
(2) Matrix & oxysome efficiency of such a respiration is ?
(3) Cytoplasm (1) 40% (2) 60%
(4) None of the above (3) 80% (4) 100%
Q.117 Minimum respiration rate found in - Q.126 What is true for Kreb’s cycle ?
(1) Leaves (2) Stem (1) GTP/ATP is formed
(3) Parenchyma (4) Seeds (2) 2 Decarboxylation
Q.118 Cyanide resistant respiration is found in - (3) Acetyl Co-A acceptor is O.A.A .
(1) Homo sapiens (2) Brassica (4) All the above
(3) Spinacea (4) Bacteria
21
Q.127 -oxidation takes place in - Q.136 Anaerbic respiration takes place in -
(1) Cell Membrane [MP PMT 2002]
(2) Mitochondrial Membrane (1) Ribosome (2) Nucleus
(3) Oxysomes Head (3) Cytoplasm (4) Vacuole
(4) Perimitochondrial space Q.137 What is the energy coin of a cell ?
Q.128 Warburg-Dickens pathaway is - [MP PMT 2002]
(1) PPP (2) TCA-cycle (1) DNA (2) RNA
(3) EMP pathway (4) None (3) ATP (4) Minerals
Q.129 Which enzyme break downs the fructose-1, Q.138 The process of oxidative phosphorylation
6-Disphosphate ? takes place in - [MP PMT 2002]
(1) Hexokinase (2) Phosphatase (1) Mitochondria (2) Chloroplasts
(3) Aldolase (4) None (3) Ribosomes (4) Cytoplasm
Q.130 How much energy equal to ATP will be Q.139 R.Q. of which diet is less than unit ?
produced by HMP shunt ? [RPMT 2002]
(1) 40 ATP (2) 38 ATP (1) Carbohydrate (2) Fats
(3) 35 ATP (4) 8 ATP (3) Organic acid (4) Sugar
Q.131 Link between glycolysis & TCA cycle is - Q.140 Pyruvic acid is the end product of which
(1) Pyruvic acid (2) Acetyl Co-A process ? [RPMT 2002]
(3) Citric acid (4) None (1) Kreb’s cycle
Q.132 Aceptor of acetyl Co-A in Kreb’s-cycle is - (2) Calvin cycle
(1) Malic acid (2) Fumaric acid (3) Pentose phosphate pathway
(3) -ketoglutric acid (4) Oxalo acetic acid (4) Glycolysis
Q.133 Enzyme alternate oxidase is inhibited by : Q.141 1 molecule glucose + 6 molecule of O2 and
(1) NADP 38 ADP combined to form 12 H2O, 6 CO2 and-
(2) SHAM (Salicy hydroxamic acid) [RPMT 2002]
(3) m-CLAM (m-chloro-benzhydroxamic acid) (1) 38 molecules of ATP

(4) 2 & 3 (2) 28 ATP
Q.134 When 2-pyruvic acids froms two lactic acid (3) 38 ADP
by aneaerobic respiration then ? (4) 28 ADP
(1) One ATP is lost (2) 3 ATP is lost Q.142 Number of ATP obtained at the end of Kreb’s
(3) 6 ATP is lost (4) None cycle - [RPMT 2002]
Q.135 During oxidative phosphorylation follwoing (1) 2 ATP (2) 4 ATP
provides energy for the ATP formation - (3) 8 ATP (4) 38 ATP
(1) Co-A Q.143 During the formation of bread, it becomes
(2) NADPH porous due to release of CO2 by the action
(3) Efflux of proton to PMS of - [CPMT 2002]
(4) Pyruvic acid (1) Yeast (2) Bacterial

(3) Virus (4) Protozoans
22
Q.144 How many ATP molecules produced by Q.152 For retting of jute, the fermenting microbe
aerobic oxidation of one molecule of glucose ? used is - [AIPMT 2005]
[CPMT 2002] (1) Helicobactor pylori
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 38 (4) 34 (2) Methophilic bacteria
Q.145 Energy required for start of biochemical (3) Streptococcus lactin
reaction is - (4) Butyric acid bacteria
(1) Potential energy (2) Entropy Q.153 During which stage in the complete oxidation
(3) Activation enegy (4) Kinetic energy of glucose are the greatest number of ATp
Q.146 R.Q. of maturing fatty seeds will be - molecules formed form ADP ? [AIPMT 2005]
(1) 1 (2) More than one (1) Conversion of pyruric acid to acetyl Co A
(3) 0 (4) 0.7 (2) Electron transport chain
Q.147 Anaerobic degradation of proteins by (3) Glycolysis

microbes is known as - (4) Krebs cycle
(1) Putreification (2) Degradation Q.154 The deficiencies of micronutrients, not only
(3) Decomposition (4) None affects growth of plants, but also vital
f unctions such as photosynthetic and
Q.148 In which one of the following do the two
mitochondrial electron flow. Among the list
names refer to one and the same thing -
given below, which group of three elements
CPMT 2003] shall affact most, both photosynthetic and
(1) Kreb’s cycle and calvin cycle mitochodrial electron transport -
(2) Tricarboxylic acid cycle and citric acid [AIPMT 2005]
cycle (1) Cu, Mn Fe (2) Co, Ni, Mo
(3) Citric and cycle and Calvin cycle (3) Mn Co, Ca (4) Ca, K, Na
(4) Tricarboxylic acid cycle and urea cycle Q.155 Chemiosmotic theory of ATP synthesis in the
Q.149 In alcohol fermentation - [CPMT 2003] chloroplast and mitochondria is based on -
(1) Triose phosphate is the electron donor, [AIPMT 2005]
while acetaldehyde is the electron (1) Proton gradient
accceptor
(2) Accumulation of K ions
(2) Triose phosphate is the electron donor,
(3) Accumulation of Na ions
while pyruv ic acid is the electron
acceptor (4) Membrane potential
(3) There is no electron donor Q.156 Respiration is which type of process-
(4) Oxygen is the electron acceptor [RPMT 2005]
Q.150 In glycolysis, during oxidation electrons are (1) Catabolic

removed by - [CPMT 2004] (2) Metabolic
(1) Molecular oxygen (2) ATP (3) Anabolic
(3) Glyceraldehyde (4) NAD+ (4) None
Q.151 Aerobic respiration is how many times useful Q.157 R.Q. is represented by- [RPMT 2005]
than anaerobic respiration - [RPMT 2004] (1) O2/CO2 (2) CO2/O 2
(1) 2 (2) 8 (3) V2/V2–V1 (4) O2 taken in
(3) 19 (4) 38
23
Q.158 Which is the site of Kreb’s cycle - Q.163 All enzymes of TCA cycle are located in th
(1) Chloroplast [RPMT 2005] mitochondroial martix except one which is
located in inner mitochondrial membrane in
(2) Golgibody
eukaryotes and in cytosol in prokaryotes. This
(3) Mitochondria enzyme is - [AIPMT 2007]
(4) Endophasmic reticulum (1) Succinate dehydrogenase
Q.159 Curing of tea leaves is broght about by the (2) Lactate dehydrogenase
actiivty of - [AIPMT 2006]
(3) Isocitrate dehydrogenase
(1) viruses
(4) Malate dehydrogenase
(2) fungi
Q.164 Which one of the following mamalian cells
(3) bacteria are not capable of metabolising glucose to
(4) mycorrhiza carbondioxide aerobically ? [AIPMT 2007]
Q.160 Which of the following statements regarding (1) Red blood cells
mitochondrial membrane is NOT correct ? (2) White blood cells
[AIPMT 2006] (3) Unstriated muscle cells
(1) The inner membrance is highly convoluted (4) Liver cells
forming a series of infolding
Q.165 A competitiv e inhibitor of succinc
(2) The outer membrane resembles a sieve dehydrogenase is - [AIPMT 2008]
(3) The outer membrance is permeable to all (1) -ketoglutarate (2) Malate
kinds of molecules
(3) Malonate (4) Oxaloacetate
(4) The enzymes of the electron transfer
Q.166 The chemisomotic coupling hypothesis of
chain are embedded in the outer
oxidative phosphorylation proposes that
membrane.
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is formed
Q.161 How many ATP molecules could maximally because - [AIPMT 2008]
be generated from one molecule of glucose,
(1) A proton gradient forms across the inner
if the complete oxidation of one mole of
membrane
glucose to CO2 and H2O yields 686 kcal and
the useful chemical energy (2) There is a change in the permeabity of
the inner mitochondrial membrane towrds
available in the high energy phosphate bond
adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
of one mole of ATP is 12 Kcal ?
(3) High energy bonds are f ormed in
[AIPMT 2006]
mitochondrial proteins
(1) 57 (2) 1
(4) ADP is pumped out of the matrix into the
(3) 2 (4) 30 intermembrane space
Q.162 The overall goal of glycolysis, Krebs cycle Q.167 The energy-relesing process in which the
and the electron transport system is the substrate is oxidised without an external
formation of - [AIPMT 2007] electron acceptor is called - [AIPMT 2008]
(1) Nucleic acids (1) Aerobic respiration
(2) ATP in small stepwise units (2) Glycolysis
(3) ATP in one large oxidation reaction (3) Fermentation
(4) Sugars (4) Photorespiration
24
Q.168 In germinating seeds fatty acids are degraded Q.175 Which statement about respiration is correct ?
exclusively in the - [AIPMT 2008] (1) All energy is released in the form of heat
(1) Peroxisomes (2) Oxydations occurs with use of enzyme
(2) Mitochondria (3) Energy released in single step
(3) Proplastids (4) All the above
(4) Glyoxysomes Q.176 What is the product of aerobic respiration ?
Q.169 How is the energy present in food released (1) CO2 (2) H2O
during biological oxidation ?
(3) Energy (4) All the above
(1) In one step, quickly
Q.177 It is equally found in aerobic as well as
(2) In two steps, slowly anaerobic respiration ?
(3) In different steps, slowly (1) Glycolysis (2) Kreb's Cycle
(4) In different steps, quickly (3) Both of above (4) ETS
Q.170 During biological oxidation in which form Q.178 What happens in fermentation ?
energy is temporarily stored –
(1) Incomplete oxidation of Glucose
(1) In the form of Glucose
(2) Complete oxidation of Glucose
(2) In the form of Pyruvic acid
(3) Both of the above
(3) In the form of ATP
(4) All the above
Q.179 What are the reasons for less frequent
Q.171 Which of these is a high energy molecule ? fermentation ?
(1) GTP (2) CTP (1) Due to less energy production, the energy
(3) TTP (4) All the above supply is less
Q.172 ATP is formed in – (2) Due to more use of respiratory substrate,
(1) Respiration it is not available for growth and other
process
(2) Photosynthesis
(3) The excess of final and intermediate
(3) Photophosphorylation
products of fermentation produce toxicity
(4) All the above
(4) All the above
Q.173 ATP is called the –
Q.180 What is the other name of glycolysis
(1) Cellular furnace
(1) HMP pathway (2) EMP pathway
(2) Energy centre of the cell
(3) PPP (4) All the above
(3) Biological energy currency
Q.181 What is formed at the end of first step of
(4) Energy depositing molecule phosphorylation of glycolysis ?
Q.174 What is wrong about respiration ? (1) Glucose 6-PO 4
(1) It does not occur in cell (2) Fructose 6-PO4
(2) Oxidation occurs without the use of (3) Fructose 1-6 diPO4
enzymes
(4) Any of the above
(3) Energy is released in one step quickly
Q.182 Phosphorylation of glucose occurs by –
(4) All the above
(1) H3PO4 (2) ATP
(3) Any of the above (4) None of the above
25
Q.183 What is formed by the breakdown of Fructose Q.191 W hy the anim als f eel f atigue duri ng
1-6 diphosphate in glycolysis ? exercise ?
(1) PGAL (1) Due to accumulation of malic acid
(2) DHAP (2) Due to accumulation of lactic acid
(3) Both of above (3) Due to accumulation of pyruvic acid
(4) PGA (4) Due to all the above
Q.184 When is NADH2 formed in glycolysis ? Q.192 What is there in Pyruvic dehydrogenase
(1) During the formation of DiHAP from PGAL complex ?
(2) During the formation of 1-3 DiPGAL from (1) Pyruvic decarboxylase with TPP Mg++
PGAL (2) COA
(3) During the formation of 1-3 DiPGA from 1- (3) Lipoic acid
3 DiPGAL (4) All the above
(4) During the formation of PeP from PGA Q.193 What is the other name for Kreb's Cycle ?
Q.185 When is ATP formed in glycolysis ? (1) TCA Cycle (2) DCA Cycle
(1) During the formation of 3-PGA from 1-3 (3) Both of above (4) None of the above
DiPGA
Q.194 Which is the 6 carbon compound in Kreb's
(2) During the formation of Pyruvic acid from cycle ?
PEP
(1) Citric/Isocitric acid (2) Aconitic acid
(3) Both of above (3) Oxalosuccinic acid (4) All the above
(4) None of the above Q.195 What is formed besides succinic acid during
Q.186 How many molecules of pyruvic acid are its formation in Kreb's Cycle ?
formed in glycolysis ? (1) ADP (2) GTP
(1) One (2) Two (3) Three (4) Four (3) NADH2 (4) FADH2
Q.187 The products of glycolysis are – Q.196 Which is the 4-carbon compound found in
(1) Pyruvic acid (2) 2 NADH2 Kreb's cycle ?
(3) 2 ATP (4) All the above (1) Succinic acid (2) Fumaric acid
Q.188 What is the total gain in terms of ATP in (3) Malic acid (4) All the above
glycolysis ? Q.197 What else is formed during formation of
(1) Six (2) Four (3) Eight (4) Ten Fumaric acid from succinic acid ?
Q.189 How many ATPs are stored in anaerobic (1) FADH2 (2) NADH2
respiration ? (3) NADPH2 (4) None of these
(1) Two (2) Four (3) Six (4) Eight Q.198 How many FADH2 are formed from one
Q.190 What is formed during exercising in skeletal pyruvic acid molecule ?
muscles ? (1) One (2) Two
(1) Pyruvic acid (3) Three (4) Four
(2) Lactic acid Q.199 How many NADH2 are formed from one
(3) Ethyl alcohol glucose molecule ?
(4) Acetone (1) Four (2) Five (3) Eight (4) Ten
26
Q.200 How many FADH2 are formed in one Kreb's Q.210 Which electron acceptors can easily be
cycle ? separated from respiratory chain ?
(1) One (2) Two (3) Three (4) Four (1) Co-Q (2) Cyt-c
Q.201 How many FADH2 are formed from one (3) Both of above (4) Fe-S Protein
glucose molecule ? Q.211 Which are called mobile carriers of respiratory
(1) One (2) Two (3) Three (4) Four chain ?
Q.202 Where the reaction of Kreb's cycle occur ? (1) Co-Q
(1) Cytoplasm (2) Cyt-c
(2) Mitochondrial matrix (3) Both of above
(3) Mitochondrial cristae (4) None of the above
(4) F1 particles of mitochondia Q.212 W hich acts as mobile carrier between
Q.203 How many ATP are obtained from NADH2 ? complex-and complex-V ?
(1) One (2) Two (3) Three (4) Four (1) Fe-S (2) Co-Q
Q.204 How many ATP are obtained from FADH2 ? (3) Cyt-C (4) None of these
(1) One (2) Two (3) Three (4) Four Q.213 Hydrogen is transferred from FADH2 to –
Q.205 NADH2 to ATP synthesis occurs through – (1) NAD (2) FMN
(1) ETS (2) PPP (3) Co-Q (4) NADP
(3) EMP (4) HMP

Q.214 Hydrogen is transferred from NADH2 to –
Q.206 Which complex is formed by FMN NADH2,
(1) FAD (2) FMN
Dehydrogenase,?
(3) Co-Q (4) Fe-S
(1) Complex– (2) Complex–
Q.215 Who discovered chemiosmosis ?
(3) Complex– (4) All the above
(1) Mitchell
Q.207 Which substances are found in complex  of
ETS ? (2) Warburg & Dickens
(1) FMN NADH2, dehydrogenase (3) Raecker
(2) Co-Q FADH2, Dehydrogenase (4) Krebs
(3) Both of above Q.216 From which place H+ protons enter matrix
f rom outside of inner membrane of
(4) None of above
mitochondria ?
Q.208 Which complex is formed by Cyt.a3 and Cyt.a
(1) Any part of the membrane
of ETS ?
(2) Through elementary particles/oxysomes
of membrane
(3) Complex– (4) Complex–V
(3) From terminal end of cristae
Q.209 Where is ATPase complex found ?
(1) On cristae of mitochondria
Q.217 W hich part of elementary particle is
(2) In matrix of mitochondria completely embedded in the membrane ?
(3) In oxysomes present on cristae of (1) F0 (2) F1
mitochondria
(3) Both of above (4) None of these
(4) On F0 particles of mitochondria
27
Q.218 By transfer of how many protons, one ATP is Q.225 PPP is related to –
formed ? (1) Glycolysis (2) Kreb's cycle
(1) 1H+ (2) 2H+ (3) Respiration (4) Photosynthesis
(3) 3H+ (4) 4H+ Q.226 PPP is an alternative of –
Q.219 How many pairs of protons are released in (1) Anaerobic respiration
respiratory chain by one NADH2 ?
(2) Fermentation
(1) One pair (2) Two pairs
(3) Aerobic respiration
(3) Three pairs (4) Four pairs
(4) All the above
Q.220 What is the method of formation of ATP in
Q.227 What is the significance of PPP ?
mitochondria ?
(1) It provides reductive power
(1) Osmosis
(2) It provides ribose sugars for nucleic acid
(2) Chemiosmosis
synthesis
(3) Chemiphosphorylation
(3) Provides Erythrose 4-P for synthesis of
(4) Osmophosphorylation lignin, anthocyanin, auxin etc
Q.221 Phosphorylation at substrate level is found (4) All the above
in-
Q.228 Why NADH2 produced in glycolysis cannot
(1) Glycolysis enter mitochondria generally ?
(2) Kreb's cycle (1) Mitochondrial membrane is impermeable
(3) Both (1) and (2) to NADH2
(4) None of the above (2) NADH2 is used in cytoplasm only
Q.222 W hich is called phosphorylative proton (3) Both of above
coupling ? (4) None of the above
(1) Formation of ADP Q.229 If malate aspartate shuttle is effective then
(2) Formation of ATP by energy present how many ATPs are formed from Glucose ?
in NADH2, FADH2 through respiratory (1) 36 ATP (2) 38 ATP
chain
(3) 30 ATP (4) 34 ATP
(3) Formation of ATP at substrate level
Q.230 Where H2 of NADH2 obtained by glycolysis
(4) All the above through Glycerol Phosphate shuttle is
Q.223 Who resists terminal oxidation of respiratory transferred ?
chain ? (1) In matrix of mitochondria
(1) CO (2) KCN (2) On inner surface of inner membrane of
(3) Both (1) and (2) mitochondria
(4) None of these (3) On inner surface of outer membrane of
Q.224 Where is PPP (Pentose Phosphate pathway) mitochondria
performed in cell ? (4) On outer surface of inner membrane of
(1) In mitochondrial matrix mitochondria
(2) In cytoplasm Q.231 In presence of Glycerol Phosphate shuttle, a

glucose molecule yields –
(3) In mitochondrial membrane
(1) 38 ATP (2) 36 ATP
(3) 34 ATP (4) 30 ATP
28
Q.232 In prokaryotes, a glucose molecule always Q.237 Why the RQ value for fats and proteins is
yields – less than one ?
(1) 38 ATP (1) Due to less O as compared to C in fats
(2) 36 ATP and proteins
(3) 2 ATP (2) Due to incomplete breakdown of fats and

proteins
(4) 8 ATP
(3) Due to complete breakdown of fats and
Q.233 In eukaryotes, a glucose molecule forms –
proteins
(1) Always 36 ATP
(4) Due to more O in fats and proteins
(2) Always 38 ATP
Q.238 The fruits in which rate of respiration
(3) Always 38 ATP or 36 ATP increases during ripening is called –
(4) None of the above (1) Respiratory fruit (2) Climacteric fruit
Q.234 Which is the substrate generally used first of (3) Climax fruit (4) Ethylinated fruit
all in respiration ?
(1) Protein Q.239 The energy-releasing metabolic process in
(2) Fat which substrate is oxidised without an
external electron acceptor is called-
(3) Carbohydrate
[AIPMT-2010 (Pre)]
(4) Organic acid
(1) Aerobic respiration (2) Photorespiration
Q.235 The ratio of CO2 released and O2 utilised in
a definite time by a definite weight of (3) Glycolysis (4) Fermentation
respiratory substrate is called –
Q.240 In mitochondria, protons accumulate in the :
(1) Respiration
[AIPMT-2011 (Mains)]
(2) Temperature quotient
(1) Matrix
(3) Respiratory ratio (2) Outer membrane
(4) Respiratory effect (3) Inner membrane
(4) Intermembrane space
Q.236 Why RQ value of carbohydrates is one ?
(1) Carbohydrates breakdown completely in Q.241 Glycogenolysis involes [RPMT-2011]
respiration (1) conversion of sugar into glycongen
(2) Carbohydrates have almost equal C and O (2) oxidation of sugar
(3) conversion of glycogen into sugar
(3) Both of above
(4) conversion of glycogen into fat
29
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE-I
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 3 1 1 4 2 4 4 3 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 2 4 2 4
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 4 1 1 3 1 3 3 3 1 2 2 3 1 3 4 3 4 4 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 4 4 4 1 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 3 1 2 1 1
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 4 1 2 2 3 1 4 1 2 1 1 2 1 3 4 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 3 3 2 3 3 3 4 4 3 1 3 3 3 2 4 3 2 3 3 1
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 2 2 3 3 2 1 3 4 4 3 3 2 2 3 4 2 4 3 2 1
Ques. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 3 3 4 3 1 4 4 1 3 3 2 4 4 3 3 3 3 1 2 4
Ques. 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
Ans. 1 4 1 3 3 2 1 2 1 4 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 4
Ques. 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
Ans. 1 2 1 1 3 1 3 4 3 3 4 4 3 4 2 4 1 1 4 2
Ques. 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200
Ans. 1 2 3 3 3 2 4 3 1 2 2 4 1 4 2 4 1 1 4 1
Ques. 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220
Ans. 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Ques. 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240
Ans. 3 2 3 2 3 3 4 1 2 4 2 1 3 3 3 2 1 2 4 4
Ques. 241
Ans. 3
30
EXERCISE-II
Q.1 Respiratory Quotient (R.Q) is defined as - Q.8 In which of the following steps of Krebs cycle
CO2 is evolved - [West Bengal 2007]
[Uttaranchal 2004]
(1) Isocitric acid  oxalosuccinic acid
(1) vol. of O2 / vol. of CO 2
(2) Oxalosuccinic acid -ketoglutaric acid
(2) vol. of CO2 / vol. of O 2
(3) succinic acid  fumaric acid
(3) vol. of O2 / vol. of N2
(4) malic acid  oxaloacetic acid
(4) vol. of N2 / vol. of CO 2
Q.9 Which of the following enzyme is not used in
Q.2 Pyuvic acid is formed during -
Krebs’ cycle - [West Bengal 2007]
[Uttaranchal 2005]
(1) Aconitase (2) Decarboxylase
(1) Krebs cycle
(3) Aldolase (4) Furmarase
(2) Glycolysis Q.10 End produced of fermentation is -
(3) Ornithine cycle [West Bengal 2007]
(4) Calvin cycle (1) O2 (2) N2O
Q.3 The correct sequence of electron acceptor in (3) H2O (4) C2H5OH
ATP synthesis - [Uttaranchal 2005]
Q.11 Gluconeogenesis is - [West Bengal 2007]
(1) cyt a,a3 b, c (2) cyt b, c, a, a3
(1) Formation of glucose from other than
(3) cyt b, c3, a, a3 (4) cyt c, b, a, a3 carbohydrate
Q.4 Which one of the following contains copper (2) Formation of glycogen
besides iron -
(3) Breakdown of glucose
(1) Cytochrome-f (4) Formation of ammonia from glucose
(2) Cytochrome oxidase Q.12 -oxidation takes place in -
(3) Platoquinone [West Bengal 2007]
(4) Cytochrome-c1 (1) Matrix of mitochondria
Q.5 Where does formaton of acetyl Co-A form (2) Cell cytoplasm
pyruvic acid take place - [Uttaranchal 2006]
(3) Inter mitochondrial chamber
(1) Mitochondria (2) Cholroplast
(4) Ribosomes
(3) Cytoplasm (4) Golgi body
Q.13 In TCA cycle the conversion of succinyl
Q.6 The number of ATP molecules prduced by co-A to succinic acid requires -
electron transport system from kreb’s cycle [West Bengal 2007]
intermediates in a single turn is -
(1) Acetyl Co-A + GTP + ip
[Uttaranchal 2004]
(2) Acetyl Co-A + GDP + iP
(1) 11 (2) 14
(3) Co-A + GTP + iP
(3) 12 (4) 16
(4) GDP + iP
Q.7 In anaerobic respiration the number of ATP
Q.14 Yeast is used in the formation of -
molecules produced are -
[C.G. PMT 2007]
[West Bengal 2006]
(1) Ammonia (2) Alcohol
(1) 1 (2) 2
(3) Curd (4) Petrol
(3) 3 (4) 8
31
Q.15 Fermentation is represented by equation - Q.22 Sequence of cytochromes is :
[C.G. PMT 2007] [Jharkhand- 2006]
(1) C6H12O6+6O2  6CO 2+6H2O+673K cal (1) cyt. a, b,c, a3 (2) cyt. b, c, a, a3
(2) C6H12O 6  2C2H5OH+2CO 2 (3) cyt. b, a,,a3, c (4) cyt. b, c, a3, a
(3) 6CO2+ 12H2O C6H12 O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Q.23 Cytochrome is a : [Jharkhand- 2006]
light (1) Mg pyrole ring (2) Fe prophyrin ring
(4) 6CO2+ 6H2O    C H O + 6O
chlorophyl l 6 12 6 2
(3) Nucleotide (4) Alloy of nichrome
Q.16 Which of the following is formed during Q.24 Krebs cycle takes place in :
respiration ? [C.G. PMT 2004]
[Jharkhand- 2006]
(1) O2 (Oxygen)
(1) mitochondrial matrix
(2) CO2 (Carbon dioxide)
(2) Cytoplasm
(3) NO2 (NItrogen dioxide)
(3) Lysosome
(4) SO2 (Shulphur dioxide)
(4) Nucleus
Q.17 The pyruvic acid formed in glycolysis is
oxidised to CO2 and H2O in a cycle called : Q.25 Cellular respiration occurs in -

(1) Calvin cycle (1) Chloroplast (2) Golgibodies
(2) Hill reaction (3) Mitochondria (4) Nucleus
(3) Krebs cycle Q.26 Maximum amount of energy/ATP is liberated
on oxidation of : [Jharkhand- 2004]
(4) Nitrogen cycle
(1) Fats (2) Proteins
Q.18 The end product of glycolysis is :
(3) Starch (4) Vitamins
[C.G. PMT 2005]
(1) Glucose (2) Fructose Q.27 More CO2 is evolved than the volume of
oxygen consumed when the respiratory
(3) Pyruvic acid (4) Ethyl alcohol
substrate is : [Jharkhand- 2004]
Q.19 R.Q. is more than one in case of :
(1) Fat (2) Sucrose
[C.G. PMT 2005]
(3) Glucose (4) Organic acid
(1) Fat (2) Fructose
Q.28 Krebs cycle begins with the reaction :
[Jharkhand- 2004]
Q.20 Total yield in one Kerb cycle :
(1) Citric acid + Acetyl CO-A
[C.G. PMT 2006]
(2) Oxalacetic acid + Pyruvic acid
(1) 3 FADH2, 2 NADH2, 1 ATP
(3) Oxalacetic acid + Citric acid
(4) Oxaloacetate + Acetyl CO-A
(3) 2 NADH2, 1 FADH2, 2ATP
Q.29 Hydrolysis of fat yields :
(4) 3 NADH2, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP
[Jharkhand- 2004]
Q.21 How many ATP will be produced during the
production of 1 molecule of Accetyl Co-A from (1) Facts
1 molecule of pyryvic acid ? [C.G. PMT 2006] (2) Fatty acids and glycerol
(1) 3 ATP (2) 5 ATP (3) Mannose and glycerol
(3) 8 ATP (4) 38 ATP (4) Maltose and fatty acid
32
Q.30 Respiratory quotient of which diet is less than Q.38 In plants, respirtion takes place :
unity ? [Jharkhand- 2004] [Bihar- 2002]
(1) Carbohydrate (2) Fats (1) During day only
(3) Organic acid (4) Sugar (2) During night only
Q.31 Richest energy compound is : [Bihar- 2005] (3) All the 24 hours
(1) Creatinine phosphate
(4) At dusk
(2) Protein
Q.39 Glycolysis takes place in : [Bihar- 2001]
(3) carbohydrate
(1) Cytoplasm (2) Nucleus
(4) Fat
(3) Plastid (4) Miltochondria
Q.32 The stage upto which glycolysis and
Q.40 In respiration, largest amount of energy is
fermentation is common : [Bihar- 2005]
produced in - [Bihar- 2006]
(1) dihydroxy acetone
(1) anaerobic respiration
(2) 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
(2) Krebs cycle
(3) pyruvate
(3) glycolysis
(4) glucose-6-phosphate
(4) none of the above
Q.33 Respiratory quotient of carbohydrate is -
Q.41 Which of the following is not an intermediate
[Bihar- 2005] in Krebs cycle ? [Bihar- 2006]
(1) unity (2) greater than unity
(1) Acetic acid
(3) less than units (4) equal to five
(2) Succinyl coenzyme-A
Q.34 During conversion of pyruvic acid into acetyl
(3) Malic acid
Co-A, pyruvic acid is [Bihar- 2003]
(4) Citric acid
(1) oxidised (2) reduced
Q.42 The pyruvic acid acid is formed during :
(3) isomerised (4) condensed
[UP CPMT- 2001]
Q.35 In Kreb’s cycle : [Bihar- 2003]
(1) Krebs cycle
(1) ADP is converted into CO2
(2) glycolysis
(3) ornithine cycle
(3) Glucose is converted into CO2
(4) photophosphorylation
(4) Pyruvic acid is converted into ATP
Q.36 Incomplete breakdown of sugar in anaerobic Q.43 The number of ATP molecules gained during
respiration forms - [Bihar- 2003] aerobic respiration of 1 mole of glucose is :
(1) glucose and CO 2 [UP CPMT- 2001]
(2) alcohol and CO 2 (1) 12 (2) 18
(3) water and CO 2 (3) 30 (4) 38
(4) fructose and water Q.44 Alcoholic fermentation takes place in the
presence of : [UP CPMT- 2001]
Q.37 Significance of Kreb’s cycle : [Bihar- 2002]
(1) maltase
(1) Synthesis of ATP
(2) zymase
(2) Synthesis of amino acid
(3) amylase
(3) Synthesis of chlorphyll
(4) invertase
(4) All
33
Q.45 The site of EMP pathway in cell is : Q.53 How many ATP molecules released when 1
[UP CPMT- 2001] molecules of glucose is oxidised in our liver
(1) peroxisome cells ? [UP CPMT- 2005]
(2) cytoplasm (1) 36 (2) 38 (3) 2 (4) 8
(3) matrix of mitochondria Q.54 Sequence of food materials consumed during
starvation is : [UP CPMT- 2005]
(4) inner membrane of mitochondria
Q.46 Step of respiration are controlled by : (1) Carbohydrate  fats  protein
[UP CPMT- 2002] (2) Carbohydrate  proteins  fats
(1) Substrates (2) Enzymes (3) Proteins  facts  carbohydrate
(3) Hormone (4) Bile juice (4) Fats  proteins  carbohydrate
Q.47 Enzymes of electron transport system is Q.55 How many ATPs are produced during
present in : [UP CPMT- 2003] glycolysis of one molecule of glucose ?
(1) Inner mitochondrial membrane [UP CPMT- 2006]
(2) Matrix (1) 4 (2) 2 (3) 36 (4) 38
(3) Intermembranous space Q.56 Final electron acceptor in ETS is :
(4) Endoplasmic reticulum [UP CPMT- 2006]
Q.48 Which of the following connects glycolysis to (1) NAD (2) FAD
Kreb’s cycle ? [MP PMT 2001,UP CPMT- 2003]
(3) Oxygen (4) Hydrogen
(1) Acetyl CO-A
Q.57 Respiratory cycle where NADH2 are produced
(2) Ribozyme
is - [UP CPMT- 2006]
(3) Cytochrome oxidase
(1) Calvin cycle (2) Kreb’s cycle
(4) N-acetyl glucosamine
(3) EMP pathway (4) HMP shunt
Q.49 Pyruvic acid is the end product of
Q.58 Most of the enzymes which participate in
[UP CPMT- 2003]
Kreb’s cycle are found in : [MP PMT- 2001]
(1) Kreb’s cycle
(1) Matrix of mitochondria
(2) Electron transport system
(2) Inner membrane of mitochondria
(3) Phtosynthesis
(4) Glycolysis (3) Outer membrane of mitochondria
Q.50 Which of the following accepts terminal (4) Stroma of chloroplast

electron during aerobic respiration ? Q.59 The connecting link between glycolysis and
[UP CPMT- 2003] Krebs cycle is : [MP PMT- 2001]
(1) Molecular O2 (2) Molecular H2 (1) Acetyl CO A (2) CO Q
(3) Molecular CO 2 (4) NADOH2 (3) Conenzyme (4) COA
Q.51 Glycolysis occurs in : [UP CPMT- 2004] Q.60 The process of oxidative phosphorylation
(1) Cytoplasm (2) Nucleus takes place in : [MP PMT- 2002]
(3) Mitochondria (4) Both ‘a’ and ‘c’ (1) Mitochondria (2) Chloroplasts
(3) Ribosomes (4) Cytoplasm
Q.52 Which one of the following is the first step of
glycolysis ? [UP CPMT- 2004] Q.61 Glycolysis is the conversion of :
(1) Breakdown of glucose [MP PMT- 2002]
(1) Glucose to glycogen
(2) Phosphorylation of glucose
(2) Glycogen to glucose
(3) Conversion of gloucose into fructose
(3) Glucose to pyruvic acid
(4) Dehydrogenation of glucose
(4) Glucose to citric acid
34
Q.62 Anaerobic respiration takes place in : Q.68 ATP stands for which of the following -
[MP PMT- 2002] (1) Adenine tetraphosphate [MP PMT- 2004]
(1) Ribosome (2) Nucleus (2) Adenine triphosphate
(3) Cytoplasm (4) Vacuole (3) Adenosine diphosphate
Q.63 Which of the following is the product of (4) Adenosine triphosphate
glucose fermentation by yeast ? Q.69 Glycolysis occurs in : [MP PMT- 2005]
[MP PMT- 2003] (1) Vecuoles (2) Nucleolus
(1) C6H12O 6 (2) C2H5OH (3) Mitochondria (4) Cytoplasm
(3) (C6H10O5)n (4) CH2OH Q.70 The number of ATP produced during the
Q.64 Fermentation is an : [MP PMT- 2003] production of 1 molecule of acetyl CoA from 1
(1) Anaerobic respiration molecule of Pyruvic acid is : [MP PMT- 2006]
(2) Incomplete oxidation (1) 3 ATP (2) 8 ATP
(3) Excertory process (3) 36 ATP (4) 38 ATP
(4) None of the above Q.71 The energy produced by one ATP molecule
Q.65 Organelles which are regarded as ‘’Power is : [MP PMT- 2006]
house of the cell and in which the oxidative (1) 7.6 kcal (2) 12 kcal
reactions of the respiratory process takes (3) 20 kcal (4) 100 kcal
place are known as : [MP PMT- 2004] Q.72 W hich of the following show anaerobic
(1) Chloroplast (2) Ribosomes respiration : [MP PMT- 2006]
(3) Mitochondria (4) Endoplasmic reticulum (1) Earthwarm (2) Rabbit
Q.66 In which of the following, respiration in (3) Echinoderms (4) Tapeworms
absence of oxygen also takes place : Q.73 It is belived that the organisms first inhabited
[MP PMT- 2004] earth’s sufarce were : [MP PMT- 2006]
(1) Man (2) Potato (1) Autotrophs (2) Mixotrophs
(3) Yeast (4) Spirogya (3) Chemoautotrophs (4) Heterotrophs
Q.67 CO2 is liberated during : [MP PMT- 2004] Q.74 Pyruv ic acid bef ore combining with
(1) Ascent of sap (2) Respiration oxaloacetic acid of Krebs cycle, becomes :
(3) Photosynthesis (4) Transpiration (1) Citric acid (2) Acetoacetic acid
(3) Cis-aconitic acid (4) Acetyl CoA
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE-II
Q u e s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A n s. 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 3 4 1 3 4 2 2 2 3 3 4 4
Q u e s. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A n s. 1 2 2 1 3 1 4 4 2 2 4 3 1 1 2 2 4 3 1 2
Q u e s. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
A n s. 1 2 4 2 2 2 1 1 4 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 1
Q u e s. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74
A n s. 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 4 4 1 1 4 4 4
35
EXERCISE-III
These questions consist of two statements each, Q.6 Assertion :- Enzymes of Krebs cycle are endo
printed as Assertion and Reason. While answer- enzymes.
ing these Questions are required to choose any Reason:- All the enzymes of Kreb’s cycle
one of the following four responses. function inside the cell
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are True & the
Reason is a correct explanation of the As-
Q.7 Asserti on :- Kerbs cycle is called as
sertion.
amphibolic pathway of respiration
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are True but
Reason is not a correct explanation of the Reason:- Krebs cycle takes place in cytosol
Assertion.
(3) If Assertion is True but the Reason is False. Q.8 Assertion :- Pyruvic acid can not enter in
mitochondria
(4) If both Assertion & Reason are false.
Reason:- Pyruvic acid is 4-Carbon compund.
Q.1 Assertion :- In the process of alcoholic

Q.9 Assertion :- Fermentation is an incomplete
fermentation, the hexose molecule is converted
oxidation of substrate outside the cell.
in starch.
Reason:- In Alocholic fermentation the hexose
Reason:- Alcoholic fermentation is aerobic.
converts in to glucose & fructose
Q.2 Assertion :- Respiration occurs both in

Q.10 Assertion :- Glyoxilate cycle is an example of
prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells.
gluconeogenesis.
Reason:- In eukaryotic cells respiration in only
Reason:- Glyoxilate cycle operates in stroma
aerobic.
of chloroplast.
Q.3 Assertion :- Pentose phosphate pathway is

Q.11 Assertion :- Only 2 molecules of ATP gener-
also known as cytosolic decarboxylation.
ates in anaerobic respiration
Reason:- All the carbon dioxide is released in
Reason:- Anaerobic respiration is incomplete
cytosal during this pathway.
oxidation of respiratory substrate
Q.4 Assertion :- Aerobic (oxygenated) atmosphere

Q.12 Assertion :- 4-carbon intermediate of Kreb’
on earth is maintained due to the action of
s-cycle is Erythrose-P
photosynthetic organisms
Reason:- Kreb’s-cycle occurs in night
Reason:- Cyanobacteria are non oxygenic form
of plants
Q.13 Assertion :- Lactic acid is produced anaerobi-
cally in human muscles
Q.5 Assertion :- Value of R.Q. is more than one
during the germination of fatty seeds. Reason:- The reaction is catalysed by lacto-
bacillus
Reason:- More CO2 liberated than absorbed O2
in fat-oxidation.
36
Q.14 Assertion :- Anaerobic respiration gives only Q.22 Assertion :- Succinyl CoA is the precursor of
2 ATP. most pf porphyrin ring containing compounds
Reason:- Only one FADH2 reacts at ETS in Reason:- Chlorophyll is synthesised from suc-
anaerbic respiration cinyl Co-A.
Q.15 Assertion :- Glycolysis is also known as

Q.23 Assertion :- Reduction of NAD in glycolysis is
oxidative anabolism.
energy conserving step.
Reason:- Glucose splits during this and some
Reason:- Energy neither be created nor be
intermediates involve in anabolism
destroyed.
Q.16 Assertion :- Anaerobic respiration occurs only

in fungi. Q.24 Assertion :- Glycolysis is common between
Reason:- Fungi are green plants. aerobic & anaerobic respiration.
Reason:- Glycolysis can takes place in pres-
Q.17 Assertion :- HMP-shunt is alternate of Glucose ence and absence of O2
oxidation.
Reason:- This take place in cytoplasm. Q.25 Asserti on :- Lactobacillus Perf oms
fermentation
Q.18 Assertion :- Kreb-cycle is called as TCA-cycle. Reason:- Lactobacillus is an anaerobic bacteria
Reason:- First formed compound of Krebs
cycle is tri carboxylic acid.
Q.26 Assertion :- Oxidative decarboxylation occurs
in mitochondria.
Q.19 Assertion :- Respiration is a vital process.
Reason:- Link reaction and Kreb’s cycle oc-
Reason:- Respiration is characteristic of only
curs in mitochondria.
living cells.
Q.20 Assertion :- Glycolysis is common step in Q.27 Assertion :- Formation of Acetyl CoA in mito-
aerobic & anaerobic respiration. chondria is known as link reaction.
Reason:- Glycolysis splits the pyruvate in to Reason:- Acetyl CoA is a compound which links
H2O & CO2 the glycolysis & TCA-cycle
Q.21 Assertion :- HMP shunt is also known as

Q.28 Assertion :- HMP shunt is known as oxidative
Reductive pentose phosphate pathway.
decarbroxylation.
Reason:- Reduction of pentose sugar ribulose
Reason:- HMP shunt involves removal of H+/e
occurs during HMP shunt.
and CO2
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE-III
Q u e s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A n s. 4 3 1 3 4 1 3 4 3 3 1 4 3 3 1 4 2 1 1 3
Q u e s. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
A n s. 4 2 2 1 2 1 1 1
37
Neutral Control & Coordinations
Topic Page No.
Nervous System 02 - 35
Nervous System Exercise - I 36 - 47

PMT Exam Exercise - II 48 - 56
Answer key 59 - 59
Syllabus
Nervous system
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NERVOUS SYSTEM
NERVE IMPULSE INDUCTION : 
DEPOLARIZATION
+
MEMBRANE POTENTIAL IN (Na IONS IN)
ACTION
+30 POTENTIAL
REVERSAL OF POLARIZATION
0
MILLI VOLTS (mV)
REPOLARIZATION
(K+ IONS OUT)
HYPERPOLARIZATION
(REFRACTORY PERIOD)
-70 RESTING
POTENTIAL
(POLARIZED STATE)
- 70 mV
0 1 2 3 4 5
TIME IN MILLISECONDS (mSEC)
Na+ channel Channel
+
Na flows inward
(a) Resting Potential (b) Depolarisation begins

K+ flows
outward
(d) Repolarisation (c) Action Potential

completes peaks

The resting membrane potential in resting phase :
 The potential difference (a charge) which exists across the cell surface membrane of nerve cells is always,
negative inside the cell with respect to the outside. The membrane is said to be polarised.
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 The potential difference across the membrane at rest is called the resting membrane potential and this
is about – 70mV (the negative sign indicates that inside the cell is negative with respect to the outside).
(Range  – 60 to – 85 mV)
 The resting potential is maintained by active transport and passive diffusion of ions.
 Resting membrane potential is maintained by the active transport of ions against their electrochemical
gradient by sodium potassium pump.
There are carrier protein located in the cell surface membrance. They are driven by energy supplied by
ATP and couple the removal of three sodium ions from the axon with the uptake of two potassium ions.
The rate of diffusion is determined by the permeability of the axon membrane to the ion.
Potassium ions have a membrane permeability greater than that of sodium ions. Therefore potassium
ions loss from the axon is greater than sodium ion gain. This leads to a net loss of potassium ions from
the axon, and the production of negative charge within the axon (organic anions).
Due to active transport (mainly) and diffusion process, positive charge is more outside and negative
charge is more inside.
Outer covering of axolemma is positively charged and inner membrane of axolemma is negatively charged.
+ +
Sodium Na and K ion
Voltage gated channels closed channels
Potassium pump
+ + +
2K 3Na K Na
Depolarisation and Action potential :

Once the event of depolarization has occured, a nerve impulse or spike is initiated.
Action potential is another name of nerve impulse.
This is generated by a change in the sodium ion channels. These channels, and some of the potassium
ion channels, are known as voltage gated channel, meaning they can be opened or closed with change in
voltage.
In resting state these channels are closed due to binding of Ca++.
An action potential is generated by sudden opening of the sodium gates. Opening of gates increases the
permeability of the axon membrane to sodium ions which enter by diffusion.
This increases the number of positive ions inside the axon.
A change of –10mV in potential difference from RMP through influx is sufficiently significant to
trigger a rapid influx of Na+ ions leading to generation of action potential.
This change of –10 mV is called as threshold stimulus.
At the point where membrane (Axolemma) is completely depolarised due to rapid influx of Na+ ions, the
negative potential is first cancelled out and becomes 0 (Depolarisation). This axolemma is called as excited
membrane or depolarised membrane.
Due to further entry of Na+, the membrane potential "over shoots" beyond the zero and becomes positive
upto + 30 to + 45mV.
This "over shoot" peak corresponds to maximum concentration of sodium inside the axon. This potential is
called as action potential or spike potential. In this state, the inner surface of axolemma becomes positively
charged and outer surface becomes negatively charged.
+
Voltage gated Na channel opens
+
Na floods into neuron + +
Na and K ion
+ channels
Na
+ +
K Na
Repolarisation :
 After a fraction of second i.e., 0.5 m.sec, the sodium gates closed, Depolarisation of the axon membrane
causes potassium gates to open, potassium therefore diffuse out of cell.
 Since potassium is positively charged, this makes the inside of cell less positive, or more negative and
the process of repolarization or return to the original resting potential begins.
 The repolarization period returns the cell to its resting potential (–70 mV). The neuron is now prepared
to receive another stimulus and conduct it in the same manner.
 At this point membrane show hyper polarization.
 Sodium pump starts working to maintain the normal resting membrane potential by expelling Na+ and
in take of K+.
The time taken for restoration of resting potential is caled refractory period, because during this
periods the membrane is incapable of receiving & conduicting another impulse.
 Nerve impulse travels as action potential which passes along axon as a wave of depolarization.
 The whole process of depolarisation and repolarisation is very fast. It takes only about 1 to 5 milli
second (ms).
+
Voltage gated K channel opens
+
K exists neuron + +
Sodium Sodium voltage gated Na and K ion
potassium pump Channel closed channels
+ + + + +
2K 3Na K K Na
Physiology of Nerve
Process Na+- Passaive Na + K+ Potential with value Inside

K+ diffusion VGC VGC Charge
pump
Polarisation   × × RMP (–60 to –85 mv) Negative
Depolarisation AP (overshoot value) Positive
×   ×
(+ 30 to + 45 mv)
 

Repolarisation   ×  –
Negative
  
Hyperpolarisation  ×  – 90 mV
 Negative
Open/Operating   Closed  ×
Saltatory conduction of nerve impuse :

 This type of conduction occur in myelinated fibre. Myelin is fatty material with a high electrical
resistance and act as electrical insulator in the same way as the rubber and plastic covering of electrical
wiring.
– The combined resistance of the axon membrane and myelin sheath is very high, but where breaks in the
myelin sheath occur known as nodes of Ranvier, the resistance to current flow between the axoplasm
and the fluid outside the cell is low. It is only at these nodes local circuits are setup.
– This means, in effect that the action potential jump from node to node and passes along the myelinated
axon faster as compared to the series of small local circuits in a non-myelinated axon. This type of
conduction is called saltatory conduction.
– Leakage of ions takes place only in nodes of Ranvier and less energy is required for saltatory
conduction.
Synaptic Transmission
Telodenria of one neutron form synapse with dendron of next neuron.

It is the junction between two neurons where information is transferred from one neutron to another
neuron but no protoplasmic connection.
Synapse = Pre synaptic knob + synaptic cleft + post synaptic membrane
– Telodendria membrane is called pre synaptic membrane & membrane of dendron of other neuron
called as post synaptic membrane. Space between pre and post synaptic membranes is called synaptic
cleft.
– When the AP develop in pre synaptic membrane. it becomes permeable for Ca++.
– Ca++ enter in pre synaptic membrane & vesicles burst due to the stimulation by Ca++ and causes release
of neurotransmitters (Ach) in synaptic cleft.
– Ach reaches the post synaptic membrane via synaptic cleft & bind to receptors. It develops excitatory
post synaptic potential (EPSP). EPSP develop due to opening of Na+ gatted channnels.
– Cholinesterase enzyme is found in the synaptic fluid of synapse.

– This enzyme decomposes the Ach into choline & Acetate.
– Neuro inhibitory transmitter (GABA) binds with post synaptic membrane to open the Cl– gated channels
and hyperpolarization of neuron occurs. Now the potential is called inhibitory post synaptic potential
(IPSP) & further nerve conduction is blocked.
Physiological properties of nerve fibre are detected by cathode ray oscilloscope :
Type of synapse :
(i) Axodendritic – b/w axon & dendron
(ii) Axosomatic – b/w axon & cyton
(iii) Axoaxonic – b/w axon & axon
SYNAPSE :
Electrical Chemical
Conduction Fast Slow
Synaptic cleft Upto 0.2 nm Upto 20 nm
Neutrotransmitter Absent Present
Synaptic delay Absent Present
Blocking Can not be controlled Controlled by neutrotransmitter
Name synapse was proposed by Charles Sherrington
Neuron conducts the impulse in the form of electro chemical wave.

– Conduction of nerve impulse is unidirectional.
It follow all or none law. Magnitude of response will always be same irrespective of strength
of stimulus above threshold stimulus.
– Velocity of nerve impuse  Diameterof neuron.
– In mammals, the velocity of nerve impulse is 100 to 130 meter/sec.
– This velocity is affected by physical & chemical factor, such as pressure, cold, heat,
chloroform and ether etc.
NERVOUS SYSTEM :
– System which regulate the various activities of the body through nerve. impulses is called the nervous
system. Through this system the messages are transmitted at a faster rate.
 – The nervous – system controls and also co-ordinates the various activities of the organs of the animals.
– Whole nervous – system of human being is derived from embryonic Ectoderm.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM :

– It includes the brain and the spinal-cord. These are formed from the neural-tube which develops from
the ectoderm after the gastrula stage of embryo.
Development of CNS :
It develops from neural tube in intrauterine life (I.U.L.). Anterior part of neural tube develops into brain
while caudal part of neutral tube develops into spinal cord.
Approximately 70-80% part of brain develops by 2 year of age & complete development is achieved in
6 years of age & spinal cord develops completely in 4 to 5 years of age.
BRAIN :
It is situated in cranial box which is made up of 1 frontal bone, 2 parietal bone, 2 temporal bone, 1
occipital bone. The weight of brain of an adult man is 1400 gm and of female is 1250 gm.
BRAIN MENINGES :
Brain is covered by three membrances of connective tissue termed as meninges or menix.
Cranial venous sinus
Endosteal
Duramater
Arachnoid villi
Meningeal
Subdural space
Arachnoid
Subarachnoid
Plamater
space
Cerebral cortex
Meningeal layer
(1) Duramater :
This is the first and the outermost membrane which is thick, very strong and non-elastic. It is made up
of collagen fibres. This membrane is attached with the innermost surface of the cranium.
– It is double layer – outer Endosteal layer which is closely attached with inner most surface of carnium
& no space is found between skull & Duramater (No Epidural space).
Inner meningeal layer which is related with other meninges of brain.
Both are vascular.
Generally both layers are fused with each other, but at some places these are separated from one another
& from a sinus called cranial venous sinus. These sinuses are filled with venous blood.
(2) Arachnoid :
It is middle, thin and delicate membrane, made up of connective tissue.
It is found only in mammals.
It is non vascular layer.
Infront of cranial venous sinus, it becomes folded, these folds called Arachnoid villi.
These villi reabsorb the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from sub arachnoid space & pour it into cranial
venous sinuses.
(3) Piamater :
It is Innermost, thin and transparent membrane, made up of connective tissue.
Dense network of blood capillaries are found in it, so it is highly vascular.
It is firmly adhere to the brain.
Piamater & arachnoid layer at some places fuse together to form leptomeninges.
Piamater merges into sulci of brain & densely adhere to it.
At some places it directly merges in the brain and called telachoroidea.
Telachoroidea form the choroid plexus in the ventricles of brain.
Sub Dural Space :
Space between duramater & arachnoid. It is filled with serous fluid.
Sub Arachnoid Space :
Space between Arachanoid & Piamater is filled with C.S.F.
Cranial nerves also pass through this space.
Menigitis : any inflammation of menix is called as meningitis. It may be caused by viruses, bacteria or
protozoa.
DIVISIONS OF HUMAN BRAIN : Human brain divided into three parts -

 Fore brain – Cerebrum, Diencephalon.
 Mid brain – Consist of many groups of nerve cells called "Nuclei".
 Hind Brain – Pons. Cerebellum, Medulla.
During embryonic stage, brain develops from three hollow vesicles -
Telencephalon [Cerebrum]
Forebrain develops from prosencephalon.
Diencephalon
Mid brain develops from mesencephalon.
Metencephalon
Hind brain develops from rhombencephalon (Pons, Cerebellum)
Myelencephalon
(Medulla oblongata (M.O.))
Central sulcus or rolandic sulcus
Lateral sulcus (sylvian sulcus)
Parietal lobe
Frontal lobe
Parietooccipital sulcus
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
DORSAL SURFACE OF CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE
Human brain inside view showing location of certain functions

One pair of olfactory lobes are small spherical & solid in human brain.
No ventricle is found in it.
Both olfactory lobe are separate with each other & are embedded into ventral surface of the both Frontal
lobe of cerebral Hemisphere.
Olfactory centre is situated in temporal lobe.
Functions : It is supposed to be centre of smelling power.
Its size is small in mammals comparatively because most of its parts becomes a part of cerebrum some
animals like sharks and dogs have well developd olfactory lobes.
CEREBRUM :
– It is first & most developed part of brain.
– It makes 2/3 part of total brain.
– Cerebrum consist of two cerebral hemispheres, on the dorsal surface. G longitudinal groove is present
between two cerebral hemispheres called as median fissure. Both the cerebral hemispheres partially
connected with each other by curvede thick nerve fibres called corpus callosum.
– Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes – Anterior, middle, posterior and lateral.
Anterior lobe is also called frontal lobe (largest lobe). Middle lobe is also called parietal lobe.
S.No. Name of Area Location Relation or Analysis

1. Prefrontal cortex Frontal lobe Seat of intelligence, knowledge, creative
ideas, ability to abstract, memory.
(organ of mind).
2. Premotor area Frontal lobe – Written centre
– Associated Movement of eye. head &
body
– Control complex movement of jaw,
tongue, pharynx, larynx
3. Motor area Frontal lobe Analysis of all type of voluntary muscle
4. Frontal Eye field Frontal lobe Responsible for conjugate movement of
eye. Opening & closing of eye lid
5. Broca's Area Frontal lobe Analysis for speak if injury to this region
In Rt handed person present of Lt. side inability to speak
In Lt handed person present of Rt. side (aphasia) even though muscle concerned
(Motor speech area) are no paralysed
6. Auditory area Temporal Analysis for sound.
7. Olfactory Temporal or Analysis for smell.
Hippocampal gyrus
8. Wernicke's area Temporal Analysis for language
(Sensory area of speech) Sensory analysis for speech
9. Gustatory area Parietal Analysis for Taste
10. Somesthestic area Parietal Analysis for touch, pressure, pain,
knowledge about position in space taking
in information from environment etc.
11. Angular gyrus Parietal Sansory analysis for writing
12. Occipital area Occipital Analysis for vision
Central sulcus separates frontal lobe from parietal lobe. Lateral lobe or temporal lobe is separated from
frontal lobe & parietal lobe by incomplete sulcus called lateral sulcus.
Posterior lobe is also called occipital lobe, it is separated from parietal lobe by a sulcus called parieto
occiptal sulcus.
In right handed person, left hemisphere is dominant while in left handed person right hemisphere is
dominant.
Many ridges & grooves are found on dorsal surface of cerebral hemisphere. Ridges are known as gyri
while grooves are called sulci. These cover the 2/3 part of cerebrum.
 Gyri & sulci are more developed in human heing so human being are most intelligent living beings.
mental age
Intelligency quotienent (I.Q) = × 100
chrono log ical age
Idiot – 0–24 %
imbecile – 25–49 %
Moron – 50–69 %
Borderline – 70–79 %
Low normal – 80–89 %
Normal – 90–109 %
Superior – 110–119 %
Very superior – 120–139 %
Genius – 140–More
Corpus callosum :
It is largest commissure of Brain.
Exclusive feature of mammals.
Curved thick band of white nerve fibre situated between two cerebral hemispehre in the median fissure.
Anterior truncated part of corpus callosum is called Genu while posterior truncated part is called
splenium.
An oblique band is formed by body of corpus callosum & it goes towards Genu called fornix.
A small cavity is developed enclosed by callosum, Genu & fornix called as Vth ventricle or
pseudocoel. This ventricle is covered by a thin membrane called as septum lucidum.
Functions : It is the most developed part in mammals.
It is the most important part of brain because it controls and regulates different parts of brain.
This is the centre of conscious senses, will power, voluntary movements, knowledge, memory, speech
and thinking, reasoning etc.
Different sense organs send impulses here, and in this part of brain analysis and coordination of
impulses is done then messages are transferred according to the reactions through voluntary muscles.
All the voluntary actions are controlled by cerebral hemispheres.
Diencephalon :
It is small and posterior part of fore brain. It is covered by cerebrum. It consists of Thalamus,
hypothalamus, Epithalamus.
(i) Thalamus : It forms upper lateral walls of Diencephalon.
It forms 80 % part of Diencephalon.
It acts as a relay centre.
Except olfactory sense. It receives all sensory impulses from all part of body & these impulses are send
to the cerebral cortex.
(ii) Hypothalamus : It forms lower lateral wall of Diencephalon.
A cross like structure is found on anterior surface of hypothalamus called as optic chiasma.
Pituitary body is attachd to middle part of hypothalamus by infundibulum.
(iii) Corpus mammillare or Corpus albicans or mammilary body.
It is found on the posterior part of hypothalamus.
It is a character of mammalian brain.
It integrates and controls the visceral activities.
The hypothalamus, through its connection with brain stem, maintains homeostasis and the body's
internal equilibrium, specialising in involuntary behaviour control.
The nuclei in it signal the body to eat, drink, get angry, keep cool, and make love and so on.
Hyothalamus organises behaviour related to survival of species : fighting, feeding, feeling and mating.
It keeps body temperature of roughtly 37ºC by means of a complex thermostat system.
It also influences respiration and heartbeat and sends out signals to correct them when they are wrong.
Through connections with the pituitary glans, the hypothalamus controls growth and sexual behaviour.
Epithalamus :
It forms the roof of diencephalon. Pineal body is found in epithalamus.
Functions : Its dorsal side is called epithalamus in which pineal bod is situated, that controls the sexual
maturity of animal.
– Thalamus : Act as relay centre for sensory stimulation.
In lower animal, Cerebral cortex is not developed then Thalamus act as sensory centre.
It is related with RAS. (Reticulate Activating system)
It is also act as limbic part.
– Functions of Hypothalamus :
(1) Thermoregulation
(2) Behaviour and emotion
(3) Endocrine control
(4) Biological clock system
(5) ANS control.
(6) Function or working daily rutein eg. Hungar, thirst, sleep, a wake. Defaecation, micturition, Love,
Hate sexual intercousse, entertainment, sportsek.
These are found centres of animal feelings/Emotions like sleep, anger, intercourse, hate, love, affection,
and temperature control emotional, pain, hunger, thirst and satisfaction in the hypothalamus.
– The regulatory hormones of hypothalamus control the acitivty of endocrine glands.
– Modern scientists suppose that hypothalamus is the "master gland" not the pituitary.
– Optic chiasma found in the hypothalamus carry optic impulses received from eyes to the cerebral
hemispheres.
– Animal becomes blind if this part is destroyed by chance.
Basal Nuclei :
Situated in the wall of cerebral hemisphere.
Corpus striatum (Caudate nucleus + lentiform nucleus) + Amygdaloid body + claustrum.
Caudate nucleus Claustrum
Lentiform nuclei
Amygdaloid body
(Complex)
BASAL NUCLEI
Function :
(1) It maintains muscle tone.
(2) It regulates automatic associated movement like swinging of arms during walking.
(3) In lower animals, when cerebral cortex is not developed basal nuclei acts as motor centre
Lesion in basal nuclei leads to a disease called as parkinsonism (Rigidity, Tremor at rest, mask like
face).
Reticular activating system :
It is special sensory fibre which is situated in Brain stem & further go into Thalamus. It is related with
consiousness, alertness & awakening. Therefore it is also called gate keeper of consiousness.
Limbic system : It is visible like a wish bone. tuning fork or liplike.

Limbic lobe (area of temporal Lobe)
+
Hippocampus + Hypothalamus including septum + Part of Thalamus + Amygdaloid complex.
Function of Limbic system :
(1) Behaviour, Emotion, rage and anger (Hypthalamus, amygdaloid body)

(2) Recent memory & short term memory converts into long term memory (Hipopocampal lobe)
(3) Food habit (4) Sexual Behaviour (5) Olfaction
(Hypothalamus) (Hypothalamus) (Hippocampal lobe and Limbic lobe)
Mid brain :
It is small & contracted part of brain.
Anterior part of mid brain contains two longitudinal myelinated nerve fibres peduncles called Cerebral
peduncles or crus cerebri or crura cerebri.
On the posterior part of mid brain are found four spherical projection called colliculi or optic lobes.
Four colliculi are collectively called as corpora quadrigemina (2 upper & 2 lower).
Only 2 colliculi or optic lobes are found in mid brain of frog called as corpora bigemina.
Functions :
– Four optic lobes or colliculus present, superior optic lobes are the main centres of pupillary light
reflexes. Inferior optic lobes are related accoustic (sound) reflex action.
– Crura cerebri controls the muscles of limbs.
Hind Brain :
3 Parts – (1) Pons (2) Cerebellum (3) Medulla Oblongata (M.O.)

(1) Pons or Pons varolli :
It is small spherical projection, which is situated below the midbrain & upper side of the M.O.
It consists of many transverse & longitudinal nerve fibres.
Transverse nerve fibres connect with cerebellum.
Longitudinal fibres connect cerebrum to M.O.
Functions : It regulates the breathing reation through pneumotaxic centre.
(2) Cerebellum :
Made up of 5 lobe [2 lateral lobe, 1 vermis and 2 floccular lobes.
Both lateral lobes becomes enlarged & spherical in shape, so lateral lobe of cerebellum are also called as
cerebellar heimisphere.
Due to this reason, regulation & Coordination of voluntary muscle is more developed as compared to
other animals.
In terminal part of vermis, one pair of floccular lobes are found.
Three cerebellar peduncle are formed.
Superior cerebellar peduncle attach with mid brain.
Middle cerebellar peduncle attach with pons.
Inferior cerebellar peduncle attach with M.O.
Functions : Impulses are received from different voluntary muscles and joints and then controlling of
the their movements and their regulation and coordination accordingly.
Maintains the body balance.
Persons which take alcohol in excess, their cerebellum gets affected, as a result of that they can not
maintain their balance and their walking is disturbed.
Thus It is related with fine & skillful voluntary movement & also related with body balance.
equillibrium, posture & tone.
(3) Medulla Oblongata (M.O.) :
Posterior part of brain is conical in shape.

– In this respiratory, cardiovascular and vomiting centres are present
– Vagus nerve originates from here.
– Roof is thin, non-nervous and forms posterior choroid plexus.
– There are present three pores below plexus.
– One pair of posterior pere called foramen of lushka and a single median formen of megendie
– These poses join external and internal parts of brain.
– Most of the sensory and motor nerves cross at medulla, and therefore right cerebral hemisphere
controls left half of body and left cerebral hemisphere controls body's right half.
Functions : It is the most important part of brain which controls all the involuntary activities of the
body e.g. heart beats, respiration, metabolism, secretory actions of different cells rate of engulfing food
etc.
It acts as conduction path for all impulses between spinal cord and remaining portions of brain.
– It is also concerned with Reflex-Sneezing reflex, salivation reflex, coughing reflex, swallowing
reflex, vomiting reflex, yawning reflex.
Mid brain, pons &medulla are situated in one axis and called as Brain stem.
Internal Structure of Brain
L.S. OF BRAIN
– Except Midbrain, Cerebellum, Pons & olfactory lobe complete brain is internally hollow. Its cavity
is lined by ependymal epithelium. (Ciliated Columnar Epithelium)
– Cavities of brain are known as ventricles, filled with cerebrospinal fluid (C.S.F.).
– In Rabbit, Cavity of olfactory lobe is hollow called as 1st ventricle or Rhinocoel. Both Rhinocoel
continue in cavity of cerbral hemisphere, know as 2 nd ventricle or paracoel or latealventricle.
– On the posterior side, both paracoel combine with each other & open into cavity of Diencephalon
through an aperture known as Foramen of Monro.
– Cavity of diencephalon is known as 3rd ventricle or Diocoel.
– A tent shape space or cavity present between anterior pons, medulla & posterior cerebellum called IVth
ventricle.
– 3rd and 4th ventricle are connected with each other through a hollow tube known as Iter or Aqueduct of
sylvius. IVth ventricle continues in the metacoel and metacoel continues in the cavity of spinal cord
called neurocoel or central canal.
– One aperture is found on dorsal surface of metacoel known as foramen of Magendie. Two apertures
are found on lateral sides of metacoel know as Formen of Luschka [1–1].
HISTOLOGY OF BRAIN :
G - Gray matter
G W W- White matter
1 W Cerebrum 2 G
Diencephalon Spinal cord
Cerebellum Brain stem
– On dorsal surface of cerebral hemisphere, gray matter becomes more thick, this thick layer of gray
matter is known as Cerebral cortex/Neopallium/Pallium.
– Outer part of cerebellum is made up of gray matter while inner part is white matter.
– White matter projects outside & forms a branched tree like structure known as Arbor Vitae.
Choroid plexus : Tela choroidea (Part of Piamater)

+
Blood capillaries + Ependymal Epithelium
Site : Two major plexuses in Lateral ventricles.
2 minor plexuses in IIIrd ventricle
1 minor plexus in IVth ventricle
Function : Formation of CSF by secretion of plasma
Sometime (Congenitally or infection) Iter or aqueduct become blocked therefore improper circulation of
CSF or blockage of CSF circulation occur and Intracranial pressure increases, head becomes enlarged,
this condition called Hydrocephalus.
Cerebrospinal-fluid (CSF) :
This fluid is clear and alkaline in nature just like lymph.
It has protein (Albumin, globluin), glucose, cholesterol, urea, bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides of
Na, K. Protein & cholesterol concentration is lesser than plasma & Cl– conc. is higher than
plasma.
– In a healthy man, in 24 hrs, 500 ml of C.S.F. is formed & absorbed by arachnoid villi. At a time total
volume of C.S.F. is 150 ml.
– CSF is present in ventricle of brain, subarachnoid space of brain & spinal cord.
Formation : Mainly in choroid plexus of lateral ventricles, minor quantity is formed in IIIrd ventricle &
IVth ventricle.
Collection of CSF for any investigation is done by lumbar puncture (L.P.). It is done at L3–L4 region.
Spinal anaesthesia is also given by L.P.
Functions of C.S.F. :
– Protection of Brain : It act as shock absorbing medium and work as cushion.
– It provides buoyancy to the brain, so net weight of the brain is reduced from about 1.4 kg to about
0.18 kg.
– Excretion of waste products.
– Endocrine medium for the brain to transport hormones to different areas of the brain.
Circulation : From the ventricles CSF comes into subarachnoid space through foramen of Magendie
& foramen of Luschka.
In subarachnoid space, CSF is absorbed by arachnoid villi which pour it into cranial venous sinus. From
venous sinus CSF enters in blood circulation.
Choroid plexus  Lateral ventricle  Foramen of Monro
Diocoel
Iter
C.S.F. Circulation
IVth ventricle
Metacoel
Blood Cranial  Arachnoid  Arachnoid  Foramen of Magendie

circulation venous villi space and Foramen of Luschka
sinus
SPINAL CORD :
– Medulla oblongata comes out from foramen of magnum & continues in neural canal of vertebral
column, the continued part of MO is known as Spinal cord.

It extends from base of skull to lower vertebra of lumbar. (L1)
– Its upper part is wide while lower most part is narrow known as conus-medullaris.
Conus medullaris present upto L1 vertebra.

Terminal part of conus medullaris extend in the form of thread like structure made up of fibrous
connective tissue caled filum terminale.
– Filum terminale is non-nervous part
Metacoel also continues in spinal cord where it is known as neurocoel or central canal.
– Spinal cord is also covered by Duramater, Arachnoid & piamater.
A narrow space is found between vertebra & duramater known as Epidural space.
Length of spinal cord is 45 cm.
Length of filum terminale is 20 cm.
Weight of spinal cord is approximately 35 gm.
Transverse section of spinal cord
– The outer-part of spinal cord is of white matter while inner-part contain gray matter.
– On the dorso-lateral & ventro-lateral surface of spnal cord, the gray matter projects outside & forms the
one pair dorsal & ventral horn.
– Due to formation of dorsal & ventral horn white matter is divided in 4 segments & each segment is
known as Funiculus of white column.
– Dorsal & ventral horn continue in a tube like (bundle of never fibres) structure known as root of Dorsal
& Ventral Horn. In root of dorsal horn, ganglia is present called Dorsal root ganglia.
– Both roots are combined with each other at the place of intervertebral foramen.
– Sensory neurons are found in the dorsal root ganglia which is pseudounipolar in nature.
– Motor neurons are found in the ventral roots. Cyton is found in ventral horn while its dendrons are
embedded into gray matter of spinal cord where they make synapse with axon of sensory neuron.
– Axon of motor neuron extends upto interverbral foramen.
– Both sensory & motor nerve fibers combindly come out from intervertebral foramen & form spinal
nerve.
– In some part of spinal cord on both side.
– Lateral horns are also found & lateral horn cell, are found in these horn, there nerve fibre come through
ventral root & futher come into intervertebral foramen. These fibre called Ramus communicans.
– The group of spinal nerve at the terminal end (L1) of spnial cord form tail like structure called cauda
equina (horse tail).
– Ramus communicans foms ANS.
– Spnial nerve & its branches are mixed type except Ramus communicans.
FUNCTIONS OF SPINAL CORD :
(1) It acts as bridge between brain & organs of the body.
(2) It also provides relay path for the impulses coming from brain.
(3) Spinal cord regulates and conducts the reflex action.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM :

– All the nerves arising from brain and spinal cord are included in peripheral nervous system.
– Nerves arising from brain are called cranial nerves, and nerves coming out of spinal cord are called
spnial nerves.
– 12-paris of cranial nerves are found in reptlies, birds and mammals but amphibians and fishes have only
10 – pairs of cranial nerves.
– In human, I, II and VIII cranial nerves out of 12-paris of total cranial nervges are pure sensory in nature.
– III, IV, VI, XI and XII cranial nerves are motor nerves and V, VII, IX & X cranial nerves mixed type of
nerves.
– Fibres of autonomous nervous system are found in III, VII, IX & X cranial nerves.
– Longest cranial nerve is Vagus nerve.
– Largest cranial nerve is Trigeminal nerve.
– Smallest cranial nerve is Abducens cranial nerve.
Table : Summary of the Human Cranial Nerves

No. Name Origin Distribution Nature Function
I. Olfactory Olfactory Enters Olfactory lobe, Sensory Small
Epithelum Extends to temporal lobe
II. Optic Retina Leads to occipital lobe Sensory Sight
III. Oculomotor Midbrain Four eye muscles Motor Movement
of eyeball
IV. Trochlear Midbrain Superior oblique eye Motor Movement of
(Pathetic) muscle eyeball
V. Trigeminal Pons – Mixed
(Dentist nerve)
(i) Opthalmic – Skin of nose, upper eyelids, Sensory Sensory supply to
forehead, scalp, conjunctiva, concerning part
larchymal gland.
Mucous membrane of cheeks –
(ii) Maxillary – and upper lip and lower eyelid. Senory Muscle of
Lower jaw, lower lip, pinna Mastication
(iii) Mandibular – Mixed

VI. Abduce Ventral side Lateral ractur Mixed Movement of eye
of m.o. ball
VII. Facial Pons Face, neck, taste buds, salivary Mixed Taste (ant' 2/3 part
gland of Tongue) Facial
expression saliva
secretion.
VIII. Auditory Pons Internal ear Sensory Hearing and
(i) Cochlear equilibrium.
(ii) Vestibular
IX. Glossopharyngeal Medulla Muscles and mucous Mixed Taste (postr 1/3
Membrane o pharynx part of Tongue)
and tongue. Facial expression
saliva secretion.
X. Vagus Medulla Larynx, lungs, heart, stomach, Mixed Visceral
(Pneumogastric) intestine Sensations and
movements.
XI. Accessory spnial Medulla Muscles of pharynx, Motor Movement of
larynx pharynx, larynx.
XII. Hypoglossal Meduula uscles of tongue Motor Movement of
tongue
SPINAL NERVES :
– In rabbit, there are 37 pairs of spinal nerves, while in frog there are 9 or 10 pairs of spinal-nerves.
– In Human only 31 pairs of spinal-nerves are found.
– Each spinal nerve is mixed type and arises from the roots of the horns of gray matter of the spinalcord.
In dorsal root only afferent or sensory fibres and in ventral root efferent or motor fibres are found.
– Both the roots after moving for distance in the spinalcord of vertebrates combine with each other and
come out from the inter verterbal foramen in the form of spinal nerves.
– As soon as the spinal nerves come out of the inter vertebral foramen they divide into 3 branches :
(i) Ramus - dorsalis
Somatic nerve
(ii) Ramus - ventralis

Sympathetic nervous system
(iii) Ramus Communicans  A.N.S.
Parasympathetic nervous system
REFLEX ACTION :
– "Marshal Hall" first observed the reflex actions.
– Reflex actions are spontaneous, automatic, involuntay, mechanical responses produced by specific
stimulating receptors.
– Reflex actions are involuntary actions. Reflex actions are completed very quickly as comapred to
normal actions. No adverse effect.
– It is form of animal behaviour in which the stimulation of sensory organ (receptor) result in the activity
of some organ without the intervention of will.
Reflex actions are of 2 types :
(A) Cranial reflex :

These actions are completed by brain (m.o.). No urgency is required for these actions. These are slow
actions e.g. watering of mouth to see good food.
(B) Spinal reflex :
These actions are completed by spinal cord. Urgency is required for these actions. These are very fast
actions e.g. Displacement of the leg at the time of pinching by any needle.
Classification of reflex actions on the basis of previous experiences :
(A) Conditioned reflex :
Previous experience is required to complete these actions e.g. swimming, cycling, dancing, singing etc.
These actions were actions were studied first by Evan Pavlov on dog.
Initially these actions are voluntary at the time learning and after perfection, these becomes involuntary.
(B) Unconditioned reflex :
These actions do not require previous experience e.g. sneezing, coughing, yawning, sexual behaviour
for opposite sex partner, migration in birds etc.
REFLEX ARCH :
– The path of completion of reflex action is called reflex arch.
– Sensory fibres carry sensory impulses in the gray matter.
These sensory impulses are converted now into motor impulses and reach up to muscles.
These muscles show reflex actions for motor impulses obtained from motor neurons.
Reflex arch is of two types.
(1) Monosynaptic :
In this type of reflex arch, there occurs direct synapse (relation) between sensory and motor neurons,
thus nerve impuse travels through only one synapse. eg.- Stretch reflex.
Diagrammatic representation of reflex
A = Bicepse tendon reflex, B = Knee jerk, C = Triceps tendon reflex
Afferent Sensory Dosal

root White
pathway neuron
ganglon matter
Muscle spindle
(Receptor)
Motor Gray
neuron matter
Stimulus Efferent pathway
Response
Knee jerk reflex (Monosynaptic reflex arch)
(2) Polysynaptic :
In this type of reflex arch, there are found one or more small neurons in between the sensory and motor
neurons.
These small neurons are called connector neuroun or inter neurons or internuncial neurons e.g.
withdrawal reflex.
Nerve impulse will have to travel through more than one synapses in this reflex arch.
Withdrawal Reflex – Sensory neuron supplied the sensation through dorsal root ganglia & terminal
branches of Axon divide in the gray matter & one is supplied agonist muscle & other is supplied
antagonist muscle. ]
EPSP develop in synapse between motor fibre of agonist mucle sensory fibre & due to interconnection
of interneuron with antagonist muscle neuron,
IPSP develop in synapse between colateral branch of sensory fibre and antagonist muscle.
Therefore, contraction of agonist muscle and relax the fibre of antagonist muscle.
Knee jerk reflex Withdrawl reflex
1. No any involvement of interneuron. Role of interneuron is important.
2. It is an example of monosynaptic reflex. It is an example of polysynaptic reflex.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
(1) The autonomic nervous system is that part of the peripheral nevous system which controls acivities
inside the body that are normally involuntary, such as heart beat, peristalsis, sweating etc.
(2) It consists of motor neuron passing to the smooth muscle of internal organs.
Smooth muscles are involuntary muscles.
Most of the activties of the autonomic nervous system is controlled within the spinal cord or brain by
rreflexes known as visceral reflexes and does not involve the conscious control of higher centres of the
brain.
– Overall control of the autonomic nervous system is maintained, however, by centres in the medulla
(a part of the hind brain) and hypothalamus.
– These receive and integrate sensory information and coordinate this with information from other parts of
the nervous system to produce the appropriate response.
– ANS plays an important role in maintaining the constant internal evironment (homeostasis).
– The autonomic nervous system is composed of two type of neurons, a preganglionic neuron
(myelinated) which leaves the central nervous systm in the venteral root before synapsing several
postganglionic neurons (nonmyelinated) leading to effector (concerning organs).
– Sites of ANS –
Involuntary muscles, Exocrine glands, Blood vessels, skin (Pilomotor muscles, Blood vessels, Sweat
glands)
There are the two division of the autonomic nervous system the sympathetic (SNS) and the
parasympathetic (PNS).
(i) Sympathetic system is related with such visceral reactons. Which increase the protection of body in
adverse atmospheric condictions along with calorie consumption.
(ii) Parasympathetic system is relsated with those reactions in which energy is conserved.
In this way, autonomic nervous system controls the activites of visceral organs double sided i.e.
antagonistic to each other.
(a) Sympathetic Nervous system. It is represented by a chain of 21 sympathetic ganglia on either side of
spinal cord.
It receives preganglionic sympathetic fibres from the spinal cord which make their exit alongwith
thoracic and lumbar nerves and constitue thoraco-lumbar outflow.
These fibres synapse with the neurons present in sympathetic ganglia.
From the sympathetic gangila arise post ganglionic fibres which terminate on the viscera.
Each sympathetic ganglion is connected to the spinal cord by a white communicans and the spinal nerve
by a gray communicans.
Some preganglionic fibres pass through the sympathetic chain without synapsing and then join to from
splanchnic nerves eminating in some collateral ganglia which include a coeliac ganglion, an anterior
mesenteric ganglion and a posterior mesenteric ganglion.
The post ganglionic fibres arising from collateral ganglia supply digestive system and urinogential
system.
(b) Parasympathetic Nervous system. It consists of preganglionic parasympathetic fibres, parasympathetic

ganglia and distganglionic parasympathetic fibres.
Preganglionic parasympathetic fibres make their exit along with the III, VII, IX and X cranial nerves,
and II, III, IV scaral nerves.
They together form cranio-sacral outflow.
The parasympathetic ganglia do not form any chains and instead lie on or near the viscera.
The post ganglionic parasympathetic fibres aires from these ganglia and supply the viscera.
The neurotransmitter within the ganglion is acetylcholine for both sympathetic and parasympathetic
nerves.
However, the neurotransmitter between the terminal autonomic neuronic axon and the target organ is
different in the two antagonistic autonomic nervous system.
In the parasympathetic system, the neurotransmitter at the terminal synapse is acetylchloine, just as it is
in the ganglion.
In the sympathetic system, the neurotransmitter at the terminal synapse is either adrenaline or
noradrenaline, both of which have an effect oppsoite to that of acetylcholine.
There is one exception : the sympathetic postanglionic neuron that terminates on the sweat glands, uses
acetylcholine.
Thus, depnding on which of the two paths is selected by the CNS, an arriving signal will either stimulate
or inhibit the organ.
Thus an organ receiving nerves from both nervous system is subjected to the effects of two opposing
neurotransmitters.
If the sympathetic nerve ending excites a particular organ, the parasympathetic usualy inhibits it.
With few exception, organs of the body are innervated by "dual innervations", and each has a different
effect.
Functon of autonomic nervous system is to control and coordinate the activities of visceral organs. The
two components work against one another.
Preganglionic
fibres through Postganglionic
cranial nerves fibres
Eye
III (Oculomotor)
Lacrimal gland
www.etoosindia.com
VII (Facial) Submandibular gland
Midbrain
Pons IX (Glossopharyngeal) Sublingual gland EYE
X (Vagus) Parotid gland LACRIMAL GLAND
Medulla
SUBMANDIBULAR
Oblongata
C-1 Heart
MIDBRAIN
GLAND
2 Larynx SUBLINGUAL GLAND
Trachea CAROTID
3
and ARTERY AND PAROTID GLAND
4 bronchi PLEXUS
SUPERIOR
HEART
MEDULLA
5 C-1 CERVICAL
OBLONGATA
Lung GANGLION
6 2 LLARYNX
7 3 TRACHEA
MIDDLE
4 AND
No. 1 Coaching for IIT-JEE | PRE-MEDICAL | CBSE

8 Stomach CERVICAL
5 BRONCHI
GANGLION
T-1 Small intestine LING
6
INFERIOR
2 7
CERVICAL
3 8 GANGLION
4
Abdominal blood T-1 SMALL
vessels 2 COELIAC INTESTINE
5 GANGLION
3
6 ABDOMINAL
Liver 4
7 BLOOD
Gall bladder 5 VESSELS
8
Spinal cord
Bile duct 6
9 7 LIVER
SPINAL CORD
10 Pancreas 8 GALL BLADDER
9 BILE DUCT
11 Adrenal medulla
10 SUPERIOR PANCREAS
12 11
Kidney MESENTERIC ADRENAL MEDULLA
L-1 12 GANGLION
2 L-1 KIDNEY
Colon 2
3
3
COLON
4
4
5 SYMPATHETIC
Rectum 5 RECTUM
CHIAN
S-1 S-1
URINARY
2 2 BLADDER
3 3
4 SEX ORGANS
4 5
AND
5
EXTERNAL
GENITALIA
NERVOUS SYSTEM
(2, 3, 4 Sacral spinal nerves) Urinary Sympathetic trunk
bladder
External
genitals Uterus
Parasympathetic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System
29
Sympathetic NS Parasympathetic NS
1. Thoracico lumbar outflow (T1 to L3) 1. Cranio sacral outflow (cranial nerves) 3, 7, 9,
(Ramus communicans of T 1 to L 3) 10 and sacral's ramus communication 2, 3, 4)
2. Just lateral to vertebral column sympathetic 2. Ganglia are situated separately either near the
trunks are there on both sides (each made organ or surface of organ.
up of 22 ganglia)
3. Preganglionic nerve fibres (Ramus 3. Preganglionic nerve fibres are longer than
communicans of spinal nerves) are smaller postganglionic nerve fibres.
than post ganglionic nerve fibres (arises from
sympathetic trunk or ganglia to organs)
4. Preganglionic nerve fibres ar cholinergic 4. Both pre and post ganglionic nerve fiber are
(filled with acetylcholine). and post cholinergic.
ganglionic nerve fibres are adrenergic (filled
with noradrenaline) except sweat gland
which have cholinergic postganglionic
nerve fibres.
5. Supply 5. Supply
(a) Cervical ganglia  Head, face (a) Cranial nerve
iii – iris. ciliary muscles
vii – Tear glands, palate, pharynx,
submandibular and sublingual glands.
ix – Parotid gland, buccal cavity
x – Neck to proximal colon.
(b) Cervical and thoracic ganglia  (b) Sacral 2, 3, 4
Heart distal colon, rectum, anal canal and
urinogenital organ.
(c) Throacic ganglia  Trachea, bronchi

and lungs
(d) Preganglionic nerve fibres of abdominal

part do not form synapse in sympathetic
trunk. They form synapse in
prevertebral ganglia (coeliac, superior
mesenteric and inferior mesenteric).
Coeliac and superior mesenteric
supply – stomach to proximal colon
Inferior mesenteric asupply  distal
colon, urinogenital organ, rectum and
anal canal.
Exception
adrenal medulla receive preganglionic
nerve directly. (No any postanglionic
fibres)
6. Preganglionic nerve fibres are made up of
white ramus communicans and
postaganglionic nerve fibres are made up
of gray ramus communicans.
Table of Nervous Control of Visceral Organs

Name of Visceral Affect of sympathetic nervous Affect of parasympathetic
Organs system nervous system
1. Secreton Acetyl chloine + sympathetin Only acetylcholine
2. Iris of eye Dilates pupils Constricts pupils
3. Tear glands or Stimulates secretion of lachrymal Inhibits secretion of lachrymal
lachymal glands glands glands.
4. Heart Increases the rate of cardiac contraction Inhabits the rate of cardiac
i.e. accelrates heart beat contrction i.e. retards heart beat.
5. Secretion of adrenal Stimulates adrenal secretion Inhibits adrenal secretion.
gland
6. Salivary secretion Inhibits the secretion of salivary and Stimulates the secretion of
digestive glands salivary and digestive glands
7. Blood vessels Constricts cutaneous blood vessels, Dialte all blood vessels
which causes increased blood (except coronary vessels)
pressure but dilates blood vessels of decreasing blood pressure
brain lungs, heart, striated muscles.
Incrases RBC count in blood.
8. Lungs, trachea and Dilates trachea bronchi & lungs for Constricts these organs during
bronchi easy breathing normal breathing.
9. Alimentary canal Inhibits peristalsis of alimentary Stimulates the secretion of the
canal. glands
10. Digestive glands Inhibits the secretion of these Stimulates the secretion of the
glands glands
11. Sweat glands Stimulates secretion of sweat Inhibits secretion of sweat.
12. Arrector pilli Stimulates contraction of these Relaxes Arrector pilli muclses
muscles muscles of skin, causing goose flesh
13. Urinary bladder Relaxes the muscles of urnary Contracts the muscles for
bladder. ejaculation of urine
(Micturition).
14. Anal sphincter Closes anus by contracting and Relaxes anal sphincter and
sphincters. opens the anuns (Defaecation)
15. External genitalia Ejaculation Erection
16. Basal metabolic rate Accelrates BMR Retards BMR.
Special Points
1. In the brain of frog only 2 shkull meninges are presnt. The middle meninge that is the Archnoid is
absent.
2. In rabbit, man and mammals-3 skull menninges are present.
3. Increase in the amount of cerebro-spinal fluid is diseased condition termed as the Hydrocephalus.
4. "Meningitis". It arises due to infection or inflamation on injury in the meninges. Infection may be due
to virus or bacteria or both.
5. Piamater is the most vascular and conducting and provides nutrition.
6. The power of regeneration is very less in a neuron.
7. The optic lobes of frog are hollow and in them optocoel cavity is found.
8. In frog, 2 optic-lobes are present. These are hollow and termed as Corpora-bigemina. In mammals, 4
solid optic-lobes are present.
9. Around the brain of fishes, only one menix is found called : Menix-primitiva".
10. The vlave of vieussens joins the optic-lobes with the cerebellum.
11. Cerebral-cortex is made up of gray – matter and is divided into 3 area -

(i) Sensory area (ii) Motor area (iii) Associated area
12. The sensory and associated areas determine the shape, colour, sound, taste and smell of any object.
13. Motor area regulaters muscular-contraction.
14. Broca's area : It is known as motor speech area.
15. Broca's area is present in the lateral part of the frontal-lobe of the cerebrum. This area makes aware of
language; and translates the written words into speed.
16. If Broca's area are gets destroyed the animal beecomes unable to speak.
17. The temporal-lobes of cerebrum regulates the mechanism of hearing.
18. Cerebrum is the centre of following :
(1) Intelligence (2) Emotion (3) Will-power (4) Memory
(5) Consciousness (6) Experience (7) Knowledge
(8) Voluntary control (9) Laughing and weeping (10) Defaecation and micturition.
19. Diencephalon is the centre of carbohydrate – metabolism and fat-metabolism.
20. In rabbit, "Swammerdam's gland" are absent. These glands are presenet at the origin place of spinal
nerves in vertebrates & present in frog. It provide extra supply of Ca++ for synaptic transmission.
21. Cerebellum made up of three layers and in the middle of cerebellum of brain lobes of flask-shaped cells
are found called the "Purkinje-cells".
22. In the nerve-cells, "centrosome" are absent so once formed in developement, the nerve-cells do not divide
and remain in Inter-phase stage throughout their life : and grow in size with the growth of the body.
23. The velocity of nerve-impulse is 5 to 50 times more faster in Myelinatd nerve-fibres than in Non-
myelinated nerve-fibres.
24. In mammals the speed of nerve impuse is 100-130 m/sec (maximum). In frog, the speed of nerve
impulse is 30 m/sec. In reptiles the speed is 15 to 35 m/sec.
25. Acetylcholinesterase enzyme helps in the dissociation of Acetylcholine.
26. In the form of inhibitory neuro-hormons, - GABA are present.
GABA – gamma amino butyric – acid.
27. Acetylcholine is synthesized by the Mitochondria.
28. For the conduction of nerve-impulses, Na+ is necessary.
29. The marking of brain waves is donie through E, E, G i.e. Electro-encephalo gram.
30. In embryonic – stages inside the brain the layer of grey-matter is towards inside and that of white-matter
is towards outside.
In adults, this arrangement continues in the spinal-cord but during the development of the wall of the
brain the gray-matter is transferred outside.
31. In 1 minute 750 ml of blood is conducted to the human-brain.
32. Corpus callosum is the largest commissure of the brain.
33. Largest cranial venous sinus is cavernous venous sinus which is situated in the middle cranial fossa.
34. All preganlionic-sympathetic nerve fibre are myelinated while post ganglionic nerve fibre are non
myelinated.
35. In PNS myelinogenesis process is occurs by neurilemma (Schwan cells) while in CNS myelinogenesis
process is occurs by oligodendrocytes (Neugroglia).
36. Alzheimer's disease – In this disease, the cerebral cortex is atrophied and ultimately the ventricle
enlarges. Symptoms consist of memory particulary recent memory. Alzheimer disease is more common
in down syndrome.
Treatment – No effective treatement.
37. Stroke – May be caused by haemorhage into the brain.
Symptoms – Unconsiousness.
Treatment – Intra venous tissue plasminogen activator.
38. Epilepsy – Epilepsy is characterized by short, recurrent periodic attack of motor, sensory or
pshychological malfunction.
Cause – due to abnormal discharge of cerebral neurons.
Symptons – seizures, unconsiousness, Involuntary contraction of muscle.
Treatment – Anti epileptic drugs.
39. In human brain more than 100 billion neurons are present.
40. Each neuron cell connect with 25,000 other cell.
41. Phrenic nerve is branch of cervical plexues which supply diaphragm.
42. Malathione : This substance is used as insecticide and it destroy the acetyl cholinesterease in synapse
area.
43. Botulism : It is food poisoning disease and it produces by Clostridium botulinum bacteria. This bacteria
release neurotoxin.
44. Curare : is drug blocks acetylcholine receptor on skeletan muscle, so that it can be used by surgeon for
keeping a muscle relaxes during operation.
45. Corpus striatum regulates planning and execution of stereotyped movement.
46. The region between the thalamus and spinal cord is referred to as brain stem.
47. All impulse traversing a given neuron have the same amplitude, differing only in the frequency of
impulse.
48. Glycine is neuro inhibitory hormone present in spinal cord.
49. Glutamate is excitatory amino acid.
50. Trigeminal nerve is also called " the dentists nerve" because the denstists desensitizes this nerve with
some anaesthetic before pulling out the troubling tooth.
51. O3 TTAFAGVAH
1 - olfactory
2 - optic
oppti Cholear - Hearing
8 - Auditory <
Vestibular - Balance
i
ax Eye ball musele
m
i
nd
ma
Ractrs Oblique
i - Sup. Ract Sup. obli
ii - Inf. ract Inf. olbi
iii- Medial ract
iv- Lat ract occulomotor (4)
6 - Abduce Trachlear
Tongue
Taste Muscle
Ant Post
2/3 1/3
(7) (IX) |ANS
Para.
EXERCISE-1 (NERVOUS SYSTEM)
Q.1 GABA (gama amino butyric acid) is a - Q.8 Nissl granules occur in which part and what
(1) Inhibitory neurohormone is their function -
(2) Transmittery neuro humor (1) Neurons and help in nutrition &
(3) Anti co-agulant increase metabolic activity of neuron
(4) None (2) Blood and help in nutrition and
excretion
Q.2 Nissl's bodies found in neurons are -
(3) Sarcoplasm and help in contraction
(1) Made of DNA
(4) Cell and secrete mucous
(2) Masses of ribosome and RER
(3) Help in formation of neurofibrils Q.9 When a nerve fibers is stimulated the inside
(4) Masses of mitochondria of the membrane becomes -
(1) Filled with acetyl choline
Q.3 Chemical transmission of nerve impulses
(2) Negatively charged
from one neuron to another at a synapse is
(3) Positively charged
by -
(4) Neutral
(1) Cholesterol
(2) Acetylcholine Q.10 The parts of the neurons that perform basic
(3) Cholecystokinin cellular functions such as protein synthesis
(4) ATP etc. -
(1) Axons (2) Dendrites
Q.4 ‘‘Nodes of Ranviers’’ are found in -
(3) Synaptic knobs (4) Soma
(1) Brain (2) Heart
(3) Axon (4) Eye Q.11 The nerves leading to the central nervous
system are called
Q.5 Afferent nerve fibre conducts impulse
(1) Afferent (2) Efferent
from-
(3) Motor (4) None
(1) C.N.S. to effector
(2) Receptor to C.N.S. Q.12 ‘‘Jumping of the action potential’’ at the
(3) Receptor to effector nodes of ranvier is known as -
(4) Effector to receptor (1) Saltatory conduction
(2) Neuro transmission
Q.6 Saltatory conduction occurs in -
(3) Recovery phase
(1) Non-myelinated fibers
(4) Active phase
(2) Myelinated fibers
(3) Both of them Q.13 Nerve impulses are initiated by nerve fibers
(4) None of these only when the membrane shall become
more permeable to -
Q.7 Chemical substance which take part in
(1) Adrenaline (2) Phosphorus
synaptic transmission is -
(3) Sodium ions (4) Potassium ions
(1) Adrenaline
(2) Epinephrine Q.14 Power of regeneration is lowest in -
(3) Colchicine (1) Brain cell (2) Liver cell
(4) Acetylcholine (3) Bone cell (4) Muscle cell
(3) A connective tissue cell
(4) Associated with myelinated & non
Q.15 Unit of nervous system -
myelinated nerve fibre
(1) Neuron (2) Neuroglia
(3) Axon (4) Cyton
Q.23 The function of an axon is -
Q.16 Speed of impulse on nerves in mammals is- (1) Transformation of nerve impulse
(1) 1 meter/sec. (2) 100 meter/sec. (2) Reception of stimuli from neurons
(3) 1000 meter/sec. (4) None of these (3) Reception of external stimuli
(4) Conduction of nerve impulse
Q.17 The functional connection between two
neurons is called - Q.24 A short period during which a nerve is
(1) Synapse (2) Synapsis unable to conduct nerve impulse is called
(3) Chiasma (4) Chiasmata
(1) Synaptic delay (2) Refractory period
Q.18 Conduction of nerve impulse is - (3) Resting potential (4) Critical period
(1) Faster in none-myelinated fibres
(2) Faster in myelinated fibres Q.25 Rapid integration of the function activities
(3) No difference in the rate of conduction in human is acheieved by -
in myelinated & non myelinated fibres (1) Nervous system
(4) None of the above (2) Endocrine system
(3) Blood
Q.19 Enzyme acetyl cholinesterase is concerned (4) Muscular system
with -
(1) Digestion of protein Q.26 Which cell-organelle synthesises acetyl
(2) Synthesis of protein choline -
(3) Digestion of polypeptide (1) Golgi complex (2) Ribosome
(4) Conduction of nerve impulse (3) Mitochondria (4) Lysosome
Q.20 Integrative system in the body are -
(1) Endocrine system Q.27 Synapse name proposed by -
(2) Nervous system (1) Charles sherrington
(3) Blood vascular system (2) Marshall hall
(4) Both 1 & 2 (3) Pavlov
Q.21 During refractory period -
(1) Nerve transmits impulse very slowly
Q.28 Which one of the following types of
(2) Nerve can not transmit impulse
neurons are most numerous in the body -
(3) Nerve transmits impulses very rapidly
(1) Unipolar (2) Multipolar
(3) Bipolar (4) Pseudounipolar
Q.22 The schwann sheath is -
(1) A non myelinated nerve fibres
(2) Associated with myelin sheath
Q.29 When the axons membrane is positively Q.36 Myelogenesis (Myelin formation) process
charged outside and negatively charged in occur in C.N.S. (central nervous system) -
side, then the condition is known as - (1) By schwann cells
(1) Action potential (2) By oligodendrocytes
(2) Resting potential (3) By Axolemma
(3) Active potential (4) By neurolemma
(4) Differential potential
Q.37 Repolarisation of Neuron is occured due to-
(1) Influx of Na+ (2) Influx of K+
+
(3) Efflux of Na (4) Efflux of K+
Q.30 The rate at which a nerve impulse travels
along a nerve fibers is dependent up on -
(1) Length of the nerve fibre
Q.38 If GABA is released at synapse area then
(2) Diameter of the nerve fibre
what will happens -
(3) Presence of connective tissue sheath
(1) Depolarization of neuron
(2) Repolarization of neuron
(3) Hyperpolarization of neuron
Q.31 Sheath of schwann occurs on -
(4) No effect
(1) Neurons (2) Axons
(3) Dendrons (4) Neuroglia
Q.39 Non Myelinated axons differ from
myelinated in that they -
Q.32 Which cell-organellae absent in neurons-
(1) Are more excitable
(1) Mitochondira (2) Ribosome
(2) Lack nodes of Ranvier
(3) Centriole (4) Nucleus
(3) Are not capable of regeneration
(4) Are not associated with schwann cells
Q.33 Nerve fibres are surrounded by an
insulating fatty layer called -
Q.40 If myelin sheath is continue in myelinated
(1) Adipose sheath (2) Myelin sheath
nerve fibre than what will happens in
(3) Hyaline sheath (4) Peritoneum
neuronal conduction -
(1) Velocity is increased
Q.34 The main function of acetylcholine is to -
(2) Conduction is slow
(1) Increase heart beat
(3) Conduction is stopped
(2) Help in synaptic transmission of nerve
(4) No effect
impulse
(3) Help in conduction of nerve impulse
Q.41 Posterior choroids plexus in brain is found
through axon
in the -
(4) Control reflex action
(1) Diencephalon
(2) Cerebrum
Q.35 Ions needed for nerve conduction -
(3) Cerebellum
(1) Na+ (2) Ca++
(4) Space b/w pons & medulla (anteriorly)
(3) Mg++ (4) None
& cerebellum (Posteriorly)
Q.42 Menings surrounding the brain of Human (3) Outer meninge
from outside to inside are - (4) None
(1) Duramater, arachnoid, piamater
(2) Piamater, arachnoid, duramater Q.51 The box like bony structure which encloses
(3) Duramater, piamater, arachnoid the brain is called -
(4) Piamater, duramater, arachnoid (1) Cranium
(2) Pericardium
Q.43 Corpus callosum connects - (3) Peritoneum
(4) Periosteum
(1) Two cerebral hemisphere
(2) Two optic lobes Q.52 In brain of crura cerebri is a structure made
(3) Two olfactory lobes of -
(4) Optic chiasma (1) Six bands of nerve fibres
(2) Eight bands of nerve fibres
Q.44 Outer most covering of brain is called - (3) Two large bands of nerve fibres
(1) Choroid (2) Duramater (4) Four bands of nerve fibres
(3) Piamater (4) Arachnoid
Q.53 Leptomenix of brain is formed by the
Q.45 The membrane which cover the brain and joining of -
the spinal cord is - (1) Piamater and arachnoid layer
(1) White matter (2) Grey matter (2) Piamater and duramater
(3) Peritonium (4) Menix (3) Duramatter and arachnoid layer
(4) Grey matter and white matter
Q.46 Cerebellum is concerned with -
(1) Co-ordination of muscular movement Q.54 Which one of the following menix is
(2) Memory present only in mammalian brain -
(3) Vision (1) Duramater (2) Arachnoid
(4) Reflex action (3) Piamater (4) None of them
Q.47 Crura cerebri is located in - Q.55 The pneumotaxic center of rabbit is located
(1) Fore brain (2) Hind brain in -
(3) Mid brain (4) None (1) Brain (Pons) (2) Heart
(3) Medulla (4) Lungs
Q.48 Arbor vitae is present in -
Q.56 The function of cerebrospinal fluid
(1) Cerebellum (2) Cerebrum
surrounding CNS is to -
(3) Diencephalon (4) Optocoel
(1) Protect the brain from external jerks
Q.49 How many lobes are present in cerebellum- (2) Provide nourishment and O2 to the
(1) 1 (2) 3 brain
(3) 5 (4) 7 (3) Take away unwanted substance from
the brain
Q.50 Piamater is - (4) All of the above
(1) Inner most meninge
(2) Middle meninge Q.57 Septum lucidum is part of the -
(1) Pseudocoel (2) Metacoel
(3) Diocoel (4) Rhinocoel Q.65 A 6 yrear old child is having mental status
of 2 yr old child then what he will be
Q.58 Small, solid and four optic lobes or
called-
colliculus called corpora quadrigemina are
(1) Normal (2) Imbecile
found in-
(3) Idiot (4) Moron
(1) Mammals (2) Amphibians
(3) Aves (4) Reptiles Q.66 Which is correct about pons varolii -
(1) Situated between midbrain & M.O.
Q.59 Hypothalamus is situated on the -
(2) Pons regulated pneumotaxic centre
(1) Upper lateral surface of diencephalon
(3) Inner gray, outer white matter
(2) Lower lateral surface of diencephalon
(3) Ventral side of optic lobes
(4) Dorsal side of optic lobes Q.67 If the corpus callosum is removed in
mammalian brain then what will be
Q.60 Epithalamus is situated on the -
affected-
(1) Roof of diencephalon
(1) Coordination of cerebrum
(2) Lateral wall of diencephalon
(2) Involuntary activity of brain
(3) Dorsal side of optic lobes
(4) Floor of diencephalon (3) Coordination of cerebellum
Q.61 The gray matter from white matter in the - (4) Behaviour and emotional disturbances
(1) Absence of axons
(2) Absence of nurilemma Q.68 Parkinson's disease is present due to lesion
(3) Presence of myelin sheath in -
(4) Absence of myelin sheath
(1) Corpus striatum
Q.62 Which of the following is not an organ of (2) RAS
the central nervous system - (3) Limbic system
(1) Brain (4) Analysis centre of cerebrum
(2) Spinal cord
Q.69 The cavity of brain is lined by -
(3) Medulla oblongata
(1) Neural epithelium
(4) Vagus (2) Ependymal epithelium
Q.63 Which of the following is a richly vascular (3) Cerebrospinal fluid
layer with lots of blood capillaries - (4) Glandular epithelium
(1) Duramater
Q.70 Cerebral hemispheres of mammals consist
(2) Piamater
of -
(3) Epidermis of skin
(1) Outer gray matter and central white
(4) Both (1) & (2)
matter
Q.64 Intelligency quotient value of Normal person (2) Outer white matter and central gray
is - matter
(1) 60 – 70% (2) 90 – 100% (3) Gray matter and white matter inter
(3) 80 – 90% (4) > 100% mingled
(4) Gray matter only
Q.71 Third ventricle is found in - (3) Dorsal part of optic lobe
(1) Heart of rabbit (2) Brain of rabbit (4) None of them
(3) Heart of frog (4) Kidney of frog Q.79 If Broca's area is injured then what happen
firstly -
Q.72 ‘‘Foramen of monro’’ is an aperture found
between - (1) Concerning speech muscle are paralysed
(1) Third ventricle and forth ventricle (2) Speech stattered & not clear
(2) Diocoel and metacoel (3) Unable to speak
(3) Brain and spinal cord (4) Only able to speak written word
(4) Lateral ventricle and third ventricle
Q.80 Which part of cerebrum convert short term
Q.73 Largest cavity in brain is called - memory into long term memory -
(1) Diocoel (2) Paracoel (1) Limbic lobe
(3) Metacoel (4) Rhinocoel (2) Temporal lobe
Q.74 The cavity of diocoel is known as - (3) Prefrontal cortex
(1) I-ventricle (4) Hippocampal lobe
(2) II-ventricle
Q.81 Which structure is not formed of gray
(3) III-ventricle
(4) Iter matter -
(1) Colliculi (2) Olfactory lobe
Q.75 Which of the following forms the cerebro (3) Neopallium (4) None of these
spinal fluid -
(1) Choroid plexus Q.82 Basal nuclei situated in -
(2) Duramater (1) Thalamus
(3) Arachnoid mater (2) Hypothalamus
(4) Cerebrum and spinal cord (3) Wall of cerebral hemisphere
(4) Independently situated
Q.76 Clogging of magandii foramen will prevent
Q.83 Voluntary activites of body are controlled
the flow of cerebro spinal fluid from IV
by -
ventricle to -
(1) Diencephalon
(1) Central canal (2) II-Ventricle
(2) Cerebrum
(3) III-Ventricle (4) Outside the brain
(3) Crura cerebri
Q.77 Optocoel cavity found in brain of - (4) Cerebellum
(1) Rabbit
Q.84 Ventral root of spinal nerve has -
(2) Man
(1) Sensory fibers
(3) Frog
(2) Motor fibers
(4) None of these
(3) Sensory and motor fibers both
Q.78 Broca's area is located in - (4) None of these
(1) Ventral part of temporal lobe
(2) Lateral part of frontal lobe Q.85 Cavity in spinal cord is called -
(1) Enterocoel (2) Blastocoel (3) Central nervous system
(3) Schizocoel (4) Neurocoel (4) Sympathetic nervous system
Q.86 Thermo regulatory center in human brain Q.93 Last end of spinal cord is called -
is- (1) Cauda equina (2) Filum terminale
(1) Pituitary (2) Diencephalon (3) Funiculus (4) Fasciculi
(3) Hypothalamus (4) None
Q.94 Reflex action is controlled by -
Q.87 Number of cranial nerves in human - (1) Muscles
(1) 12 (2) 24 (2) Limbs
(3) 11 (4) 29 (3) Central nervous system
(4) Autonomic nervous system
Q.88 Respiratory control in brain occurs in -
(1) Medulla oblongata Q.95 Lower part of filum terminale has only -
(2) Cerebellum (1) Piamater
(3) Hypothalamus (2) Duramater
(4) Pericardium (3) Arachnoid
Q.89 Drinking of alcohol affects mostly -
(1) Cerebrum Q.96 If cerebral hemispheres of rabbit are
removed, then it will -
(2) Cerebellum
(1) Die immediately
(2) Die after some time
(4) Dian cephalon
(3) Behave normally
(4) Stop feeding
Q.90 Which part of the brain regulates the body
temperature, hunger and water balance - Q.97 Find out the correct sequence of a simple
(1) Hypothalamus reflex are -
(2) Infundibulum (1) Brain-spinal cord - nerves - effector
(3) Medulla oblongata (2) Effector - CNS - sensory nerves -
(4) Pons veroli receptor
(3) Muscles - spinal cord - brain - receptor
Q.91 Cell bodies of neurons bringing afferent (4) Receptor - sensory nerves - CNS -
information into the spinal cord are located effector
in -
(1) Grey matter of spinal cord Q.98 Weight of spinal cord is -
(2) White matter of spinal cord (1) 100 gm.
(3) Dorsal root ganglia (2) 1400 gm.
(4) Ventral root ganglia (3) 150 gm.
(4) 35 gm.
Q.92 Which of the following is responsible for
control of reflex actions - Q.99 Through which aperture the spinal cord
(1) Motor nerves passes out of skull -
(2) Sensory nerves
(1) Foramen of monro (3) Live at 1 hrs & after it may die
(2) Foramen of paninze (4) No affect
(3) Foramen of magnum
(4) None of the above Q.106 Which part of brain controls emotions like
love, anger and pleasure -
Q.100 Most of the involuntary action are (1) M. O. (2) Hypothalamus
controlled by - (3) Cerebrum (4) Cerebellum
(2) Cerebrum Q.107 Which statement is wrong about the
(3) Cerebellum function of brain -
(4) Diencephalon (1) Hypothalamus mainly controls A.N.S.
(2) Voluntary muscle activity started by
Q.101 The cerebrospinal fluid passes out from the cerebellum
ventricle of medulla oblongata into the (3) Medulla oblongata regulates
space between meninges of brain through - involuntary activity of our body
(1) Foramen of monro (4) Thalamus is responsible for crude
(2) Foramen of magnum sensation
(3) Foramen of magandii & luschaka
(4) Foramen ovale Q.108 All are the function of M.O., except -
(1) Regulate respiration
Q.102 If cerebellum of man gets damaged, his (2) egulate heart beats
movement become - (3) Vomiting reflex
(1) Shaky & speech become defective (4) Body balance
(2) Unbalanced, walk uncontrolled, defective
speech & intention tremor Q.109 Which cranial nerves are sensory -
(3) Jerky & defective speech (1) 1, 2, 8
(4) Jerky & walked uncontrolled (2) 3, 4, 6, 11, 12
Q.103 The ‘‘butter fly’’ like structure surrounding (3) 5, 7, 9, 10
the central of human's spinal cord is called - (4) None of them
(1) Funiculus (2) Horn
Q.110 Smallest cranial nerve is -
(3) White matter (4) Gray matter
(1) X-cranial nerve (2) VI-cranial nerve
(3) VII-cranial nerve (4) II-cranial nerve
Q.104 Hearing is controlled by -
(1) Cerebral hemisphere
Q.111 Which cranial nerve is the longest and
(2) Temporal lobes
supplies all parts of body other than head -
(3) Cerebellum
(4) Hypothalamus (1) Trochlear nerve
(2) Vagus nerve
Q.105 When the medulla oblongata (M.O.) is (3) Occulomotor nerve
compressed, then what happen? (4) Auditary nerve
(1) Immediately die
(2) Die after few hrs. Q.112 Purely motor cranial nerve includes -
(1) I, V, VII Q.119 Which nerve originates from medulla -
(2) I, II, IV (1) Optic (2) Occulomotor
(3) III, IV, VI, XI (3) Vagus (4) Trigeminal
(4) None of these
Q.120 Difference between brain of frog and that
Q.113 Parasympathetic system increase activity of rabbit is -
of- (1) Presence of corpus callosum
(1) Lacrimal gland, sweat gland, arrector (2) Corpus albicans
pili (3) Four optic lobes
(2) Heart, lacrimal gland, pancreas (4) All of these
(3) Heart, adrenal gland and sweat gland
(4) Gut, iris and urinary bladder Q.121 Total number of spinal nerves in frog are -
(1) 31 pair (2) 33 pair
Q.114 Which nerve is purely motor - (3) 10 pair (4) 12 pair
(1) Abducens (2) Trigeminal
(3) Olfactory (4) Vagus Q.122 The Sympathetic nervous system (S.N.S.)
work through secretion of -
Q.115 The III, VI and XI cranial nerve in
(1) Noradrenaline which stimulates the
mammals are respectively -
(1) Occulomotor, abducens and organ
hypoglossal (2) Acetyl choline which stimulates the
(2) Occulomotor, abducens and spinal organ
accessory (3) Adrenaline which inhibits the organ
(3) Trochlear, facial and spinal accessory (4) Acetyl choline which inhibits the organ
(4) Trigeminal, abducens and vagus
Q.123 In human, autonomic nervous system is
Q.116 Heart is innervated by - composed of -
(1) Vagus (1) Sympathetic and parasympathetic
(2) Trigeminal nerves
(3) Facial
(2) Cranial and spinal nerves
(4) Glosspharyngeal
(3) Brain and spinal nerves
Q.117 Brain of rabbit differs from that of frog in (4) Medullated and non-medullated nerves
having -
(1) Large olfactory lobe Q.124 How many pairs of cranial nerves are
(2) Small hypothalamus purely sensory -
(3) Small cerebellum (1) Two (2) Three
(4) Corpus callosum (3) Four (4) Five
Q.118 Number of spinal nerves in human - Q.125 Optic nerve is the -

(1) 31 pairs (2) 32 pairs
(1) Fifth cranial nerves
(3) 12 pairs (4) 37 pairs
(2) Second cranial nerve
(3) Seventh cranial nerve Q.133 Stimulation of sympathetic nervous system
(4) Ninth cranial nerve causes -
(1) Contriction of blood vessels and high
Q.126 Parasympathetic nervous system increases blood pressure
the activity of - (2) Dilation of bronchi & pupil
(1) Heart, adrenaline gland and sweat (3) Erection of hair
gland (4) All of the above
(2) Gut, salivary gland and urinary bladder
(3) Lacrymal gland, sweat glands and Q.134 The two additional cranial nerves present in
arteries mammals are -
(4) Heart, pancreas and lachrymal gland (1) Pharyngeal & vagus
(2) Spinal accessory and hypoglossal
Q.127 All spinal nerves are - (3) Trigemianal and glossopharyngeal
(1) Motor (2) Sensory (4) Hypoglossal and sciatic
(3) Mixed
(4) None of the above Q.135 On the cerebrum of rabbit, gyri and sulci
are -
Q.128 Phrenic nerve is a - (1) Poorly developed
(1) Cranial nerve (2) Spinal nerve (2) Best developed
(3) Sciatic nerve (4) Lumber nerve (3) Vestigeal
(4) Absent all together
Q.129 Smallest cranial nerve -
(1) Abducens (2) Optic Q.136 Hippocampal lobes are the parts of -
(3) Olfactory (4) Auditory (1) Olfactory lobes
(2) Cerebrum
Q.130 Lumber spinal nerve in rabbit - (3) Cerebellum
(1) 4-pairs (2) 6-pairs (4) Medulla oblongata
(3) 7-pairs (4) 5-pairs
Q.137 Which of the following spinal nerves does
not found in human -
Q.131 Which of the following nerve helps in
(1) Caudal nerves (2) Sacral nerves
maintening the equilibrium of body -
(3) Carvical nerves (4) Lumber nerves
(1) Trochlear (2) Abducens
(3) Auditory (4) Facial Q.138 Smallest cavity in brain of rabbit is called -
(1) Rhinocoel (2) Paracoel
Q.132 Autonomic nervous system controls - (3) Diocoel (4) Metacoel
(1) Conditioned reflexes
(2) Functioning of spinal cord Q.139 Which of the following cranial nerves of
(3) Functioning of visceral organs human are mixed in nature -
(4) Reflex actions (1) Vagus & trigeminal
(2) Optic & vagus
(3) Auditory & olfactory (1) Heart (2) Stomach
(4) Trochlear and vagus (3) Sweat glands (4) Intestine
Q.140 The cranial and spinal nerves are included Q.147 In emergency condition, what changes
under - occur in out body except -
(1) Autonomic nervous system (1) Heart beat increases
(2) Peripheral nervous system (2) Dilates blood vessels of brain, lung,
(3) Central nervous system heart and striated muscle
(4) Cutaneous nervous system (3) Brochodilation
(4) Micturition is done
Q.141 A ramus communicans consists of -
(1) White ramus only Q.148 All cranial nerves are related to
(2) Grey ramus only parasympathetic nerve fibres except -
(3) Both of the above (1) Oculomotor (2) Facial
(4) None of the above (3) Accessory spinal (4) Vagus
Q.149 Which related structure not forms synapse

Q.142 Glands of swammerdams are associated
in sympathetic trunk of sympathetic
with -
nervous system-
(1) Nervous system (2) Muscles (1) Heart (2) Stomach
(3) Bones (4) All (3) Lungs (4) Lacrymal gland
Q.143 Conservation of energy take place by - Q.150 Cholinergic fibre present in -

(1) Sympathetic A.N.S. (1) Preganglionic sympathetic nerve fibre
(2) Parasympathetic A.N.S. (2) Post ganglionic sympathetic nerve fibre
(3) Reflex action of sweat glands
(4) None (3) Post ganglionic parasympathetic nerve
fibre
Q.144 If the cervical ganglia of one side are cut (4) All the above
then what will happen on affected side -
Q.151 After vagotomy, what happens in affected
(1) Pupil constricts
person -
(2) Dropping of eyelids (1) Heart rate increases
(3) Lacrymal secretion absent (2) Gastric juice secretion increases
(4) All the above (3) Inhibits micturition
(4) All the above
Q.145 Which cranial nerve provides taste
sensation in anterior 2/3rd part of tongue - Q.152 The nervous system is derived from -
(1) Trigeminal (1) Ectoderm
(2) Facial (2) Endoderm
(3) glossopharyngeal (3) Mesoderm
(4) Hypoglossal (4) Ecto and Mesoderm
Q.146 Post ganglionic sympathetic cholinergic

innervation seen in -
Q.153 Epiphysis and Hypophysis are found
attached with - Q.163 The part of the brain which shows
(1) Fore brain (2) Mid brain progressive increase in size, from a fish to
(3) Hind brain (4) None mammals is -
(1) Cerebrum
Q.154 Aqueduct of sylvius occurs in -
(2) Olfactory lobes
(1) Heart (2) Eye
(3) Brain (4) Ear (3) Optic lobes
Q.155 The nerve cell can be distinguished from
other cells of the body by the presence of - Q.164 A neopallium or cerebral cortex is not
(1) Neuroplasm (2) Neurolemma found in the brain of -
(3) Mitochondria (4) Neurites
(1) Mammals (2) Birds
Q.156 Function of nervous tissue is - (3) Reptiles (4) Frogs
(1) Irritability (2) Sensitivity
(3) Responsiveness (4) Contraction Q.165 ‘‘Purkinje cells’’ occurs in -
(1) Brain (2) Heart
Q.157 Lateral ventricles are found in - (3) Liver (4) Muscles
(1) Heart (2) Thyroid
(3) Brain (4) Brain and heart Q.166 Sight of delicious food usually makes
mouth watery, it is a -
Q.158 Which of the following processes occur (1) Hormonal response
only in animals - (2) Neural response
(1) Hormonal control (2) Respiration (3) Optic response
(3) Nervous control (4) Nutrition (4) Olfactory response
Q.159 Which cell in our body is more than a feet
long - Q.167 Which of the following pair is mismatched-
(1) Nerve cell (2) Muscle cell
(1) Cerebrum - voluntary activities
(3) Bone cell (4) Gland cell
(2) Cerebellum - body balance
Q.160 Number of cranial nerve in frog is - (3) M. O. - Pneumotaxic centre
(1) Ten only (2) Ten pairs (4) Spinal cord - reflex action
(3) Twenty pairs (4) Twelve pairs
Q.168 After sympathetic stimulation, which type
Q.161 Which cell stop dividing after birth -
of activities are not present in human being-
(1) Epithelium (2) Neuron
(3) Glial cells (4) Liver (1) Tachycardia (2) Bronchodilation
(3) Micturition (4) Semen Ejaculation
Q.162 Which part of the brain is more develop in
human is -
(1) Medulla (2) Cerebellum
(3) Cerebrum (4) Optic lobes
EXERCISE # 2 (PMT EXAMS)
Q.1 Nissl's granules are found in - [UTTARANCHAL-2006]
[UTTARANCHAL-2005] (1) arachnoid  duramater  piamater
(1) liver cells (2) nerve cells (2) arachnoid  piamater  duramater
(3) kidney (4) heart (3) piamater  duramater  arachnoid
(4) piamater  arachnoid  duramater
Q.2 Main function of cerebellum is -
[UTTARANCHAL-2005] Q.4 Somaethetic or post central area is
(1) Balancing responsible for - [UTTARANCHAL-2005]
(2) Sight (1) initiation of motor impulses for
(3) Hearing voluntary muscles
(4) Memory (2) initiation of motor impulses for
involuntary muscles
Q.3 The correct sequence of meninges from (3) perception of pain, touch and
inner to outer side is - temperature
(4) co-ordination of speech (1) thalamus
(2) hypothalomus
Q.5 Vagus nerve is composed mainly of (3) pons
parasymphathetic fibres. The preganglionic (4) medulla oblongata
fibres forms a network is known as -
[UTTARANCHAL-2005] Q.11 Nissl's granules are - [Bihar-2004]
(1) choroid plexus (1) RNA bodies
(2) nervous plexus (2) DNA
(3) auerbach plexus (3) carbohydrate
(4) brachial plexus (4) protein
Q.6 Lateral rectus muscle of the eye is served
by which cranial nerve? Q.12 Which part of the brain is affected first in a
[West Bengal - 2007] drunk person - [Bihar-2004]
(1) occulomotor nerve (1) Cerebrum
(2) pathetic nerve (2) Olfactory lobe
(3) abducens nerve (3) Cerebellum
(4) spinal accessory (4) Medulla oblongata
Q.13 In mammals, the brain centre, which

Q.7 Synaptic delay last for -
regulates body temperature is situated in -
[West Bengal - 2007]
[UP-CPMT 2001]
(1) 0.1 ms (2) 0.3 ms
(1) Cerebrum
(3) 0.4 ms (4) 0.5 ms
(2) Olfactory lobe
(3) Cerebellum
Q.8 During nerve impulse transmission
permeability of membrane is greater for -
[West Bengal - 2007] Q.14 The 3rd, 6th and 11th cranial nerves are -
+
(1) Na [UP-CPMT 2001]
(2) K+ (1) optic, facial and spinal nerves
(3) equal for both (1) and (2) (2) oculomotor, trigeminal and spinal
(4) Ca2+ (3) trigeminal, abducens and vagus
(4) oculomotor, abducens and spinal]
Q.9 Parkinson's disease is associated with -
Q.15 The junction between the axon of one
[JHARKHAND-2002]
neuron and the dendrite of the next is
(1) midbrain (2) thalamus
called- [UP-CPMT 2001]
(3) hypothalamus (4) cerebrum
(1) a joint (2) a synapse
(3) constant bridge (4) junction point
Q.10 The thermoregulatory centre in the body is-
[JHARKHAND-2004]
Q.16 Which one of the following is a motor [AIPMT-2000]
nerve? [UP-CPMT 2001] (1) Equal amount of Na+ & K+ move out
(1) auditory (2) abducens across axolema
(3) optic nerve (4) trigeminal nerve (2) Na+ move inside
(3) More Na+ outside
Q.17 Nissl's granules are absent in - (4) None
[UP-CPMT 2001]
(1) axon (2) cyton Q.25 Which of the following statement is correct
(3) dendron (4) schwann cells for node of Ranvier of nerve -
[AIPMT-2002]
Q.18 Which of the following is purely motor (1) Neurilemma is discontinuous
cranial nerve? [UP-CPMT 2002] (2) Myelin sheath is discontinuous
(1) Oflactory (2) Optic (3) Both neurilemma & Myelein sheath are
(3) Abducens (4) Vagus discontinuous
(4) Covered by myelein sheath
Q.19 Trigeminal nerve in case of frog is -
[UP-CPMT 2006]
Q.26 What used to be described as Nissl granules
(1) I cranial nerve (2) II cranial nerve in a nerve cell are now identified as -
(3) IV cranial nerve (4) V cranial nerve [AIPMT-2003]
(1) Cell metabolites (2) Fat granules
Q.20 In human body muscular co-ordination is (3) Ribosomes (4) Mitochondira
controlled - [MP PMT-2005]
(1) Spinal cord Q.27 The ‘‘Nissle's granules’’ of nerve cells's are
made up of - [RPMT-2003]
(2) Cortex
(1) Ribosome (2) Protein
(3) Cerebellum
(3) DNA (4) Mitochondria
(4) Cerebral hemisphare
Q.28 In the resting state of the neural membrane,
Q.21 Sense of smell is by - diffusion due to concentration gradients, if
[MP PMT-2003] allowed, would drive - [AIPMT-2004]
(1) cerebrum (2) cerebellum (1) K+ and Na+ out of the cell
(3) olfactory lobe (4) hypothalamus (2) Na+ into the cell
(3) Na+ out of the cell
Q.22 Third ventricle connects to lateral ventricles (4) K+ into the cell
through - [MP PMT-2003] Q.29 Unidirectional transmission of a nerve
(1) foramen magnum (2) foramen monro impulse through nerve fibre is due to the
(3) foramen magnedie (4) foramen luschka fact that - [AIIMS-2004]
(1) Nerve fibre is insulated by a medullary
Q.23 Connection between axon and dendrite is -
sheath.
[MP PMT-2007]
(2) Sodium pump starts operating only at
(1) synapse (2) synapsis
the cyton and then continues into nerve
(3) desmosome (4) tight junction
fibre.
(3) Neurotransmitters are released by
Q.24 Depolarization of axolemma during nerve
dendrites and not by axon endings.
conduction takes place because of -
(4) Neurotransmitters are released by the (4) First negative, then positive and again
axon endings and not by dendrites. back to negative
Q.30 Nerve cells donot possess -

Q.36 Which of the following is not a part of hind
[MANIPAL-2005]
(1) Neurilemma (2) Sarcolemma brain - [RPMT-2004]
(3) Dendrites (4) Axon (1) Medulla oblongata (2) Thalamus
(3) Cerebellum (4) Pons
Q.31 Myelin sheath covers which of the following -
[MP PMT-2005] Q.37 The name of nervous band connecting the
(1) Muscle fibre (2) Nerve fibre cerebral hemispheres in rabbit is -
(3) Collagen fiber (4) Tendons [MANIPAL-2005, MPPMT-1995,
MHCET-2004]
Q.32 Dendrites are associated with which system
(1) Corpus albicans
(1) Nervous system [MP PMT-2006]
(2) Digestive system (2) Corpus callosum
(3) Muscular system (3) Corpus striatum
(4) Blood vascular system (4) Corpus spongiosum
Q.33 Nerve impulse travel through nerve with Q.38 Arobor vitae is part of - [MANIPAL-2005]
the help of - [MP PMT-2006] (1) Cerebrum (2) Cerebellum
(1) Acetylcholine and sympathetin (3) Midbrain (4) Forebrain
(2) Choline and acetylcholine Q.39 Which has H-shaped gray matter?
(3) Adrenaline and noradrenaline (1) Cerebrum [MANIPAL-2005]
(4) None of the above (2) Spinal cord
(3) Cerebellum
Q.34 A typical value of resting membrane
potential is - [KERALA PMT-2006]
(1) - 40 mv (2) - 60 mv Q.40 Human brain is covered by an extremely
(3) - 70 mv (4) - 80 mv hard layer called - [MPPMT-2005]
(1) White matter (2) Duramater
Q.35 During the transmission of nerve impulse
(3) Piamater (4) Gray matter
through a nerve fiber, the potential on the
inner side of the plasma membrane has Q.41 Which of the following is the part of mid
which type of electric charge ? brain of rabbit ? [JIPMER-2004]
[AIPMT-2007] (1) Cerebrum
(1) First positive, then negative and (2) Diencephalon
continue to be negative (3) Corpora quadrigemina
(2) First negative, then positive and (4) None of these
continue to be positive
(3) First positive, then negative and again Q.42 The function of cerebrospinal fluid does not
back to positive include - [HPPMT-2006]
(1) Protection of brain and spinal cord by
containing antibody
(2) Protection of delicate brain and spinal (1) Cerebellum (2) Hypothalamus
cord from shock (3) Medula oblongata
(3) As a medium for excretion of waste (4) Corpora quadrigemina
product
(4) Buoyancy to brain ? Q.50 Column ‘I’ list the parts of human brain and
column ‘II’ lists the function. Match the
Q.43 Third ventricle lies in - two columns and identify the correct choice
[MANIPAL-2003, MPPMT-1999] from those given -
(1) Medulla oblongata [KARNATAKE CET-2005]
(2) Mid brain Column I
(3) Diencephalon (A) Cerebrum
(4) Cerebrum (B) Cerebellum
(C) Hypothalamus
Q.44 Ventricles of brain are lined by the cells
(D) Midbrain
called - [MPPMT-2004]
Column II
(1) Neuroglia (2) Ependymal
(i) Controls the pituitary
(3) Neurocells (4) Schwann cells
(ii) Controls vision and hearing
Q.45 In man the osmotic centres are situated in- (iii) Controls the rate of heart beat
[MPPMT-2005] (iv) Seat of intelligence
(1) Cerebrum (v) Maintains body posture
(2) Hypothalamus (1) A = v, B = iv, C = ii, D = i
(3) Pituitary gland (2) A = iv, B = v, C = ii, D = i
(4) Medulla oblongata (3) A = v, B = iv, C = i, D = ii
Q.46 Hypothalamus does not control - (4) A = iv, B = v, C = i, D = ii
[KERALA PMT-2005] Q.51 Which destryos the acetylcholineesterase -
(1) Libido [AIPMT-98]
(2) Osmoregulation (1) Malathione (2) CO
(3) Creative thinking and consciousness (3) KCN (4) Colchicine
(4) Thermoregulation
Q.52 Botulism affects - [AIPMT-98]
Q.47 Choroid plexus is a network of - (1) Digestive system
[KERNATAKA CET-2004] (2) Blood vascular system
(1) Nerves (2) Muscle fibres (3) Nervous system
(4) Respiratory system
(3) Capillaries (4) Lymph vessels
Q.53 Which of the following nerve innervates
Q.48 Cerebral hemisphere is not the centre of -
upper jaw of fog - [RPMT-2000]
[RPMT-2003]
(1) Maxillary (2) Pathetic
(1) taste (2) smell (3) Palatine (4) Occulomotor
(3) balance (4) thinking
Q.54 In Rabbit, the number of spinal nerves are -
Q.49 Which part of brain is supposed to be [RPMT-2000]
damaged if in an accident, a person lost (1) 30 pairs (2) 37 pairs
control of water balance, hunger and body (3) 32 pairs (4) 38 pairs
temp. - [RPMT-2003]
Q.55 If parasympathetic nerve of the rabbit is (1) Hoarse voice
cut, then heart beat - [RPMT-2001] (2) Peptic ulcers
(1) Unaffected (2) Decreases (3) Efficient digestion of protein
(3) Increases (4) Stop (4) Irregular contractions of diaphragm
Q.56 How many cranial nerves found in the Q.63 Which of the following cranial nerve is not
Amniota - [RPMT-2001] a motor nerve? [MPPMT-2004]
(1) 6 (2) 8 (1) II (2) III
(3) 12 (4) 10 (3) IV (4) XII
Q.57 In Rabbit, optic lobes are small because the Q.64 Match the following human spinal nerves in
eye sight is controlled by - [RPMT-2001] column I with II and choose the correct
(1) Temporal lobe (2) Occipital lobe options :
(3) Frontal lobe (4) Parietal lobe Column I Column II
Q.58 Norepinephrine leads to increase in - (a) Cervical nerves (i) 5 pairs
(1) Blood pressure [RPMT-2004] (b) Thoracic nerves (ii) 1 pair
(2) Urine production (c) Lumbar nerves (iii) 12 pairs
(3) Cellular respiration (d) Coccygeal nerves (iv) 8 paris
(4) Release of epinephrine [KERALA PMT 2005]
(1) a = ii, b = iv, c = i, d = iii
Q.59 Injury to vagus nerve in humans is not (2) a = iv, b = iii, c = i, d = ii
likely to affect - [AIPMT-2004] (3) a = iv, b = ii, c = i, d = iv
(1) Gastrointestinal movements (4) a = i, b = iv, c = ii, d = iii
(2) Pancreatic secretion
(3) Cardiac movements Q.65 9th Pair of cranial nerve in frog is -
(4) Tongue movements [AFMC-2005]
Q.60 In a man, is abducens nerve is injured. (1) Vagus (2) Trigeminal
Which one of the following functions will (3) Hypoglossal (4) Glossopharyngeal
be affected? [AIPMT-2005] Q.66 Which of the following is not under the
(1) Movement of the neck control of vagus nerve? [JIPMER-2005]
(2) Movement of the tongue (1) Gastrointestinal movement
(3) Movement of the eye ball (2) Respiratory movement
(4) Swallowing (3) Salivation
Q.61 One of the examples of the action of the (4) None of these
autonomous nervous system is - Q.67 Which of the following is released by
[AIPMT-2005] parasympathtic nervous system?
(1) Pupillary reflex
[BHU-2005]
(2) Swallowing of food
(1) Serotonin (2) Acetylcholine
(3) Peristalsis of the intestines
(3) Epinephrine (4) Norepinephrine
(4) Knee-jerk response
Q.68 Facial nerve arising from medulla is -
Q.62 Excessive stimulation of vagus nerve in [ORISSA JEE-2006]
humans may lead to - [AIIMS-2003] (1) Motor (2) Sensory
(3) Motor and sensory (4) None of these [AIPMT-99]
(1) Heart (2) Kidney
Q.69 The mandibular nerve is the branch of
(3) Brain (4) Eyes
which cranial nerve? [JKCMEE 2006]
(1) II (2) III
(3) V (4) VI Q.75 Adrenaline direct affect on -
[AIPMT-2002]
Q.70 Vagus nerve is composed mainly of
(1) S.A. Node
parasympathetic fibres. The preganglionic
(2) -cells of Langerhans
fibres forms a network in the walls of the
gut. This network is known as - (3) Dorsal root of spinal cord
[UTTARANCHAL PMT 2006] (4) Epithelial cells of stomach
(1) Choroid plexus (2) Nervous plexus
Q.76 In which animal, nerve cell is present but
(3) Auerbach plexus (4) Brachial plexus
brain is absent - [AIPMT-2002]
Q.71 Given below is a table comparing the (1) Sponge (2) Earthworm
effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic (3) Cockroach (4) Hydra
nervous system for four features (a-d).
Which one feature is correctly matched?
Q.77 Which of the following is dominant
[AIIMS 2006]
intracellular anion - [RPMT-2000]
Feature Sympathetic Parasympathetic
(1) Potassium
nervous nervous
system system
(2) Chloride
(1) Salivary Stimulates Inhibits (3) Phosphate
glands secretion secretion (4) Calcium
(2) Pupil Dilates Constricts
of the eye Q.78 Nervous system developes from -
(3) Heart rate Decreases Increases [RPMT-2000]
(4) Intestinal Stimulates Inhibits (1) Ectoderm
peristalsis (2) Mesoderm
(3) Ectomesoderm
Q.72 Effect of anaesthetics on body - (4) Endomesoderm
[AIPMT-98]
(1) Inhibits Na-K pump Q.79 Which of the following is not correctly
(2) Kills nerves matched - [RPMT-2002]
(3) Stops brain functions (1) Rhinon cephalon - Olfaction
(4) Inactivates skin cells (2) Hypothalamus - Pituitory
(3) Cerebellum - Balance
Q.73 Deficiency of oxygen affects mainly the - (4) Medulla oblongata - Temperature
[AIPMT-99] regulation
(1) Brain (2) Skin
(3) Kidney (4) Intestine Q.80 Internal carotid artery supply blood to -
[RPMT-2003]
Q.74 Neuroglial cells associated with - (1) Kidney
(2) Liver (2) Nervous - Endocrine
(3) Heart (3) Sensory - Endocrine
(4) Brain (4) Parasympathetic - Sympathetic
Q.81 Which one of the following characters is Q.86 Which of the following structures is present
not typical of the class Mammalia ? only in mammalian brain ?
[AIPMT-2005] [MPPMT-2004]
(1) Seven cervical vertebrae (1) Corpus luteum (2) Corpus striatum
(2) Thecodont dentition (3) Corpus fibrosum (4) Corpus Callosum
(3) Alveolar lungs
(4) Ten pairs of cranial nerves Q.87 You are watching a horror movie and you
notice your heart is beating fast and mouth
Q.82 Parkinson's disease (characterized by is dry. It is because of -
tremors and progressive rigidity of limbs) is [KERALA PMT-2005]
caused by degeneration of brain neurons (1) Flight and flight response
that involved in movement control and (2) Autonomic nervous system
make use of neurotransmitter. (3) Sympathetic nervous system
[AIPMT-2005] (4) Both 1 and 3
(1) acetylcholine (2) norepinephrine
(3) dopamine (4) GABA Q.88 Tongue is under the control of -
[CPMT-2004]
Q.83 Which one of the following statements is
(1) Trigeminal (2) Facial
correct ? [AIPMT-2006]
(3) Autonomic system (4) Glossopharyngeal
(1) Neither hormones control neural
activity, nor the nervous control Q.89 Number of cranial nerves in forg is -
endocrine activity [CPMT-2005]
(2) Endocrine glands regulate neural (1) Ten (2) Twelve
activity, but not vice versa (3) Ten pairs (4) Tweleve pairs
(3) Neurons regulate endocrine activity,
Q.90 Intercellular communication in multicellular
but not vice versa
organism occurs through -
(4) Endocrine gland regulate neural
[CPMT-2004]
activity, and nervous system regulates
(1) Nervous system only
endocrine glands
(2) Digestive system only
Q.84 Which one of the following does not act as (3) Respiratory system only
a neurotransmitter? [AIPMT-2006] (4) Both nervous and endocrine system
(1) Norepinephrine (2) Cortisone Q.91 Which of the following substances leads to
(3) Acetylcholine (4) Epinephrine the inhibition of central nervous system?
Q.85 Which of the following two systems are [CPMT-2004]
opposite in action to each other ? (1) Glycine (2) GABA
[MANIPAL-2004] (3) Norepinephrine (4) Both 1 and 2
(1) Nervous - Sensory
Q.92 Which one of the following pairs of
structures distinguishes a nerve cell from
other types of cell ? [AIPMT-2007]
(1) Vacuoles and fibres
(2) Flagellum and medullary sheath
(3) Nucleus and mitochondria
(4) Perikaryon and dendrites
Q.93 5th cranial nerve of frog is called -

[BHU-2006] (1) Polarization (2) Repolarization
(1) Optic nerve (2) Vagus (3) Depolarization (4) Resting potential
(3) Trigeminal (4) Opthalmic
Q.97 When a neuron is in resting state i.e. not
conducting any impulse, the axonal
Q.94 If dorsal root of spinal cord is broken down membrane is : [AIPMT 2011]
then its effect is - [JIPMER 2006] (1) Comparatively more permeable of K+
(1) No effect on impulse ions and nearly impermeable to Na+
ions
(2) Impulse is transmitted fast
(2) Comparatively more permeable to Na+
(3) Impulse is transmitted but slowly ions and nearly impermeable to K+ ions
(4) No impulse is transmitted from receptor (3) Equally permeable to both Na+ and K+
ions
(4) Impermeable to both Na+ and K+ ions
Q.95 Acetylcholinesterase enzyme splits
acetylcholine into - [Pb. PMT 2005]
(1) Acetone and choline
(2) Acetic acid and choline
(3) Amino acid and choline
(4) Aspartic acid and acetylcholine
Q.96 In the given diagram which stage of

conduction of nerve impulse through nerve
fibre is observed? [Gujrat CET 2006]
EXERCISE # 3
These questions consist of two statements each, printed as “ASSERTION” and “REASON”.
While answering these Questions you are required to choose any one of the following responses.
Assertion.
Q.1 Assertion : Medulla oblongata is very
important for our body. Q.9 Assertion : Cerebrospinal fluid is secreted
Reason : Medula oblongata Regulates all into subarachnoid space by choroid plexus of
involuntary activities. paracoel.
Reason : The arachnoid menix also
Q.2 Assertion : Conditioned reflex require secretes CSF.
previous experience.
Reason : It is controlled by cerebrum Q.10 Assertion : Cerebral hemisphere is the
initially. second least developed part of the brain.
Q.3 Assertion : In CNS, regeneration power is Reason : Cerebrum does not controls the
absent. other part of brain & all involuntary
Reason : Oligodendrocyte form myelin process.
sheath.
Q.11 Assertion : In rabbit surface of cerebellum is
Q.4 Assertion : Cerebral hemisphere is second more thick & folded.
most developed part of the brain. Reason : This increases the surface area for
Reason : Cerebrum is the largest part of the intelligency.
body.
Q.12 Assertion : Cerebral hemisphere is the first
Q.5 Assertion : Unconditioned reflex are not most developed part of the brain.
diminished with time. Reason : Cerebrum controls the other parts
Reason : Unconditioned reflex is voluntary brain & all voluntary process.
type.
Q.13 Assertion : Unconditioned reflex are not
Q.6 Assertion : All spinal nerves are mixed type.
diminished with time.
Reason : Ramus dorsalis is motor type
Reason : Unconditioned reflexes are
while ramus ventralis is sensory type.
hereditary.
Q.7 Assertion : Sympathetic nervous system
Q.14 Assertion : Parasympathetic nervous system
slows down peristalsis of gut.
slows down peristalsis .
Reason : Para sympathetic nervous system
Reason : Sympathetic nervous system does
does the opposite.
the same.
Q.8 Assertion : Surface of Diencephelon is more
Q.15 Assertion : Transmission of the nerve
thick & folded.
impulse across a synapse is accomplished by
Reason : This increases the surface area for
neurotransmitters
olfaction power.
Reason : Transmission of nerve impulse Q.22 Assertion : Displacement of the leg at the
across a synapse usually requires time of pinching by any needle, this is called
neurotransmitters because they have a small withdrawl reflex.
space, synaptic cleft that separates one Reason : It is controlled by spinal cord
neuron from another. therefore it is quick and involuntary action.
Q.23 Assertion : Hypothalamus is called master
Q.16 Assertion : Acetycholine transmits the nerve
gland.
impulse across a synapse
Reason : Menstrual cycle is regulated by
Reason : Acetylcholine is secreted by
hypothalamus. Hypothalamus connect the
adrenergic neuron pituitary gland with the help of
Q.17 Assertion : Neurohormones secreted by the infundibulum.
hypothalamus are also called neuro chemical Q.24 Assertion : Withdrawl reflex is controlled by
substances. spinal cord.
Reason : Neurohormones are produced by Reason : Initially cerebrum is involved &
special non-nervous cells in the require alertness for perform this reflex.
epithalamus. Q.25 Assertion : In emergency condition,
Q.18 Assertion : In human being, cerebrum is catecholamines are secreted by adrenal
medulla.
most developed part of brain
Reason : Sympathetic nervous system is
Reason : Cerebrum is having large surface
stimulated & it directly effect the adrenal
area & analyzing centre for maintaining
medulla & prepare the animal in emergency
body activity condition.
Q.19 Assertion : Velocity of impulse in Q.26 Assertion : Amygadaloid body is a part of
myelinated nerve fibre is more than non limbic system.
muelinated nerve fibre Reason : It controls the moods especially
Reason : Myelinated nerve fibre is having anger and rage.
shwan cells covering but non myuelinated Q.27 Assertion : Threshold stimulus is required for
nerve fibre do not consist schwann cell. propagation of impulse.
Reason : Threshold stimulus produce
Q.20 Assertion : Spinal cord act as a bridge
action potential therefore conduction of
between brain & organs of the body
impulse occur.
Reason : It starts from foramen magnum
and it is extended part of medulla oblongata Q.28 Assertion : Conditioned reflex is not present
at birth.
Q.21 Assertion : A cerebellum is related with Reason : Initially these action require
skillful voluntary movement and involuntary learning and after perfection these become
activity like body balance, equilibrium etc. involuntary action.
Reason : It is part of Hind brain and it is Q.29 Assertion : ANS is controlled by
situated behind the pons. hypothalamus.
Reason : Parasympathetic increases the condition along with calorie consumption.
protection of body in adverse atmospheric
ANSWER-KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 2 2 3 2 2 4 1 3 4 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 2 4 4
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 4 2 1 3 1 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 4 3 2 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 1 3 2 4 1 3 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 1 4 1 1 2 1
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 4 4 2 2 2 4 1 1 2 1 2 4 2 3 1 4 3 2 3 4
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 4 3 2 2 4 3 2 1 2 1 3 3 2 3 1 2 4 4 3 1
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 3 2 4 2 1 2 2 4 1 2 2 3 4 1 2 1 4 1 3 4
Ques. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 3 1 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 3 3 3 4 2 1 2 1 1 1 2
Ques. 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
Ans. 3 1 2 4 2 3 4 3 2 4 1 1 1 3 4 1 3 3 1 2
Ques. 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168
Ans. 2 3 1 4 1 2 3 3
EXERCISE # 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 1 4 3 3 3 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 4 2 2 1 3 4 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 2 1 2 2 3 1 2 4 2 2 1 1 3 4 2 2 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 1 3 2 2 3 3 4 2 4 1 3 1 2 3 3 2 1 4 3
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 2 1 2 4 3 2 3 3 3 2 1 1 3 1 4 3 1 4 4
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97
Ans. 4 3 4 2 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 2 1 1
EXERCISE # 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 2 4 3 3 2 4 4 4 4 1 1 4 1 3 3 1 3 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Ans. 2 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 3
Topic Page No.
Theory 02 - 13
Answer Key 30 - 30
Answer Key 35 - 35
Answer Key 37 - 37
Syllabus
Cell respirition
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 Anaerobic respiration - This is incomplete oxidation.
 When food is oxidized into alcohol or organic acids without use of oxygen.
During it most of energy is lost in form of heat. It occurs in cytoplasm and only 2ATP are produced.
Enzyme
C6H12O6   
 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 21KCal (2ATP)
cytoplasm
 Anaerobic respiration was first reported by Kostytchev.
 Anaerobic respiration may takes place in bacteria, some lower parasitic animals (Ascaris, Taenia)
plants, R.BCs. & muscles of human body. When oxygen is not available, then food is incompletely
oxidised in to some organic compounds like ethanol, acetic acid, lactic acid.
 In muscle cells & some bacteria, the energy is produced by breaking of glucose into lactic acid inside
the cells.
 The amount of energy released in anaerobic respiration is much less than aerobic respiration.
 Fermentation is performed by some fungi & some bacteria (only by microbes) and is an extracellular
process. 2 ATP are produced.
C6H12O 6 Yeast
 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Heat (2 ATP)
Bact.
 Both anaerobic rspiration and fermentation are incomplete oxidations.
 Inhibitory effect on respiration (anaerobic respiration) of oxygen is called Pasteur effect.
(Anaerobic  Aerobic)
GLUCOSE
Common step of
aerobic and Glycolysis
anaerobic (independent of O2)
respiration
Pyruvic acid
+nt -nt
Aerobic O2 O2
Anaerobic
respiration respiration
Acetyl CoA Incomplete

oxidation
Kreb's cycle
(complete oxidation)
CO2 + H2O + E C2H5OH + CO2 + E
Fig : Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
2
 Initial steps of aerobic and anaerobic respiration are same i.e. Glucose is converted to pyruvic acid.
Further fate of pyruvic acid is dependent upon presence or absence of O2.
 There are 2 major pathways of respiration.
G Common Pathway
G Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)
An overview of Aerobic Respiration
Glucose Glycolysis Pyruvate Lactate
ATP
Acetyl-CoA
NADH NADH
H2O
Krebs ATP
Cycle
m
NADH yste
port S
rans
Plasma ctr on T
membrane Ele
Mitochondrion
ATP Cytoplasm
Extracellular fluid
CO2 O2
 Common Pathway :
 It has 3 main parts.
G Glycolysis
G Krebs Cycle
G Terminal Oxidation
4 GLYCOLYSIS
 Glycolysis was discovered by Embden, Meyerhoff and Parnas and hence it is called as EMP
pathway.
 Glycolysis is independent of O 2, hence it is common in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
 Glycolysis is completed in cytoplasm.
 Glucose is substrate of glycolysis. Most of enzymes requires Mg as cofactor.
 The glycolysis is common phase for aerobic & anaerobic respirations both.
 Glycolysis involves a series of ten biochemical reactions in cytoplasm.
 In glycolysis, neither consumption of oxygen nor liberation of CO2 take place.
3
 Phosphofructokinase and Hexokinase are allosteric enzymes. The steps catalysed by these
enzymes are considerd as control point reactions of glycolysis.
 Ist & 3rd and last reaction of glycolysis are considered as irreversible reactions of glycolysis.
 Further oxidation of puruvic acid and NADH2 after glycolysis in mitochondria requires oxygen. So the
fate of pyruvic acid is decided by presence or absence of Oxygen.
Glycolysis / EMP Pathway
Glucose
ATP
Mg++ Hexokinase
ADP
2,Pyruvic acid + 2ATP + 2NADH2
Glucose 6 phophate
Isomerase
Fructose 6 phosphate
ATP
Phosphofructokinase, Mg++
ADP
Fructose 1, 6 diphosphate
Aldolase
Isomerase
2, 3 Phosphoglyceraldehyde DHAP
2H3PO4(ip)
Enzymes in
Cytosol
2, 1,3-Diphosphoglyceraldehyde
2NAD
Dehydrogenase
2NADH2
Glucose + 2ADP + 2ip + 2NAD+
2, 1,3-Diphosphoglyceric acid
2ADP
Transphosphorylase
2ATP
Mutase
Enolase
2, 2 Phosphoenolpyruvic acid
2ADP Pyruvic acid kinase
2ATP Mg++, K+
2, Pyruvic acid
4 KREBS CYCLE / TRICARBOXYLIC ACID (TCA) CYCLE / CITRIC ACID CYCLE

 Krebs cycle was discovered by Sir Hans Kreb in 1937 in pigeon muscles.
 It is also called citric acid cycle, citric acid being the first product of krebs cycle.
4
 Biochemical reactions in Krebs Cycle :
Citrate
G Acetyl Co  A  OAA   Citric acid  Co  A
(4C) Synthese
(2C) (TCA)
Aconitase
G Citricacid 

 Cisaconiticacid 
Isocitrate
Fe (6C)
Isocitric
G Isocitrate  NAD      Oxalosucci nic acid  NADH2
Dehydrogen ase (6C)
Mn
G Oxalosuccinic acid   α Ketoglutarate  Co 2
(6C) Decarboxylase (5C)
Dehydrogenase
G  Ketoglutaric acid Succinyl Co A + CO2
TPP, LA (4C)
Mg++, CoA
NAD NADH2
(This reaction similar to link reaction)
Thiokinase
G Succinyl Co A Succinic acid + Co A
(4C) (4C)
GDP + ip GTP
[Energy of thioester bond is released, which used in formation of GTP]
(GTP + ADP GDP + ATP)
The GTP formed in this reaction, reacts with ADP to form ATP and GDP, as GTP adn ATP have
approximatly same energy.
Succinic dehydrogenase
G Succinic acid Fumaric acid
(4C) (4C)
FAD FADH2
Fumarase
G Fumaric acid Malic acid
(4C) (4C)
dehydrogenase
G Malate Oxaloacetic acid (Acceptor of Acetyl CoA)
(4C) (4C)
NAD NADH2
5
4 TERMINAL OXIDATION
 It is combination of oxygen with electrons and protons released from reduced co-enzymes which
produces water (metabolic water).
 Terminal oxidation consists of two processes
G Electron Transport System (ETS)
G Oxidative Phosphorylation
 Electron Transport System (ETS) :
 NADH2 & FADH2 obtained from glycolysis and Kreb's cycle enter in electron transport chain and form
water molecule by oxidation with the help of molecular oxygen.
 In this process, energy is released which is used for the synthesis of ATP.
 Transfer of electrons from NADH2 or FADH2 occurs through a chain of electron acceptors and donors
arranged in a specific sequence.
 Electron transport chain is located in inner mitochondrial membrane in Eukaryotes and in inner
side of plasma membrane or in mesosome membrane in prokaryotes.
 ETS (Respiratory chain) consists of four components
G FP (flavoprotein) or FMN
G Fe-S Protein
G Co-Q
G Cytochromes.
 Cytochromes are cyto.-b, cyto.-C1 & cyto. C, cyto.-a & cyto a3 (cyto a & a3 – Cu containing)
 Now compounds of ETS are categories as follows :
Name of complexes Components of ETS Inhibitors
Complex-I FMN-NADH2 dehydrogenase Rotenone & amytal
Complex-II CoQ/UQ-FADH2 dehydrogenase /
Succinate dehydrogenase
Complex-III Cytochrome b-Cyto c 1 antimycin
Complex-IV Cyto. a – Cyto. a3 cyanide, CO
Complex-V ATP synthase / ATPase

 Two electron acceptors coenzyme Q or ubiquinone and cytochrome C can be easily separated from
respiratory chain, therefore they are called mobile carriers. CoQ functions for e– transport between
complex  and  and cyto.C transports e– between complex  and V.
 Hydrogen is transferred from NADH2 to FMN and NAD is obtained back from NADH2. FMN forms
FMNH2.
 Two protons and electrons are released from FMNH2. Two protons are transported out through
membrane and two electrons are taken up by Fe-S protein.
 Terminal oxidation of reduced coenzyme FADH2 also occurs at mitochondrial ETS. FADH2 gives its e–
& H+ to CoQ and become FAD.
 During the ETS, NADH2 gives it’s 2e– / 2H+ to FMN in respiratory chain, thus 3 ATP are generated,
while FADH2 give it’s 2e– / 2H+ to CoQ hence only 2 ATP are formed during the process of oxidative
phosphorylation.
6
 Glycerol Phosphate Shuttle :
OUTER INNER
CYTOSOL MEMBRANE MEMBRANE MATRIX
NADH2 NAD+
GLYCEROL-
GLYCEROL- FAD PHOSPHATE
DHAP GLYCEROL- PHOSPHATE
DEHYDROGENASE
PHOSPHATE
DHAP FADH2
GLYCEROL–PHOSPHATE SHUTTLE
Glycerol–Phosphate Shuttle Scheme
 It is less efficient and present in skeletal muscles and brain cells or most eukaryotic cells.
 In this NADH2 transfers electrons to FAD of mitochondria.
 Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and NADH2 react to form Glycerol-Phosphate in cytoplasm.
 Glycerol-Phosphate goes to outer surface of inner membrane of mitochondria, where it reacts with FAD
to form FADH2 and DHAP.
 FADH2 enters the electron system to form 2 ATP. DHAP gets transferred to cytosol.
 In the presence of this shuttle, 36 ATP are produced from one glucose molecule. (2 Glycolytic
NADH2 = 4 ATP)
 Note : When which shuttle will be functional, depends on the tissue and the species.
4 OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION AND CHEMIOSMOTIC THEORY
 By P.Mitchell
 The synthesis of energy rich ATP molecules with the help of energy librated by oxidation of reduced
coenzyme produced during respiration is called Oxidative Phosphorylation.
 The protons which are expelled out from inner mitochondrial membrane during electron transport,
produce proton gradient (pH) and membrane potential in the external environment.
 This creates proton motive force. This is utilized in the formation of ATP.
 ATP synthesis is explained by chemiosmotic theory.
 Oxidative phosphorylation occurs on F 1–F 0 particles (oxysomes or elementary particles) which are
located on inner mitochondrial membrane.
 ATPase activity is found in F1 (head) which is protruded towards matrix of the mitochondria. F0 (base)
which is embedded in inner membrane has proton channels.
 ATPase becomes active only when proton gradient develops.
 Passage of 2e– from NADH2 pushes out three pairs of protons to outer chamber of mitochondria causing
proton gradient and membrane potential. These collectively create proton motive force (pmf).
 pmf cause protons to move back only passing through F0, as inner membrane is impermeable for H+.
 Energy is released during transfer of protons to the matrix passing through F1 which is used for ATP
formation. Formation of ATP from ADP is induced by the enzyme ATP synthase (ATPase) present in F1.
7
 Chemiosmosis during oxidative phosphorylation :
 ATP synthesis during oxidative phosphorylation & Photophosphorylation is explained by Chemi-osmotic
theory of P.Mitchell 1978. According to this theory energy liberated during ETS, is used in creation of
proton gradient (pH gradient) & membrane potential which constitutes proton motive force (pmf) due to
this formation of ATP takes place in F1 particle of oxysome.
Inter Inner matrix

membrane Mitochondrial
space membrance
2 H+
ADP + ip
Head piece
F1
ATPASE
2H+
high [H+] 2H+
low [H+]
ATP
Base piece
Coupling F0
factor
Proton
2H+ 2H+
pump
2 H+
energy
 Coupling factor : ATP formation requires H+ transport. These H+ only passes through the proton tunnel
or coupling factor or F0 particle in mitochondrial membrane, and bacterial membrane
 The process of eldcron transport and oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria is tightly coupled. Some
chemicals like 2,4 Dinitrophenol (2, 4 DNP) and oligomycin acts as uncouplers for this process.
 Chemiosmosis during photophosphorylation :
 The synthesis of ATP is coupled with electron transport system and creation of proton gradient across
the membrane during photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorlaion. Both are same but the difference
is that during oxidative phosphorylation high H + ion concentration at intermembrane space/
perimitochondrial space and low H + concentration in mitochondrial matrix. W hile during
photophosphorylation High H+ conc. inside the thylakoid lumen (due to photolysis of water at thylakoid
lumen) and low H+ ion conc. in stroma.
8
4 BIOENERGETICS OF RESPIRATION - (1 MOL. OF GLUCOSE)
 This is a theoretical calculation based on some assumptions.
 EMP-Pathway -
G ATP formed at substrate level phosphorylation  4 ATP
G ATP produced via ETS (2NADH2)  4/6 ATP
G ATP consumed in glycolysis  2 ATP
10 ATP – 2 ATP = 6 / 8 ATP
Gross – Expenditure = Net or Total gain
Direct Gain = 2 ATP
 Link reaction or Gateway reaction -
2NADH2 = 6 ATP (via ETS)
 Kreb’s Cycle -
G ATP produced at substrate level phosphorylation  2GTP / 2ATP
6NADH2  18ATP
G ATP produced via ETS 2FADH  4ATP
 2
24 ATP
____________________
Total 36/38 ATP
9
 Pentose Phosphate pathway can be summarized as :
 6 Glucose-6-P + 12 NADP  6 CO 2 + 12 NADPH2 + 5 Glucose-6-P
or
 Glucose-6-P + 12 NADP  6CO 2 + 12 NADPH2
 Significance of PPP / HMP shunt :
 This pathway produces reducing power NADPH2 for the various biosynthetic pathways, other than
photosynthesis like fats synthesis, starch synthesis, hormone synthesis and chlorophyll synthesis.
 An intermediate erythrose-P (4C) of this pathway is precursor of shikimic acid, which goes synthesis
of aromatic compounds and amino acids.
 This cycle provides pentose sugars Ribose-p for synthesis of nucleotides, nucleosides, ATP and GTP.
 A five carbon intermediate Ribulose-5-phosphate may used as CO 2 acceptor in green cells.
 Intermediates like PGAL and fructose-6-phosphate of this pathway may link with glycolytic reactions.
4 OTHER METHODS OF RESPIRATION
 Respiration of Fats :
 It occurs during germination of fatty seeds and in plants when carbohydrates reserve declines.
 Fats are hydrolysed in presence of enzymes lipase to yield fatty acid and glycerol.
 Oxidation of Glycerol :
 Glycerol reacts with ATP in presence of glycerol kinase to form glycerol-3-PO 4, which is then
oxidised in presence of glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase and NAD to form dihydroxy acetone
phosphate (DHAP). DHAP enters into glycolysis.
Glycerol + ATP Kinase
  Glycerol-3-PO 4
Dehydrogenase
Glycerol-3-PO4 + NAD       DHAP/PGAL + NADH2
 Oxidation of Fatty Acids –oxidation) :

 It takes place in mitochondria and glyoxysomes.
 It involves sequential removal of 2C in the form of acetyl CoA molecules from the carboxyl end of
the fatty acid.
 Each turn of –oxidation generates one FADH2, one NADH2 and one acetyl CoA molecule. So each
turn of –oxidation generates 5 ATP molecules.
 Complete oxidation of one mole of acetyl CoA in TCA results in production of 12 ATP molecules, CO 2
and H2O.
Palmitic acid (16 C)
(1 mole)
7 turns of –oxidation 5 ATP per turn
= 35 ATP – 2 ATP (consumed in first turn) = 33 ATP

8 mole of Acetyl CoA
TCA cycle 12 ATP per cycle = 96 ATP
16 mole CO2 + 16 mole H2O Total = 129 ATP
10
 Acetic Acid Fermentation :
 It is a fermentation process which requires atmospheric oxygen.
 Ethyl alcohol is oxidized into acetic acid by the activity of acetic acid bacteria (Acetobacter aceti).
C6H12O6  yeast
 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Acetobacteraceti
2 C2H5OH + O2        CH3COOH + H2O
Acetic acid
 Butyric Acid Fermentation :
 Pyruvic acid is converted to butyric acid by the activity of anaerobic bacteria. Eg. Bacillus butyricus,
Clostridium butyricum.
 CO2 is liberated during such fermentation.
Pyruvic acid Acetoacetic acid  Butyric acid.
4 RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT
 The ratio of volume of CO2 released to the volume of O2 absorbed in respiration is called respiratory
quotient (RQ) or respiratory ratio.
Vol. of CO 2 released
RQ 
Vol. of O 2 absorbed
 Value of RQ measured by Ganong's respirometer.
 Value of RQ varies from one substrate to another.
 RQ gives the idea of nature of substrate being respired in a particular tissue.
 R.Q. value equal to unity (RQ = 1) :
 When carbohydrates are the respiratory substrate, as in green leaves, flowers, fruits, germinating seeds
of cereals etc.
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
RQ = 6 / 6 = 1
 RQ value less than unity (RQ < 1) :
 Fats as respiratory substrate
 When fats are respiratory substrate RQ is less than one because fats are poorer in oxygen and
hence require more oxygen for their oxidation. Eg. : germinating seeds of peanuts, mustard,
sunflower, castor etc.
2 C51H98O 6 + 145O2  102 CO 2 + 98H2O
Tripalmitin
RQ = 102/145 = 0.7
 Proteins as respiratory substrate –
 RQ value for proteins is also less than one. Value of RQ is between 0.8 and 0.9. Eg : germinating
seeds of gram, pea, bean etc.
11
 The inhibition of anaerobic respiration by O2 concentration is called as Pasteur’s effect.
 The minimum amount of oxygen, at which aerobic respiration takes place & anaerobic respiration
become extinct is called as extinction point.
 Oxygen concn at which both aerobic & anaerobic respiration take place simultaneously is called as
transition point.
 Carbondioxide :
 Increase in CO2 concentration reduces respiration. Consequently inhibits the germination of many
seeds and rate of growth falls down.
 Water :
 Proper hydration of respiring cells is must because decrease in water content, decreases respiratory
rate as water is necessary for the activity of enzymes.
 Dry seeds having 8–12% of water, have negligible respiratory rate but as the seeds imbibe water the
respiration increases.
 The rate of respiration of seeds increases with increase of water because water causes hydrolysis
and so enzyme activity increases. Oxygen also enters the seed through water.
 Light :
 Light has no direct effect.
 Under suitable light, rate of photosynthesis is optimun which supplies respiratory substrate at a
moderate rate and hence indirectly affects respiration.
 Injury :
 Injury or wounds causes increase in respiration because healing of wound needs more meristmatic
activity of cells which needs more energy provided by increased rate of respiration.
 After some time the rate of respiration returns to normal.
 Mineral Salts :
 If the plants are transferred from water to adequate salt solution, then rate of respiration increases.
This process is known as salt respiration.
 Hormones :
 IAA, GA & cytokinin increase the respiration rate.
 The rapid increase in rate of respiration during ripening of fruits and senscence of leaves and plant
organs is called as “Climacteric respiration”. The rate is decrease after sometime.
It is due to production of ethylene hormone.
 Inhibitors :
 CN, azides, DNP (Dinitrophenol) CO, rotenone, antimycin, amytal, etc inhibit the respiration.
 Heavy metals like lead and zinc inhibit respiration by inactivating respiratory enzymes.
12
 ATP discovered by Lohman, while importance of ATP in metabolism by Lipman.
 1 gram of fat equals to 9.8 K.Cal.
Proteins = 4.8 K.Cal.
Carbohydrate = 4.4 K.Cal (Old 3.8 K.Cal)
(Fat is energy rich respiratory substrate)
 Almost all enzymatic reactions are reversible type.
 Cytochromes are Iron-porphyrin protein discoverd by MacMunn (Termed by Keilin)
 When respiratroy substrate is fats or proteins, then level of Hg rises in Ganong’s respirometer,
because more O2 absorbed than CO2 released, If respiratory substrate is organic acids than Hg level
will fall.
 In bacteria site of ETS is mesosome.
 Respiration efficiency :
1 glucose = 686 K cal.
288 kcal
38 ATP × 7.6 K cal = × 100 = 42%
686
Thus efficiency of aerobic respiration is 42% ±.

 For the complete oxidation of one glucose if, option 38 or 36 ATP are not given, then the answer goes
to 32 or 30 ATP.
 Bichemical difference between Aerbic, Anoerobic respiration and fementation.
G Aerobic Respiration  The electron ejected by oxidation of organic ompound is terminally accepted
by external componant to organic compound or inorganic compound which is oxygen.
G Anaerobic Respiration  The electron ejected by oxidation of organic compound is terminally
accepted by external component to organic ompound or inorganic compound other than oxygen
NO2–, NO3–, SO 4–2, N2 etc.
G Fementation  The electron ejected by oxidation of organic compound is terminally accepted by
intermal component to organic compound or organic compund C2H5OH, Lactic Acid, etc
 During fermentation and anaerobic respiration only 2 ATP and 2NADH2 are produced during glycolysis.
The 2NADH2 produced terminally reduce the organic compound in fermentation and inorganic
compound, in anaerobic respiration and energy lost in form of heat as mitochondrial ETS not occurs.
13
EXERCISE-I
Q.1 What is the importance of respiration in Q.9 Aerobic respiration of glucose produces
organisms ? energy -
(1) It provides oxygen to plant (1) 637 K.cal (2) 640 K.cal
(2) It liberates energy (3) 686 K.cal (4) 693 K.cal
(3) It liberates CO2 Q.10 Succinyl Co-A is related to -
(4) All of the above (1) Krebs cycle
Q.2 Energy obtained by a cell from catabolic (2) Calvin cycle
reaction is stored immediatlety in the form (3) Glycolate cycle
of-
(4) HMP-cycle
(1) Pyruvic acid (2) Glucose
Q.11 According to chemisomotic theory of
(3) ATP (4) DNA P.Mitchell (1978), ATPs are synthesised on
Q.3 Which component of ETS is mobile, e– carrier ? membrance due to the -
(1) UQ (CO-Q) (2) Cyto a (1) Proton gradient
(3) Cyto - b (4) Cyto - f (2) Electron gradient
Q.4 Which of the following is the source of (3) Osmosis
respiration ? (4) From H2SO 4
(1) Stored food (2) RNA Q.12 A reducton of NADP to NADPH2 is associted
(3) DNA (4) ATP with-
Q.5 R.Q. is less than one at the time of (1) EMP-pathway
respiration of - (2) HMP-shunt
(1) Starch (2) Sugarcane (3) Calvin cycle
(3) Glucose (4) Ground nut (4) Glycolysis
Q.6 Number ATP produced from one pyruvic acid Q.13 Cut surface of fruit and vgetable often become
during conversion to actyl Co-A- dark because -
(1) 6 (2) 3 (3) 12 (4) 15 (1) Dirty knife makes it dark
Q.7 In succulent plants R.Q. is less than one (2) Oxidation of tannic acid in the presence
because of of trace of iron from the knife makes it
(1) Complete oxidation dark
(2) Complete reduction (3) Dust of the air makes it dark
(3) Incomplete reduction (4) None of the above
(4) Incomplete oxidation Q.14 An example of competitive inhibition of an
Q.8 The link between Glycolysis and Krebs cycle enzyme is the inhibition of :
is (1) Succinic dehydrogenase by malonic acid
(1) Citric acid (2) Cytochrome oxidase by cyanide
(2) Malic acid (3) Hexokinas by glucose-6 phosphate
(3) Fumaric acid (4) Carbonic anhydrase by carbon-dioxide
(4) Acetyl co-enzyme-A
14
Q.15 In hexose monophosphate shunt the number Q.22 End product of glycolysis is-
of CO2 molecules evolved is- (1) Citirc acid
(1) Same as in glyclysis (2) Glyceraldeyde
(2) Less than glycolysis (3) Phosphoglyceraldehyde
(3) More than glycolsis (4) Pyruvic acid
(4) Much less than glycolysis Q.23 First reaction in pentose phosphate pathway
Q.16 Conversion of pyuvic acid into ethyl alcohol is -
is mediated by - (1) Oxidation of glucose-6-phosphate
(1) Phosphatase (2) 6-Phosphogluconic acid
(2) Dehydrogenase (3) Ribose-5-phosphate
(3) Decarboxylase & dehydrogenase (4) Fructose-5-phosphate
(4) Catalase Q.24 Oxidation of one molecule of glucose in
Q.17 The commonest living, which can respire in aerobic respiration result in the formation of-
the absence of O2 is - (1) 36 ATP molecules
(1) Fish (2) Yeast (2) 40 ATP moleules
(3) Potato (4) Chorella (3) 3 ATP molecules
Q.18 The formation of Acetyl Co-A from pyuvic acid (4) 15 ATP molecules
is the result of its -
Q.25 In the electron transport chain during terminal
(1) Reduction oxidation, the cytochrome, which donated
(2) Dehydration electrons to O2 is ?
(3) Phosphorylation (1) Cytochrome-b
(4) Oxidative decarboxylation (2) Cyto-C
Q.19 W hich of the following is link between (3) Cyto-a3
carbohydrate and fat metabolism ? (4) Cyto-f
(1) CO 2 Q.26 Number of oxygen atoms required for aerobic
(2) Acetyl Co-A oxidation of one pyruvate-
(3) Pyruvic acid (1) 5 (2) 8
(4) Citric acid (3) 10 (4) 12
Q.20 Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is used in Q.27 Alternate name of Krebs cycle is -
converting- (1) Glyoxylate cycle
(1) Pyuvate to glucose (2) Glycolate cycle
(2) Glucose to pyruvate (3) Citric acid cycle
(3) Pyruvic acid to lactic acid (4) EMP Pathway
(4) Pyruvate to acetyl Co-A Q.28 Respiration in plants
Q.21 The first compound of TCA cycle is - (1) Occurs only during day
(1) Oxalo succinic acid (2) Results in the formation of vitamins
(2) Oxalo acetic acid (3) Is characteristic of all living cells
(3) Citric acid (4) Often requires CO2
(4) Cis aconitic acid
15
Q.29 In plants energy is produced during the Q.36 Carbon dioxide is liberated during -
process of - (1) Phtosynthesis (2) Transpiration
(1) Photosynthesis (3) Acent of sap (4) Respiration
(2) Transpiration Q.37 Common immediate source of energy in
(3) Respiration cellular acticity is -
(4) Water abosrption (1) glucose (2) aldohexose
Q.30 A very important feature of respiration is that (3) ATP (4) NAD
(1) It liberates energy Q.38 Energy obtined by a cell from catabolic
(2) It provides O2 reaction is stored immediataly in the form of
(3) Utilize CO 2 (1) Glucose (2) Pyruvic acid
(4) Synthesize complex compounds (3) ADP (4) ATP
Q.31 Complete oxidation of 1 gm mol of glucose Q.39 A.T.P. is

gives rise to - (1) A hormone
(1) 6860000 cals (2) 686000 cals (2) A protiein
(3) 68600 cals (4) 6860 cals (3) An enzyume which brings about oxidation
Q.32 The cell orgnelle in, which aerobic respiration (4) A molecule which contain high energy
occurs - bond
(1) Ribosome Q.40 In anaerobic respiration seeds respirs -
(2) Mitochondria (1) In presence of O 2
(3) Lysosmes (2) In presence of CO2
(4) Chloroplast (3) In absence of O2
Q.33 For the purpose of respiration in plants (4) In absence of CO 2
(1) Light is necessary Q.41 The following is required both by the process
(2) CO2 is necessary of respiration and phtosynthesis -
(3) O2 is necessary (1) Carbohydrates
(4) Chlorophyll is necessary (2) Sunlight
Q.34 The end products of respiration in plants are (3) Chlorophyll
(1) CO2, H2O and energy (4) Cytochromes
(2) Starch and O 2 Q.42 The net gain of ATP molecules in glycolysis
is -
(3) Sugar and oxygen
(1) Zero (2) Two
(4) H2O and energy
(3) Four (4) Eight
Q.35 The incomplete breakdown of sugars in
anaerobic respiration resulat in the formation Q.43 Cytochromes are concerned with -
of - (1) Protein synthesis
(1) Fructose and water (2) Cellular digestion
(2) Glucose and carbon dioxide (3) Cell division
(3) Alcohol and CO 2 (4) Cell-respiration
(4) Water and CO 2
16
Q.44 How is respiration affected on the basis of Q.52 The end product of fermentation when sugar
protoplasm activity ? are used as raw materials are -
(1) Rate of respiration in seed is found low (1) Alcohol and CO 2
(2) In dormant organs, rate of respiration is low (2) Alcohol, Pyruvate
(3) Rate of respiration is high in meristematic cells (3) CO 2
(4) All the above (4) Alcohol
Q.45 Number of every cytochrome molecule require Q.53 Iron-porphyrin protein complex occurs in -
for transfer of 2e– in ETS : (1) phytochrome (2) cytochrome
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) chlorophyll (4) both (1) and (3)
(3) 1 (4) 10 Q.54 Fermentation is conducted by
Q.46 Kreb’s cycle takes place in - (1) All bacteria
(1) Vesicles of E.R (2) All fungi
(2) Mitochiondrial matrix (3) Some fungi and some bacteria
(3) Dictyosomes (4) All microorganism
(4) Lysosomes Q.55 In the process of respiration in plants 180
Q.47 The respiration in germinating seeds gm of Glucose plus192 gm of oxygen
produces energy, which can be delflected in produce -
the form of - (1) 132 gm of CO2 , 54 gm of H2O & 483 Kcal.E
(1) water (2) O2 (2) 264 gm of CO2 , 108 gm of H2O & 686 Kcal.E
(3) Heat (4) CO 2 (3) 200 gm of C2H5OH, 72 gm of H2O & 21 Kcal.E
Q.48 In respiration pyruvic acid is - (4) None
(1) Formed only when oxygen is available Q.56 Respiratory enzymes are localised in -
(2) One of product of krebs cycle (1) Ribosomes (2) Chloroplast
(3) Broken down into Acetyl Co-A and CO2 (3) Mitochondria (4) None of the above
(4) a result of protein break down
Q.57 Respiration is an -
Q.49 Most of the energy of the carbohydrates is
(1) Exothermic process
released by oxidation when -
(2) Endothermic process
(2) Pyuvic acid is converted into acetyl Co-A (3) Anabolic process
(3) Sugar is converted into pyruvic acid (4) None of these
(4) Glucose is converted into alcohol and CO2 Q.58 In Opuntia during night the R.Q. will be -
Q.50 Glycolysis takes place in - (1) 1 (2) less than 1
(1) Cytoplasm (3) More than 1 (4) 0
(2) Chloroplast Q.59 Number of ATP molecules formed during
aerobic respiration in break down of one
(3) Ribosome
glucose molecule via malate aspartate shuttle -
(4) Mitochondria
(1) 38 (2) 18
Q.51 The universal hydrogen acceptor is -
(3) 28 (4) 4
(1) NAD (2) ATP
(3) Co-A (4) FMN
17
Q.60 During respiration pyruvic acid is formed by - Q.68 The tissue of highest respiratory activity is -
(1) Glycolysis (2) Kreb’s cycle (1) Meristem (2) Ground tissue
(3) TCA cycle (4) None of the above (3) Phloem (4) Mechanical tissue
Q.61 Enzyme involved in alcoholic fermentation - Q.69 Respiratory quotient is expressed as -
(1) Pyruvate decarboxylse (1) O2/CO2 (2) CO2/O 2
(2) Lactate dehydrogenase (3) O2/H2O (4) CO2-O2
(3) Hexoisomerase Q.70 What causes R.Q. to vary
(4) Both decarboxylase and dehydrogenase (1) Respiratory Substrate
Q.62 Kreb’s cycle is - (2) Light & O2
(1) Aerobic respiration (3) Respiratory Product
(2) Photosynthesis (4) Temperature
(3) Transpiration Q.71 The first preferred respiratory substrate is -
(4) Anaerobic respiration (1) Glucose (2) Fats
Q.63 The organism in which kreb’s cycle does not (3) Protein (4) Polypeptide
occur in mitochondria is - Q.72 Respiration results into -
(1) Yeast (1) Gain in weight
(2) E.coil (2) Loss in weight
(3) Ulothrix (3) No change in weight
(4) Molds (4) Loss of ATP
Q.64 Citric acid is produced in Q.73 Respiration occurs in -
(1) Bacterial episome (1) All living cells both in lights & dark
(2) Kreb’s cycle (2) Non green cells only in light
(3) Calvin cycle (3) Non green cells in light and dark
(4) Calvin + HSK cycle (4) All living cells in light only
Q.65 How many times CO2 released in aerobic Q.74 The value of RQ at compensation point is -
respiration -
(1) One (2) More than one
(1) One or two (2) Three
(3) Less than one (4) Inifinite
(3) Six (4) Twelve
Q.75 The value of RQ at compensation point is -
Q.66 Raw material for respiration is -
(1) Unity (2) Two
(1) Glucose & O2
(3) >1 (4) Zero
(2) Glucose & CO 2
Q.76 The value of RQ of starved cell is -
(3) Glucose & Carbon
(1) Zero (2) Less than one
(4) Glucose & sucrose
(3) 1 (4) infinite
Q.67 Slow respiring plant or plants tissues are -
Q.77 RQ of an activley phtosynthesizing tissue is-
(1) Promeristem
(1) Unity (2) < 1
(2) Cambium
(3) > 1 (4) Zero
(3) Leaf primordia & young plant
(4) Adult plants & matured tissues
18
Q.78 R.Q. of germinating ground nut & castor seed Q.86 Apparatus used to measure respiratory
is - quotient -
(1) 1 (2) < 1 (1) Potometer
(3) >1 (4) 0 (2) Auxanometer
Q.79 The value of RQ of a ripening fatty seed is- (3) Respirometer
(1) < 1 (2) > 1 (4) Warburg’s apparatus
(3) zero (4) Unity Q.87 Glycolysis involves the conversion of -
Q.80 When the evolution of CO2 is more than the (1) Protein into glucose
intake of O2 the respired substrate should be- (2) Glucose into fructose
(1) Fatty acid (3) Starch into glucose
(2) orgainc acid (4) Glucose into pyruvic acid
(3) Glucose Q.88 The end product of glycolysis is -
(4) Polysaccharides (1) Glycolate & ethanol
Q.81 The value of R.Q. of a succulent plant at (2) Glyoxylic acid & CO2
night is -
(3) Glucose or hexose units
(1) unity (2) >1
(4) Pyruvate
(3) Zero (4) Infinite
Q.89 The common phase between aerobic &
Q.82 Protoplasmic proteins are used as a anaerobic respiration is -
respiratory substrate only when -
(1) TCA cycle (2) Kreb’s cycle
(1) Carbohydrates are absent
(3) Glycolysis (4) Photo respiration
(2) Fats are absent
Q.90 Which of the follwing scientist discovered the
(3) Both 1 & 2 are absent conventional path of glycolysis -
(4) Fats & carbohydrates are abundant (1) Embeden, Myerhof and Parnas
Q.83 The term ‘’Protoplasmic respiratory’’ is used (2) Emerson, Hoffman and Peterson
when the respiratory substrate is -
(3) Embeden, Morrison and Pitcher
(1) Carbohydrates
(4) Warburg, Dickens and Horecker
(2) Portein
Q.91 What is active glucose -
(3) Organic acid
(1) FAD glucose
(4) Lipid
(2) NAD glucose
Q.84 The term ‘’Floating respiration’’ is used when
(3) Glucose-6-P
the respiratory substrate is -
(4) Glycerophosphate
(1) Carbohydrates (2) Fats
Q.92 The enzyme which converts glucose to
(3) Both 1 and 2 (4) Protein
glucose 6-phosphate-
Q.85 Respiration may take place -
(1) Phosphorylase
(1) In the presence of O 2
(2) Gluco-phosphorylase
(2) In the absence of O2
(3) Hexokinase
(3) In the presence or absence of O2
(4) Phospho glucomutase
(4) In the presence of CO2
19
Q.93 Glycolysis give rise to - Q.102 Which of the following cytochrome donated
(1) 8ATP, 2NADH2, 2 Pyruvate electron to oxygen -
(2) 2ATP, 2CoA, 2NADH2 (1) cyto.-a1 (2) cyto.-a3
(3) 2ATP, 2NADH2, 2 Pyruate (3) cyto.-b (4) cyto.-c
(4) 2ATP, 2 acetate, 2NADPH2 Q.103 The amount of energy given by one ATP
molecule is -
Q.94 The inhibitory effect of the presence of O2 on
anaerobic respiration is termed - (1) 67 K cal (2) 6.7 K cal
(1) Warburg effect (2) Pasteur effect (3) 7.6 K cal (4) 75 K cal
(3) Emerson’s effect (4) Oxygen effect Q.104 How many ATP molecules produced from the
complete oxidation of a molecule of active
Q.95 During glycolysis the mineral needed as an
acetate or acetyl Co-A -
enzyme activator is -
(1) 38 ATP (2) 15 ATP
(1) Mn++ (2) Fe++
(3) 12 ATP (4) 4 ATP
(3) Ca++ (4) Mg++
Q.105 How many ATP equivalents are produced by
Q.96 Green plants kept in light produce ATP from
the oxidation of succinate into fumarate -
the glucose. This process is -
(1) 1 ATP (2) 2 ATP
(1) Photophosphroylation
(3) 3 ATP (4) 4 ATP
(2) Hill reaction
Q.106 The product of aerobic respiration of glucose
(3) Oxidative phosphorylation
is -
(4) -oxidation
(1) CO2 + H2O + ATP
Q.97 Anaerobic respiration was reported for the
(2) CO2 + Pyruvic acid
first time by -
(3) CO 2 + ethyl alcohol
(1) Pasteur (2) Kostychev
(4) CO2 + Pyruvic acid + citric acid
(3) Klein (4) Pfeffer
Q.107 Product formed by the activity of malic
Q.98 W hich of the follwing ETS complex is
dehydrogenase is -
inhibited by cyanide -
(1) Fumaric acid (2) Malic acid
(1) Complex II (2) Complex V
(3) Oxaloacetic acid (4) Succinc acid
(3) Complex IV (4) Comlex III
Q.108 Which of the following is 5-carbon compound
Q.99 Final e– acceptor of mitochondria is -
of Kreb’s cycle -
(1) Pyruvate (2) NADP
(1) Citric acid
(3) O2 (4) OAA
(2) Furmaric acid
Q.100 The number of ATP molecules produced from
(3) Oxalosuccinic acid
one Kreb’s cycle are -
(4) -Ketoglutaric acid
(1) 15 (2) 30
Q.109 Energy for ATP synthesis is obtained from -
(3) 38 (4) 40
(1) Oxygen ion gradient
Q.101 How many molecules of ATP are produced
per molecule of FADH2 oxidised - (2) Heavy water grdient
(1) One (2) Two (3) Uranium ion gradient
(3) Three (4) four (4) Hydrogen ion gradient
20
Q.110 Mitochonderia is the site of - Q.119 Ganong’s respirometer used for -
(1) CO production (1) Respiration measuring
(2) Cell division (2) R.Q. measuring
(3) The release of energy during respiration (3) Transpiration measuring
(4) None of the above (4) All of the above
Q.111 Substrate level ATP molecules during Q.120 Direct gain of ATP from one mole of glucose
complete oxidation of 1 molecule of glucose- during glycolysis or EMP pathaway -
(1) 8 ATP (2) 6 ATP (1) 2 ATP (2) 6 ATP
(3) 4 ATP (4) 2 ATP (3) 36 ATP (4) 38 ATP
Q.112 How many ATP generates in aerobic Q.121 In glycolysis of aerobic respiration the ATP
respiration via glycerol phosphate shuttle in synthesized are -
eukaryotes ? (1) 2 ATP (2) 6 ATP
(1) 38 ATP (2) 36 ATP (3) 8 ATP (4) 30 ATP
(3) 40 ATP (4) 80 ATP Q.122 FADH2 Produced in Kreb’s-cycle from -
Q.113 How many ATP generates in aerobic (1) Isocitrate (2) -ketoglutarate
respiration of eukaryotic cell ?
(3) succinate (4) malate
(1) 28 ATP (2) 36 ATP
(3) 20 ATP (4) 40 ATP Q.123 Which 5-carbon organic acid of TCA-cycle is
Q.114 Respiration differs from burning in which of key compound in N2 -metabolism ?
the following ? (1) Cirtric acid
(1) Energy released in respiration (2) Fumaric acid
(2) Oxidation of substance occurs (3) Oxalosuccinic acid
(3) Enzymes are involved (4) -ketoglutaric acid
(4) All the above Q.124 1 mole of glucose when oxidised through
Q.115 Energy produced per gram is highest in - EMP & TCA-cycle would yield -
(1) Starch (2) Sucrose (1) 30 ATP gross
(3) Protein (4) Lipid (2) 40 ATP net
Q.116 Site of Kreb’s-cycle in respiration & ATP (3) 36 or 38 ATP net

synthesis is - (4) 38 ATP only
(1) Mitochondrial stroma Q.125 When 100% carbon is oxidised to CO2 the
(2) Matrix & oxysome efficiency of such a respiration is ?
(3) Cytoplasm (1) 40% (2) 60%
(4) None of the above (3) 80% (4) 100%
Q.117 Minimum respiration rate found in - Q.126 What is true for Kreb’s cycle ?
(1) Leaves (2) Stem (1) GTP/ATP is formed
(3) Parenchyma (4) Seeds (2) 2 Decarboxylation
Q.118 Cyanide resistant respiration is found in - (3) Acetyl Co-A acceptor is O.A.A .
(1) Homo sapiens (2) Brassica (4) All the above
(3) Spinacea (4) Bacteria
21
Q.127 -oxidation takes place in - Q.136 Anaerbic respiration takes place in -
(1) Cell Membrane [MP PMT 2002]
(2) Mitochondrial Membrane (1) Ribosome (2) Nucleus
(3) Oxysomes Head (3) Cytoplasm (4) Vacuole
(4) Perimitochondrial space Q.137 What is the energy coin of a cell ?
Q.128 Warburg-Dickens pathaway is - [MP PMT 2002]
(1) PPP (2) TCA-cycle (1) DNA (2) RNA
(3) EMP pathway (4) None (3) ATP (4) Minerals
Q.129 Which enzyme break downs the fructose-1, Q.138 The process of oxidative phosphorylation
6-Disphosphate ? takes place in - [MP PMT 2002]
(1) Hexokinase (2) Phosphatase (1) Mitochondria (2) Chloroplasts
(3) Aldolase (4) None (3) Ribosomes (4) Cytoplasm
Q.130 How much energy equal to ATP will be Q.139 R.Q. of which diet is less than unit ?
produced by HMP shunt ? [RPMT 2002]
(1) 40 ATP (2) 38 ATP (1) Carbohydrate (2) Fats
(3) 35 ATP (4) 8 ATP (3) Organic acid (4) Sugar
Q.131 Link between glycolysis & TCA cycle is - Q.140 Pyruvic acid is the end product of which
(1) Pyruvic acid (2) Acetyl Co-A process ? [RPMT 2002]
(3) Citric acid (4) None (1) Kreb’s cycle
Q.132 Aceptor of acetyl Co-A in Kreb’s-cycle is - (2) Calvin cycle
(1) Malic acid (2) Fumaric acid (3) Pentose phosphate pathway
(3) -ketoglutric acid (4) Oxalo acetic acid (4) Glycolysis
Q.133 Enzyme alternate oxidase is inhibited by : Q.141 1 molecule glucose + 6 molecule of O2 and
(1) NADP 38 ADP combined to form 12 H2O, 6 CO2 and-
(2) SHAM (Salicy hydroxamic acid) [RPMT 2002]
(3) m-CLAM (m-chloro-benzhydroxamic acid) (1) 38 molecules of ATP

(4) 2 & 3 (2) 28 ATP
Q.134 When 2-pyruvic acids froms two lactic acid (3) 38 ADP
by aneaerobic respiration then ? (4) 28 ADP
(1) One ATP is lost (2) 3 ATP is lost Q.142 Number of ATP obtained at the end of Kreb’s
(3) 6 ATP is lost (4) None cycle - [RPMT 2002]
Q.135 During oxidative phosphorylation follwoing (1) 2 ATP (2) 4 ATP
provides energy for the ATP formation - (3) 8 ATP (4) 38 ATP
(1) Co-A Q.143 During the formation of bread, it becomes
(2) NADPH porous due to release of CO2 by the action
(3) Efflux of proton to PMS of - [CPMT 2002]
(4) Pyruvic acid (1) Yeast (2) Bacterial

(3) Virus (4) Protozoans
22
Q.144 How many ATP molecules produced by Q.152 For retting of jute, the fermenting microbe
aerobic oxidation of one molecule of glucose ? used is - [AIPMT 2005]
[CPMT 2002] (1) Helicobactor pylori
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 38 (4) 34 (2) Methophilic bacteria
Q.145 Energy required for start of biochemical (3) Streptococcus lactin
reaction is - (4) Butyric acid bacteria
(1) Potential energy (2) Entropy Q.153 During which stage in the complete oxidation
(3) Activation enegy (4) Kinetic energy of glucose are the greatest number of ATp
Q.146 R.Q. of maturing fatty seeds will be - molecules formed form ADP ? [AIPMT 2005]
(1) 1 (2) More than one (1) Conversion of pyruric acid to acetyl Co A
(3) 0 (4) 0.7 (2) Electron transport chain
Q.147 Anaerobic degradation of proteins by (3) Glycolysis

microbes is known as - (4) Krebs cycle
(1) Putreification (2) Degradation Q.154 The deficiencies of micronutrients, not only
(3) Decomposition (4) None affects growth of plants, but also vital
f unctions such as photosynthetic and
Q.148 In which one of the following do the two
mitochondrial electron flow. Among the list
names refer to one and the same thing -
given below, which group of three elements
CPMT 2003] shall affact most, both photosynthetic and
(1) Kreb’s cycle and calvin cycle mitochodrial electron transport -
(2) Tricarboxylic acid cycle and citric acid [AIPMT 2005]
cycle (1) Cu, Mn Fe (2) Co, Ni, Mo
(3) Citric and cycle and Calvin cycle (3) Mn Co, Ca (4) Ca, K, Na
(4) Tricarboxylic acid cycle and urea cycle Q.155 Chemiosmotic theory of ATP synthesis in the
Q.149 In alcohol fermentation - [CPMT 2003] chloroplast and mitochondria is based on -
(1) Triose phosphate is the electron donor, [AIPMT 2005]
while acetaldehyde is the electron (1) Proton gradient
accceptor
(2) Accumulation of K ions
(2) Triose phosphate is the electron donor,
(3) Accumulation of Na ions
while pyruv ic acid is the electron
acceptor (4) Membrane potential
(3) There is no electron donor Q.156 Respiration is which type of process-
(4) Oxygen is the electron acceptor [RPMT 2005]
Q.150 In glycolysis, during oxidation electrons are (1) Catabolic

removed by - [CPMT 2004] (2) Metabolic
(1) Molecular oxygen (2) ATP (3) Anabolic
(3) Glyceraldehyde (4) NAD+ (4) None
Q.151 Aerobic respiration is how many times useful Q.157 R.Q. is represented by- [RPMT 2005]
than anaerobic respiration - [RPMT 2004] (1) O2/CO2 (2) CO2/O 2
(1) 2 (2) 8 (3) V2/V2–V1 (4) O2 taken in
(3) 19 (4) 38
23
Q.158 Which is the site of Kreb’s cycle - Q.163 All enzymes of TCA cycle are located in th
(1) Chloroplast [RPMT 2005] mitochondroial martix except one which is
located in inner mitochondrial membrane in
(2) Golgibody
eukaryotes and in cytosol in prokaryotes. This
(3) Mitochondria enzyme is - [AIPMT 2007]
(4) Endophasmic reticulum (1) Succinate dehydrogenase
Q.159 Curing of tea leaves is broght about by the (2) Lactate dehydrogenase
actiivty of - [AIPMT 2006]
(3) Isocitrate dehydrogenase
(1) viruses
(4) Malate dehydrogenase
(2) fungi
Q.164 Which one of the following mamalian cells
(3) bacteria are not capable of metabolising glucose to
(4) mycorrhiza carbondioxide aerobically ? [AIPMT 2007]
Q.160 Which of the following statements regarding (1) Red blood cells
mitochondrial membrane is NOT correct ? (2) White blood cells
[AIPMT 2006] (3) Unstriated muscle cells
(1) The inner membrance is highly convoluted (4) Liver cells
forming a series of infolding
Q.165 A competitiv e inhibitor of succinc
(2) The outer membrane resembles a sieve dehydrogenase is - [AIPMT 2008]
(3) The outer membrance is permeable to all (1) -ketoglutarate (2) Malate
kinds of molecules
(3) Malonate (4) Oxaloacetate
(4) The enzymes of the electron transfer
Q.166 The chemisomotic coupling hypothesis of
chain are embedded in the outer
oxidative phosphorylation proposes that
membrane.
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is formed
Q.161 How many ATP molecules could maximally because - [AIPMT 2008]
be generated from one molecule of glucose,
(1) A proton gradient forms across the inner
if the complete oxidation of one mole of
membrane
glucose to CO2 and H2O yields 686 kcal and
the useful chemical energy (2) There is a change in the permeabity of
the inner mitochondrial membrane towrds
available in the high energy phosphate bond
adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
of one mole of ATP is 12 Kcal ?
(3) High energy bonds are f ormed in
[AIPMT 2006]
mitochondrial proteins
(1) 57 (2) 1
(4) ADP is pumped out of the matrix into the
(3) 2 (4) 30 intermembrane space
Q.162 The overall goal of glycolysis, Krebs cycle Q.167 The energy-relesing process in which the
and the electron transport system is the substrate is oxidised without an external
formation of - [AIPMT 2007] electron acceptor is called - [AIPMT 2008]
(1) Nucleic acids (1) Aerobic respiration
(2) ATP in small stepwise units (2) Glycolysis
(3) ATP in one large oxidation reaction (3) Fermentation
(4) Sugars (4) Photorespiration
24
Q.168 In germinating seeds fatty acids are degraded Q.175 Which statement about respiration is correct ?
exclusively in the - [AIPMT 2008] (1) All energy is released in the form of heat
(1) Peroxisomes (2) Oxydations occurs with use of enzyme
(2) Mitochondria (3) Energy released in single step
(3) Proplastids (4) All the above
(4) Glyoxysomes Q.176 What is the product of aerobic respiration ?
Q.169 How is the energy present in food released (1) CO2 (2) H2O
during biological oxidation ?
(3) Energy (4) All the above
(1) In one step, quickly
Q.177 It is equally found in aerobic as well as
(2) In two steps, slowly anaerobic respiration ?
(3) In different steps, slowly (1) Glycolysis (2) Kreb's Cycle
(4) In different steps, quickly (3) Both of above (4) ETS
Q.170 During biological oxidation in which form Q.178 What happens in fermentation ?
energy is temporarily stored –
(1) Incomplete oxidation of Glucose
(1) In the form of Glucose
(2) Complete oxidation of Glucose
(2) In the form of Pyruvic acid
(3) In the form of ATP
(4) All the above
Q.179 What are the reasons for less frequent
Q.171 Which of these is a high energy molecule ? fermentation ?
(1) GTP (2) CTP (1) Due to less energy production, the energy
(3) TTP (4) All the above supply is less
Q.172 ATP is formed in – (2) Due to more use of respiratory substrate,
(1) Respiration it is not available for growth and other
process
(2) Photosynthesis
(3) The excess of final and intermediate
(3) Photophosphorylation
products of fermentation produce toxicity
(4) All the above
(4) All the above
Q.173 ATP is called the –
Q.180 What is the other name of glycolysis
(1) Cellular furnace
(1) HMP pathway (2) EMP pathway
(2) Energy centre of the cell
(3) PPP (4) All the above
(3) Biological energy currency
Q.181 What is formed at the end of first step of
(4) Energy depositing molecule phosphorylation of glycolysis ?
Q.174 What is wrong about respiration ? (1) Glucose 6-PO 4
(1) It does not occur in cell (2) Fructose 6-PO4
(2) Oxidation occurs without the use of (3) Fructose 1-6 diPO4
enzymes
(4) Any of the above
(3) Energy is released in one step quickly
Q.182 Phosphorylation of glucose occurs by –
(4) All the above
(1) H3PO4 (2) ATP
(3) Any of the above (4) None of the above
25
Q.183 What is formed by the breakdown of Fructose Q.191 W hy the anim als f eel f atigue duri ng
1-6 diphosphate in glycolysis ? exercise ?
(1) PGAL (1) Due to accumulation of malic acid
(2) DHAP (2) Due to accumulation of lactic acid
(3) Both of above (3) Due to accumulation of pyruvic acid
(4) PGA (4) Due to all the above
Q.184 When is NADH2 formed in glycolysis ? Q.192 What is there in Pyruvic dehydrogenase
(1) During the formation of DiHAP from PGAL complex ?
(2) During the formation of 1-3 DiPGAL from (1) Pyruvic decarboxylase with TPP Mg++
PGAL (2) COA
(3) During the formation of 1-3 DiPGA from 1- (3) Lipoic acid
3 DiPGAL (4) All the above
(4) During the formation of PeP from PGA Q.193 What is the other name for Kreb's Cycle ?
Q.185 When is ATP formed in glycolysis ? (1) TCA Cycle (2) DCA Cycle
(1) During the formation of 3-PGA from 1-3 (3) Both of above (4) None of the above
DiPGA
Q.194 Which is the 6 carbon compound in Kreb's
(2) During the formation of Pyruvic acid from cycle ?
PEP
(1) Citric/Isocitric acid (2) Aconitic acid
(3) Both of above (3) Oxalosuccinic acid (4) All the above
(4) None of the above Q.195 What is formed besides succinic acid during
Q.186 How many molecules of pyruvic acid are its formation in Kreb's Cycle ?
formed in glycolysis ? (1) ADP (2) GTP
(1) One (2) Two (3) Three (4) Four (3) NADH2 (4) FADH2
Q.187 The products of glycolysis are – Q.196 Which is the 4-carbon compound found in
(1) Pyruvic acid (2) 2 NADH2 Kreb's cycle ?
(3) 2 ATP (4) All the above (1) Succinic acid (2) Fumaric acid
Q.188 What is the total gain in terms of ATP in (3) Malic acid (4) All the above
glycolysis ? Q.197 What else is formed during formation of
(1) Six (2) Four (3) Eight (4) Ten Fumaric acid from succinic acid ?
Q.189 How many ATPs are stored in anaerobic (1) FADH2 (2) NADH2
respiration ? (3) NADPH2 (4) None of these
(1) Two (2) Four (3) Six (4) Eight Q.198 How many FADH2 are formed from one
Q.190 What is formed during exercising in skeletal pyruvic acid molecule ?
muscles ? (1) One (2) Two
(1) Pyruvic acid (3) Three (4) Four
(2) Lactic acid Q.199 How many NADH2 are formed from one
(3) Ethyl alcohol glucose molecule ?
(4) Acetone (1) Four (2) Five (3) Eight (4) Ten
26
Q.200 How many FADH2 are formed in one Kreb's Q.210 Which electron acceptors can easily be
cycle ? separated from respiratory chain ?
(1) One (2) Two (3) Three (4) Four (1) Co-Q (2) Cyt-c
Q.201 How many FADH2 are formed from one (3) Both of above (4) Fe-S Protein
glucose molecule ? Q.211 Which are called mobile carriers of respiratory
(1) One (2) Two (3) Three (4) Four chain ?
Q.202 Where the reaction of Kreb's cycle occur ? (1) Co-Q
(1) Cytoplasm (2) Cyt-c
(2) Mitochondrial matrix (3) Both of above
(3) Mitochondrial cristae (4) None of the above
(4) F1 particles of mitochondia Q.212 W hich acts as mobile carrier between
Q.203 How many ATP are obtained from NADH2 ? complex-and complex-V ?
(1) One (2) Two (3) Three (4) Four (1) Fe-S (2) Co-Q
Q.204 How many ATP are obtained from FADH2 ? (3) Cyt-C (4) None of these
(1) One (2) Two (3) Three (4) Four Q.213 Hydrogen is transferred from FADH2 to –
Q.205 NADH2 to ATP synthesis occurs through – (1) NAD (2) FMN
(1) ETS (2) PPP (3) Co-Q (4) NADP
(3) EMP (4) HMP

Q.214 Hydrogen is transferred from NADH2 to –
Q.206 Which complex is formed by FMN NADH2,
(1) FAD (2) FMN
Dehydrogenase,?
(3) Co-Q (4) Fe-S
Q.215 Who discovered chemiosmosis ?
(3) Complex– (4) All the above
(1) Mitchell
Q.207 Which substances are found in complex  of
ETS ? (2) Warburg & Dickens
(1) FMN NADH2, dehydrogenase (3) Raecker
(2) Co-Q FADH2, Dehydrogenase (4) Krebs
(3) Both of above Q.216 From which place H+ protons enter matrix
f rom outside of inner membrane of
(4) None of above
mitochondria ?
Q.208 Which complex is formed by Cyt.a3 and Cyt.a
(1) Any part of the membrane
of ETS ?
(2) Through elementary particles/oxysomes
of membrane
(3) Complex– (4) Complex–V
(3) From terminal end of cristae
Q.209 Where is ATPase complex found ?
(1) On cristae of mitochondria
Q.217 W hich part of elementary particle is
(2) In matrix of mitochondria completely embedded in the membrane ?
(3) In oxysomes present on cristae of (1) F0 (2) F1
mitochondria
(3) Both of above (4) None of these
(4) On F0 particles of mitochondria
27
Q.218 By transfer of how many protons, one ATP is Q.225 PPP is related to –
formed ? (1) Glycolysis (2) Kreb's cycle
(1) 1H+ (2) 2H+ (3) Respiration (4) Photosynthesis
(3) 3H+ (4) 4H+ Q.226 PPP is an alternative of –
Q.219 How many pairs of protons are released in (1) Anaerobic respiration
respiratory chain by one NADH2 ?
(2) Fermentation
(1) One pair (2) Two pairs
(3) Aerobic respiration
(3) Three pairs (4) Four pairs
(4) All the above
Q.220 What is the method of formation of ATP in
Q.227 What is the significance of PPP ?
mitochondria ?
(1) It provides reductive power
(1) Osmosis
(2) It provides ribose sugars for nucleic acid
(2) Chemiosmosis
synthesis
(3) Chemiphosphorylation
(3) Provides Erythrose 4-P for synthesis of
(4) Osmophosphorylation lignin, anthocyanin, auxin etc
Q.221 Phosphorylation at substrate level is found (4) All the above
in-
Q.228 Why NADH2 produced in glycolysis cannot
(1) Glycolysis enter mitochondria generally ?
(2) Kreb's cycle (1) Mitochondrial membrane is impermeable
(3) Both (1) and (2) to NADH2
(4) None of the above (2) NADH2 is used in cytoplasm only
Q.222 W hich is called phosphorylative proton (3) Both of above
coupling ? (4) None of the above
(1) Formation of ADP Q.229 If malate aspartate shuttle is effective then
(2) Formation of ATP by energy present how many ATPs are formed from Glucose ?
in NADH2, FADH2 through respiratory (1) 36 ATP (2) 38 ATP
chain
(3) 30 ATP (4) 34 ATP
(3) Formation of ATP at substrate level
Q.230 Where H2 of NADH2 obtained by glycolysis
(4) All the above through Glycerol Phosphate shuttle is
Q.223 Who resists terminal oxidation of respiratory transferred ?
chain ? (1) In matrix of mitochondria
(1) CO (2) KCN (2) On inner surface of inner membrane of
(3) Both (1) and (2) mitochondria
(4) None of these (3) On inner surface of outer membrane of
Q.224 Where is PPP (Pentose Phosphate pathway) mitochondria
performed in cell ? (4) On outer surface of inner membrane of
(1) In mitochondrial matrix mitochondria
(2) In cytoplasm Q.231 In presence of Glycerol Phosphate shuttle, a

glucose molecule yields –
(3) In mitochondrial membrane
(1) 38 ATP (2) 36 ATP
(3) 34 ATP (4) 30 ATP
28
Q.232 In prokaryotes, a glucose molecule always Q.237 Why the RQ value for fats and proteins is
yields – less than one ?
(1) 38 ATP (1) Due to less O as compared to C in fats
(2) 36 ATP and proteins
(3) 2 ATP (2) Due to incomplete breakdown of fats and

proteins
(4) 8 ATP
(3) Due to complete breakdown of fats and
Q.233 In eukaryotes, a glucose molecule forms –
proteins
(1) Always 36 ATP
(4) Due to more O in fats and proteins
(2) Always 38 ATP
Q.238 The fruits in which rate of respiration
(3) Always 38 ATP or 36 ATP increases during ripening is called –
(4) None of the above (1) Respiratory fruit (2) Climacteric fruit
Q.234 Which is the substrate generally used first of (3) Climax fruit (4) Ethylinated fruit
all in respiration ?
(1) Protein Q.239 The energy-releasing metabolic process in
(2) Fat which substrate is oxidised without an
external electron acceptor is called-
(3) Carbohydrate
[AIPMT-2010 (Pre)]
(4) Organic acid
(1) Aerobic respiration (2) Photorespiration
Q.235 The ratio of CO2 released and O2 utilised in
a definite time by a definite weight of (3) Glycolysis (4) Fermentation
respiratory substrate is called –
Q.240 In mitochondria, protons accumulate in the :
(1) Respiration
[AIPMT-2011 (Mains)]
(2) Temperature quotient
(1) Matrix
(3) Respiratory ratio (2) Outer membrane
(4) Respiratory effect (3) Inner membrane
(4) Intermembrane space
Q.236 Why RQ value of carbohydrates is one ?
(1) Carbohydrates breakdown completely in Q.241 Glycogenolysis involes [RPMT-2011]
respiration (1) conversion of sugar into glycongen
(2) Carbohydrates have almost equal C and O (2) oxidation of sugar
(3) conversion of glycogen into sugar
(3) Both of above
(4) conversion of glycogen into fat
29
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE-I
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 3 1 1 4 2 4 4 3 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 2 4 2 4
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 4 1 1 3 1 3 3 3 1 2 2 3 1 3 4 3 4 4 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 4 4 4 1 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 3 1 2 1 1
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 4 1 2 2 3 1 4 1 2 1 1 2 1 3 4 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 3 3 2 3 3 3 4 4 3 1 3 3 3 2 4 3 2 3 3 1
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 2 2 3 3 2 1 3 4 4 3 3 2 2 3 4 2 4 3 2 1
Ques. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 3 3 4 3 1 4 4 1 3 3 2 4 4 3 3 3 3 1 2 4
Ques. 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
Ans. 1 4 1 3 3 2 1 2 1 4 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 4
Ques. 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
Ans. 1 2 1 1 3 1 3 4 3 3 4 4 3 4 2 4 1 1 4 2
Ques. 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200
Ans. 1 2 3 3 3 2 4 3 1 2 2 4 1 4 2 4 1 1 4 1
Ques. 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220
Ans. 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Ques. 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240
Ans. 3 2 3 2 3 3 4 1 2 4 2 1 3 3 3 2 1 2 4 4
Ques. 241
Ans. 3
30
EXERCISE-II
Q.1 Respiratory Quotient (R.Q) is defined as - Q.8 In which of the following steps of Krebs cycle
CO2 is evolved - [West Bengal 2007]
[Uttaranchal 2004]
(1) Isocitric acid  oxalosuccinic acid
(1) vol. of O2 / vol. of CO 2
(2) Oxalosuccinic acid -ketoglutaric acid
(2) vol. of CO2 / vol. of O 2
(3) succinic acid  fumaric acid
(3) vol. of O2 / vol. of N2
(4) malic acid  oxaloacetic acid
(4) vol. of N2 / vol. of CO 2
Q.9 Which of the following enzyme is not used in
Q.2 Pyuvic acid is formed during -
Krebs’ cycle - [West Bengal 2007]
[Uttaranchal 2005]
(1) Aconitase (2) Decarboxylase
(1) Krebs cycle
(3) Aldolase (4) Furmarase
(2) Glycolysis Q.10 End produced of fermentation is -
(3) Ornithine cycle [West Bengal 2007]
(4) Calvin cycle (1) O2 (2) N2O
Q.3 The correct sequence of electron acceptor in (3) H2O (4) C2H5OH
ATP synthesis - [Uttaranchal 2005]
Q.11 Gluconeogenesis is - [West Bengal 2007]
(1) cyt a,a3 b, c (2) cyt b, c, a, a3
(1) Formation of glucose from other than
(3) cyt b, c3, a, a3 (4) cyt c, b, a, a3 carbohydrate
Q.4 Which one of the following contains copper (2) Formation of glycogen
besides iron -
(3) Breakdown of glucose
(1) Cytochrome-f (4) Formation of ammonia from glucose
(2) Cytochrome oxidase Q.12 -oxidation takes place in -
(3) Platoquinone [West Bengal 2007]
(4) Cytochrome-c1 (1) Matrix of mitochondria
Q.5 Where does formaton of acetyl Co-A form (2) Cell cytoplasm
pyruvic acid take place - [Uttaranchal 2006]
(3) Inter mitochondrial chamber
(1) Mitochondria (2) Cholroplast
(4) Ribosomes
(3) Cytoplasm (4) Golgi body
Q.13 In TCA cycle the conversion of succinyl
Q.6 The number of ATP molecules prduced by co-A to succinic acid requires -
electron transport system from kreb’s cycle [West Bengal 2007]
intermediates in a single turn is -
(1) Acetyl Co-A + GTP + ip
[Uttaranchal 2004]
(2) Acetyl Co-A + GDP + iP
(1) 11 (2) 14
(3) Co-A + GTP + iP
(3) 12 (4) 16
(4) GDP + iP
Q.7 In anaerobic respiration the number of ATP
Q.14 Yeast is used in the formation of -
molecules produced are -
[C.G. PMT 2007]
[West Bengal 2006]
(1) Ammonia (2) Alcohol
(1) 1 (2) 2
(3) Curd (4) Petrol
(3) 3 (4) 8
31
Q.15 Fermentation is represented by equation - Q.22 Sequence of cytochromes is :
(1) C6H12O6+6O2  6CO 2+6H2O+673K cal (1) cyt. a, b,c, a3 (2) cyt. b, c, a, a3
(2) C6H12O 6  2C2H5OH+2CO 2 (3) cyt. b, a,,a3, c (4) cyt. b, c, a3, a
(3) 6CO2+ 12H2O C6H12 O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Q.23 Cytochrome is a : [Jharkhand- 2006]
light (1) Mg pyrole ring (2) Fe prophyrin ring
(4) 6CO2+ 6H2O    C H O + 6O
chlorophyl l 6 12 6 2
(3) Nucleotide (4) Alloy of nichrome
Q.16 Which of the following is formed during Q.24 Krebs cycle takes place in :
respiration ? [C.G. PMT 2004]
[Jharkhand- 2006]
(1) O2 (Oxygen)
(1) mitochondrial matrix
(2) CO2 (Carbon dioxide)
(2) Cytoplasm
(3) NO2 (NItrogen dioxide)
(3) Lysosome
(4) SO2 (Shulphur dioxide)
(4) Nucleus
Q.17 The pyruvic acid formed in glycolysis is
oxidised to CO2 and H2O in a cycle called : Q.25 Cellular respiration occurs in -

(1) Calvin cycle (1) Chloroplast (2) Golgibodies
(2) Hill reaction (3) Mitochondria (4) Nucleus
(3) Krebs cycle Q.26 Maximum amount of energy/ATP is liberated
on oxidation of : [Jharkhand- 2004]
(4) Nitrogen cycle
(1) Fats (2) Proteins
Q.18 The end product of glycolysis is :
(3) Starch (4) Vitamins
[C.G. PMT 2005]
(1) Glucose (2) Fructose Q.27 More CO2 is evolved than the volume of
oxygen consumed when the respiratory
(3) Pyruvic acid (4) Ethyl alcohol
substrate is : [Jharkhand- 2004]
Q.19 R.Q. is more than one in case of :
(1) Fat (2) Sucrose
[C.G. PMT 2005]
(1) Fat (2) Fructose
Q.28 Krebs cycle begins with the reaction :
[Jharkhand- 2004]
Q.20 Total yield in one Kerb cycle :
(1) Citric acid + Acetyl CO-A
[C.G. PMT 2006]
(2) Oxalacetic acid + Pyruvic acid
(3) Oxalacetic acid + Citric acid
(4) Oxaloacetate + Acetyl CO-A
(3) 2 NADH2, 1 FADH2, 2ATP
Q.29 Hydrolysis of fat yields :
(4) 3 NADH2, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP
[Jharkhand- 2004]
Q.21 How many ATP will be produced during the
production of 1 molecule of Accetyl Co-A from (1) Facts
1 molecule of pyryvic acid ? [C.G. PMT 2006] (2) Fatty acids and glycerol
(1) 3 ATP (2) 5 ATP (3) Mannose and glycerol
(3) 8 ATP (4) 38 ATP (4) Maltose and fatty acid
32
Q.30 Respiratory quotient of which diet is less than Q.38 In plants, respirtion takes place :
unity ? [Jharkhand- 2004] [Bihar- 2002]
(1) Carbohydrate (2) Fats (1) During day only
(3) Organic acid (4) Sugar (2) During night only
Q.31 Richest energy compound is : [Bihar- 2005] (3) All the 24 hours
(1) Creatinine phosphate
(4) At dusk
(2) Protein
Q.39 Glycolysis takes place in : [Bihar- 2001]
(3) carbohydrate
(1) Cytoplasm (2) Nucleus
(4) Fat
(3) Plastid (4) Miltochondria
Q.32 The stage upto which glycolysis and
Q.40 In respiration, largest amount of energy is
fermentation is common : [Bihar- 2005]
produced in - [Bihar- 2006]
(1) dihydroxy acetone
(1) anaerobic respiration
(2) 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
(2) Krebs cycle
(3) pyruvate
(3) glycolysis
(4) glucose-6-phosphate
(4) none of the above
Q.33 Respiratory quotient of carbohydrate is -
Q.41 Which of the following is not an intermediate
[Bihar- 2005] in Krebs cycle ? [Bihar- 2006]
(1) unity (2) greater than unity
(1) Acetic acid
(3) less than units (4) equal to five
(2) Succinyl coenzyme-A
Q.34 During conversion of pyruvic acid into acetyl
(3) Malic acid
Co-A, pyruvic acid is [Bihar- 2003]
(4) Citric acid
(1) oxidised (2) reduced
Q.42 The pyruvic acid acid is formed during :
(3) isomerised (4) condensed
[UP CPMT- 2001]
Q.35 In Kreb’s cycle : [Bihar- 2003]
(1) Krebs cycle
(1) ADP is converted into CO2
(2) glycolysis
(3) ornithine cycle
(3) Glucose is converted into CO2
(4) photophosphorylation
(4) Pyruvic acid is converted into ATP
Q.36 Incomplete breakdown of sugar in anaerobic Q.43 The number of ATP molecules gained during
respiration forms - [Bihar- 2003] aerobic respiration of 1 mole of glucose is :
(1) glucose and CO 2 [UP CPMT- 2001]
(2) alcohol and CO 2 (1) 12 (2) 18
(3) water and CO 2 (3) 30 (4) 38
(4) fructose and water Q.44 Alcoholic fermentation takes place in the
presence of : [UP CPMT- 2001]
Q.37 Significance of Kreb’s cycle : [Bihar- 2002]
(1) maltase
(1) Synthesis of ATP
(2) zymase
(2) Synthesis of amino acid
(3) amylase
(3) Synthesis of chlorphyll
(4) invertase
(4) All
33
Q.45 The site of EMP pathway in cell is : Q.53 How many ATP molecules released when 1
[UP CPMT- 2001] molecules of glucose is oxidised in our liver
(1) peroxisome cells ? [UP CPMT- 2005]
(2) cytoplasm (1) 36 (2) 38 (3) 2 (4) 8
(3) matrix of mitochondria Q.54 Sequence of food materials consumed during
starvation is : [UP CPMT- 2005]
(4) inner membrane of mitochondria
Q.46 Step of respiration are controlled by : (1) Carbohydrate  fats  protein
[UP CPMT- 2002] (2) Carbohydrate  proteins  fats
(1) Substrates (2) Enzymes (3) Proteins  facts  carbohydrate
(3) Hormone (4) Bile juice (4) Fats  proteins  carbohydrate
Q.47 Enzymes of electron transport system is Q.55 How many ATPs are produced during
present in : [UP CPMT- 2003] glycolysis of one molecule of glucose ?
(1) Inner mitochondrial membrane [UP CPMT- 2006]
(2) Matrix (1) 4 (2) 2 (3) 36 (4) 38
(3) Intermembranous space Q.56 Final electron acceptor in ETS is :
(4) Endoplasmic reticulum [UP CPMT- 2006]
Q.48 Which of the following connects glycolysis to (1) NAD (2) FAD
Kreb’s cycle ? [MP PMT 2001,UP CPMT- 2003]
(3) Oxygen (4) Hydrogen
(1) Acetyl CO-A
Q.57 Respiratory cycle where NADH2 are produced
(2) Ribozyme
is - [UP CPMT- 2006]
(3) Cytochrome oxidase
(1) Calvin cycle (2) Kreb’s cycle
(4) N-acetyl glucosamine
(3) EMP pathway (4) HMP shunt
Q.49 Pyruvic acid is the end product of
Q.58 Most of the enzymes which participate in
[UP CPMT- 2003]
Kreb’s cycle are found in : [MP PMT- 2001]
(1) Kreb’s cycle
(1) Matrix of mitochondria
(2) Electron transport system
(2) Inner membrane of mitochondria
(3) Phtosynthesis
(4) Glycolysis (3) Outer membrane of mitochondria
Q.50 Which of the following accepts terminal (4) Stroma of chloroplast

electron during aerobic respiration ? Q.59 The connecting link between glycolysis and
[UP CPMT- 2003] Krebs cycle is : [MP PMT- 2001]
(1) Molecular O2 (2) Molecular H2 (1) Acetyl CO A (2) CO Q
(3) Molecular CO 2 (4) NADOH2 (3) Conenzyme (4) COA
Q.51 Glycolysis occurs in : [UP CPMT- 2004] Q.60 The process of oxidative phosphorylation
(1) Cytoplasm (2) Nucleus takes place in : [MP PMT- 2002]
(3) Mitochondria (4) Both ‘a’ and ‘c’ (1) Mitochondria (2) Chloroplasts
(3) Ribosomes (4) Cytoplasm
Q.52 Which one of the following is the first step of
glycolysis ? [UP CPMT- 2004] Q.61 Glycolysis is the conversion of :
(1) Breakdown of glucose [MP PMT- 2002]
(1) Glucose to glycogen
(2) Phosphorylation of glucose
(2) Glycogen to glucose
(3) Conversion of gloucose into fructose
(3) Glucose to pyruvic acid
(4) Dehydrogenation of glucose
(4) Glucose to citric acid
34
Q.62 Anaerobic respiration takes place in : Q.68 ATP stands for which of the following -
[MP PMT- 2002] (1) Adenine tetraphosphate [MP PMT- 2004]
(1) Ribosome (2) Nucleus (2) Adenine triphosphate
(3) Cytoplasm (4) Vacuole (3) Adenosine diphosphate
Q.63 Which of the following is the product of (4) Adenosine triphosphate
glucose fermentation by yeast ? Q.69 Glycolysis occurs in : [MP PMT- 2005]
[MP PMT- 2003] (1) Vecuoles (2) Nucleolus
(1) C6H12O 6 (2) C2H5OH (3) Mitochondria (4) Cytoplasm
(3) (C6H10O5)n (4) CH2OH Q.70 The number of ATP produced during the
Q.64 Fermentation is an : [MP PMT- 2003] production of 1 molecule of acetyl CoA from 1
(1) Anaerobic respiration molecule of Pyruvic acid is : [MP PMT- 2006]
(2) Incomplete oxidation (1) 3 ATP (2) 8 ATP
(3) Excertory process (3) 36 ATP (4) 38 ATP
(4) None of the above Q.71 The energy produced by one ATP molecule
Q.65 Organelles which are regarded as ‘’Power is : [MP PMT- 2006]
house of the cell and in which the oxidative (1) 7.6 kcal (2) 12 kcal
reactions of the respiratory process takes (3) 20 kcal (4) 100 kcal
place are known as : [MP PMT- 2004] Q.72 W hich of the following show anaerobic
(1) Chloroplast (2) Ribosomes respiration : [MP PMT- 2006]
(3) Mitochondria (4) Endoplasmic reticulum (1) Earthwarm (2) Rabbit
Q.66 In which of the following, respiration in (3) Echinoderms (4) Tapeworms
absence of oxygen also takes place : Q.73 It is belived that the organisms first inhabited
[MP PMT- 2004] earth’s sufarce were : [MP PMT- 2006]
(1) Man (2) Potato (1) Autotrophs (2) Mixotrophs
(3) Yeast (4) Spirogya (3) Chemoautotrophs (4) Heterotrophs
Q.67 CO2 is liberated during : [MP PMT- 2004] Q.74 Pyruv ic acid bef ore combining with
(1) Ascent of sap (2) Respiration oxaloacetic acid of Krebs cycle, becomes :
(3) Photosynthesis (4) Transpiration (1) Citric acid (2) Acetoacetic acid
(3) Cis-aconitic acid (4) Acetyl CoA
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE-II
Q u e s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A n s. 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 3 4 1 3 4 2 2 2 3 3 4 4
Q u e s. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A n s. 1 2 2 1 3 1 4 4 2 2 4 3 1 1 2 2 4 3 1 2
Q u e s. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
A n s. 1 2 4 2 2 2 1 1 4 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 1
Q u e s. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74
A n s. 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 4 4 1 1 4 4 4
35
EXERCISE-III
These questions consist of two statements each, Q.6 Assertion :- Enzymes of Krebs cycle are endo
printed as Assertion and Reason. While answer- enzymes.
ing these Questions are required to choose any Reason:- All the enzymes of Kreb’s cycle
one of the following four responses. function inside the cell
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are True & the
Reason is a correct explanation of the As-
Q.7 Asserti on :- Kerbs cycle is called as
sertion.
amphibolic pathway of respiration
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are True but
Reason is not a correct explanation of the Reason:- Krebs cycle takes place in cytosol
Assertion.
(3) If Assertion is True but the Reason is False. Q.8 Assertion :- Pyruvic acid can not enter in
mitochondria
(4) If both Assertion & Reason are false.
Reason:- Pyruvic acid is 4-Carbon compund.
Q.1 Assertion :- In the process of alcoholic

Q.9 Assertion :- Fermentation is an incomplete
fermentation, the hexose molecule is converted
oxidation of substrate outside the cell.
in starch.
Reason:- In Alocholic fermentation the hexose
Reason:- Alcoholic fermentation is aerobic.
converts in to glucose & fructose
Q.2 Assertion :- Respiration occurs both in

Q.10 Assertion :- Glyoxilate cycle is an example of
prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells.
gluconeogenesis.
Reason:- In eukaryotic cells respiration in only
Reason:- Glyoxilate cycle operates in stroma
aerobic.
of chloroplast.
Q.3 Assertion :- Pentose phosphate pathway is

Q.11 Assertion :- Only 2 molecules of ATP gener-
also known as cytosolic decarboxylation.
ates in anaerobic respiration
Reason:- All the carbon dioxide is released in
Reason:- Anaerobic respiration is incomplete
cytosal during this pathway.
oxidation of respiratory substrate
Q.4 Assertion :- Aerobic (oxygenated) atmosphere

Q.12 Assertion :- 4-carbon intermediate of Kreb’
on earth is maintained due to the action of
s-cycle is Erythrose-P
photosynthetic organisms
Reason:- Kreb’s-cycle occurs in night
Reason:- Cyanobacteria are non oxygenic form
of plants
Q.13 Assertion :- Lactic acid is produced anaerobi-
cally in human muscles
Q.5 Assertion :- Value of R.Q. is more than one
during the germination of fatty seeds. Reason:- The reaction is catalysed by lacto-
bacillus
Reason:- More CO2 liberated than absorbed O2
in fat-oxidation.
36
Q.14 Assertion :- Anaerobic respiration gives only Q.22 Assertion :- Succinyl CoA is the precursor of
2 ATP. most pf porphyrin ring containing compounds
Reason:- Only one FADH2 reacts at ETS in Reason:- Chlorophyll is synthesised from suc-
anaerbic respiration cinyl Co-A.
Q.15 Assertion :- Glycolysis is also known as

Q.23 Assertion :- Reduction of NAD in glycolysis is
oxidative anabolism.
energy conserving step.
Reason:- Glucose splits during this and some
Reason:- Energy neither be created nor be
intermediates involve in anabolism
destroyed.
Q.16 Assertion :- Anaerobic respiration occurs only

in fungi. Q.24 Assertion :- Glycolysis is common between
Reason:- Fungi are green plants. aerobic & anaerobic respiration.
Reason:- Glycolysis can takes place in pres-
Q.17 Assertion :- HMP-shunt is alternate of Glucose ence and absence of O2
oxidation.
Reason:- This take place in cytoplasm. Q.25 Asserti on :- Lactobacillus Perf oms
fermentation
Q.18 Assertion :- Kreb-cycle is called as TCA-cycle. Reason:- Lactobacillus is an anaerobic bacteria
Reason:- First formed compound of Krebs
cycle is tri carboxylic acid.
Q.26 Assertion :- Oxidative decarboxylation occurs
in mitochondria.
Q.19 Assertion :- Respiration is a vital process.
Reason:- Link reaction and Kreb’s cycle oc-
Reason:- Respiration is characteristic of only
curs in mitochondria.
living cells.
Q.20 Assertion :- Glycolysis is common step in Q.27 Assertion :- Formation of Acetyl CoA in mito-
aerobic & anaerobic respiration. chondria is known as link reaction.
Reason:- Glycolysis splits the pyruvate in to Reason:- Acetyl CoA is a compound which links
H2O & CO2 the glycolysis & TCA-cycle
Q.21 Assertion :- HMP shunt is also known as

Q.28 Assertion :- HMP shunt is known as oxidative
Reductive pentose phosphate pathway.
decarbroxylation.
Reason:- Reduction of pentose sugar ribulose
Reason:- HMP shunt involves removal of H+/e
occurs during HMP shunt.
and CO2
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE-III
Q u e s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A n s. 4 3 1 3 4 1 3 4 3 3 1 4 3 3 1 4 2 1 1 3
Q u e s. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
A n s. 4 2 2 1 2 1 1 1
37
Chemical Coordination & Integration
Topic Page No.
Endocrine system Theory 02 - 43
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Exercise - I 44 - 58

Exercise - IV 68 - 69
Answer Key 70 - 71
Syllabus
Chemical Coordination & Integration
Endocrine system
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION : 

The branch of biology which deals with the study of endorcine system and its physiology is known as ''
Endocrinology''.
 
 ''Thomas Addision'' is known as father of Endocrinology.
Whereas the gland with duct is called exocrine gland which secretes enzyme etc. Endocrine glands pour
their secretion directly into blood. These glands lack ducts, so these glands are called ductless glands. 
 

 Co-ordination in the body of almost all the higher vertebrates is controlled by two systems Nervous
system and endocrine system.
Nervous system and endorcine system are called Integrative system of the body.

  Nervous system carries informations in the form of impulses to the different parts of body. High speed
services are offered by this system.

  Where as, the work of co-ordination by endocrine system is slowly by secretion of some chemical
substances. 

  Substances secreted by these glands are known as hormones. The meaning of work 'hormone' in Greek
is ''to excite'' = hormaein.
Differences between Nervous and Endocrine Coordinations
Nervous Co-ordination Endocrine Co-ordination

(Chemical Co-ordination)
1. Information passes as electrical 1. Information passes as a chemical

impulses along nerve fibres. substance through the blood and lymph.
2. There is rapid transmission of 2. There is slow transmission of information.

information.
3. Response is immediate. 3. Response is usually slow.
4. Response is usually widespread.

4. Response is very exact.
Response is short lived. 5. Response is long-lasting
5.
HORMONE :
The term hormone was coined by Starling. 
Hormones are also called ''Primary messengers'' or chemical messengers.'' 
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First discovered hormone is secretin. It was discovered by Bayliss & Starling in 1902. 
Source & Chemical Nature : - Hormones are chemical messengers which are secreted by one part of
body and are poured directly into the blood stream, and they reach at their target place with the help of
blood. A small amount of hormone affects some specific cells or physiology of cells of organ according
to atmospheric conditions.

Chemical Nature of Hormone :

The animal hormones may be classfied into 6 categories.
1. Amino acid derivatives : The hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla and
thyroxine from the thyroid gland are derived from amino acid.
2. Short peptides : The hormones oxytocin and vasopression from the posterior lobe of the pitutary gland
are short peptides of 9 amino acid. The melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) from the intermediate
lobe of the pituitary gland is also short peptide of 13 amino acids.

3. Long peptides : The hormones insulin from the pancrease, adrenocortico tropin (ACTH) from the
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, calcitonin from the parathyroid gland consists of 84 amino acids.
4. Protein : The gonadotropic, thyrotropic and somatotropic hormones from the anterior lobe of pituitary
are protein with high molecular weights.
5. Steroids (Fat soluble) : The hormones like cortisol and aldosterone from adrenal cortex, testosterone
from interstitial cells of testes, estrogen and progesterone from Graaffian follicles of ovary and placenta
are the examples of steroid hormones. The hormones contain cholesterol and bile salts.
6. Fatty acid derivative : - Prostaglandin

Physical & Chemical Specialities of Hormones : - 
The moleucles of most of the hormones are small, and their molecular weight is low.
Hormones are soluble in water and are easily diffusible in tissues. 
The secretion of hormone is always in very small quantity because these are most reactive substances 
 Hormones are destroyed after use.

Hormones can not be stored in the body except Thyroxine. 

 Hormones are soluble in water and blood.  

 Liver and kidneys separate them from blood and decompose them. The waste product formed after
decomposition, hormones are excreted with urine. It can not be reutilized. 
Hormones are non-antigenic & non species specific substances.


Usually, hormones do not participate in the metabolic activities of target cells but they affect and control the
activity level of these target cells. Due to the effect of hormones, not only the rate of metabolic activites is
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No. 1 Coaching for IIT-JEE|PRE-MEDICAL|CBSE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 3
effected but also the permeability of cell membrane is changed so the nature of reaction is also changed. so
the nature of reaction is also changed.


Differences between Hormone & Enzyme

Hormones Enzymes
1. They are produced at one site and are passed 1. They may act at site where they are
by blood to another site for action. Produced or carried to another site for action.
2. They have low molecular weight. 2. They have very high molecular weight.
3. Hormones may be steroids, proteins, 3. Enzymes are simple proteins.
Peptides or amino acid derivatives.

4. They are used up in their action 4. They are not used up in their action.
5. They are effective in low concentration. 5. They also act in low concentration.
Their excess or deficiency may cause
However, the rate of enzyme catalyzed
disorders.
reactions steadily increase with an increase in
their concentration
6. They may act slowly or quickly. 6. They act slowly.
7. They may accelerate or retard the specific 7. They speed up the reactions.
recations.
8. Hormone controlled reactions are not 8. Enzyme controlled reactions are reversible.
reversible.
Differences between Hormone & Vitamins

Hormones Vitamins
1. Hormones may be steroids, proteins, 1. They are never proteins but simple organic
peptides or amino acid derivaties. compounds such as amines, esters.
alcohol, aldehyde or organic acids.
2. They are effective in low concentration. 2. They are needed in small quantity. Excess
Their excess or deficiency may cause hormonal vitamins are excreted. Their deficiency causes
disorders. malfunctioning called deficiency diseases or
avitaminosis.
3. They are secreted by the animal in its own 3. They are rarely synthesized in the body.
body. They are moslty taken with food.
4. Hormones influence the genes to produce 4. They act as co-enzymes and help emzymes to
Specific enzymes required during metabolism. perform their function.
5. 5. They are not produced by body organs
They do not influence the working of those
organs which have secreted them. (except vitamin D)
MECHANISM OF HORMONAL REACTIONS
MECHANISM OF HORMONE – Two types 
Once hormone enter into blood stream it can reach almost to any cell in the body.
However, each hormone effects only certain kind of cell which is called as target organ.
All hormone do not act in the same way due to location of receptor.
 
 Hormones are two types :
 (i) Water solbule hormone
(ii) Lipid soluble hormone
 Water soluble hormones interact with a surface receptor, normally a glycoprotein and initiate a chain
events within it where as lipid soluble hormone (Steroid hormones) readily pass through the plasma
membrane to cytoplasm of the target cell. Molecular mechanism of hormones are of following types :
(1) At Gene level

(2) At Plasmalemma level
1. AT GENE LEVEL : - In this type of mechanism steroid hormone and Thyroxine hormones are involved.
(a) Steroid hormones : In this process steroid hormones enter into target cell where they combine with
receptor protein, this Receptor protein conveys the hormone from cytoplasm to nucleus this hormone
stimulates the DNA for synthesis of protein. Now DNA synthesises the m-RNA and this m-RNA
goes into cytoplasm, where Ribosome synthesize the protein by translation. This new protein in an
enzyme, which affects the vital activity of target cell.
(b) Thyroxine hormone : The thyroid hormone thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine cause increase
transcription by certain gene in nucleus. To accomplish this, These hormones first bind directly with
receptor protein in nucleus. Receptor protein is located on chromosome. Advantage of intranuclear
receptor the thyroxin hormone can continue they express their control function for weeks :
2. PLASMALEMMA LEVEL : - Following hormones an example of this mechanism :

(a) Tyrosine kinase mechanism : A good example of this is the effect of insulin. For transport of insulin
hormone, insulin receptor is found in cell membrane, which is made up of 4 sub-unit. 2 sub-units (-
protein) are -protein which are situated towards the outside of cell membrane this sub unit binds the
insulin hormone, 2 sub-unit (-Protein) protrude into the cytoplasm of the cell. The intra celluar
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portion of the  units has tyrosine kinase activity. These receptors are usually less than 100 in most
of our body cells but may be more than 1,00,000 as in some liver cells.
Binding to the receptor – Binding of insulin to the outer 2 sub units of receptor triggers tyrosine
kinase activity of the intra cellular portion of -sub units. This causes a structural change in -sub units.
to become an activated tyrosine kinase. The activated tyrosine kinase produces autophosphorylation of
the cytoplasmic receptor as well as phosphorylation of some cytoplasmic protein (Insulin receptor
subtrate, IRS).
(b) C-AMP or Second messenger system : This C-AMP mechanism has been shown by following
hromones :
 Adreno Corticotropin (ACTH)  Secretin
 Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)  Catecholamines
 Luteinizing hormone (LH)  Most hypothalamic releasing hormone
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Vasopressin/ADH
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH)  Glucagon
In this type of mechanism when adrenaline is attached to the surface receptor protein which found on the
plasmalemma then first of all it forms a complex which is called as hormone receptor complex (HRC). A
transducer protein is found on inner surface of receptor protein which is called as G-Protein. This G-
Protein consist of , , -sub unit. GTP is also found on G-Protein.
 After formation HRC than GTP change into GDP, in this process phosphate group is released which
activates the G-Protein.
 After activation of G-Protein their sub units are divided into two group (i)--subunit and (ii)-, -subunit
(, -subunit both are not separated with each other)
 Activated -subunit of G-Protein activate adenylate cyclase.
 Activated adenylate cyclase change ATP to C-AMP on cell membrane.
 This C-AMP goes into cytoplasm where it activates the inactive protein kinase-A to active protein kinase-A.
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 This active protein kinase A changes inactive phosphorylase kinase into active phosphorylase kinase.

 This active phosphorylase kinase changes inactive Glycogen phosphorylase in to active glycogen
phosphorylase.
 This active glycogen phosphorylase changes glycogen into Glucose-1-Phosphate.
 Each molecule of protein kinase-A activates about 100 molecule of enzyme phosphorylase kinase and so
on.
 As a result a single molecule of adrenaline releases as many as 100 million molecules of glucose within
only 1 minutes (Amplification).
(c) IP3 & DAG Mechanism : In this type of mechanism local hormones are involved such as
prostaglandins, Acetylcholine, Somatostatin etc.

 Same CAMP mechanism transducer G-protein act.

 G-protein activates enzyme phosphodiesterase.
 Phosphodiesterase (Phospholipasec) Enzyme breaks phosphotidyl inositol biphosphate into inositol
triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG).
 IP3 is water soluble and diffuses into cytoplasm, IP3 specialy mobelized Ca++ ion endoplasmic reticulam and the
Ca++ ion promote smooth muscle contraction and changes in secretion by secretory cell and change in ciliary
action.
 DG remain in the membrane where is activates an enzyme called protein kinase C, which in turn,
activates many other enzyme, Activated protein kinase C plays an important role in cell division and
cell proliferation.
The action of lipid soluble hormone are slower and last longer then the action of water soluble
hormone.
SPECIFIC TERMS
Chalones  The hormones which are secreted from one endocrine gland to stimulate other endocrine
gland is called as Chalones.
Autocoide  The hormone which are secreted from one endocrine gland to target organ is called as
Autocoide.
Diabetogenic  The hormone which mainly affects or stimulates carbohydrate metabolism is called
as diabetogenic.
Ketogenic  The hormone, which mainly affect the fat metabolism.
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Calorigenic  The hormone, which mainly affects the basal metabolic rate (BMR) is called as
calorigenic.
PITUITARY GLAND
Paraventricular nucleus
Neurosecretory neurons
Supraoptic nucleus
Hypothalamus Hypothalamus
Tuber-cinerium
Infudibulum Neurohypohysis
Post. lobe
Hypothalamic-posterior
Pitultary stalk
Posterior pitultary
Anterior pituitary
Anti. lobe
Mid. lobe Adenohypophysis
Pars Tuberalis Systemic arterial inflow
Systemic venous outflow

= Vasopressin
= Oxytocin

 On the basis of development pituitary gland is completely Ectodermal.

 It is situated in the sella-turcica of sphenoid bone.
 This gland is atached to the hypothalamus through a stalk which is called as infundibulum.
 The upper terminal end of infundibulum which is attached to the hypothalamus is called as
tubercinerium/Median eminence.
 The lower terminal end of infundibulum is bulging type which is called as posterior lobe or pars nervosa.
 Tubercinerium, infundibulum & pars nervosa are collectively called as Neurohypophysis.

 A small & fine tube is developed in the foetus which is called as gut. This gut is developed into alimentary
canal. Anterior part of gut is called as stomodaeum (developed from ectoderm).
 A small projection is developed from dorsal surface of stomodaeum (the anterior part of gut) this part is
separated from stomodaeum and form Rathke's pouch.
 Upper surface of Rathke's pouch is developed into mid-lobe which is also known as pars intermedia.
 The upper margin of R.pouch, which surrounds the infundibulum & forms a collar like structure called
as parstuberalis.
 Remaining part of R.pouch. is developed into anterior lobe which is also called as pars distalis.
 Pars distails, pars tuberalis & pars intermedia are collectively called as adenohypophysis.
 Neurohypopohysis + Adenohypophysis is called as hypophysis cerebri or pituitary body.
 A remaining & vestigeal cavity of R.pouch is found in the anterior lobe which is called as Hypophysis recess.
  Superior branch of hypophyseal artery supplies blood to the hypothalamus.
  Inferior branch of hypophyseal artery supplies blood to the pituitary gland.
  Hypophysal portal vein collects the blood from hypothalamus and supplies to pituitary gland.
 Branches of hypophyseal artery & hypophyseal portal vein combined and form a network of blood
capillaries which is called as circle of Willis.
  In human, mid lobe is ill developed or membrane like, while mid lobe is absent in elephant & Whale.
 Three types of glandular cells are found in Adenohypophysis.
1. Basophils  They are large cells & found in the peripheral part of gland. They are more in number.
2. Acidophil  They are small in size & found in the central part of pituitary gland.
3. Neutrophils  They are smallest in size and are found in scattered form. They are minimum in number.
 STH & LTH are secreted by acidophils.

 Remaining hormone of adenohypohysis are secreted by basophils.
 All hormone of pituitary gland are protein Hormone.
HORMONS SECRETED BY ADENOHYPOPHYSIS

All these hormones are of proteinaceous nature.
1. GROWTH HORMONE OR SOMATOTROPIC OR SOMATOTROPIN HORMONE
[G.H. or S.T.H.] : -
By Somatotroph cells or -acidophil cells
On growth
Function : Major effect
On metabolism
Effect on Growth : -
(1) On bone : It increases length of bone.
(2) On soft tissue :
(i) GH promotes mitosis & increases number of cells in many organs & tisue e.g. liver and muscles.
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(ii) GH stimulates growth of muscle and cartilage due to increase synthesis of collagen, muscle grow in bulk.
Effect on metabolism :
Fat : Increases lipolysis so that free fatty acid level of plasma rises. Under the influence of growth
hormone fat is used for energy in preference to carbohydrate and protein, due to this protein deposition is
increases.
Carbohydrates : Hyperglycermia develops due to decreased uptake of glucose in the cells, so it is also
called diabetogenic hormone.
Protein : GH increases amino acid uptake by the cells of the liver & muscles & helps in protein synthesis.
 In the presence of thyroxines and insulin, growth hormones become more active and stimulates the
body growth. In this way this hormone is important for the growth of body.
Somatostatin GHRH
–
Hypothalamus+
Exercise – + + Somatostatin
+ – ( cells)
+ –
GH
+ +
Sleep
+
+
Hypoglycemia
Diseases due to hyposecretion or hypersecretion of somatotropin hormone :

(a) Hyposecretion of STH : Due to deficiency of STH in chidhood dwarfism is observed.
 Dwarfism due to the defect of pituitary is called Ateliosis. These dwarfs are called as midgets.
 This midget is physically & mentally normal while sexual maturation is delayed.
(b) Hypersecretion of STH : - Due to hypersecretioni in childhood and adolescene, a higher quantity of
amnoacids is supplied to the body cells.
(i) Epiphyseal cartilage present on the edges of bones does not convert into bone for a long time.
Thus the bones of legs & hands become very long and height of that person increases very much.
Body becomes imbalanced. This disease is called Gigantism.
(ii) Acromegaly : - Due to hypersecretion of STH in adulthod, jaw bones of the affected person become
long, cheek bones buldge out, broad hands, legs & fingers of person becomes gorilla like. These
symptoms are observed as a result of acromegaly.
2. THYOTROPHIC OR THYROID STIMULATING HORMOONE [T.T.H. OR T.S.H.] :

 T.S.H. is secreted by basophil cells. (Thyrotroph cell).
 It is glycorprotein in nature.
 T.S.H. stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine. TSH helps in almost all step of the thyroid hormones
synthesis & it causes growth of throid gland.
 Secretion of TSH is stimulated by Thyrotrophin releasing factor & inhibited by somatostatin of
hypothalamus.
3. ADRENO CORTICO TROPHIC HORMONE OR CORTICOTROPINE [ACTH] :

 ACTH is secreted by basophil (corticotroph) cells.
 In man, this ACTH is mainly made up of valine and tyrosine aminoacids,.
 It accelerates the cortex part of adrenal gland to secretes hormones.
4. FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE [FSH] :
 It is also secreted by basophils. (Gonadotroph cell)

 It is glycoprotein in nature.
 This is secreted in male and female both.
 In males, it stimulates spermatogenesis and normal functioning of seminiferous tubules.
 In femables, it stimulates oogenesis and development of Graafian follicles of ovary.
 FSH is also known as Gametokinetic factor.
 Estrogen hormone that is secreted Graafian follicles is also affected by FSH.
5. LUTEINIZING HORMONE OR INTERSTITIAL CELL STIMULATING HORMONE
[LH OR ICSH]:
 It is also secreted by basophil (Gonadotroph) cells. It is also glycoprotein in nature.
 It stimulates ovulation in female as a result of this corpus luteum is formed.
 Hormone progesterone which is secreted by corpus luteum is also stimulated by L.H.
 In men LH is called ICSH. It affects the Leydig's cells or Interstitial cells of testes and stimulates the
secretion of male hormone "Testosterone".
 L.H. is also called "gamete releasing factor".
 FSH and LH both are called gonadotrophic hormone GTH.
 FSH and LH act in combined form so these are called synergesic hormone.
 Gonadotrophic hormones (FSH & LH) are start secreting during puberty. Their secretion is regulated by
hypothalamus.
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6. LUTEOTROPHIC OR PROLACTIN OR LACTOGENIC OR MAMMOTROPHIN HORMONE
(PRL) :
It is secreted by acidophil (Lactoroph) cells.
Function of prolactin hormone.
(1) Lactation (Galactopoiesis) : Prolactin is responsible for lactation in postpartum (after delivery)
women.
 Regulation of Prolactin secretion by Hypothalamus : Hypothalamus mainly stimulate the production of
all pituitary hormone, but it mainly inhibits prolactin production because normally hypothalamus prolactin
inhibitory hormone (Dopamine) is greater than the releasing hormone.
 Breast is prepared for lactation by oestrogen (duct growth) and progesterone (lobule growth) but both of
these hormone inhibit the actual secretion of milk.
 Dopamine is catecholamine (Biologically active amine) and neurotransmitter in the hypothalamus. It

inhibits lactation.
 During pregnancy : Prolactin hormone steadly increase until term but due to high level of oestrogen and
progesterone (secreated by placenta) lactation is inhibited.
 After expulsion of the placenta at parturition, there is an abrupt decline in circulating estrogen and
progesterone.
 The drop in circulating estrogen initiate lactation.
  Nursing stimulates prolactin secretion.
 Prolactin inhibits the action of GnRH on the pituitary and antagonize the action of GnRH on the pituitary
and antagonize the action of gonadotrophin on the ovaries. Ovulation is inhibited and the ovaries gets
inactive.
 Nursing is important and effective method of birth control.
7. HORMONES SECRETED BY MIDDLE LOBE OF PITUITARY GLAND :
 The part of adenohypophysis of pituitary gland, which is very close to neurohypophysis is a very thin
portion, it is called pars intermedia or middle lobe of pituitary gland.
 In man it is in the form of a thin membrane only. It is inactive in men.

MELANOCYTE STIMULATING HORMONE [MSH] :
 It is secreted by middle lobe. (By corticotroph cell).

 MSH is also called intermedin.
 In man, MSH is secreated by anterior lobe, because middle lobe is ill-developed.
 It stimulates the melanochytes to synthesize melanin in mammals.

 This hormone is related with change in the colour of skin in Amphibian and Reptiles. This phenomenon
of colour changing is known as metachrosis.
 It darkens the complexion of skin by distributing melanin pigment evenly under the skin.
 Just oppsoite to it, melatonin secreted by pineal body, collects the melanin pigments at one place thus
fairing the complexion of skin.
 MSH is found in all the vertebrates, but it is functional in poikilothermic animals e.g. fishes, amphibians,
reptiles etc.
 The importance of MSH in man has not been evaluated.
HORMONE RELEASING FACTORS OF HYPOTHALAMUS :
Hormones secreted by adenohypophysis of pituitary gland are under the control of neuro-
secretory cells of hypothalamus. These neuro-secretory cells produce some substances in very small
amount which are called releasing factors.
(1) Grwoth hormone releasing factor : [GHRF] : It stimulates the secretion of growth hormone.
(2) Thyrotrophin relasing factor [TRF] : It stimulates the secretion of TSH.

(3)
Follicle stimulating hormone releasing factor [FSHRF]: It stimulates the secretion
GnRH of FSH.
Luteinising hormone releasing factor [LHRF] : It stimulates the secretion of LH.
(4) growth hormone inhibitory factor [GHIF] (Somatostatin) : It stimulates the secretion of LH.
(5) Prolactin release factor [PRF] : It stimulates the secretion of Prolactin.
(6) Prolactin inhibitory factor [PIF] (Dopamine) : It inhibits the secretion of Prolactin.
(7) Melanocyte release factor [MRF] : It stimulates the secretion of MSH.
(8) Melanocyte inhibitory factor [MIF] : It inhibnits the secretion of MSH.
(9) Adrenocorticotrophic releasing hormone (ACRH) : It stimulates secretion of Adrenal cortex

hormone.
POSTERIOR LOBE OR NEUROHYPOPHYSIS :
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Posterior lobe of pituitary gland is 1/4th part of total gland. It is just like nervous tissue, because in it, the
termnial ends of the axons of neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus are swollen. These swolen ends are
called "Herring bodies". Hormones are released in these bodies.
Hypothalamus
Axon
Paraventricular - Oxyto
Supra-optic - ADH
Herring body
Pituicytes
  There are same large, branched fatty neurogilal supporting cells in between axons, that are called
"Pituicytes".
1. Posterior pituitary hormones are not synthesised in the gland itself but they are synthesized in the
supraoptic nuclei and paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus.
2. The hormone are then transported from their origin to posterior pituitary through axons of
hypothalamohypo physeal tract and sotred in association with 2 protein i.e. Neurophysin-I, and
Neurophysin-II.
(A) Vasopressin or Pitressin or Anti Diuretic Hormone [ADH] :

Main functions of ADH : Its main function is to increase the reabsorption of water in upper part of
collecting duct and in distal convoluted part of uriniferous tubules. Due to this, amount of urine is reduced.
So it is also called ADH.
 The hormone increases the blood pressure by constriction of blood vessels of tissues.
 Due to hposecretion of ADH or vasporessin, the amount of urine increases, this process is called
Diuresis. Patient feels thristy, Dehydratinon starts in the body. This disease is called Diabetes insipidus
(taste less urine, polyuria).
 Due to hyposecretion of ADH, deficiency of water starts in Extra cellular fluid (ECF). Blood pressure
reduces, urine becomes dilute and blood becomes thick or concentrate.
 Intake of coffee, tea and excess alcohol etc decrease the secretion of ADH.
 Secretion of ADH is maximum in desert fauna (animals of xerophytic region) e.g. camel.
 Kangaroo – Rat (Dipodomys) also shows very high hypersecretion of ADH.
Kangaroo - Rat never drinks water in its life-time
 Hypersecretion of ADH causes dilution of blood and increases concentration of urine and thus blood
pressure increases.
Rise of blood
volume Alcohol
(acts via atrium) ingestions
Rise of osmolality
(acts via osmoreceptors)
Control of ADH
(B) Oxytocin or Pitocin : It is the main parturition hormone. It stimulates the fast/rapid contractions and
expansions of non-striated muscles of the uterine wall at the last moment of gestation operiod (pregnancy).
Due to this uterine constrictions, labour pains start jsut before child birth.
 This hormone is secreted by pituitary glands of mother at the time of parturition.
 This hormone also initiates the contractions in uterine wall muscles during copulation/coitus as a result of
that semen of man is sweeped out in the fallopian tubes of woman.
 After parturition, this hormone constricts the uterine wall and thus brings back to the normal position.
 Oxytocin hormone contracts the myoepithelial cells present at all the sides of alveoli of mammary glands.
Thus it helps in milk ejection so it is also called milk let down hormone.
 In female, this hormone related with emotion.
 Even thought, cry or sound of baby can bring about release of this homone in lactating mother.
This hormone helps during egg laying in birds.
Injection of oxytocin are initates cows and buffaloes for instant milk release.

 Muller's organ and subneural glands of lower vertebrates are homologus to pituitary gland.
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THYROID GLAND
 It is the largest endocrine gland in the body.

This is situated at the latero-ventral side of the joint of trachea and larynx in the neck region of man. The
shape of this gland is like letter H or Butter fly. It is bilobed in birds and mammals, but it is single lobed
in reptiles. Both of its lobes are connected by non-glandular band, formed of a connective tissue. This
band is called isthmus. No hormone secreted by isthmus.
Parafollicular
cells
Colloid
Blood vessel
Vesicles
Thyroid Gland
Stroma
Follicle
Isthmus
T1 Mono lodo Tyrosine Glandular cells
T2 Di lodo Tyrosine

Thyronin
T3 Tri lodo Thronine I2 or
Thyroglobulin
T4 Tetra IoDo Thronine

Thyroxine
 It is endodermal in origin.
 Endostyle of lower vertebrates like Herdmania, Amphioxus is homologous of thyroid gland.
 In human, this gland weight, about 25 gm to 35 gm approximately. (This is some what larger in women as
compared to men).
 Each lobe of thyroid gland is made up of connective tissue. There are present so many folicles made up of
glandular cells in connective tissue.
 These follicles are scattered in loose connective tissue, the stroma. A layer of cuboidal glandular cells is
found in the wall of follicles. An iodised colloidal fluid substance Thyroglobulin is filled in the cavity of
these follicles. Thyroglobulin is glycoprotein in nature. Parafollicular cells are occasionally found in
between basement membrane of the follicle & these cells secrete thyro calcitonin.
Thyroid is the only endocrine gland in the body which stores its hormone in its inactive state.
Production of Thyroxine :
Thyroxine contains two phenyl rings linked up by an ether bridge.
Biosynthesis :
(1) Iodide trapping – when KI taken up by follicular cells.
(2) Oxidation of Iodide – KI  I2.

The oxidation of iodine is promoted by the enzyme peroxidase.
(3) Organification – The binding of iodine with the thyroglobulin molecule is called organification of the
thyroglobulin
Tyrosine + I2  MIT & DIT. (Monoiodotyrosine and Di-iodotyrosine)
(4) Coupling – MIT + DIT = T3 (Tri-iodothyronine)

DIT + DIT = T 4 (Tetra-iodothyronine)
All of these step of thyroxine biosynthesis are stimulated by TSH hormone.
T1 = Mono iodo tyrosine
T2 = Di iodo tyrosine
T3 = Tri iodo thyronine (20 %)
T4 = Tetra iodo thyronine (80 %)
 Secretion of T 4 is compartively more than T3, and T3 hormone is four times more active than T 4 hormone.
T4 changes into T 3 on reaching in the tissues. After enter into tissue deiodination takes place in T=4=
which , change into T3.
 T4 is called thyroxine in this T-chain of hormones.
 Thyroxine or Tetra-Iodo-Thyronine is a derivative of aminoacid.
 Each thryoglobin molecule contain an average of T3 molecule for every 14 molecule of thyroxine
(1 : 14 – T 3 : T 4).
 Thyroid hormones in the form of thyroglobulin are stored in the follicles in an amount sufficient to supply
the body with its normal requirements of thyroid hormone for 3 months.

 E.C. Kendal first of all crystallised this thyroxine hormone.


 Harrington and Barger studied the molecular structure of thyroxine.


 Thyroid gland requires iondine "120 g" every day for the production of thyroxine.
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 Normal recommended minimum intake 200 gm/day, if iondine in take < 50 gm /day, then thyroid
disorder develops.
 If there is deficiency of iodine in food then thyroid try to absorbs more and more iodine from blood and
increases its size it is called simple goitre.
 Goitre is found more abundently in the persons those live on mountain slopes, because iodine (at that
place) flows along with water. When most of the people show the symptoms of this dissease then it is
called endemic goitre and hill station called as ''goitre zone''
 Persons who take sea foods, never show the symptoms of goitre.
1. Growth, Developemnt and Metamorphosis :
Growth
Physical Sexual Mental
Skeletal Muscular Visceral
 Thyroxine stimulates the metamorphosis of tadpole larva in amphibians.
 Due to its deficiency, larva does not show metamorphosis to be an adult.
 Some amphibian larvae e.g. Ambystoma and Necturus (Water dog) do not undergo metamorphosis to an
adult, and these larva stages start reproducing without gaining adulthood. This process is called as
Paedogenesis.
2. METABOLISM :
General :
(i) Thyroxine regulates the Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) in the body.
BMR : The rate of calorie consumption that is necessary for survive is called basal metabolic rate of
body.
The hormone enhances the oxidative metabolism of body cells as a result of it energy production is
also increased in the form of calories.
BMR increases  Body Temp. increase  loses weight.
Due to over production of heat it is called as calorigenic hormone.
(ii) Increase activity of Na+ – K+ AT Pase. It increases the number of mitochondria in all the cells of body
i.e. increases metabolic rate of life. It increases the consumption of oxygen by the cells of body.
Thyroxine play the both anabolic as well as catabolic role. At optimum concentration it play
anabolic role but in oversecretion it play catabolic role.
Fat Metabolism :
 Enhances enzyme activity both synthesis & predominantly catabolism of cholesterol.
 Carbohydrate action 
 Blood sugar increase, act as a diabetogenic hormone.
 Protein  both catabolism & anabolism but at optimum concentration of thyroxine, anabolism is
dominant.
3. ON INDIVIDUAL SYSTEM : Heart

 Thyroxine increases – Heart beat increases (Tachycardia) – Increases Cardiac output.
 Maintain the contraction of myocardium.
 It regulates the heart-beat because it acts directly on SA-Node.
 CNS – optimum conc. of thyroxine is required for developemnt of the nerve fibre & their myelination.
 GIT – thyroxine increase motility of GIT causes diarrhoea. Appetite also increase.
 On blood – Thyroxine stimulates. The formation and maturation of R.B.Cs
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 The hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland control rate of thyroid secretion.
 Anterior pituitary gland secretes TSH.
 The most important effect of TSH is proteolysis of thyroglobulin which causes release of thyroxine into
the blood.
 Secretion of TSH is controlled by a hypothalamic hormone. Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH).

 Increase thyroid hormone in the body fluid decreases the secretion of TSH by anterior pituitary.
IRREGULARITIES OF THYROID GLAND AND IT'S DISEASES :
1. Hyposecretion of thyroid or Hypothyroidism :

 It may be a genetic disorder or due to deficiency of iodine in food or due to excess iondine excretion in
urine.


 In childhood, hypothyroidism causes Cretinism, these children are called cretin, they may show such
symptoms like : Thick lips, protruding tongue, pot belly, ill developed sex organs & retarded physical &
mental growth. The children remain dwarf and become ugly. Their BMR, rate of heart beat and body
temperature decreased. They are sterile.
 In adults, hypothyroidism causes Myxoedema. (Gull's disease) The symptoms of this disease are falling
of hair, loose and swollen skin, deposition of adipose fat and mucous beneath the skin so body as a whole
becomes obese, BMR and blood pressure are reduced. Patient becomes sensitive to cold and shows loss of
sexual power. Mental slowing, bradycardia, weight gain occurs and lose of hair from head. Myxoedema
is also called as Sporadiac goitre.
 Simple goitre/Endemic goitre : It is due to deficiency of iodine in food, and also known as Colloid
goitre. Thyroid gland enlarges due to swelling. It is not a genetic disorder. The neck also swells up and
looks like a collar. It is cured by extra intake of iodine in food or intake of sea food.
 Hashimoto's disease : In this disease, there is acute deficiency of thyroxine. Then the medicines given for
the treatment of disease or even hormone thyroxine itself acts as antigen. In its reaction, body produes
antibodies, which destroy the thyroid gland itself. It is known also as suicide of thyroid or Autoimmune
thyroiditis.
2. Hypersecretion of thyroid or Hyperthyroidism :

The gland shows enlargement due to some microbial infections or genetic disorders, and this enlarged
gland secretes thyroxine in excess amount. As a reuslt of it, BMR, heart beat rate, blood pressure,
absorption of glucose in intestine and consumption of oxygen increase. Too much energy is produced in
mitochondria, that it is not stored in the form of ATP but it is released in the form of heat in the body .
Thus in place of growth unnecessary irritation, exhaustion are observed in the body of patient. Due to
excess heat/calorie/energy formation, patient feels extreme hot.
Hyperthyroidism may cause following disorders in the body :
Expohthalmic Goitre or Grave's disease or Basedow's disease or thyrotoxicosis

In this disease, deposition of mucous beneath the eyeball takes place. As a result of that eyes look enlarged
and buldging or protruding out side the eye socket, giving the patient a fearful look. In this disease whole
gland shows enlargement in the neck region.
Plummer's disease : In this disease, thyroid gland does not show even growth but there become small
tumours all over the thyroid just like buds, it is also called Toxic adenoma.
Thyroid gland shows enalrgement (swelling) at the time of hypersecretion.
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Grave's Disease Plummer's Disease
Parafollicular cells or C-cells :

Some large and clear cells are found in the stroma of thyroid gland & basal part of follice. These cells are
endocrine nature. They are the remains of ultimobranchial bodies made up of fifth branchial pouches of
embryo, i.e. para follicular cells are endodermal in origin.
These cells secrete thyroclacitonin (Calcitonin) hormone which lacks iodine. It is protein in nature.
Thyrocalcitonin reduces the destruction of bones and increases the rate of excretion of Ca++ in urin, thus
reduces the number of Ca++ in extra cellular fluid.
 It enhances the deposition of Ca++ in bones thus making bones solid and strong.
 This hormone is antagonistic to Collip hormone or parathormone.
PARATHYROID GLAND
 These glands remain embedded in the dorsal surface of surface of thyroid gland. They are two pairs in
number. They remain embedded in each lobe of thyroid completely or partially.
 It was discovered by Raynard and its detailed studied was given by Sandrom.
 Total weight about 140 mg and its size is 6 × 3 × 2 mm.
 These glands are made by epithelium of third and fourth branchial pouches or pharyngeal puches slite of
embryo i.e. these are also endodermal in origin.
 These glands secrete only one hormone – parathormone. It is also known as Collip's hormone or PTH. Its
was obtained by Collip in its pure form.
 This hormone is proteinaceous in nature/Polypeptide hormnone.

 Parathormone is essential for survival because it significantly contributes to "homeostatis" by regulating
the amount of calcium and phosphate ion in ECF.
 Calcium is key element in many physiological functions like proper permeability of cell membrances,
muscular activities, nerve impulse conduction, heart beat, blood coagulation, bone formation, fertilization
of ova.

 Calcium is most abundant of all minerals found in the body and about 99 % of calcium and phosphorus are
contained in the bones.
 Maintenance of proper calcium level under "homeostatis" is in fact, a combined function of

parathormone, thyrocalcitotnin and vitatmin D3 (cholecalciferol).
 Parathormone promotes absorption of calcium from food in the intestine and its reabsorption from nephron
in the kidneys.
 Simultaneously, its accelerates elimination of phosphate in urine (phosphaturia action). Thus, calcium
level tend to rise in the ECF due to effect of parathormone and phosphate level is decreased in ECF.
 This calcium is then utilized by bone-forming cells, (Osteoblast) in bone formation under the influence of
vitamin D3.
 Parathormone stimulates the osteoclast cells to feed upon bones, these cells remove unnecessary parts of
bones by melting, thus change asymmetrical bone into symmetrical one. The remoulding of bone is done
by these cells life long. As a result of this, amount of Ca+2 remains constant in blood in normal conditions.
Each 100 ml of blood contains 12 mg of Ca++
About 1 kg of calcium is found in an adult man.
 Parathormone maintains the activity of muscles.
 Just opposite to it, thyrocalcitonin hormone works antagonistically to oppose the parathormone and
Vitamin D. Thyroclacitonin reduces the amount of Ca++ in blood by increasing the excretion of Ca++ in
urine and by reduing destruction of bone.
1. Hyposecretion : Due to hyposecretion of parathomone or PTH, the amount of Ca++ decreases in ECF (It is
known as hypocalcaemia) and amount of PO4–3 is increased.
 Due to the deficiency of Ca++ in blood, muscles and nerves get unnecessarily irritated and start convulsion
and cramping. Sometimes voluntary muscles remain contracted for a long time, it is known as tetany
disease.
 If this tetany appears in intercostal muscles and diaphragm, then animal dies due to Asphyxia.
 Removal of parathyroid gland causes quick death. It is the most fatal state/lethal condition.
2. Hypersecretion : Due to hypersecretion of PTH. osteoclast cells feed excess amount of bone
unnecessarily. As a result of this,bones become brittle and weak. This condition is called as Osteoporosis.
 When quantity of Ca++ is increase in ECF and level of PO4– is reduced, this condition is known as
hypercalcaemia and hypophosphatemia respectively.
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 Due to excess deposition of Ca++ in kidneys and gall bladder, stones are formed.
C-Cells/Para-follicular cells Para Thyroid Gland
Large and Clear
Parathyroid
It secretes Thyro calcitonin (TCT) hormone It secretes the parathormone (PTH) hormone
+2 +2
It decreases Ca level in the blood It increases Ca level in the blood
ADRENAL OR SUPRA RENAL GLANDS

Position, Origin & structure :
 This gland was discovered by a scientist Eustachius.
 It is found on the head (anterior most part) of both the kidneys.
 Adrenal gland is ecto mesodermal in origin.
Adrenal medulla
Adrenal cortex
Connective tissue capsule
Zona
glomerulosa
Zona
fasciculate
Adrenal gland
Cortex
Zona
Kidney reticularis
(a)
(b)
 It weights about 4 - 6 gm in man.

 Whole gland is surrounded by a fibrous capsule.
 Each gland has two parts :
Outer part of gland is called cortex and inner part is called medulla.

 Cortical portion is 80-90% and is develop from mesoderm of embryo.

 Medullar portion of this gland is mae up of neural-ectoderm of embryo. Only 10-20 % part is medullar
part of gland.
Adrenal Cortex :
Most of the cells of this part are fatty. This portion is divided into three regions from periphery to centre.
1. Outer zone or Zona glomerulosa :

Mineralocorticoid hormones are secreted by this zone.
2. Middle zone or Zona fasciculata :

This zone secretes glucorticoid hormones. In this region polyangular cells are arranged in the layers.
3. Inner zone or Zona reticularis : Cells of this region are spread in the form of a network, these are
arranged in layers. This zone secretes a small amount of sexhormones.
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Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Protein
Ectoderm
Medulla Zona Reticularis
Nor Adr.
Adre.
Cortex
Mesoderm Steroid
About 40-50 hormones are synthesized in adrenal cortex. All these hormones are of steriod nature. Their
basic constituent is chloesterol, these are also called corticoids. Out of these 40-50 hormones, only 7-8
hormones are active.
1. Mineralocorticoids :
2 main hormones fall under this category.
(1) Aldosterone (2) Deoxycorticosterone
Aldosterone -

 These hormoens are related with distribution of water in tissues and balance of electrolytes in the body.
 These hormones maintain the ionic balances of Cl–, K+, Na+ and water in the blood and ECF.


 Aldosterone hormone affects distal convoluted parts of uriniferous tubules & upper part of collecting
duct.
 It basically activates the Na – K pump.
 It helps in reabosption of Na+ & Cl– ions and controls the excretion of K+ ions.
 Aldosterone hormone is also known as salt retaining hormone it increases sodium concentration.
 An increase in Na+ ion concentration (than normal) in ECF is called Hypernatremia.
 In hyposecretion of aldosterone hormone, there is a tremendous loss of ions of Na+, Cl– and HCO3– by
urination and K+ ions are increased in blood.
2. Glucocorticoids :
Mainly two hormons comes under this categories : - (i) Cortisol (ii) Hydrocorticosterone
(A) Cortisol : It is an important hormone secreted by zona fasciulata. It is also known as
Hydrocorticosterone. Cortisol has a small amount of mineralocorticoid activity.
Metabolic Effect :
On Carbohydrate metabolism :
Increases sugar in blood causes Hyperglycemia. It stimulates the gluconeogenesis in the liver.
Protein metabolism : Cortisol stimulates the protein break down in some organs like lymphoid tissues
(thymus, lymph node etc), muscles, bones, skin etc.
Fat metabolism :
(i) Facilitates lipolysis.
(ii) Promotes deposition of fat, in subcutaneus tissue of the body.
On nucleic acid metabolism :
Cortisol inhibits the synthesis of nucleic acid in all other tissues except liver where (i.e., in the liver) RNA
synthesis is increased.
 This hormone controls the activity of collagen fibre and controls the local inflammation or oedema.

  This hormone is "anti-inflammatory.

  Cortisol in used in arthritis/Rheumatism
 Cortisol checks the antigen antibody reaction and controls the local allergy so, it is also called as anti
allergic hormone.
 This hormone increases the no. R.B.Cs and decreases the W.B.Cs in the blood so, This hormone is
Immuno-suppressive.
 Now a days, contrisols are used in transplantation of organs.

3. Sex – Hormones/Sex corticoids/Gonadocorticoids :
 Sex hormones secreted by adrenals are called gonadocorticoids.
 They are secreted in very small amount by zona reticularis.

 Male hormones are called androgens and female hormones are called oestrogens.
 Both the hormones are secreted by men & women, but sex hormones are mainly secreted by gonads.
The sex hormone of oppsoite sex secreted by adrenal gland.
 These hormones stimulate the muscles, external genitalia and sexual behaviour.
 Male hormone secreted by adrenal gland is mainly dehydroepiandrosterone [DHEA].
 Female sex hormones progesterone and estrognes are secreted in minute quantities.
Adrenal medulla :
Origin : The adrenal medulla develops from the neuroectoderm of the embryo.
Structure : The adrenal medulla consists of rounded groups of relatively large and glandular cells. These
cells are modified of sympathetic nervous system which have lost normal processes and have acquired a
glandular function. These cells are called chromaffin cells or phaeochromocytes. These cells are
connected with the preganglionic motor fibres of sympathetic nervous system, these are dicussed together
as sympatheticoadrenal system.
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Hormones of Adrenal medulla :
Two hormones are secreted by this part. They are collectively called as catecholamine.
These hormones are synthesized by chromaffin cells with Tyrosine amino acid.
(A) Adrenaline or Epinephrine :

 This hormone is 80 % part of the total hormones secreted by Adrenal medulla.

 It was termed as Emergency hormone by Walter Cannon, because this hormone prepares the body to
face unavoidable emergency situations.
Functions of Adrenaline :
 It constricts the blood vessles of skin (Vaso contriction).
 The hormone enhances the flow of blood by vasodilation of blood vessels of brain, heart, liver and skeletal
muscles.
 Increases the rate of heart beat, cardiac out put, so increases blood pressure.
 Adrenaline enhances the heart beat and thus increases cardiac output, due to this, circulation of blood
becomes faster.
 The hormone stimulates the trachea and bronchi muscles to relax, as a result of it, rate of breathing is
increased. So adrenaline hormone is used in asthma.
 It dialates the pupils of eyes. Goose flesh is observed due to its effect. It constricts the erecter pilli muscle
of hair, and hair are raised.
 The hormone contraction in spleen, as result of it, spleen pours its stored blood into blood stream and
controls the blood volume in body.

 It checks the secretion of saliva and reduces the peristaltic movements in alimentary canal.
 Due to the effect of this hormone, clotting period of blood is reduced, This hormone also stimulates the
contraction of Uterus in female at the time of parturition.
 Adrenaline provides the body with an emergent chemical defence mechanism in stress conditions that
threaten the physical integrity and chemical consistancy of the body e.g. accident, restlessness, fear, anger,
mental tension, pain etc. It immediately prepares the body to face the emergency by a violent stress or
alarm reaction.
 The cortisol hormones of adrenal cortex serves to maintain the body in living condition and recover it
from the servere effects of stress reactions. Thus an increased output of cortisol is "life saving" in "shock
conditions". So it is also known as life-saving hormone.
 The hormones of adrenal medulla prepare the animal for fear, fight or flight in emergency conditions. (by
excess secretion of these hormones) Adrenaline hormnoe is called 3F = FFF homone and adrenal gland is
called "triple F gland" (FFF gland)
 Noradrenaline or Norepinephrine hormone :

 It is only 20% part of total hormones secreted by adrenal medulla.
 It acts as vasoconstrictor, thus increases the blood pressure. Exception – It does not constrict coronary
artery of heart.
IRREGULAR SECRETION OF ADRENAL HORMONE :

(i) Hyposecretion :
Addison's disease : Hypoadrenalism

 Caused due to hyposecretion of corticoid homrone of adrenal gland, following are some symptoms of
addison's disease dehydration in the body, Blood pressure, BMR and body temperature are reduced,
excretion of water and Na+ increase. The skin of hands, neck and face turns to bronze colour.
 Hyposecretion of corticoids causes reduction in amount of glucose in blood, it is called hypoglycemia. In

this disease, patient may die, so hormones of adrenal gland are called life-saving hormones.
(ii) Hypersecretion :
Cushing's syndrome (disease) :
 Due to hypersecretion of Gluco corticoids, body increases breadthwise or body becomes broad because
excess deposition of fat under the skin (to cause moon face, fish mouth and buffalo hump). Protein
catabolism increases in body. Irregular growth of skin and bones is observed. Hyperglycemia occurs.
Amount of Na and water increase in ECF, which is called oedema. Due to this B.P. also increases.
Conn's Disease : (Primary aldosteronism)
 Due to excess of mineralocorticoids, an imbalance of Na+, K+ is observed. This disease is called "Conn's
disease". Due to this disease there occurs irregularity in nervous system, as result of that muscles get
contracted, Muscle weakness, hypertension and hypokalemia are observed.
Adrenogenital Syndrome/Adrenal virilism/Pseudohermaphrodite :

In this case, girls develop male characters, eg. menstrualion cycle is stopped, uterus and ovary are reduced
or constricted and clitoris becomes enlarged. Somatic hairs are develops on body, development of Beard
and moustache. Only hair symptoms are called as Hirsutism.
 In a man, female sex hormone is secreted by adrenal is in excess amount. he will show feminine characters
i.e. development of mammary glands this disorder is called gynaecomastia.
 If in a male, androgens are present in excess amount, it developes extra enlargement of penis. This defect
is called macrogenitosomia e.g. manis, Armedillo.
 Adrenal gland is also known as 4 – S gland

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S – Sugar metabolism
S – Slat retaining actions
4–S
S – Sex hormones
S – Stress reactions
Control of adrenal Secretion :
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone [ACTH] of anterior lobe of pituitary gland controls the hormones secreted
by adrenal cortex.
 ACTH controls very little or even does not control the secretion of mineralocorticoids. These are controlled
by Renin hormone secreted by kidneys.
 Pituitary gland does not control the secretion of adrenal medulla hormones, the adrenal medulla hormones
secretion is controlled by nervous system.
 The amount of cortisol and ACTH in blood is maximum in the morning and minimum in early part of night.
Control of ACTH secretion
THYMUS GLAND
This is situated in the anterior part of heart called mediastinal space. It is a bilobed gland. It is originated
by third branchial pouch of embryo, i.e. it is endodermal in origin.
 Thymus gland is well developed in a new born child, but it reduces continuously from adulthood to old
age. It remains in the form of a string at last.
 Its structure is just like lymph gland. It is covered by connective tissue coat capsule and internally both the
lobes are redividing in to small lobules.
 Each lobule has a dense, darkly staining peripheral cortex and a looser lightly staining central medulla.
 The cortex consists of densely packed lymphocytes.
 The medulla consists of reticular epithlial cell, a few lymphocytes and the "Corpuscles of Hasslls" thymic
corpuscles.
 Thymus gland is related to immune system of body.
Hormones and functions of thymus gland :
 Thymus gland secretes thymosin or thymin hormone, that is proteinaceous in nature/Polypeptide.
 Main-immunity develop upto 9-10 year. If thymosine immunity power very high tymosin myasth gravis
develop.
Capsule
Sternum
Hassall's cells
or Thymic cells
Thymus
(1) This hormone helps in immune system of the body.
(2) Hassall's corpuscles are found in thymus gland, these are also called thymic corpuscles or epithelial cell
or reticular cell, they act as phagocytes.
(3) After the birth, T-Cells or T-lymphocytes are matured in thymus gland, then these lymphocytes are
releases by thymus gland, reach to lymphatic organs like spleen, payer's patches and lymph nodes &
deposited in it.
(4) Thymosin hormone stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes to destroy the antignes produced by bacteria
or pathogen.
(5) According to one of the theories of Ageing the decline and disappearance of Thymus gland by middle age
is the primary cause of ageing.
(6) Thymosin helps in the development of sex gland but inhibits sexual maturity in early young age.
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(7) Thymus provide cell mediated immunity so thymus is also called "Throne of immunity" or "Training
school of T-lymphocytes".
 Secretion of thymin decreases the neuromuscular transmission, so hypersecretion of thymine may cuase
myasthenia gravis (may be treated by corticoidesfor short time). It provides the antibody against receptor
& block the Neuromuscular junction.
PINEAL BODY
Position :
 It is situated at the dorsal side of diencephalon of anterior part of brain i.e. prosencephalon. It is also
known as Epiphysis cerebri. Pineal body is a part of brain. It is ectodermal in origin.
 There are found pinealocyte cells (formed by the modification of nerve cells) and supporting interstitial
cells or neutroglial cells in pineal body.
 Pineal body called as third eye in frog.
Hormone & Functions :
 Pineal body secretes a hormone melatonin, which is an amino acid.

 Melatonin is functional in lower vertebrates only.
 In amphibians and reptiles, this hormone is related with metachrosis (change in the colour of skin). It
affects the Melanophores of skin, thus acts antagonistically to the MSH of pituitary i.e. it fairs the
complexion of skin.
 Central part of gland secretes antigonadial hormone.
 The hormone controls the sexual behaviour in mammals. It inhibits the sexual irritation, and also inhibits
the development of genitalia and their functions.
 If pineal body is removed from rat, these will attain premature adolescence.
 The gland probably controls the sexual behaviour according to light differentiation, thus it acts as a
biological clock.
 It is proved that the level of melatonin rises during periods of darkness and falls during periods of light.
 Children blind from birth attain puberty earlier than normal.

 Maximum developoment of pineal upto 7yr & then it undergoes involution & at the age of 14 yr interstitial
tissue and crystals of CaCO3 or Ca3(PO4)2 are deposited in it, these are called "Brain sand" or "Acervuli".
PANCREAS

 Position : Pancreas is a pink coloured mixed gland
 Endodermal in origin.

 99% part is exocrine – Acini – Digestive enzymes.

 1% part in endocrine – Islets of Langerhans – Different hormones. 
 Each islet of Langerhans has 4 types of cells
(A) Alfa cells (-cells) : These are the largest cells present in peripheral region these are approximately
25 % of the total cells. They secrete glucagon hormone.
(B) Beta cells (-cells) : These are the small cells present in central region. These are about 60–65 % part
of total cells. They secrete Insulin hormone.
(C) Delta cells (-cells) OR Gamma cells (-cells) :
These cells are found in middle region. These are about 10 % part of total cells. They secrete
somatostatin hormone which regulates the activities of -cells and -cells.
(D) F-cell or PP-cells : Along with above mentioned cells, some other cells are also found in islet of
Langerhans, these are called PP-cells which secrete pancreatic polypeptide hormone.
(1) Insulin :
 It was first prepared/found by Benting and Best.

 Molecular structure of insulin was given by A.F. Sanger (with the help of cow's insulin)
 The term insulin was also given by A.F. Sanger.
 Insulin is the first protein that is artifically synthesized in lab and is crystallized.
 Human insulin was synthesized by "Tsan".
 Functional human insulin is made up of 51-amino acids that has 2 chains.
(i) -chain – It is made up 21 aminoacids
(ii) -chain – It is made up 30 amino acids. Both chains are bind together with cross bonds of disulphide
bonds.
 "A.F. Sanger" was awarded by Noble Prize for it.
Functions of Insulin hormone :
(I) Actions on cell membrane permeability.
(II) Actions on metabolism of : Carbohydrate, Protein, Fat, Nucleic acid, Minearl.
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On cell membrane permeability : Exept brain cells, R.B.Cs. retina, insulin stimulates the permeability
and consumption of glucose in all somatic cells.
Actions on Metabolism :
Carbohydrate :
(1) Insulin inhibits gluconeogenesis.
(2) Promotes glycogenesis. There are two major sites of glycogenesis, Liver and the muscles.
(3) Enhances peripheral utilization (oxidation) of glucose, causing the blood glucose level to fall.
(4) Inhibits glycogenolysis.

(5) Insulin reduces the glucose level in blood so, it is also called as Hypoglycemic factor.
(6) Insulin is an abolic hormone.
Fat :
(i) Insulin promotes lipogenesis and inhibits lipolysis.
(ii) Due to deficiency of Insulin incomplete oxidation of fats takes place which, is the main cause of
ketoacidosis in blood.
Protein : Insulin promotes protein synthesis by promoting uptake of amino acid by liver and muscle cell.
Nucleic acid : Insulin promotes synthesis of DNA and RNA.
Hyposecretion of Insulin :
(1) Due to hyposecretion of insulin, permeability and consumption of glucose is decrease, Glycogenesis
decrease in the liver so, glucose level in blood is increase and this disease is called "Diabetes mellitus" or
sugar disease.
(2) World Diabetes Day – 14 November.
 Glucose is excreted throught urine, if amount of glucose is in excess in the blood, this is known as
"Glycosuria". In this stage, amount of glucose in blood increases upto > 180 mg./100 ml of blood plasma.
 The amount of water increased (in this stage) in the urine, so intervals of urination reduced, it is called
polyuria.
 Polydipsia - Due to excess loss of water and minerals through urine. The patient feels thristy.
 Polyphagia - Due to deficiency of glucose and energy is somatic cell patient become excessive hunger.
 Due to incomplete oxidation of fats in fatty tissues, ketone and acetone bodies are formed. This ketoacidosin
apply toxic effect on brain cells.
 The combined effect of ketoacidosis, dehydration and hyperglycemia may cause diabetic comma to the
patient, patient becomes unconscious and even some time may be die.
 Insulin hormone is given to the patient by injection in this disease, Insulin given orally is not effective,
because it digest in the alimentary canal like protein.

 Now a days, oral insulin is used in following states :

(A) IZS – Insulin Zinc Suspension. (B) PZI – Protamine Zinc Insulin
Hypersecretion of Insulin :
Or – Hyperinsulinism :
 Due to hypersecretion of insulin amount of glucose decreases in blood. It is called hypoglycemia.

 In hypoglycemia state, body cells take more and more glucose from blood So need of glucose for nervous
system, retina of eye, genital epithelium is not fulfilled, as a result of that patient looses its reproductive
power and sight. Due to excess irritation in brain cells, patient feels exhausted, unconsciousness, Cramps,
and at last patient may die.
 "Insulin shock" – After physical exercise or fasting, if a diabetic patient takes an inlusin injection, sugar
level in blood reduces quickly up to 40 mg/100 ml of blood. It is called insulin shock. The patient may be
unconscious or even may die.
Disabetes mellitus are two type
(i) Type - I Diabetes mellitus : It is also called as juvenile diabetes or Insulin Dependent Diabetes
mellitus (IDDM). It is usually develops before age 40 and it is characterised by loss of -cells with
eventually absence of insulin in the circulation. due deficiency of insulin fatal high level of ketone
bodies. increase the blood. Insulin is the metabolic hormone which present ketonebody formation.
(ii) Type - II Diabetes mellitus : It is also known as matuarity onset diabests mellitus or Non-Insulin
Dependent diabetes mellitus. It is usually develops after age 40 year and is not associatede with total
loss of the ability of secrete insulin.
(2) Glucagon :
 It is secreted by -cells.
 It was discovered by "Kimball and Murlin".
 Glucagon is a hyperglycemic factor.

 It is made up of 29 amino acids.
 It is antagonistic to insulin. It is secreted by the gland, when sugar level of blood reduces.
 Glucagon hormone increase the amount of glucose in blood.

 It stimulates gluconeogenesis in liver, as a result of that amount of glucose in the blood increased.
 It stimulates Lipolysis of fats in fatty tissues.
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 The secretion of insulin and glucagon is controlled by a limit control feed back. When amount of glucose
is increased in blood, then insulin is secreted by -cells. As a result of it, when amount of glucose is
reduced in blood, then glucagon is secreted by -cells.
(3) Somatostain :
It regulates the secretion of insulin and glucagon.
(4) Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP) :
Its functions are known yet today perhaps it controls the absorptin of digested food in intestine.
OTHER ORGANS WHICH SCRETE HORMONES
(A) Kidney : - Main function of kidney is excretion, but it secretes some hormones also. These are as follows :
1. Renin : - It converts a plasma protein is secreted by Juxtaglomerular complex of kidney. Renin
hormone acts as an enzyme. It changes the Angiotensinogen into Angiotensin I.
Angiotensinogen Re
nin
hormone
  Angiotensin I.
 Renin hormone increase reabsorption of water and Na+ ions in uriniferous tubules.
 It stimulates the secretion of aldosterone hormone from adrenal cortex.

2. Erythrogenin : The hormone reacts with plasmaprotein (Globulin) and forms a new hormone
erythropoietin.
 Erythropoietin stimulates bone marrow to form RBCs.
3. Renomedullary prostaglandins : It is the most active renal hornone. It makes relaxation in unstriated
muscles of blood vessels of kidneys. It enhances the excretion of Na ions by urine (diuretic effect),
renal vasodilation & decreases tubular reabsorption.
(B) Skin : Due to the effect of ultraviolet rays of sunlight steroids like Argosterol and cholesterol are changed
into Argocalciferol and cholecalciferol vitamin D respectively in the skin, it reaches to its target organ by
blood stream.
 Vit. D is supposed to be a hormone. It acts as a co-hormone with parathormone.

It helps in bone formation and teeth formation. It increases the absorption of calcium and phosphorus by
intestine.
 'Rickets' disease is observed in children due to the deficiency of vit. 'D' as a result of which bones become
weak and thin.
 In adulthood, its deficiency causes Osteomalacia. Bones become weak and brittle.
(C) Gonads : -
(i) Testes (Male gonad) :
 Leydig's cells or Interstitial cells of connective tissue of seminiferous tubules of testes secrete male
hormones androgens.
 Main androgens are testosterone and androsterone.
 These are steroid in nature.
 Testes also secrete inhibin/activin
WORKS OF TESTOSTERONE
 It increase the diameter of pectoral bone.

It stimulates the haemopoiesis in bones.
 It increases the cholesterol level in blood.
 
Testosterone is the main androgen (30 to 100 ng/ml).

 
 It changes the sexual behaviour in male eg. deveop the sexual attraction towards the female.
 This Hormone stimulates the development of secondary sex organ. Such as epididymis, vas deferens,
seminal vesicle.

 This hormone developes the low pitch of voice which is known as musculizatin of voice.
 This Hormone stimulates the number of sebaceous gland on the face which causes the Acne & pimples.
 It increases the developemnt of beard & moustache.

 It develops the musculization power in muscle.

 It also stimulates the growth of hair on the upper limb, lower limb, thoracic, abdominal part, armpits &
near to the external genital organ.
 It stimulates the skeletal growth.
 It also help in the organisation of Ca+2 in bones.
(ii) Ovary (Female gonad) :
  Estrogen/Oestrogen : The hormone is is secreted by the inner layer – theca interna of graafian follicles.
  Estrogen includes estradiol, estrone and estriol.
  Estrogen is steroid in nature.
  This Hormone stimulates the development of secondary sex organ such as fallopian tube, uterus, vagina.
  Promotes the development of mammary gland. It stimulates the tubular growth.

  It devlops the high pitch of voice which is also called as Feminine of voice.
  This Hormone removes the hair from face, upper & lower limb, thorax & abdominal part. But
stimulates growth of hair near the external genital organ & armpits.
 
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 It makes the muscle soften.
  It also develops the growth of skeletal muscle & bone. It help in the organisation of Ca+2 in the bone.
  It increase the diameter of pelvic bone.
  It stimulates the blood formation but decreaes the cholesterol level in the blood.
It stimulates the rate of growth of hair of head.
 
  It also changes the sexual behaviour, means attraction towards the male.
Corpus Luteum : (Temporary endocrine gland).

After ovulation Graafian follicle changed into a yellow gland in the ovary, it is called corpus luteum.
Regulation and control of its production is done by L.H. Corpus luteum is an endocrine gland. Following
are the hormones secreted by this gland.
(1) Progesterone :
  The hormone stimulates the developemntal characters of pregnancy.

  Due to the effect of this hormone, uterine wall endometrium become thick and blood circulation is
increased in it. Fats and glycogen are deposited in its cells.
  This stimulates the alveolar growth of mammary glands become highly developed, as a result of this
breasts become enlarged.
  It helps in implantation of embryo in the uterine wall.

  The hormone maintains pregnancy, so it is also called "Pregnancy hormone" Progesterone inhibits
the contractions in uterine wall muscles, so it is also called "anti abortion hormone".
(2) Relaxin :
Perhaps corpus luteum also secretes it, but it is secreted at the end of pregnancy/gestation period.
(3) Estrogen
(4) Inhibin
(D) Placenta : (Temporary endocrine gland).
Placenta connects the embryo and uterus of mother at the time of embryo development. It secretes some
hormones –
(i) Chorionic gonadotropic hormone (CGH) = Human chorionic gonadotropic (HCG)
It is a protein hormone. It helps to maintain the pregnancy and controls the secretory action of corpus
luteum.
 At the initial stage of pregnancy CGH or HCG is secreted in excess amount by placenta and it is
excreted by urine. At this stage pressence of CGH of HCGH in the urine is tested by urin test.
 It is a positive test for pregnancy. It also called Gravidex test.
 HCG or CGH is tested in urine test for pregnancy test.
(ii) Placental lactogen or human chorionic somatomammotropin :

It is also a protein hormone, and stimulates the mammary glands for milk production.
(iii) Estrogen : It is a steroid. It controls extradevelopment of breast during pregnancy.
(iv) Progesterone : It is also a steroid. It controls the slow action of slowly abolishing corpus luteum and
maintains the pregnanacy.
(v) Relaxin : It is a protein hormone. At the time of parturition, it helps to expand the pubic symphysis of
pelvic girdle to facilitate the child birth in females.
Hormones which always remains in tissue fluid :

There are some hormones which never reach upto blood stream but always remains in ECF.
These are as follows :
(1) Neurohormone : These are secreted in the nodes of axons of nerve cells. Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine
are the main neurohormones.
(2) Prostaglandin : These are fatty acids. These are most active substances among all the known substances.
 Prostagladin are of so many types. Kidneys, gonads, seminal vesicles, thymus, brain etc. Due to
vasodialator this hormone decreases the blood pressure.
 These prostaglandins are first of all observed in semen of man. These stimulate contraction of unstriated
muscles.
 These prostaglandins are secreted by seminal vesicles and reach upto vagina of female thorugh semen of
male, and then these activate the muscles of uterus of female.
(3) Kinins : These are chemicals which are secreted by any organ of body at the time of chemical change in
ECF, and reduce the B.P. by expanding blood vessels. These also reduce th time of blood clotting.
Kinins are also called as "Firstaid hormone".
(4) Pheromones or Ectohormones :

 The term "Pheromone" was coined by Karlson and Butenandt.
 These are secreted by exocrine glands. These are also called "Semio-chemical". They travell from one
place to other place by air.
 These chemicals are secreted by animals and effect the other animal's behaviour and mode of life of the
same species.
 Just like hormones, their target place is far from place of origin.
 First of all, pheromone Bombykol was studied. It is pheromone of silk moth. Pheromones are volatile in
nature, and travel through air from palce to place.
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Pheromones are of 3 types :
(1) Sex – Pheromone :

These attract male and female animals for reproduction. Female silk moth secretes Bombycol or
Gyplure from its body which attracts male for mating.
(a) Muskone : It is secreted by Musk deers.
(b) Civetone : It is secreted by cats.
(2) Aggregation pheromone :

This pheromone is secreted by one member of social insects and pheromone sends mesages to other
members of that society. Thus helps in aggregation. e.g. : Geradiol pheromone in honey bee.
(3) Alarm pheromones :

These pheromones are secreted by one members of the insect species and alarm the other members of
the same species. e.g. : Secretion of formic acid in ants insects etc.
SPECIAL POINT
 Heterocrine gland : These are those endocrine glands which are involved in hormone secretion as
well as some other function eg. pancreas, gonads, placenta, GI mucosa and kidneys.
 In females protactin induce maternalism i.e. strong emotional attachment.

 In male prolactin promotes paternalism i.e. protective attitudes towards family members and intensive
food gathering for the family.
 Sporadic cases of simple goitre (sporadic goitre) in a population are normally due to genetic defect.
 Tropic hormone : A hormone which stimulates another endocrine gland to secrete its hormone is
called trophic hormone.
 Simmond's diseases : This condition is due to atrophy of the anterior lobe of pituitary gland.
 Pheaochromocytoma : It is due to hypersecretion of adrenaline causes, high blood pressure, high
level of sugar in blood and urine, high metabolic rate, nervousness and sweating.
 True sexual precocity : True sexual precocity is early maturation of ovaries and testes with
production, of ova before the age of 9 years in girls, or sperm before 10 years in boys, occurs without
evident cause.
 Sexual pseudoprecocity results from adrenal cortex, testes, ovary or from other sources, including
extragonadial tumours.
 Eunuchoidism : Failure of testoterone secretion in male causes eunuchoidism. (A) eunuch has a
undeveloped secondary sex organs like prostrate, seminal vesicle and penis (B) lacks external sex
character such as beard, moustache and low pitch of voice and (C) does not produce sperm.
 Growth hormone : Stimulate the liver to form "Somatomedins" (Insulin like growth factors"). This
somatomedins potent effect to bone growth.
 In heart CGMP has antagonistic effect to CAMP, CAMP mediate muscle contractin in response to
adrenaline, while CGMP slow down muscle contractin is response to acetycholie (NCERT).
 CGMP used in second messanger in atrial natriuretic peptide and Bronchodilation use as medicine
(life saving drug) vasodilation in genital organ nitric oxide.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM EXERCISE # 1
Q.1 A hormone is (3) E.H. Starling (4) Harris
(1) An enzyme
Q.8 Hormones are
(2) Chemical messenger
(1) Destroyed after use
(3) Primary messenger
(2) Not destroyed after use
(4) both 2 and 3
(3) Non antigenic
Q.2 Integrative system in the body are (4) 1 and 3 both
(1) Endocrine system
(2) Nervous system Q.9 Statement not correct for hormones is that
(3) Blood vascular system these
(1) Are not all protein
(4) Both endocrine and nervous system
(2) Are secreted in small amount
Q.3 Endocrine glands can be defined as those (3) Affect metabolism
glands which pour their secretion (4) Acts as catalysis
(1) Directly into blood
(2) Into blood or ducts Q.10 "Secondary messenger" is
(3) When they are cut (1) Cyclic A.M.P. (2) ATP
(4) Into particular organ (3) ADP (4) DNA
Q.4 The receptor for protein hormones are present Q.11 Hormones are chemically
on (1) Amino acid (2) Protein
(1) Nucleus (3) Steroid (4) All
(2) Endoplasmic reticulum Q.12 First discovered hormones
(3) Cytoplasm (1) Thyroxine (2) Adrenaline
(4) Cell-surface (3) Secretin (4) Insulin
Q.5 Hormones are
PITUITARY GLANDSS
(1) Internal secretion mostly discharged in
the blood by endocrine glands Q.13 Pituitary gland does not control the secretory
(2) Secretion of endocrine glands activity of
(3) Chemical substances secreted into the (1) Thyroid (2) Adrenal cortex
gut (3) Adrenal medulla (4) Testes
(4) Inorganic catalysis
Q.14 Which of the following controls spermatogenesis
Q.6 Hormones are (1) FSH (2) LTH
(1) Produced in low amount (3) LH (D) Vasopressin
(2) Easily diffusable Q.15 Which is called "Master gland" of the body
(3) Non-antigenic (1) Thyroid (2) Pituitary
(4) All (3) Thymus (4) Adrenal
Q.7 Term "Hormone" was coined by Q.16 The hyposecretion of pituitary hormone cause
(1) W.M. Baylis (2) E.H. Schally (1) Cretinism
(2) Diabetes insipidus Q.24 Gorilla like man with large head and hands
(3) Goitre and protruding jaws is produced due to
(4) Diabetes mellitus (1) Over-secretin of thyroxine
Q.17 Neurohypophysis secretes (2) Over-secretionof growth hormone
(1) Vasopressin (3) Exess of vitamin C in diet
(2) Oxytocin (4) Excess secretion of TSH
(3) Oxytocin & prolactin
(4) Vasopressin & oxytocin Q.25 If amount of ADH decrease in blood,
micturition
Q.18 Hormone secreted by pituitary gland is (1) Remains unchanged (2) Decreasse
chemically (3) Increases (4) None
(1) All protein
(2) All steroid Q.26 Urine concentratin is controlled by
(3) Complex compounds of proteins and (1) Oxytocin (2) ADH
carbohydrates (3) MSH (4) ACTH
(4) Some steroid and some protein Q.27 The follicle stimulating hormone is secreted
Q.19 The same hormone can be known by various from
names given in which set (1) Posterior lobe of pituitary gland
(1) Secretin, enterokinin, gastrin (2) Reproductive gland
(2) Gametokinetic factor, testosterone, LTH (3) Thryoid gland
(3) ADH, pitressin, and vasopressin (4) Anterior lobe of pituitary gland
(4) Oxytocin, tri-iodo-thyronine, thyroxine
Q.28 Pituitary gland is under control of
Q.20 Growth hormone is produced in (1) Hypothalamus (2) Adrenal gland
(1) Adrenals (2) Thyroid (3) Pineal gland (4) Thyroid gland
(3) Pituitary (4) Thymus
Q.29 "Sella turcica" is a
Q.21 Gonadotrohic hormone is produced by (1) Depressin in brain enclosing pituitary
(1) Interstitial cells of testis (2) Cavity of skull enclusing ears
(2) Adrenal cortex (3) Covering of testis
(3) Adenohypophysis (4) Kind of endocrine gland
(4) Posterior part of thyroid
Q.30 Vasopressin is responsible for
Q.22 The hormones FSH and LH are together called
(1) Controlling Oogenesis
(1) Emegency hormone
(2) Regulating blood pressure and act on
(2) Neuro hormone
the nephron tubules
(3) Gonadotrophic hormone
(3) Regulating formation of pigment
(4) Antistress hormone
(4) Controlling spermatogenesis
Q.23 Gigantism and acromegaly are due to
Q.31 The main function of prolactin hormone is to
(1) Hyperpituitrism (2) Hypopituitrism
(1) influence the activity of thyroid gland
(3) Hypothyroidism (4) Hyperthyroidism
(2) Control development of graffian follicles
(3) Initiate and maintain secretion of milk (3) Polypeptide (4) None
by mammary gland
Q.40 Herring bodies are found in
(4) Cause ejection of milk
(1) Neuro hypophysis
Q.32 The hormones of neurohypophysis are formed (2) Adeno hypophysis
(3) Both
in
(4) None
(1) pars nervosa
(2) pars distalis Q.41 One of the following is homologus to
(3) Supraoptic and paraventricular center pituitary gland of vertebrates
(4) Hypothalamus (1) Muller's organ of Amphioxus
(2) Subneural gland of Ascidian
Q.33 I.C.S.H. in male acts on (3) Both of the above
(1) Cells of leydig (2) Sertoli cells (4) None of the above
(3) Spermatids (4) Spermatogonia
Q.42 MSH Produced by the pars intermedia of
Q.34 Hypopohysis cerebri is the other name of pituitary causes in lower vertebrates
(1) Adenohypo physis (1) Darkening of skin
(2) Islets of langerhans (2) Light colouration of skin
(3) Neurohypophysis (3) Both
(4) Pituitary (4) None of these
Q.35 The embryonic ectodermal evagination of Q.43 LTH is also known as

stomodaeum which gives rise to part of (1) Lactogenic Hormone
pituitary glands is called (2) Prolactin
(1) Rathke's pouch (2) Hastschek's pouch (3) Mammotropic Hormone
(3) Sella-turcica (4) None of these (4) All
Q.36 Which of the following hormone helps in Q.44 Vasopressin is realed with
facultative water reabsorption by nephrons (1) Concentration of urine
(1) MSH (2) FSH (2) Quick digestion
(3) ADH (4) ACTH (3) Dilution of urine
(4) Slow heart beat
Q.37 Hormone of hypothalamus – are called
(1) Regulatory hormones Q.45 Growth hormone of pituitary is more effective
(2) Growth hormones in
(3) Tropic hormones (1) Presence of thyroxine
(4) (1) and (3) (2) Absence of thyroxine
(3) Absence of Insulin
Q.38 Diabetes insipidus disease is caused due to
(4) Presence of adrenaline
the deficiency of hormone produced by
(1) Pituitary (2) Adrenal Q.46 Gonadtroopic hormnoe is
(3) Pancreas (4) Thyroid (1) FSH (2) LH
(3) LTH (4) FSH, LH
Q.39 FSH & LH is a
(1) Catecholamine (2) Glycoprotein Q.47 Median eminence is part of
(1) Anterior pituitary
(2) Hypothalamus Q.55 FSH is [RPMT-2000]
(3) Neutrohypophysis (1) Glycoprotein (2) Metalloprotein
(4) None of these (3) Glycolipid (4) Phospholipid
Q.48 MSH is secreted in man by which part of Q.56 The synthesis of Vasopressin is done by
pituitary [RPMT-2001]
(1) Antierior Pituitary (1) Hypothalamus
(2) Middle lobe of pituitary
(2) Kidney
(3) Posterior lobe of pituitary
(4) None of these
(4) Post. pituitary
Q.49 Oxytocin is used in
(1) Milk ejection Q.57 Which one of the pituitary of the rabbit
(2) Parturition controls the protein metabolism and growth
(3) Let down process of skeleton [RPMT-2002]
(4) All of the above (1) lodo thyroxine
(2) Leutotrophic hormone
Q.50 Hyper secretion of STH lead to (3) Somatotrophic hormone
(1) Dwarf & Acromegaly (4) Oxytosine
(2) Goitre, Sterility
(3) Cretinism, Myxoedema THYROID GLANDS, PARATHYROID
(4) Gigantism & Acromegaly GLAND
Q.51 Oxytocin mainly helps in [CBSE-1999] Q.58 The thyroid gland is homologous to which
(1) Milk production part of lower chordates
(2) Child birth (1) neural gland
(3) Diuresis (2) Pharyngeal gill pouch
(4) Gametogenesis (3) Nerve cord
Q.52 Which hormone is concerned with the (4) Endostyle
concentration of urine [CBSE-2002] Q.59 If thyroid is removed from tadpole of frog,
(1) Oxytocin (2) Vassopressin it will
(3) Prolactin (4) Cortisol (1) Die soon
Q.53 Acromegaly is caused by [CBSE-2002] (2) Remains tadpole throughout life
(1) Excess of S.T.H. (3) Grows in to giant frog
(2) Excess of Thyroxine (4) Grows into dwarf frog
(3) Deficiency of Thyroxine Q.60 The Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) in body
(4) Excess of Adrenaline cells is regulated by
Q.54 Oxytocin is released from [RPMT-2000] (1) Parathyroid (2) Thyroid
(1) Adenohypophysis (Anterior lobe) (3) Pituitary (4) Thymus
(2) Adenohypophysis (Posterior lobe) Q.61 Who isolated thyroxine hormone
(3) Hypothalamus (1) Best & Banting
(4) Neurohypophysis (2) F. Sanger
(3) William Buemont
(4) E.C. Kendall (3) A.D.H.
(4) Oxytocin
Q.62 The hormones responsible for regulation of
calcium and phosphorous metabolism is Q.71 Exopthalmic goitre is caused due to
secreted by hypersecretion of
(1) Pancreas (2) Thyroid
(1) Adrenal (2) Thyroid
(3) Thymus (4) Parathyroid
(3) Parathyroid (4) Thymus
Q.63 Injection of which of the following increases
metabolic rate Q.72 The main function of thyroid gland is to
(1) STH (2) Insulin control
(3) Thyroxine (4) Testoterone (1) Growth
Q.64 Hypothyroidism in adults causes (2) Reproduction
(1)Addison's disease (2) Myxoedema (3) Secondary sexual characters
(3) Sterility (4) Cretinism (4) Basal Metabolic Rate
Q.65 Parathormone regulates
(1) Blood calcium level Q.73 The two lobes of thyroid gland are joined
(2) Calcium phosphate level by horizontal connection called
(3) Body temperature (1) Inter thyroidal connective
(4) None (2) Inter thyroidal commissure
Q.66 Which gland stores hormone in interecellular (3) Interme diary lobe
space before its secretion into blood (4) Isthumus
Q.74 The vitamin which works along with para
(3) Testis (4) Ovary
thyroid hormone is
Q.67 Goiter is caused by the abnormal functioning (1) Vitamin C (2) Calciferol
of (3) Tocopherol (4) Vitamin – B12
(1) Pancreas (2) Adrenals
Q.75 Storage gland is
(3) Pituitary (4) Thyroid
(1) Pancreas (2) Testis
Q.68 Parathomone deficiency in man casues (3) Thyroid (4) Adrenal
(1) hyper calcermia (2)Hypocalcaemia
Q.76 In Hashimoto's disease symptoms develop
(3) Goitre (4) All
like
Q.69 Cretinism is due to abnormal secretion of (1) Hyposecretion of thyroxine
(1) Thyroid stimulating hormone (2) Hypesecretion of thryroxine
(2) Thyroxine (3) Hyposecretion of adrenaline
(3) Calcitonin (4) None of the above
(4) Partathormone
Q.77 Removal of Parathyroids in human beings
Q.70 Phillips collip discovered which of the result in
following hormones (1) Tetany
(1) Parathyroid hormone (2) Simmond's disease
(2) Thyroxine (3) Myxoedema
(4) Addision's disease
(3) Increases (4) Uncertain
Q.78 Hyper secretion of Parathyroid hormone
result in Q.86 Deficiency of which of the following may
(1) Stronger bones due to increased cause bone deformation
incorporation of calcium in them (1) PTH (2) Vitamin D
(2) Deposition of calcium in various (3) STH (4) Thyroxine
skeletal structure
Q.87 Function of thyrocalcitonin [CBSE-1998]
(3) No effect on the constitution of bones
(1) To reduce the calcium level in blood
(4) Weaker bones due to increased removal
(2) To increase the calcium level in blood
of calcium from them
(3) Oppose the action of thyroxine
Q.79 One of the following is correct statement (4) Maturation of gonads
(1) T4 is more active than T3
Q.88 Parathormone deficiency leads to
(2) T3 is more active than T4
[CBSE-1999]
(3) T3 and T 4 are the same +2
(1) Decrease of Ca level in blood
(2) Increase of Ca+2 level in blood
Q.80 Meta morphosis can be accelerated by (3) Osteoporosis
(1) I2 (2) P (4) Hypercalemia
(3) K (4) Ca
Q.89 Parathormone controls [RPMT-2000]
Q.81 One of the following is genetic (1) Fatty acid metabolism
(1) Simple goitre (2) Exopthalmic (2) Sodium and potassium metabolism
(3) Sporadic goitre (4) None (3) Calcium and phosphate metabolism
Q.82 Hormone that decrease calcium lavel in (4) Protein metabolism
blood
Q.90 Parathyroid hormone [NCERT]
(1) Thyroxine
(1) is produced by the thyroid gland
(2) Parathormone
(2) is released when blood calcium levels
(3) Thyrocalcitonin
fall
(4) Cortisol
(3) stimulates osteoblasts to lay down new
Q.83 BMR is increased due to bone
(1) Sympathetic nervous sytem (4) Stimulates calcitonin release
(2) Adrenaline
(3) Parasympathetic nervous sysetm ADRENAL GLAND, THYMUS GLAND,
(4) Thyroxine PINEAL
Q.84 Goitre is a pathological condition associated Q.91 Thymus gland develops from embryonic
with (1) Mesoderm (2) Endoderm
(1) Glucagon (2) Thyroxine (3) Ectoderm (4) All
(3) Progesterone (4) Testoterone
Q.92 Undersecretion of adrenal coretx causes
Q.85 Effects of thyroxine on metabolic rate is (1) Sterility (2) Addison's disease
(1) Decreases (2) No effect (3) Cretinism (4) Dwarfism
(1) Almost similar to epinerphrine
Q.93 Epinephrine is
(2) Similar to ADH
(1) Secreted from pancreas and decreases
(3) Oppsoite to epinephrine
heart beat
(4) Oppsoite to ADH
(2) Secreted from adrenal medulla and
increases heart beat Q.101 Epinephrine and norepinephrine together
(3) Secreted from adrenal medulla and known as
decreases heart beat (1) Steroid (2) Protein
(4) Secreted from pancreas and increases (3) Catecholamine (4) None
heart beat
Q.102 3F gland is
Q.94 Role of thymus in homosepiens is chiefly (1) Adrenal (2) Thyroid
conncerned with (3) Gonadal (4) Pancreas
(1) Reproduction (2) Immunology Q.103 Mammals born without a thymus gland fail
(3) Calcium balance (4) Blood coagulation to manufacture
(1) B-Lymphocytes (2) T-Lymphocyes
Q.95 Hyposeretion of aldosterone causes
(3) Plasma cells (4) Basophils
(1) Gull's disease (2) Grave's disease
(3) Cushing's disease (4) Addision's disease Q.104 Retention of sodium in body depends up on
hormone from
Q.96 Hormones produced by adrenal cortex and (1) Adrenal cortex (2) Adrenal medulla
gonads (sex hormnoe) are chemically (3) Parathyroid (4) Thyroid
(1) Proteinaceus
Q.105 Adrenal cortex also controls the carbohydrate
(2) Steroids
metabolism through
(3) Glycoprotein
(1) Adrenaline
(4) Phenolic compound
(2) Noradrenaline
Q.97 Melatonin is a hormone produced by (3) Glucocorticoids
(1) Adrenal gland (4) Mineralo Corticoids
(2) Pituitary gland Q.106 Which part of adrenal secrets hydrocor-
(3) Pineal gland
ticosterone hormone
(4) Thymus gland
(1) Zona retcularis
Q.98 Cushing's disease is caused by (2) Zona glomerulosa
(1) Disturbance in fat metabolism (3) Zona fassiculata
(2) Excessof ACTH secretion by the pituitary (4) Medulla
(3) Undersecretion of insulin Q.107 Calcium ion level can be decreased in blood
by administration of –
Q.99 Hassal's capsules are found in (1) Glucagon (2) Calcitonin
(1) Pineal body (2) Thymus gland (3) Parathormone (4) Thyroxine
(3) Thyroid gland (4) Adrenal gland
Q.108 "Pinealocytes cells" occurs in
Q.100 The function of norepinephrine is (1) Pineal body
(2) Pituitary gland (3) Peyer's patches
(3) Adrenal gland (4) Medulla part of thymus
(4) Thyroid gland
Q.117 If thymectomy is done during adult hood
Q.109 Conn's disease is due to then what possibility is their
(1) Hyposecretion of aldosterone (1) Immuniosppressant
(2) Hypersecretion of aldosterone (2) Die immediately
(3)No adverse reaction
(3) Hyposecretion of STH
(4) Myastheria gravis
Q.118 When the primary sexual organ does not
Q.110 "4s gland" is develop, puberty may appear due to
(1) Pancreas (2) Liver (1) Stimulation of adrenal coretx
(3) Thyroid (4) Adrenal (2) Stimulation of adrenal medulla
(3) Excessive secretion from gonads
Q.111 Adrenal gland is
(1) Ectodermal in origin
(2) Mesodermal in origin Q.119 Melatonin is secreted by [CBSE-2000]
(3) Endodermal in origin (1) Pineal body (2) Skin
(4) Ecto-mesodermal in origin (3) Pituitary Gland (D) Thyroid
Q.112 Adrenaline increases Q.120 M.S.H is secreted by in human –

(1) Heart beat [CBSE-2000]
(2) Blood pressure (1) Anterior lobe of pituitary
(3) Both (1) & (2) (2) Middle lobe of pituitary
(4) None (3) Posterior lobe of pituitary
(4) Endostyle
Q.113 Which hormone control activity of zona
glomerulosa of adrenal gland Q.121 Thymosin stimulates [RPMT-2000]
(1) Renin (2) Thyroxine (1) Milk secretion (2) Erythrocytes
(3) ADH (4) FSH (3) T-lymphocytes (4) Melanocytes
Q.114 "Cushing" disease is related with Q.122 Norephinephrin hormone is secreted from
(1) Thyroid (2) Parathyroid [RPMT-2000]
(3) Adrenal (4) Gonads (A) Zona glomerulosa
(2) Zona fasiculata
Q.115 All of the following are functions of (3) Zona reticularis
adrenaline except (4) Medulla of adrenal
(1) Increases blood supply in skeletal muscle Q.123 Which gland is concerned with salt equilibrium
(2) Hyperglycaemia in body [RPMT-2001]
(3) Uterine relaxation (A) Anterior pituitary (2) Pancreas
(4) Tachycardia (3) Adrenal (4) Thyroid
Q.116 Immuno competent process of T-lymphocyte Q.124 Norepinephrine leads to increase in

occur in [RPMT-2004]
(1) Bone narrow (1) Blood pressure
(2) Cortex part of thymus (2) Urine production
(3) Cellular respiration
Q.131 Ovulation in mammals occurs mainly under
(4) Release of epinephrine
the influence of
Q.125 Steroid hormones [NCERT] (1) TSH and ACTH (2) FSH and LH
(1) have only cell surface receptors (3) TSH and STH (4) MTH and ACTH
(2) are lipophobic
Q.132 Which gland is both exocrine as well as
(3) act through altering the activity of proteins
endocrine
in the target cell
(1) Pituitary (2) Mammary gland
(4) are produced by only adrenal cortex
(3) Thyroid (4) Pancreas
Q.126 Both adrenaline and cortisol are secreted in
Q.133 Chemical structure of man's insulin was
response to stress. Which of the following
studied by
statements is also true for both of these
(1) Banting (2) Kendal
hormones ? [NCERT]
(3) Tsan (4) Starling
(1) They act to increase blood glucose
(2) They are secreted by the adrenal cortex Q.134 Oversecretion of glucagon causes
(3) Their secretion is stimulated by (1) Tetany
adrenocorticotropin (2) Diabetes insipidus
(4) They are secreted into the blood within (3) Acromegaly
seconds of the onset of stress. (4) Glycosuria
Q.135 Glucagon is secreted by

PANCREASE, KIDNEY, SKIN, GANDS,
(1) (beta) cells of islets of langerhans
PHEROMONES
(2)  (alphs) cells of islets of lagerhans
(3)  cells of pancreas
Q.127 Glucagon is secreted by
(4) Adrenal cortex
(1) Leydig cells
(2) Islets of langerhans Q.136 Insulin by chemical nature is
(3) Corpus luteum (1) Carbohydrate (2) Protein
(4) Glisson's capsule (3) Steroid (4) Lipid
Q.128 A hormone with seat of activity in liver- Q.137 If ovaries from a pregmant woman are
changing glucose into glycogen is produced removed in 4 th month of pregnency then
by (1) Development of embryo becomes
(1) Pituitary (2) Thymus abnormal
(3) Parathyroid (4) Pancrease (2) Abortion occurs after some time
(3) Embryo develops normally till birth
Q.129 Estrogen is secreted by
(4) None
(1) Liver (2) Spleen
(3) Ovaries (4) Pituitary Q.138 Leydig cells are meant for
(1) Formation of sperm
Q.130 Androgens are secreted by
(2) To produce progesterone
(1) Pituitary (2) Testes
(3) To produce testosterone
(3) Ovaries (4) Thyroid
(4) Nutrition of sperm (3) Pheromones (4) All
Q.139 Secretion of estrogen is controlled by Q.149 Injection Insulin to an animal leads to

(1) HCG (2) Progesterone increased
(3) LH (4) F.S.H. (1) Glucose level of blood
(2) Glucose level of wine
Q.140 Immediate cause of induction of ovulation
(3) Glucose level of cells
in human female is large in plasma of
(4) None of these
(1) Progesterone (2) LH
(3) FSH (4) Estradiol Q.150 The structure and amino acid sequence of
the hormone insulin was discovered by
Q.141 Bombycol is pheromone secreted by the
(1) Benting (2) Sanger
body of
(3) Pauling (4) Cullen
(1) Wasp (2) House fly
(3) Spider (4) Silk moth Q.151 Pheromones secreted by
(1) Endocrine gland
Q.142 Stimulation of uterine contraction during
(2) Exocrine gland
child birth is brought about by
(3) Apocrine gland
(1) Adrenaline (2) Progestrone
(4) Mixed gland
(3) Oxytocin (4) Prolactin
Q.152 Which hormone has anti insulin effect
Q.143 Progesterone hormone is secreted from
(1) Cortisol (2) Oxytocin
(1) Placenta (2) Corpus luteum
(3) Aldosterone (4) Glucagon
(3) Both 1 and 2 (4)None of these
Q.144 The ''erythropoietin'' hormone regulates Q.153 ''Geradiol'' is a pheromone of
(1) Blood pressure (1) Honey bee (2) Silk moth
(2) Water level of blood (3) Butterfly (4) All
(3) Glucose level of blood Q.154 One of the following is pheromone
(4) Rate of formation of Red Blood Cells (1) Bombycol (2) Civeton
Q.145 Which of the following help in communication (3) Geradiol (4) All
with the other members of the same species
Q.155 Estrogen is secreted by
(1) Hormones (2) Automones
(1) Corpus albicans
(3) Pheromones (4) Autocoids
(2) Corpus Callasum
Q.146 Bombycol is pheromones which was studied (3) Corpus Luteum
first by (4) Cell of graffian follicles
(1) Jhonson (2) Karlson
(3) Tyson (4) None Q.156 The ''Estrogen'' secretion is controlled by
(1) FSH (2) LH
Q.147 Presence of ''HCG'' in urine of female confirm (3) Progesterone (4) GTH
(1) Addison's disease (2)Gynacomastia
(3) Virilism (4) Pregnancy Q.157 ''Anti abortion'' hormone is
(1) Relaxin (2) Oxytocin
Q.148 One of the following is volatile (3) Progestrone (4) Oestrogen
(1) Enzymes (2) Hormones
Q.158 Diabetic comma is due to hyposecretion of (4) All of these
insulin in which
Q.166 Endocrine structure of kidney is
(1) Glucose level increased in blood
(1) Cortex
(2) Keto acidosis take place
(2) Medulla
(3) Dehydration process start
(3) Juxtra - medullary node
(4) All the above
(4) Pelvis
Q.159 One molecule of insulin contains
Q.167 Feminizing hormone is
(1) 30 amino acid (2) 41 amino acid
(1) Glucagon (2) Gastrin
(3) 51 amino acid (4) 70 amino acid
(3) Oestrogen (4) Androgens
Q.160 Renin is produced by kidney and
Q.168 Which of these is not a ketone bodies
(1) Stimulate haemopoisis
(1) Acetoacetic acid
(2) Change angiotensinogen into angiotensin
(2) Succinic acid
(3) Influence ultrafiltration
(3) Beta hydroxy butyrate
(4) Acetone
Q.161 One of the following is artificial insulin
Q.169 Which of the following is first aid hormone
(1) IZS only
(1) Vitamin D
(2) PZI only
(2) Catecholamines
(3) Kinins
(4) Thymopsin
Q.162 The diabetes mellitus is caused by
Q.170 Which statement is correct about vitamine-D
(1) Hyper secretion of Insulin
(1) Increase Ca+2 absorption in GUT
(2) Hyposecretion of Insulin
(2) Hyposcretion in children produce rickets
(3) Hyposecretion of ADH
(3) Increase osteoblastic activity
(4) Hyper secretion of ADH
Q.163 Which one is a female sex hormone
Q.171 Which of the following is not a example of
(1) Estrogen (2) Progesterone
sex pheromone
(3) Estradiol (4) All of these
(1) Bombicol (2) Muskone
Q.164 Function of renin is (3) Formic acid (4) Civetone
(1) To reduce blood pressure
Q.172 In diabetes mellitus, what condition does
(2) Vasodilation
not possible
(3) Degradation of angiotensinogen to
(1) Polyurea (2) Loss of appetite
angiotensinII
(3) Glycosurea (4) Ketoacidosis
(4) Stimulates Urination
Q.173 Similarity between insulin dependent diabetes
Q.165 Which of the follownig hormone is secreted
mellitus and noninsulin dependent diabetes
by kidney
mellitus are
(1) Renin
(2) Renomedullary Prostaglandin (1) Both are insulin dependent
(3) Erythrogenin (2) Both are present since childhood
(3) Hyperglycaemia produce due to lack of (1) Testes (2) Spleen
insulin (3) Stomach (4) Intestine
(4) Both having family history Q.182 In diabetes mellitus disease the urine contains
(1) Salt (2) Fat
Q.174 Which of the following act as both hormone
(3) Protein (4) Sugar
and enzyme [RPMT-2000]
(1) ADH hormone Q.183 Secretin stimulates the activity of
(2) Acetylcholinesterase (1) Liver (2) Gastric gland
(3) Angiotensinogen (3) Pancreas (4) Gall-bladder
(4) Renin
Q.184 Adrenaline hormone causes
Q.175 What is the molecular weight of Insulin (1) Increase in blood pressure
[RPMT-2000] (2) Increase in heart beat
(1) 15000 (2) 5000 (3) Both of them
(3) 4000 (4) 6000 (4) None of them
Q.176 Prostaglandins affect Q.185 Main similarity between hormone and enzyme
(1) Blood pressure is
(2) Defaection (1) Both act at particular pH
(3) Osmoregulation (2) Both are protein
(4) Oxygen metabolism (3) Both are required in small amount
Q.177 Which cells of pancreas secrete the hormone (4) Both can be used again and again
insulin [RPMT-2001]
Q.186 Largest amount of idoine is found in
(1) Alpha-cells of langerhans (1) Adrenals (2) Liver
(2) Beta-cells of langerhans (3) Thyroid (4) Testes
(3) Interstitial cells
(4) Gamma-cells of langerhans Q.187 A patient of diabetes mellitus drink more
water because he eliminates the blood,
Q.178 In Rabbit, which of the following organ extra amount of which substance
acts as both endocrine & exocrine gland (1) Protein (2) Sugar
[RPMT-2001]
(3) Water (4) Hormone
(1) Testes (2) Ovary
(3) Pancreas (4) Stomach Q.188 Which hormone stimulates contraction of
gall ballder
Q.179 Which temporary endocrine gland forms in
(1) CCK (2) ACTH
ovary after ovulation [RPMT-2003]
(3) LTH (4) FSH
(1) Corpus callosum (2) Corpus albicans
(3) Corpus luteum (4) Corpus striata Q.189 Which of the following has no role in secretion
of hormone
Q.180 Carbohydrate metabolism is governed by
(1) Rickets and mongolism
(1) Thyroxine (2) Insulin
(2) Diabetes mellitus and cretinism
(3) Glucocorticoids (4) All
(3) Gigantism and exophthalmia
Q.181 Which of the following does not secrete (4) Cretinism and diabetes
any hormone
Q.190 Which gland prepares you for flight, fright (3) Nor adrenaline & adrenaline
and fight during adverse conditions (4) Insulin & Glucagon
(1) Thyroid (2) Parathyroid Q.200 Find out incorrect
(3) Pituitary (4) Adrenals (1) Pituitary - FSH
Q.191 Which hormone secretion is under nervous (2) Thyroid - T 4
control (3) Ovary - Calcitonin
(1) Adrenal cortex (2) Anterior pituitary (4) Islets of Langerhans - insulin
(3) Posterior pituitary (4) Pineal body Q.201 Ectodermal in origin is
Q.192 Which one of the following does not match is (1) Pituitary gland (2) Pineal body
biological category of chemical substance (3) Lens of eye (4) All of the above
(1) Gastrin (2) Renin Q.202 Blood pressure is controlled by
(3) Oxytocin (4) Creatinine (1) Adrenal gland (2) Thyroid gland
(3) Pituitary gland (4) None
Q.193 Sex hormone will work without the help of
(1) Gonadotropins (2) Placenta Q.203 ''Brain sand'' is found in
(3) Pituitary (4) Insulin (1) Thyroid (2) Thymus
(3) Pineal body (4) All
Q.194 Hypophysectomy leads to
(1) Heart attack Q.204 Which of the following is not a hormone
(2) Increased digestion (1) Vitamin D (2) Thyroxine
(3) Death (3) Adrenaline (4) None of these
(4) Regression of reproductive function
Q.205 Life saving hormone are secreted by
Q.195 Which of the following is not a steroid (1) Pituitary (2) Pineal
hormone (3) Adrenals (4) Thyroid
(1) Androgen (2) Aldosterone
(3) Estrogen (4) Relaxin Q.206 Both organs of which set secretes hormones
(1) Spleen - brain
Q.196 Which of followign is not a protein hormone (2) Lungs, -pancreas
(1) Relaxin (2) HCG (3) Spleen, -liver
(3) Placental lactogen (4) Estradiol (4) Testes, -placenta
Q.197 Which of the following is not an endocrine Q.207 Which gland in not originate from embryonic
gland Endoderm
(1) Pancreas (2) Adrenal gland (1) Thymus (2) Parathyroid
(3) Thyroid gland (4) Salivary gland (3) Adrenal Cortex (4) Thyroid
Q.198 Which of the following hormones is not Q.208 Structure which has no role in endocrine
proteinaceous is nature secretion
(1) TSH (2) Aldosterone (1) Duodenal epithelium
(3) LH (4) FSH (2) Testes
Q.199 One of the following is anta gonistic (3) Adrenal medulla
(1) FSH & LH (4) Submaxillary gland
(2) Oxytocin & vassopressin
Q.209 Which is largest endocrine gland
(1) Thyroid (2) Liver Q.217 Which one of the following pairs correctly
(3) Pituitary (4) Thymus
matches a hormone with a disease resulting
Q.210 Temperature of boyd is controlled by which from its deficiency [CBSE-2002]
endocrien gland (1) Relaxin – Gigantism
(1) Pituitary (2) Thyroid (2) Prolactin – Cretinism
(3) Adrenal (4) Pancreas (3) Parathyroid hormone – Tatany
Q.211 Simmonds desease is (4) Insulin – Diabetes insipidus
(1) Hyper thyroidism Q.218 Which of the following act as local messenger
(2) Hypothyroidism [RPMT-2000]
(3) Hypopituitarism (1) Carrier protein
(4) Hyperpituitarism (2) Glycoprotein
(3) Phospholipid
Q.212 Which endocrine gland is not an Ectodermal
(4) Glycolipid
origin
(1) Pineal body Q.219 Sodium-potassium pump is [RPMT-2001]
(2) Anterior pituitary (1) A hormone (2) An enzyme
(3) Adrenal medulla (3) A protein carrier (4) An organelle
(4) Thymus
Q.220 Why thyroxine is a hormone, not an enzyme
Q.213 Insulin differs from Growth hormone in [RPMT-2001]
[CBSE-1999] (1) It is secreted in small quantity
(1) Increases activity of m-RNA and (2) It is not a polypeptide
Ribosomes (3) It has not special effect
(2) Increase the permeability of cell (4) It is directly poured into blood
membrance
Q.221 Which one of the following pair's correctly
(3) Affects metabolism of fats by inducing
matches a hormone with a disease resulting
lipogenesis
from its deficiency [CBSE-2004]
(4) Increasing protein synthesis
(1) Insulin – Diabetes insipidus
Q.214 Which gland decreases in size with increasing (2) Thyroxine – Tetany
age [CBSE-1999] (3) Parathyroid hormone – Diabetes mellitus
(1) Thyroid (2) Adrenal (4) Luteinizing hormone – Failure of ovulation
(3) Thymus (4) Pituitary
Q.222 Which hormone causes dilation of blood
Q.215 Reason, why hair loss is more in old age vessels, increaed oxygen consumption and
[CBSE-2000] gluconeogenesis ? [CBSE-2006]
(1) Reduction of blood supply (1) Adrenalin (2) Glucagon
(2) Decrease in protein synthesis (3) ACTH (4) Insulin
(3) Low energy production
Q.223 Sertoli cells are regulated by the pituitary
(4) Reduced storage of glycogen
hormone known as [CBSE-2006]
Q.216 Melanin protect from [CBSE-2002] (1) Prolactin (2) LH
(1) U.V. rays (2)Visible rays (3) FSH (4) GH
(3) Infrared rays (4) X-rays
Q.224 A steroid hormone which regulates glucose (3) Parathyroid and Adrenal
metabolism is [CBSE-2006] (4) Pancreas and Parathyroid
(1) 11-deoxycorticosterone
Q.228 The blood calcium level is lowered by the
(2) Cortisone
deficiency of [AIPMT-2008]
(3) Cortisol
(1) Both calcitonin and Parathormone
(4) Corticosterone
(2) Calcitonin
Q.225 Which one of the following is not a second (3) Parathormone
messenger in hormone action ? (4) Thyroxine
[CBSE-2006]
(1) Sodium (2) cAMP Q.229 In human adult females oxytocin
[AIPMT-2008]
(3) cGMP (4) Calcium
(1) Stimulates pituitary to secrete vasopressin
(2) Causes strong uterine contractions during
parturition
(3) is secreted by anterior pituitary
(4) stimulates growth of mamary glands
Q.226 Tadpoles of frog can be made to grow as
giant sized tadpoles, it they are:
[AIIMS-2006]
(1) Administered antithyroid substance like
thiourea
(2) administered large amounts of thyroxine
(3) reared on a diet rich in egg yolk
(4) reared on a diet rich in both egg yok
and glucose
Q.227 Which one of the following pairs of organs

includes only the endocrine glands ?
[AIPMT-2008]
(1) Thymus and Testes
(2) Adrenal and Ovary
EXERCISE # 2
Q.1 Thyroid hormone has regulatory effect on Q.4 The fate of hormone bound to the specific
[AMU-2000] receptors on the cell surface can be traced
(1) Protein metabolism through [AMU-1999]
(2) Carbohydrate metabolism (1) X-ray
(3) Fat metabolism (2) Laser-photo-bleaching
(4) All of the above (3) Ultra scanning
Q.2 Which of the hormone is polypeptide : (4) Resonance imaging
[AMU-2000]
Q. 5 Reabsorption of Na+ is controlled by which
(1) LH (2) FSH one the folowing hormones
(3) Insulin (4) Thyroxine [AMU-2002]
(1) Aldosterone (2) Oestrogen
Q.3 A group of compounds now recognised as
(3) Glucocorticoids (4) Testosterone
local hormones are [AMU-2002]
(1) Prostaglandins (2) Prostacyclins Q.6 Insulin is secreted by [HPPMT-2006]
(3) Cytokinins (4) Substance 'P' (1) -cell of islets of langerhans
(2) -cell of islets of langerhans
(3) -cell of islets of langerhans
(4) pancreatic acinur cell
Q.7 ADH responsible for reabsorption of water

and reduction of urine secretion is synthesize
by [HPPMT-2006]
(1) Posterior pituitary gland
(2) Juxtaglomerular apparatus
(3) Anterior pituitary gland
(4) Hypothalamus
Q.14 Which one of the following endocrine
gland functions as a biological clock and
neurosecretory transducer ?
Q. 8 The lorain-levi syndrome is due to
[KERALA-PMT-2006]
[JK-CET-2006]
(1) Adrenal gland (2) Thyroid gland
(1) Hyper functioning of pituitary
(3) Pineal gland (4) Thymus gland
(2) Hypothyroidism
(3) Hyperthyroidism Q.15 Match the hormone in column I with their
(4) Deficiency of growth hormone function in column II [KERALA-2006]
Column I Column II
Q. 9 The excessive secretion of mineral ocorticiods
(a) FSH (i) Prepare endometrium for
independent of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
implantation
system results in
[J.K.CET-2006]
(b) LH (ii) Develop female secondary
(1) Cushing's disease (2) Conn's disease Sexual characters
(3) Addison's disease (4) Grave's disease (c) Progesterone (iii) Contraction of uterine
wall
Q.10 Steroid hormones transmit their information
(d) Estrogen (iv) Development of corpus
by [UPCPMT-2006]
luteum
(1) Stimulating the receptors present on (v) Maturation of graafian
cells membrane follicle
(2) Entering into the cell and modifying (1) a-v, b-iv, c-i, d-ii (2) a-iii, b-iv, c-i, d-ii
cellular contents. (3) a-iv, b-iii, c-ii, d-i (4) a-i, b-ii, c-iii, d-iv
(3) Entering into the cell modifying nuclear
organisation Q.16 LH and FSH are collectively called
[BHU(screening) 2006 , MPPMT-2002]
(4) The help of an intracellular second
(1) Oxytocin
messenger.
(2) Somatotrophins
Q.11 Metamorphosis in tadpole can be increased (3) Luteotrophic
by treatment of water with (4) Gonadotrophins
[UPCPMT-2006]
(1) NaCl (2) Thyroxine Q.17 Who is known as ''father of endocrinology''
(3) Iodine (4) GH [BHU(Screening)-2006, RPMT 2008]
(1) R.H. Whittakar (2) Pasteur
Q.12 The hormones that initiates ejetion of milk (3) Einthoven (4) Thomas Addison
stimulates milk production and grwoth of
ovarian follicles are respectively known as Q.18 Mammalina thymus is mainly concerned
[KERALA-PMT-2006] with [BHU(Screening)-2006]
(1) PRL, OT and LH (1) Regulation of body temperature
(2) OT, PRL and FSH (2) Regulatrion of body growth
(3) LH, PRL and FSH (3) Immunological functions
(4) PRH, OT and LH
(4) Secretion of thyrotropin
Q.13 In heart cells, which one serves as a second Q.19 During emergency which of of the following
messenger, speeding up muscel cell contraction
hormone is secreted
in response to adrenaline ?
[BHU(Screening)-2006]
[KERALA-PMT-2006]
(1) CAMP (2) CGMP (1) Aldosterone (2) Thyroxine
(3) GTP (4) ATP (3) Adrenaline (4) Calcitonin
Q.20 The Islets of langerhans are found in Q.30 Hormone responsible for ovulation is
[BHU(Screening)-2006] [UGET MANIPAL-2005]
(1) Pancreas (2) Stomach (1) LH (2) GSH
(3) Liver (4) Alimentary canal (3) Progesterone (4) Testosterone
Q.21 Which of the following gland is both Q.31 Aldosterone is secreted by
endocrine as well as exocrine [UGET MANIPAL-2005]
[MPPMT-2002] (1) Zona glomerulosa (2) Zona faciculata
(1) Thyroid (2) Pancreas (3) Zona reticularis (4) Zona pellucida
(3) Payers patches (4) Thymus
Q.32 Which of the following is gonadotrophic
Q.22 Insulin is proudced from hormone [UGET MANIPAL 2005, UP-2005]
[MPPMT-2001] (1) Collips hormone
(1) -cells (2) -cells (2) Prolactin
(3) Adrenal cortex (4) testes (3) Oxytocin
(4) Luteinzing hormone
Q.23 Which of the following is secondary messenger
[MPMT-2002] Q.33 Which gland stores hormone before its
(1) ATP (2) Cyclic AMP secretion and then release it
(3) GTP (4) ATP and AMP [ORRISSA-JEE-2005]
(1) Thyroid (2) Pancreas
Q.24 Corticosteroids are secreted by
(3) Pineal (4) Pituitary
[MPPMT-2006]
(1) Adrenal gland (2) Pineal gland Q.34 Abnormal conditon when mammary gland
(3) Pituitary gland (4) Thyroid gland of man become female like
[ORISSA-JEE-2005]
Q.25 Melatonin is secreted by
(1) Gynosism (2) Gynochorism
[MPPMT-2006]
(3) Feminization (4) Gynaecomastia
(1) Pineal gland (2) Parathyroid gland
(3) Pituitary gland (4) Thyroid gland Q.35 Which of the following disease is not
Q.26 Corpus luteum secretes related to thyroid gland
[AFMC-2005]
[MPPMT-2006]
(1) LH (2) FSH (1) Goitre (2) Cretinism
(3) Myxoedema (4) Acromegaly
(3) Progesterone (4) Testosterone
Q.27 Insulin is related with Q.36 Match item in column 'A' with those given
[MPPMT-2006] in column 'B' [KERALA-PMT-2005]
(1) Diabetes (2) Migrain Column 'A' Column 'B'
(3) Jaundice (4) All of the above A ADH i Pituitary
Q.28 Blood pressure is controlled B ACTH ii Mineralocorticoid.
[MPPMT-2004] C Aldosterone iii Diabetes mellitus
(1) Thyroid gland (2) Thymus gland D Insulin iv Diabetes insipidus
(3) Adrenal gland (4) Parathyroid gland E Testosterone v Vasodilator
(1) A = i, B = iv, C = ii, D = iii, E = v
Q.29 Hormone responsible for metamorphosis in
tadpole is [UGET MANIPAL-2005] (2) A = iv, B = ii, C = i, D = iii, E = v
(1) Adrenaline (2) Thyroxine (3) A = iv, B = i, C = ii, D = iii, E = v
(3) Aldosterone (4) Vasopression (4) A = iv, B = i, C = iii, D = ii, E = iv
Q.37 Which of the following is not paired
correctly [KERALA-PMT-2005]
(1) Myxoedema - swollen facial tissues Q.42 Grave's disease is due to
[DPMT-2005]
(2) Insulin - raises blood glucose
(1) Hyperactivity of thyroid gland
(3) Parathyroid - tetany
(2) Hypoactivity of adrenal cortex
(4) Cretinism - mentally retarted
(3) Hyperactivity of adrenal medulla
Q.38 A patient of diabetes mellitus excreted (4) Hypoactivity of islets of langerhans
glucose in urine even when he kept in a Q.43 Placenta proudced which hormone
carbohydrate free diet. It is because [HAR. -PMT-2005]
[ORISSA-JEE-2005] (1) GH (2) Gastrin
(1) Fats are catabolised to form glucose (3) ACTH (4) Progesterone
(2) Amino acids are catabolised in liver
Q.44 Hypothyroidism causes in adult
(3) Amino acids are discharged in blood [HAR. –PMT-2005]
stream from liver (1) Obesity (2) Diabetes
(4) Glycogen from muscles are discharged (3) Cretinism (4) Myxoedema
in blood stream from liver
Q.45 The hormone that controls the level of
Q.39 Match the list I with list II calcium and phosphorus in the blood is the
[MANIPUR-2005] secreted by [AFMC-2005]
A Adenohypophysis (1) Epinephrine (1) Thyroid (2) Parathyroid

B Adrenal medulla (2) Somatotropin (3) Pituitary (4) Thymus
C Parathyroid gland (3) Thymosin
Q.46 FSH is proudced by [BHU-2005]
D Thymus gland (4) Parathormone
(1) Adrenal cortex
(1) A = 3, B = 1, C = 4, D = 2
(2) Anterior lobe of pituitary gland
(2) A = 1, B = 2, C = 3, D = 4 (3) Middle lobe of pituitary gland
(3) A = 2, B = 1, C = 4, D = 3 (4) Posterior lobe of pituitary gland
(4) A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, D = 1
Q.47 Which of the following statement are
Q.40 If receptor molecule is removed from target false/true [Kerala-2007]
organ for hormone action , the target organ (A) Calcitonin regulated the metabolism of
will [MANIPUR-2005] calcium
(1) Continue to respond but require higher (B) Oxytocin stimulates contraction of
concentration of hormone uterine muscle during birth
(C) Grave's disease is caused by
(2) Continue to respond but in opposite way
malfunctioning of adrenal gland
(3) Continue to respond without any difference (D) ADH stimulates absorption of water
(4) Not respond to hormone and increase the urine production
(1) A and C are true B and D are flase
Q.41 Which gland atrophies in adult
(2) A and B are ture C andD are flase
[DPMT-2005]
(3) A and D are true B and C are flase
(1) Pancreas (2) Thymus
(4) A, B and C are true, D only false
(3) Thyroid (4) Adrenal
Q.1 Which hormone helps in reabsorption of (3) estrogen (4) prostaglandin
water from kidney
[UTTARANCHAL PMT-2004] Q.8 Addison's disease results from
(1) ADH (2) STH [JHARKHAND-2004]
(3) ACTH (4) TTH (1) hypertrophy of gland
(2) hypo-secretion of adrenal cortex
Q.2 Which of the following is largest gland in (3) hyperactivity of cells of leydig
adult man (4) none of the above
[UTTARANCHAL PMT-2005]
Q.9 Para-thyroid hormone is a
(1) Thymus (2) Liver
[JHARKHAND-2004]
(3) Thyroid (4) Pancreas (1) peptide (2) carbohydrate
Q.3 Normal blood calcium level in an adult is (3) lipid (4) steroid
[WEST BENGAL JEE-2007]
Q.10 Vasopressin influences
(1) 5 mg/dl [JHARKHAND-2002]
(2) 8.5/10.5 mg/dl (1) electrolyte efflux
(3) 15.5 – 20mg/dl (2) nerve excitability
(4) 20 mg/dl – 30 mg/dl (3) water reabsorption
Q.4 Ketone bodies are formed in (4) all of these
[WEST BENGAL JEE - 2007]
Q.11 Pheromones when secreted upon the skin
(1) Liver (2) spleen
surface, its oduour generally affects
(3) kidney (4) heart [JHARKHAND-2004]
Q.5 Addison's disease in caused due to (1) skin colour

[WEST BENGAL JEE-2007] (2) genitalia
(1) hypersecretion of adernal cortical (3) breast
hormones (4) mutual behaviour of members of a species
(2) hypersecretion of growth hormone
Q.12 If ADH level of blood is less
(3) hypersecretion thymus [BIHAR-2005]
(4) none of the above (1) volume of urine increases
Q.6 Growth hormone is secreted by (2) volume of urine decreases
[WEST BENGAL JEE-2007] (3) volume of urine is normal
(1) acidophillic  cells (4) volume of urine is unaffected
(2) acidophilic  cells
Q.13 Which of the follwing act as secondary
(3) basophilic  cells
messenger in metabolism
(4) basophilic  cells
[BIHAR-2004]
Q.7 Which hormone is responsible for maintenance (1) ATP (2) C-AMP
of preganancy (3) ADP (4) NAD
(1) HCG (2) progesterone Q.14 Hormone prolactin is secreted by
[BIHAR-2005] Q.23 The modern idea about ageing is that our body
(1) posterior pituitary (2) thyroid slowly loses the power of defence against the
(3) anterior pituitary (4) hypothalamus invasion of germs and pathogens. This process
starts by the disappearance of which organ
Q.15 Steroid hormone is derived from [UP-CPMT 2001]
[BIHAR-2004]
(1) spleen (2) thymus gland
(1) corticoid (2) cholesterol
(3) pituitary gland (4) parathroid gland
(3) ADH (4) protein
Q.24 Parathormone is secreted during
Q.16 Increse glucose level in human is called [UP-CPMT 2002]
[BIHAR] (1) increased blood calcium level
(1) hypoglycemia (2) hyperglaycaemia (2) decreased blood calcium level
(3) hyposuria (4) hypersuria (3) increased blood sugar level
(4) decreased blood sugar level
Q.17 Spermatogenesis is influenced by
[BIHAR-2003] Q.25 Chronical disturbance in hormone secretion
(1) Progesterone (2) FSH of thyroid gland causess
(3) STH (4) LTH [UP-CPMT 2003]
(1) goitre (2) diabetes
Q.18 Which hormone is responsible for ovulation
(3) Addison's disease (4) colourblindness
[BIHAR-2003]
(1) FSH (2) LH Q.26 The formation of egg and sperm is affected by
(3) Testosterone (4) Oestrogen [UP-CPMT 2003]
(1) LH (2) MSH
Q.19 Progesterone is secreted by
(3) TSH (4) FSH
[BIHAR-2002]
(1) corpus luteum (2) corpus albicans Q.27 ACTH is secreted by
(3) corpus callosum (4) corpus striatum [UP-CPMT 2003]
(1) thyroid gland
Q.20 Female hormone is
(2) thymus gland
[BIHAR-2002]
(1) progesterone (2) estrogen (3) pituitary gland
(3) estradiol (4) all of these (4) Islets of Langerhans
Q.21 Which of the following hormones helps in Q.28 Which of the following hormones secreted
the contraction of uterus during child birth by pancreas [UP-CPMT 2003]
[UP-CPMT 2001] (1) Insulin and glucagon

(1) ADH (2) androgen (2) Epinephrin and nor-epinephrin
(3) oxytocin (4) glucocorticoid (3) Thyroxin and melanin
(4) Prolatin and oxytocin
Q.22 Which of the following hormones stimulates the
secretion of milk from female Q.29 Metamorphosis in frog is hastened by
[UP-CPMT 2001] [UP-CPMT 2003]
(1) LH (2) prolactin (1) thyroxine (2) insulin
(3) oxytocin (4) progesterone (3) glucagon (4) adrenalin
Q.30 Mammalian prolactin is secreted by

[UP-CPMT 2004] Q.38 Structure involved in Addison's disease is
(1) adenohypophysis (2) neurohypophysis [MP-PMT 2006 ]
(3) adrenla cortex (4) adrenal medulla (1) Adrenal medulla (2) adrenal cortex
(3) thyroid (4) pituitary
Q.31 Hypersecretion of grwoth hormone in the
period of growth lead to Q.39 Acromegaly is a disease caused by
[UP-CPMT 2004] [MP-PMT 2001]
(1) acromegaly (2) cushing syndrome (1) Over secretion of growtth hormone in
(3) midgets (4) Gigantism childhood
(2) Over secretion of growth hormone in
Q.32 Which of these is not a ketone body
[UP-CPMT 2004] adulthood
(1) Acetoacetic acid (3) Under secretion of growth hormone in
(2) Acetone adulthood
(3) Succinic acid (4) Deficiency of calcium and phosphorous
(4) Betahydroxy butyric acid in the diet.
Q.33 Fight and flight hormone is [UP-CPMT 2007] Q.40 If thyroid gland is comppleteloy removed
(1) adrenaline (2) thyroxine from a tadpole, it will [MP-PMT 2001]
(3) ADH (4) oxytocin (1) Die immediately

(2) Turn into a giant frog
Q.34 Which of the following are correct for axolotal (3) Turn into a dwarf frog
larva [UP-CPMT 2007] (4) Remain tadpole throughout life
(i) it shows neoteny and paedogenesis
(ii) absence of thyroxine affect metamorphosis Q.41 'Hashimoto' diseases is caused, when
(iii) it is the larva of hemichordata [MP-PMT 2001]
(1) (i), (ii) & (iii) (2) (i) & (ii) (1) Adrenal gland is destroyed by autoimmunity
(3) (ii) & (iii) (4) (iii) (2) Thyroid gland is destroyed by autoimmunity
(3) Kidney is destoryed
Q.35 Blood pressure is controlled by (4) Pancreas is destroyed
[MP-PMT 2004]
(1) Thyroid gland (2) Thymus gland Q.42 The emergency hormone is [MP PMT 2001]
(3) Adrenal gland (4) Parathyroid gland (1) Throxine (2) Adrenaline
(3) Insulin (4) Progesterone
Q.36 Hormone which is responsible for maintainance
of corpus leuteum is [MP-PMT 2004] Q.43 insulin is secreted by [MP-PMT 2001]
(1) Estrogen (2) Aldosteron (1) Beta cells of Islets of Langerhans
(3) Progesterone (4) Testosteron (2) Alfa cells of Islets of Langarhans
(3) Kuffer cells
Q.37 The effect caused by non-functioning of
(4) Gall bladder
islets of Langerhans [MP-PMT 2006]
(1) Heart beat rate increase Q.44 In absence of ADH, the disease casused by
(2) Increased BMR [MP-PMT 2001]
(3) hyperglycaemia (1) Diabetes mellitus
(4) tatani (2) Diabetes insipidus
(3) Oligouria
(4) Acromegaly Q.52 Which gland is both exocrine and endocrine
[MP-PMT 2002]
Q.45 In man removal of Parathyroid gland leads to
[MP-PMT 2001]
(1) Acromegaly (2) Tetany (3) Pituitary (4) Adrenal
(3) Polyuria (4) Diabetes insipidus Q.53 The function of glucagon hormone is
Q.46 Parathormone induces [MP-PMT 2002] [MP-PMT 2003]
(1) Increase in blood sugar level (1) To increase glycogenesis
(2) Decrease in serum calcium level (2) To decrease blood sugar level
(3) Increase in serum calcium level (3) To release glucose from liver cells and
(4) Decrease in blood sugar level glycogenolysis promotion
(4) To increase the absorption of glucose
Q.47 Thyrotropin-releasing factor (TRF) is
and faty acids through cell
proudced by [MP-PMT 2002]
(1) Cerebrum (2) Optic lobe Q.54 Diabetes insipidus is due to [MP-PMT 2003]
(3) Cerebellum (4) Hypothalamus (1) Hypersecretion of insulin
(2) Hyposecretion of vasopressin
Q.48 Which one secretes fight and flight hormone
(3) Hypersecretion of vasopressin
[MP-PMT 2002]
(1) Pituitary gland (4) Hposecretion of insulin
(2) Pineal gand Q.55 Pineal body originates from [MP-PMT 2003]
(3) Adrenal gland (1) Dorsla part of diencephalon
(4) Thyroid gland (2) Ventral part of diencephalon
(3) Ventral part of cerebellum
Q.49 Which disease is caused by under secretion
(4) Dorsal part of cerebellum
of adrnal cortex [MP-PMT 2002]
(1) Cretinism (2) Dwarfism Q.56 Which of the following pituitary hormone
(3) Sterility (4) Addison's disease is a direct action hormone [MP-PMT 2003 ]
(1) MSH (2) ICSH
Q.50 Gonadotropic hormones are [MP-PMT 2002]
(3) ACTH (4) TSH
(1) Estrogen and progesterone
(2) Luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulatin Q.57 Addisons disease is caused due to
hormone [MP-PMT 2003]
(3) Testosterone and androsterone (1) Hypertrophy of gland

(4) Prolactin and Luteotropin (2) Hyposecretion of adrenal contex
(3) Hyperactivity of Leydig cells
Q.51 The name second messenger is given to (4) Hypersecretion of pituitary
[MP-PMT 2002]
(1) ATP (2) Cyclic AMP Q.58 T-cells mature in [CBSE-2006]
(3) AMP (1) Peyer's patch (2) Lymph node

(4) Both ATP and AMP (3) Thymus (4) Brusa of fabric
Q.59 Which of the following steriod sex hormone (2) Anterior Oxyto Contraction
influenced secondary sex organs ? pituitar cin of uterus
[MP-PMT 2003] y muscles
(1) Progesterone (2) Oestrogen during child
(3) LH (4) LTH birth
(3) Posterio Vasop Stimulates
Q.60 Progesterone is secreted from [MP-PMT 2003]
r ressin resorption of
(1) Testes (2) Adrenal gland pituitar water in the
(3) Pituitary gland (4) Corpus luteum y distal tubules
in the
Q.61 Adrenal gland is derived from
nephron
[MP-PMT 2007]
(1) Ectoderm (4) Corpus Estrog Supports
luteum en pregnancy
(2) Mesoderm
(3) Ectoderm and mesoderm Q.65 Given below is an incomplete table certain
(4) Ectoderm and endoderm hormones, their source glands and one
major effect of each on the body in humans.
Q.62 Which hormone is responsible for milk Identify the correct option for the three
ejection after the birth of the baby blanks A, B and C. [AIPMT 2011]
[MP-PMT 2007] Glands Secretion Effect on Body
(1) Oxytocin A Oestrogen Maintenance
(2) Progesterone of secondary
(3) Prolactin sexual
(4) Estrogen characters
Alpha cells B Raises blood
Q.63 We know that the thryoxine controls
of Islets of sugar level
metabolism body. An autoimmune disease Langerhans
where the body own antibodies attack the Anterior C Over section
cells of the thyroid is called [MP-PMT 2007] pituitary leads to
(1) Hyperthyroidism gigantism
(2) Hashimoto's disease Options :
(3) Grave's disease A B C
(4) Turner syndrome (1) Placenta Glucagon Calcitionin
(2) Ovary Glucagon Growth
Q.64 Match the source gland with its respective hormone
hormone as well as the function. (3) Placenta Insulin Vasopressin
[AIPMT 2011]
Source Hormone Function (4) Ovary Insulin Calcitonin
gland
(1) Thyroid Thyro Regulates Q.66 The 24 hour (diurnal) rhythm of our body such
xine blood as the sleep-wake cycle is regulated by the
calcium level hormone :
[AIPMT MAINS 2011]
(1) melatonin (2) calcitonin
(3) prolactin (4) adrenaline
EXERCISE # 4
Reason : MSH help in the wide distribution
Q.1 Assertion : Vasopressin is a neurohormone of melanin in melanocytes while melatonin
Reason : Vasopressin is synthesized by collects the melanin at one place in
pars nervosa of pituitary gland melanocyte.
Q.2 Assertion : Pituitary gland is ectodermal Q.7 Assertion : Adrenal gland have dual origin.
in origin Reason : The adrenal cortex develop from
Reason : Both parts of pituitary develop endoderm while adrenal medulla develop
from nervous tissue from mesoderm.
Q.3 Assertion : Thyroxine is presponsible for Q.8 Assertion : Pineal gland found on the
over all development of animals since epithalamus of Diencephalon.
childhood. Reason : It is a one type of exocrine gland
Reason : It is diabetogenic hormone and it which is active in later age of life.
increases peripheral utilization of glucose
Q.9 Assertion : Pancrease is heterocrine gland.
Q.4 Assertion : Deficiency of Insulin proudce
Reason : Pancreas secretes both protein &
polyurea conditon
steroid hormone.
Reason : Glucagon is antagonastic hormone
of Insulin. Q.10 Assertion : Aldosterone is polypeptide
hormone and control the Na+ & K+ ratio in
Q.5 Assertion : Deficiency of vitamine-D is body.
very less known Reason : Aldosterone increase reabsorption
Reason : It is obtained from intrinsic sources of Na+ from plasma of blood and to check
regularly. its loss and increase loss K+ in body fluid.
Q.6 Assertion : MSH & Melatonin are Q.11 Assertion : Thymus gland is found in
antagonistic hormones abdominal region.
Reason : It is a exocrine gland which Q.19 Assertion : Thyrocalcitonin & Parathormone
secretes lymphocyte. have antagonistic effect on blood calcium
level.
Q.12 Assertion : MSH & Melatonin are similar
Reason : Thyrocalcitonin lower the blood
hormone.
calcium level and parathormone raises the
Reason : MSH help in the collection of
blood calcium level by removal of calcium
melanin in melanocytes while melatonin
from bone and reabsorption of calcium
distribute the melanin at one place in
from nephrons.
melanocyte.
Q.20 Assertion : Hormones are said to be
Q.13 Assertion : Two pitutary hormones of the
similar to enzyme in action and chemical
mother take part in feeding the infant on nature
milk. Reason : Hormones and enzymes are
Reason : Prolactin from anterior pituitary proteinaceous in nature and act as
stimulated mammary glands for the informational nature.
formation of milk, and oxytocin from the
Q.21 Assertion : Adrenal cortex can be removed
post. Pituitary causes the release of milk
without causing death.
when the infant sucks breast. Reason : Adrenal cortex is not vital for
Q.14 Assertion : Vasopressin in also called as survival.
antidiuretic hormone Q.22 Assertion : In recent study, pineal body is
Reason : Vasopressin reduces the loss of called third eye.
water in the urine by increasing water Reason : It is having photosensitive cells
reabsorption in the nephrons. and show the response for light.
Q.15 Assertion : Aldosterone is known as salt Q.23 Assertion : Growth hormone, Thyroxine
retaining hormone. and cortisol hormone are called diabetogenic
Reason : It reduces Na reabsorption from hormone.
urine to increase its loss from the body. Reason : When the Hypersecretion of
Q.16 Assertion : Cortisol therapy is useful in thyroxine occurs then produce diabetes
organ transplantation mellitus.
Reason : Cortisol act as immunosuppresant
Q.17 Assertion : Catecholamines (adrenaline)

are emergency hormones.
Reason : Catecholamines are released from
adrenal cortex
Q.18 Assertion : The hormone FSH stimulates

R.B.Cs. maturation.
Reason : On reaching the red bone marrow
FSH stimulate the maturation of RBCs
ANSWER-KEY
EXERCISE # 1
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Ans. 4 4 1 4 1 4 3 4 4 1 4 3 3 1 2 2 4 1 3 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 3 1 2 3 2 4 1 1 2 3 3 1 4 1 3 4 1 2 1
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 1 4 1 1 4 3 1 4 4 2 2 1 2 1 1 3 4 2 2
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 4 4 3 2 2 2 4 2 2 1 2 4 4 2 3 1 1 4 2 1
Que. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 3 3 4 2 3 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 3 2 2 1
Que. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 3 1 2 1 3 3 2 1 2 4 4 3 1 3 3 2 3 1 1 1
Que. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 3 4 3 1 3 1 2 4 3 2 2 4 3 4 2 2 3 3 4 2
Que. 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
Ans. 4 3 3 4 3 2 4 3 3 2 2 4 1 4 4 1 3 4 3 2
Que. 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
Ans. 3 2 1 3 4 3 3 2 3 4 3 2 2 4 4 1 2 3 3 4
Que. 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200
Ans. 2 4 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 4 3
Que. 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220
Ans. 4 1 3 4 3 4 3 4 1 2 3 4 3 3 1 1 3 1 3 4
Que. 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229
Ans. 4 1 3 3 1 1 3 3 2
EXERCISE # 2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 3 1 4 1 3 4 4 2 3 3 2 1 3 1 4 4 3 3 1
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 2 2 1 1 3 1 3 2 1 1 4 1 4 4 3 2 1 3 4
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
Ans. 2 1 4 4 2 2 2
EXERCISE # 3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 3 3 1 4 1 2 2 1 3 4 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 1 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 2 2 2 1 4 3 1 1 1 4 3 1 2 3 3 3 2 2 4
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 2 1 2 2 3 4 3 4 2 2 1 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 4
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66
Ans. 3 1 2 3 2 1
EXERCISE # 4
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 3 3 2 1 1 3 3 3 4 4 4 1 1 3 1 3 4 1 4
Que. 21 22 23
Ans. 4 1 3
Topic Page No.
Sensory system Theory 02 - 27
SENSORY ORGANS Eye Exercise - I 28 - 39

State PMT Exam Exercise - II 40 - 41
Eye & Ear Exercise - III 42 - 42
Answer key 43 - 43
Syllabus
Sensory System
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SENSORY SYSTEM
Animals possess some specialised structures to perceive the different type of changes (= stimuli)
occurring in their external environment. These structures are known as sense organs. After receiving
these stimuli, sensory organs transmit these to the central nervous system through the sensory nerve
fibers.
A sensory organ is only sensitive to a specific kind of stimulus to which it is specialized like temperature,
chemicals, touch, light etc. Based on their location in the body sensory organs are of three. types :
1. Exteroceptors : - These sense organs receive stimuli from external environment because they remain in
contact with the external environment. Example – nose, eyes, tongue, ears and skin.
2. Interoceptors : These sensory organs are associated with internal environment of body and receive the
changes taking place in the internal environment. Examples – changes in the composition of blood,
concentration of carbon-dioxide, hunger, thirst, asphyxia etc.
3. Proprioceptors : These sensory organs are present in joints, tendons, muscles and connective tissues
which perceive the tension and pressure exerted during the activities of equilibrium maintenance and
orientations of body.
In human body, five types of exteroceptors are found which are known as sense organs. The main sense
organs include skin, eye, nose, ear and tongue.
CUTANEOUS RECEPTORS
Skin envelopes the entire body, and it is considered as tango receptor (fig.) Numerous sensory papillae
are found in the dermis of skin to receive the stimuli of touch, pressure, cold, heat, temperature and
pain. All these are of simple type of receptors. These sensory structures of skin receive impulses from
the nerve endings in skin. These are of following types -
1. Tactile Receptors : - These receptors are present nacked endings of sensory nerve fibres on the hair
follicles in the dermis of skin. These are excited when the hairs come in contact with some object.
No. 1 Coaching for IIT-JEE | PRE-MEDICAL | CBSE SENSORY SYSTEM
Extensively branched (arborized) endings are of sensory nerves are found in the papillae of dermis.
These endings are very small sized encapsulated structures called sensory corpuscles. Those which are
cylindrical and sensitive to touch are called Meissner's corpuscles. Their number is much more in
nipples, lips, glans penis, palm, sole and in fingers. The number of these corpuscles decreases as a
person grows older. The corpuscles sensitive to the strong and sustained contacts (pressure) and situated
deep in the dermis and called as Pacinian corpuscles.
2. Pain Receptors (Algesireceptors) : Numerous branched sensory nerve fibres are scattered among the
epidermis as well as dermal cells of skin. These possess nacked nerve endings. These nerve endings are
sensitive to chemical, electrical, and mechanical stimuli, which cause the sensations of pain in body.
3. Thermo Receptors : A network of sensory nerve fibres is situated closely to the hair follicles in dermis
of skin. These nerve fibres are sensitive to the stimuli related to temperature, These thermoreceptors
make a person aware to stimuli of cold, heat etc. Because of this sense perception our hairs get erected
during excessive cold. The sensory organs excited by cold and heat are known as frigidoreceptors.
EYE

Eye and ear also called "teleoreceptor", because these receive impulse from far places.
(A) Eye (Photoreceptor) : -


These are photosensitive organs. Eye ball measures about 2.5 cm in diameter.

Each eye is an empty ball like round structure, it is called eye ball. Each eye ball is situated in the notch
of frontal bone of the skull. It is called "Eye orbit". Human eyes are situated in eye orbit lateral to nose.

Only 1/5th part of whole eye is seen from out side the eye orbit, called as cornea.
Remaining 4/5th part is in the eye orbit, called sclera.
(1) Eye lids or palpebrae : -
There are two muscular eyelids for the protection which having lashes at one side. Both the eyelids are
named according to their situation i.e. upper & lower eyelids.

Eyelids are immovable in snakes. Eyelids of fishes are absent.


There is present one more transparent membrane on the cornea. It is called nictitating membrane or third
eye lid. It is actively working in rabbit. It is found form of constricted condition at one corner of eye
ball, but at the time of need, it may be expanded over entire eye ball.

Nictitating membrane is vestigeal in human. It is also called "Plicasemilunaris"


Eye lashes are found at both the eyelids.

(2) Glands : - For the cleaning and for lubrication/moisturising the exposure part of eye.
Following glands are founds in each eye.
(a) Meibomian glands : - These are present at Inner surface of eyelids. They secrete an oily substance,
which spread over cornea.
 It prevent firction between two eye lid.
 It also help in frictionless movement of eyelid.
(b) Lacrimal glands : - At outer angle of each eye ball and assoicated with accessory lacrimal gland,
which secrete water like substance, which moistures the cornea, eyelids and conjunctiva and cleans it.
This water like subatnace is called "Tear". (Slightly alkaline contains bacteriolytic enzyme Lysozyme)
 
 Tear glands activate after four months of birth in human child.

(c) Gland of zeis : It is situated in margin of eye lid.
Harderian glands : - These are found inside the lower eye lids. These moisten the nictitating
membrane.
 
 Harderian glands are absent in rabbit & human.
 
 In place of harderian glands, in mammals, meibomian glands are present. But in some mammals e.g.
rats, shrews, whales etc., these harderin glands are found.
 

 These glands are also found in frog and birds.

 
 (d) Gland of moll : - These are modified sweat gland found in the eye lashes.
(3) Muscles of eye balls : -

There are present 6 voluntary muscles in the eyeball which help to rotate the eye ball into eye orbit. Out
of these 4 are rectus muscles and 2 are oblique muscles. They are also called as extra occular muscles.

Lateral or External Rectus muscle rotates the eyeball towards outside i.e. from nose to ear. Medial or
Internal rectus muscle rotates the eyeball toward inside i.e. from ear to nose.

Superior rectus muscle and inferior oblique muscle collectively help the eyeball to rotate upwards.

Inferior rectus muscle and superior oblique muscle collectively help the eyeball to rotate downwards.

Rectus and oblique muscles collectively rotate the eye ball to all the sides around its axis.
Any defect in one of the these eyeball muscles (e.g. muscle may remain small or extra large than
required) causes strabismus or squint eyes. In this defect, eye ball remains inclined to any of the one
side. Eye muscles are innervated by occulomotor (III). Pathetic (IV) and Abducens (VI) Nerve.
 

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EYE BALL :

The wall of remaining eye ball has three layers.
(1) Fibrous tunic : -



It is mesodermal in origin.


It is the outermost covering of eye ball. It is made up of hard and thick fibrous connective tissue. It is
also called as sclerotic layer
 The layer is divided into 2 parts.
(a) Cornea : -
It is the outer visible part of fibrous tunic.

The joint between cornea and sclerotic layer is called "Limbus" or "Sclero – corneal junction".
Cornea transplantation is successful because it lacks blood vessels.
(b) Sclera : -
It is made up of white, hard, opaque thick fibrous connective tissue in mammals but in frog, it is made
up of cartilage. It is the inner portion of eye ball. It is non-vascularised. This layer is of white colour, so
it is also called "White of eye"
 
Inner layer of eyelids remain streched over anterior part of sclera (limbus) in the form of translucent
membrane. It is called conjunctiva. It is made up of epidermis of skin. The thinnest epidermis is extend
up to margin of cornea i.e. conjunctiva is the thinnest epidermis in animal body.
(2) Vascular tunic : - -

 It is also mesodermal in origin.
 It is made up of network of blood capillaries.
 It is the middle layer of eyeball Due to the presence of network of blood capillaries it is highly
vascularized. Melanin pigment is found in this layer. Due to the presence melanin pigment eye looks
like green, blue, brown, black in colour. Eyes of rabbit are red due to red melanin pigments, and in man
eyes may be brown, black, blue, green according to the melanin present in it.
This layer has three parts : -
(a) Choroid layer : -


 Choroid layer is the part of vascular tunic which lie below the sclerotic layer.
It contains abundant pigment cells & blood vessels.
It is dark brown. It darkens the cavity of eyeball to prevent internal reflection of light.
It nourishes the retina.
(b) Ciliary body : -

It is the lower swollen portion below limbus.
It has ciliary processes which project into eyeball.
It has ciliary muscles (i) circular (ii) meridional.
Inner end of meridional is attached to choroid & outer end at the junction of sclera and cornea.
(c) IRIS : -
Choroid layer of vascular tunic separates from sclerotic layer (Just after the cornea) inclines towards inner
side and forms a coloured screen, it is called Iris. Muscles of Iris are ectodermal in origin. There is present
an aperture in the Centre of Iris, it is called Pupil. Light rays enter in the eye ball through pupil.
2 types of muscles are found with Iris.

(a) Radial dilatory muscles : -
These are outer Involuntary muscles, these are expanded in the iris breadth wise. Iris becomes thick and
narrow if these muscles contract and diameter of pupil is increased at that time. It happens in dim light,
it is called Mydriasis.
(b) Circular sphincter muscles : -

These are scattered in inner part of iris. Due to the contraction (In bright day light or high flashes of
light) of these muscles in high light, Iris expands breadth wise and diameter of pupil is decreased. It is
called miosis.
Iris controls the intensity of light by increasing or decreasing the diameter of pupil i.e. Iris acts as
diaphragm of a camera. Except muscle of iris & ciliary body all vascular tunic of eye ball is
mesodermal in origin. The parasympathetic fibres constrict & sympathetic fibre dilate the pupil. Colour
of eye like blue, gray, brown is layer of pigmented cells.
3 Neurosensory tunic : - ,

This layer is ectodermal in origin.
 It is the inner most layer of eye ball and has 3 parts : -
(1) Pars ciliaris : - This part is attached with ciliary bodies. There are present spine like projections at the
surface of ciliary body, these are called "Orra serrata:
(2) Pars iridica : - This part lies just after the iris. It has a layer of pigmented cells.
Pars iridica and pars ciliaris are made up of simple cuboidal epithelium.
(3) Pars optica : - It is also called Retina It is the part just below the choroid layer.
Structure of retina is complicated. It has following layers.
(a) Pigmented layer : - It is the outer most layer. In the cells of this layer, pigment is found called
melanin (receptor cells.)
(b) Sensory layer : - This layer is made up of specialized sensory cells. Rods and cones are found in
this layer. Receptor cells are also known as photoreceptors/visual cells.

Rods are long, thin, cylindrical structures/cells. These are nmerous in number. (1110 – 1125 Lacs)

Rods are differentiates the light and dark. They are more sensitive than cones.

A purple coloured pigment is found in rods called Rhodopsin/Visual purple.


Cones are thick and small cells which differentiate among different colours in full light (65 Lacs)
Iodopsin/Visual violet is present in cones.

Only rods are found in the retina of owl, because it is nocturnal animal, unlike hen which has only cones
in its retina.

Cones are absent in the retina of most of the nocturnal mammals like shrews, bats etc. squirrel has only
cones in its retina.

A neurons layer is present just below the rods and cones. The synapse layer which, developes between
photo sensory cells and bipolar neurons are called as outer plexiform layer.

Each bipolar neuron has a dendron and one axon.
Axons are jointed together by specific nerve cells, called Amacrine cells. Such neurons do not have
nerve fibres.

In between bipolar neurons, supporting cells are found which, are called as Muller's cells.

(c) Ganglionic layer : - This layer is made up of multiple nerve. The dendrites of multipolar nerve form
synapses with axons of bipolar neurons. This layer of synapse is called as inner plexiform layer.
Axons of all nerve cells combine to form optic nerve. This optic nerve penetrates the retina and goes to brain.
At the point place, at which retina is pierced by optic nerve, cones and rods are absent. So no image will
be percieve at that place. This point place is known as "Blind spot".
Just above the blind spot at the optical axis of eye ball, there is a place, where only cones are present. Yellow
pigments is found (xanthophyll) in these cones. So this place is known as yellow spot or macula lutea or
Area centralis.
 A groove or notch is found in area centralis, called fovea centralis. Fovea centralis contain only cone cells.

Fovea centralis is most sensitive part of eye. Cones are some what obliquely placed at this place. An
enlarged image of object is formed here.

Lens : - It is ectodermal origin.


 A transparent, biconvex lens is present just after iris. In frog, lens is spherical in eyebal.

Lens is connected by ciliary body with the help of "Suspensory ligaments" also called as zonula of
zinn" or zonules. These ligaments are flexible and this can slide the lens and can change it's focal
length. Lens ans suspensory ligament divides the cavity of eyeball into two chambers.
(a) Aqueous chamber : -

The part of eye ball which lies between cornea and lens is filled with an akaline liquid, it is called
aqueous humor. It is a type of transparent tissue fluid. It's divided aqueous chamber into two parts.
(i) Anterior chamber : -

This chamber lies between cornea and iris, it is also called as Venous chamber. Veins carry CO2,
metabolic wastes outside from here.
(ii) Posterior Chamber : -

This chamber lies between iris and lens, it is also called as arterial chamber. Arteries supply O2 and
nutrients here.
(b) Vitreous chamber : - Cavity of eye ball which lies between lens and retina is called vitreous chamber.
A jelly like liquid (transparent and thick like albumin) is filled in this chamber, This is called vitreous
humor.

In this liquid 99% water, some salts, a mucoprotein called vitrin and a mucopolysaccharide-Hyaluronic
acid are present. Gelatinous nature of vitreous humor is depend upon fibrillar protein & hyaluronic acid.
It is form during embryonic stage. In this chamber Hyalocytes cells are found.

Aquous humor and vitreous humor both the liquids are secreted by the glands of cilliary body. Canal of
Schlemm is present between limbus and ciliary body . Aqeous humor leak out by canal of schlemm
into blood capillaries and again reach upto their veins.

Both these liquids maintain proper pressure inside the cavity of eye ball. These check the eye ball from
collapsing.

If this canal of schlemm is blocked by any reason and fluids do not return back to veins liquid is
increased in the chambers of eye.

When amount of this humor is increased in the eye chambers then pressure is increased inside the eye
ball . Thus retina pressure is increased. This is known as glaucoma.

A thin Hyaloid canal or Cloquet's or Cloquet's canal is also found in vitreous humor from blind spot
to central point of lens. It provide nourishment to the developing lens which gradually atrophied.
WORKING OF EYES

Light ryas emitted by any object enter the eye. A small, real and inverted image of object is formed at
retinal Sensory cells of retina are sensitized, and optic nerve carries this impulse to brain . At this time
animal able to see the object.

Cornea, aqueous humor biconcave lens and vitreous humor completely refract the light rays coming
from ojbect. As a result of this an inverted image is formed at retina. Just like diaphragm of a camera. is
Iris of eye, decreases or increases the diamter of pupil acoording to amount of light. Iris expands to
decrease the pupil in high intensity 
 of light so a small amount of light touches the retina. When light is dim, iris itself constricts to increase
the diameter of pupil.
ACCOMODATION OR FOCUSSING -
The ability to change the focal length of lens by changing the curvature of lens, is called accommodation
power.

Only mammals and birds have this accommodation power in their eyes.

This ability is very less in frog and it depends on the sliding of lens forward and backward to some
extent.
1. Parallel light reach eye 1. Diverging light rays strike eye

2. Cornea refracts light rays 2. Cornea refracts light rays
3. Ciliary muscle relaxed 3. Ciliary muscle contracted
4. Suspensory ligament under maximum tension 4. Suspensory ligament loose
5. Lens flattened 5. Lens thickened
In normal condition muscle fibres of ciliary body remain relaxed and lens is stretched by its suspensory
ligaments, and due to this lens is flat. A flat lens has more focal length. As a result of this eye can see
long distant objects easily.
To see near by objects, sphincter muscles of ciliary body contract and ciliary body becomes broad,
suspensory ligaments becomes loose and relaxed. As a result of this relaxation lens becomes biconvex,
and now tis focal length is reduced. Now animal is able to see near by object easily.

TYPES OF VISION :
(a) Monocular vision or panoramic vision : - Most of the vertebrates have their eyes situated on the
lateral sides of head and due to this animal is capable to see the large area of both the sides. It is called
monocular vision.
 e.g. rabbit, frog, horse (Most of the herbivorous animals have this type of vision)
(b) Binocular vision : - Most of the carnivores mammals have eyes in front of their heads and side by side,
so as to focus on one object by both the eyes. It is called binocular vision e.g. Man, monkeys and apes.
(c) Stereoscopic vision : - It is three dimensional vision found in human.
(d) Telescopic vision : - This is found in birds. 


Largest eyeballs are found in horse.


Sharpest vision is found in eagle.


Shortest sight is found in monkeys.
Chemical explanation of vision -


 Cones and rods of eye are stimulated by light rays. It is a chemical event.

A shiny visual purple pigment is found in rods of retina called Rhodopsin. It is formed by a protien
opsin and a coloured pigment Retinal, just like haemoglobin of blood.

Opsin is also called scotopsin.


In bright light. rhodopsin is decomposed into opsin protein and retinal pigments. This chemical change
is sight impulse. This sight impulse is carried by optic nerve to the brain, and animal is able to see.

In dark, rods synthesize rhodopsin again with the help of opsin, retinal and enzyme.

This is the reason that we can not see any thing, when we move to dark place from a enlighted place (for
some time only) In the same way we are unable to see in light if we are coming from dark place because
it will take time to synthesize or decompose the rhodopsin
 it is called adaptation of eye.

For resynthesis of rhodopsin, animal blinks its eyelids.

Retinin is fomred by vitamin A so deficiency of vit A caused night blindness.

Cones able us to differentiable among colours and bright light. Cones have a pigment called Iodopsin in
place of rhodopsin of rods. It is decomposed into photopsin and retinal.
 There are three types of cones in retina : -
(a) Erythrolab - Red cones (erythropsin – Sensitive to red)
(b) Chlorolab - Green cones (Chloropsin – Sensitive to green)
(c) Cynolab - Blue cones. (Cynopsin – Sensitive to blue)

We are able to acknowledge different colours due to these three types of cones their combination.

In moon light we cannot see colours because only rods are functioning . Due to low light level cones are
not functining.  

Red, green and blue ar the primary colours.

 
Dimlight vision - Scotopic vision
Bright light vision - Photopic vison  

The eyes of some animals shine at night, because in the eyes of these animals, there is a pigment just
outside the retina in the choroid layer of eyeball, which reflects the light rays coming from retina. This
layer is called Tapetum. Due to this layer, these animals are capable to see in dark also.

Kangaroo, hoofed mammals, elephants, whales etc. are having a silver shining layer of fibrous connective
tissue called Tapetum fibrosum.

In Elasmobranch fishes a reflecting colour pigment called Guanine is present is tapetum layer so it is
called tapetum lucidum.

Hunters and carnivore mammals like dogs, cats, tiger etc. have a layer in their retina called tapetum
cellulosum.


In the eyes of birds a comb like structure of blood vessel is present which, is called pecten.

Emmetropia : - Normal vision of eyes is called emmetropia.

Some important defects of eyes : - 
1. Hypermatropia (far sightedness) : - 


In this defect of eye, person is able to see object placed at far distance but is unable to clear see obejcts
close to him or her. 

This defect is due to small size of eyeball or flatness of lens. In this defect image is formed behind the
retina. To cure this defect person should wear convex lenses in spectacles. 

Sometimes in old age this defect may occur due to reduction in the flexibility of lens or ciliary body,
then it is known as presbyopia. 
2. Myopia or Nearsightedness or short sightedness : -


In this defect of eye, person is able to see objects near/close to him or her but is unable to see objects
placed at far distance.

This is due to enlargement of eyeball or increased convexity of lens.


In this defects image is formed before the retina because light rays coming from distant objects converge
before retina.

To overcome this defect person should wear concave lenses in spectacles.
3. Astimgmatism : - In this defect curvature of cornea is changed as a result of that light rays do not focus
on macula lutea but somewhere else, causing incomplete blurred vison. This defect may be cured by
cylinderical lenses.
4. Night blindness : - This is due to deficiency of vit A. In this disorder synthesis of Rhodopsin is decreased.
5. Xerophthalmia : - it is due to keratinisation of cunjunctiva and cornea, and conjuctiva becomes thick. It
is also due to deficeincy of vit A. 
6. Trachoma : - In this defect of eye, a watery fluid oozes out from eyes in excess amount so eyes become
red due to irritation. It is caused by a mircrobe Chlamydia trachomatis. 
7. Strabismus : - It is due to loosening or contraction of the any of 6 voluntary muscles which give the
proper position to the eye ball in its orbit. Thus eye ball inclines towards one side of orbit. It is
strabismus or squint eyes. Particular muscle may be cured by operation and this defect is cured.
8. Cataract : - In this defect, lens becomes more solid, brown or more flat. It occurs in old age mostly. The lens
becomes opaque, and reduces its power of accommodation. At this stage person can not see. A new lens is
administered in place of defective lens by operation.
9. Glaucoma : - If the canal of schlemm is blocked in eyeball, aqueous humour can not return to veins
again as a result pressure is increased in eye chambers and retina is damaged and person becomes totally
blind.
10. Photophobia : - In this defect proper image is not formed in bright light.
11. Colour blindness : - It is genetic disorfer of X-chromosome. It is due to recessive gene. Colourblind
persons can not different in red and green colour.
EAR

SENSE ORGAN - EAR :
(B) Statoacoustic organ ear : - These are also called phonoreceptors.


All the vertebrates have one pair of ears back to the eyes,
There are two main functions of ears : -
(1) To receive sound waves, hearing
(2) To maintain body balance. Main function of ear is to maintain the balance of body.
Structurally ear may be divided into three parts : -
 
(a) External ear

(b) Middle ear
(c) Internal ear
(a) External ear : -

 
 It is the outer part of ear. It is well developed in mammals only. External ear may be divided again into
2 parts
(i) ear pinna
(ii) ear canal
(i) Ear pinna : - These may be small or large, fan like structure, important featrue of mammals, but
absent in whale, seal, Ornithorhynchus etc. The skin of ear pinna in hairy. These are having yellow
elastic cartilage in them. A rabbit can move its pinna accroding to its will, just like dog, cat, cow
etc. But a man can not move his pinnae. Muscles of man's ear are vestigeal. Pinna covers some of
the ear canal, this part is called choncha.
(ii) Ear canal or External auditory meatus : - It is a 24 mm long canal which is expanded from base
of pinna to inner side.

Along with mammals, birds and reptiles also have ill or less developed ear canal.

At the end of ear canal a stretched, thin obliquely placed membrane is present, it is called ear drum or
tympanic mmebrane.This separates the ear canal to middle ear.

In the wall of external auditory meatus or ear canal there are found modified sweat glands called ceruminous
glands. These secrete cerumen or ear wax, which moisten the ear drum and protects it.

Ear drum remians always in stretched position because malleus ear ossicle pulls it towards tympanic cavity
by tensor tympani muscle.

Ear drum is a part middle ear.
(b) Middle ear : - Middle ear is also called tympanic cavity. It is filled with air. This cavity is covered by a
flask like bone called tympanic bulla. This bone is a part of temporal bone of skull.

Middle ear cavity is connected by pharyngeal cavity through a canal. It is called Eustachian duct.
 Due to this tube, pressure at both the side of tympanic membrane remains always equal. This duct acts
to maintain sound equilibrium. It exples high volume sounds through mouth, to avoid the damage of ear
drum.

Tympanic cavity is connected by internal ear cavity by two aperture.


 (i) Oval aperture fenestra ovalis (oval window) and


 (ii) Spherical aperture fenestra rotundus (round window). A thin and firm membrane covers each aperture. 

Three ear ossicle are present arranged in a chain with movable joints connected together in tympanic
cavity.
 
These ear ossicles are : -
(a) Malleus : - It is situated towards outer ear. It is the largest of three and of hammer shaped malleus is
formed by the modification of articular bone of jaw.
 
 Inner broad part of malleus is connected by incus. Malleus and incus and Joint together by synovial
hinge joint.
(b) Incus : - The ossicle is anvil shaped. It is formed by the modification of quadrate bone of jaw. It s
outer broad part is connected by malleus and inner thin part is connected by stapes. Incus is joint by
stapes by ball and socket joint.
(c) Stapes : - It looks like stirrup of horse. It is formed by the modification of hyomandibular bone of
jaw.

It is the smallest bone of body


Stapes is connected to incus at one side and on the other side it is connected to membrane stretched over
fenestra ovalis.

[In the tympanic cavity of frog only one ear ossicle is found it is called columella auris. Malleus and
incus are absent here.]
 All the three ear ossicles are arranged in ear cavity by ligaments. These carry sound wave from ear drum
to internal ear through fenestra ovalis.
 Internal ear : -
 It consist of (1) Bony Labyrinth (2) Membranous Labyrinth.
Internal ear is enclosed in the petrous part temporal bone which form a bony capsule out side the
internal ear it is called bony labyrinth. It is the cavity of hearing apparatus.

Internal ear is a complex structure made up of semi transparent membrane. It is called membranous
labyrinth.

Bony labyrinth an membranous labyrinth are connected by a cavity called perilymph cavity. Perilymph
liquid is filled in it.
Endolymph is filled in membranous labyrinth.


There are two main bag like chambers in membranous labyrinth, utriculus and sacculus.
 Both these chambers are connected together by a thin canal called sacculo- utricular duct.

A thin endolymphatic duct opens into sacculo-utricular duct. This endolymphatic duct opens into
endolymphatic sac situated at back side of skull on the other side.
 Utriculus is comparatively large. Three semicircular canals arise from utriculus at 90° angle to each
other and open into utriculus again these are called
(i) Anterior or superior semicircular canal
(ii) Posterior semicircular canal
(iii) External or lateral or horizontal semicircular canal.
Anterior and posterior canals arise in the form of a single canal called ''Crus commune''

The distal end of each semiciruclar canal is some what swollen, called Ampulla.

Sacculus is smaller than utriculus. Its back side is coiled like spring. It is called cochlear canal. it is also
known as lagena.

3 1 1
The length of cochlear canal of human, rabbit and whale are 2 , 2 and 1 coils respectively.
4 2 2

Cochlear canal is connected by sacculus by a small duct called ductus reuniens.


All the coils of cochlear canal are connected together by flexible ligaments.
In the centre of coils of cochlea in human, there are present a pillar like structure called modiolus.
(D) Internal structure of inner ear : -

The inner wall of membranous labyrinth is lined by cuboidal epithelium and outer wall is line dby
connective tissue richly supplied with blood capillaries.

Membranous labyrinth is empty inside. Its cavity is filled by endolymph which is a milky, mucilagenous fluid.

Distal end of each semicircular canal becomes swollen called ampulla. In this ampulla, internal cuboidal
epithelium form a ridge like projection called acoustic ridge small immovable microvilli are found at
the free edges of sensory cells of acoustic ridge. These microvilli are numerous in number. These are
called stereocilia, along with these there are found single movable cilium called kinocillium. Otoconia
are absent crista of ampulla. All the microvilli of ridge are bind together like a bag and from cupula.

These sensory cells situated in internal ear are in contact with small nerves. All these thin nerve
combine to form vestibular nerve (branch of auditory nerve).

Sensory crista and maculae are related with equilibrium of body


Cristae control and maintain body equilibrium at the time of movement and maculae regulate this at
static position.
(E) Internal Structure of Cochlea & Cochlear canal
Cochlear duct is connected by bony labyrinth in such a way that it divides the cavity of labyrinth into
dorsal and ventral chambers. So in a transverse section of cochlea following three chambers are seen
clearly.
Scala vestibuli
Scala media
Reissner's
membrane
Stria
vascularis
Tectorial
membrane
Spiral
ligament
Basilar
membrane
Cochlear
nerve Organ
of corti
Scala
tympani
TRANSVERSE SECTION OF COCHLEA
(i) Scala vestibuli : - it is situated at dorsal side and is filled with perilymph.
(ii) Scala tympani : - It is situated at the ventral side below the cochlear duct. It is also filled by perilymph.
ORGAN OF CORTI
(iii) Scala media : - It is the triangular cavity of cochlear duct that is situated between scala vestibuli and
scala tympani. It is filled with endolymph.

Thin dorsal wall of cochlear duct is called vestibular membrane or Reissner's membrane.

Ventral wall of scala media is thick it is called basilar membrane. Scala vestibuli and scala tympani are
connected through a small aperture at the free edge of cochlea. This aperture is called helicotrema.

Scala media is blind (closed) at its both the sides.

(F) Organ of Corti : - A sensory ridge is present at the whole of central line at epithelium lining of basilar
membrane of scala media. It is called organ of corti. It has two types of cells (i) Sensory cell (ii)
Supporting or suspensory cell and three type of suspensory cell
(i) Cells of Dieter's or basal cells (ii) Pillar cells or rod cells (iii) Hensen's cells or rectangular.
In between the empty spaces of sensory and suspensory cells a lymph like fluid cortilymph is filled.
This space is called tunnel of corti.
 
 Numerous mircrovilli called stereocilia (sensory hair) are present at the free surface of each sensory cell.

At the ventral surface of sensory cells there are present thin fibres of auditory nerve that form cochlear
branch.

At the organ of corti a thin jelly like membrane is inclined called tectorial membrane. In this
membrane, all the sensory hair's free edges are embeded.

Main credit of hearing goes to ''Organ of corti''.

(G) WORKING OF EAR : -

Ears are stato-acoustic organs of body. Thus these help the body to hear and balancing the body.
(a) Equilibrim: - The first and basic function of ears to maintain balance of body.

This act is done by utriculus, sacculus and three semicircular canals. Equilibrium impulse/sensation is of
two types : -
(i) Static balancing : - Its relation is from the point of view of gravity and position of head in static
conditions of body and its changes.

The senses of these changes (of head) are produced and carried mainly by utriculus, sacculus and their
sensory cristae i.e maculae.
Sensory hair of ridge are sensitized by otoconia or otolith or ear dust. These sensations or impulses
are carried to brain by auditory nerve After it messages of appropriate reactions are send through motor
fibres to the skeletal muscles of body.
(ii) Dynamic equilibrium : -


It is the action to maintain balance of body during movement.


This act is done by sensory ridges of ampula of semicircular canals.


At the time of movement the endolymph of ampula produces waves in it. Cupula of ampula are effected
by these waves and sensory cells cupula are irritated. This sensation or stimulation is carried to brain by
auditory nerve and proper messages are send to muscle of legs in reply. Due to this body is balanced at
the time of walking.
(b) Hearing : -

This act is done by ''Organ of Corti''.


Sound waves are collected by ear pinnae. These sound waves travel through ear canal and hit the ear
drum as a result of it ear drum get vibrated.

These vibrations reach up to stretched membrane of fenestra ovalis through ear ossicles, ear ossicles
work as lever.

As a result of this travelling (from ear drum to fenestra ovalis) sound waves become more strong.

When the membrane of fenestra ovalis starts vibrating, perilymph of scala vestibuli also starts vibrating,
some vibrations reach up to scala tympani (fenestra rotundus) and its perilymph.

Due to these vibrating waves, Reissner membrane and Basilar membrane of the walls of scala media
also start vibrations. These vibrations travel through endolymph reach upto organ of corti. The organ of
corti also starts vibrating.

Cochlear nerve carries this impulse to brain through auditory nerve. Appropriate messages are send to
receptor organs by brain accordingly.

Vibrations /waves produced by cochlea travel through perilymph, reach up to membrane stretched at
fenestra Rotundus and are destroyed.

Some sound waves are also destroyed, when coming from helicotrema.


 
 
 






NOSE
Olfactorecptors :
– Olfactoreceptors are situated in the upper part of nasal chamber in olfactory epithelium.
– This membrane is called as schnederian membrane.
– Olfactoreceptors are relatd with olfactory bulb. It is the extension of limbic system. 
– This bulb is situated below the frontal lobe of cerebral hemisphere and above the ethampoid bone of
nasalchamber. 
– Three types of cells are found in the olfactoreceptors. These are –
(i) Bipolar olfactory nerve cells
(ii) columnar epithelial cells
(iii) Mucous glands
(1) Bipolar olfactory nerve cells : It is special types of nerve cells
– Sensory hair are found at the anterior end of olfactory cells. They contact with external environment
in nasal chamber.
– Sensory hairs are related with dendrites of bipolar nerve cells.
– Middle part of olfactory cell is cyton.

– Posterior part of olfactory cell is axon which is nonmyleinated.
(2) Columnar epithelial cells : It is also called as supporting cells. They are present arounds the bipolar
olfactory cells.
 
 – They provides support to the olfactory cells.
– Some small conical cells are also found at the basal part of olfactoreceptor and provide base to the
olfactoreceptor.
– A layer of connective tissue lies below the olfactoreceptor. It is also called as Lamina propria. 
(3) Mucous glands : It is called as Bowman's gland. It is situated in the Lamina propria. It opens at the
outer part of olfacto receptor through fine duct. Their secretory mucous substance dissolve the smell
particle and carry to the sensory hair of olfactory cells. Unmyleinated axons of all olfacto sensory cells
makes the synapse with dendrites of multipolar neurone of olfactory bulb. The number of receptors
stimulated indicates the strength of smell.
In addition to smell receptor, a network of nerves is found in the nose, mouth and tongue.
The network formed by trigeminal nerve of V cranial nerve. It is also known as Dentist's nerve, reacts to
messages of pain of teeth. It also convey the message of smell to brain. Such as ammonia, vinegar etc.
The trigeminal can protect by warning about harmful chemical in the air. Bowman's glands inside
the nose release mucous fluid to get rid of the irritating susbtances.
Loss of the sense of smell is known as anosmia.
TONGUE OR ORGAN OF TASTE
A thick, muscular and movable organ, the tongue is found in the mouth cavity. Tongue bears four types
of small papillae which are provided with taste buds. Taste buds are much numerous in the circumvallate and
foliate papillae. Taste buds are formed by the transformation of epithelial cells of the tongue. A taste
bud possesses two types of cells .-
1. Supporting cells : These cells are elongated in middle region they do not bear hairs at their free ends.
2. Sensory cells : These cells are alongated, buldge in middle part, they bear sensory hair at their free ends.
Each taste bud is flask or barrel shaped. It's size is 70 m × 50 m it's upper part opens at the epithelial
surface of the tongue through a fine pore. These sensory hairs, exposed to outside through the gustatory
pore are stimulated by the food substances. The sensory cells are chemoreceptor in nature and taste the
food while it is dissolved in saliva. Food substances get mixed with saliva to enter into the pores of
taste buds.
In human different regions of the tongue are sensitive to different taste. Anterior and free end of the
tongue are sensitive to sweet and salty, lateral sides to sour taste, while the posterior part is particulary
sensitive to bitter taste.
Types of receptors

 General Senses –
 
 Touch – Tangoreceptors (Thigmoreceptor)
Temperature – Thermoreceptor
Heat – Caloreceptors
Cold – Frigidoreceptors
Pain – Algesireceptors
Current of water – Rheoreceptors
Electric current – Galvanoreceptors
Gravity – Georeceptors
Muscle position – Proprioreceptors
Equilibrium – Statoreceptors
Hunger, thirst etc. – Interoceptors
Blood pressure – Baroreceptors
Osmotic pressure – Osmoreceptors
Chemical changes – Chemoreceptors
Vibration – Vibroreceptors
 Special Senses
Vision – Photoreceptors
Hearing – Phonoreceptors
Smell – Olfactoreceptors
Taste – Gustatoreceptors
(1) Receptors of vision, hearing an smell receive stimuli from distance, hence called teleoreceptors.
(2) Tangoreceptors or mechanoreceptors

(i) Merkel's disc (Corpuscles) : Epidermis of non hairy (glabrous) skin, shallow cup shaped disc.
(ii) Meissner's corpulse : Dermis of skin of the finger tip, lips and nipples. Sense of touch and gentle
pressure.
(iii) Pacinian corpuscle : Present in subcutaneous tissue of palm, sole of finger etc. stimulated by strong
pressure contact.
(iv) Corpuscle of golgi : Sucutaneous tissue of fingers.
(v) Corpuscle of mazzoni : Sub cutaneous tissue of fingers.
(vi) Grandy's corpuscles : Beak of birds
(vii) Herbst corpuscles : Mouth part of birds

(viii) Free never ending : Present of skin, perceive the sensation of touch.
(3) Thermoreceptors
(i) Ampullae of Lorenzini : Scoliodon (Fishes)

(ii) Organ of ruffini : Caloreceptor - Heat
(iii) End bulb of krause : Frigidoreceptor - cold

(4) Tactile receptors in mammals are maximum on face
(5) Current of water : Rheoreceptors lateral line sense organ in fishes and amphibian of tadpole detect the
water current
POINTS TO REMEMBER :
1. Red green colour blindness is hereditory
2. Minimum distance for proper vision of eyes is 25 cm.
3. Anterior - posterior diameter of eyeball is 17.5mm at the time of birth normally and in adults it is 20-21mm.
4. The best colour differentiation is found in primates (Advanced mammals)
5. In the retina of man's eyes there are found 110-1125 lacs rods and 65 lacs cones.
6. Healthy eye of a person can see clearly from 12 inch to 20 feet.
7. Image of object is formed on retina and it is always inverted & real

8. Hyalocytes cells are found in vitreous humor.
9. Cilliary body secretes aqueous humor and vitreous humor.
10. In frog and other amphibians sclerotic layer of eyeball is Cartilaginous

11. The largest eyes are found in deers in vertebrates with respect to body surface area.
12. Owls and cats see only with the help of available light from starts or moon at night
13. The lens of man's eye ball has its diameter of 11 mm.
14. Atropine, Belladona and Cocane medicines are used to dilate the pupil
15. In a newlyborn child, eye balls are very small, i.e. babies ar always very much hypermatropic.
17. Cornea and lens of eye lack blood supply.
18. Eyes are most sensitive to the light having approx 5000 Å wavelength.
19. Internal or inner ear of rabbit is originated by ectoderm of embryo and middle ear (Bony part-
mesodermal) and eustachian tube are originated by endoderm layer of embryo.
20. Frog's vision is hypermatropic in water and myopic on land.
21. Light sensitive organ was discovered by Steven.
22. Phaco-emulsification techique in cataract surgery – ''Stichlesss'' technique. Foldable IOL (Intra – ocular
Lens) is used..
23. Gland of moll are modified sweat gland.
24. Stye is infection of gland of zeis

25. Hordeolum is inflammation sebaceous gland of eyelid
26. The relationship of receptor to bipolar cells to ganglion cells is 1 : 1 : 1 with in the fovea.
27. From the fovea to the periphery, cones dimimish and rods increase in number.
28. Electronic activity of retina is record sequence of potential change known as elctroretinogram.
29. The horizontal cells which transmit signals horizontally in the outer plexiform layer from the rods and
cones to the bipolar cell dendrites.
30. The bipolar cells which transmit signals from the rods, cones and horizontal cells to the inner plexiform
layer where they synapse with ganglion cell and amacrine cells.
31. The amacrine cells which transmit signals in two direction directly from bipolar cells to ganglion.
32. Lack of red cones – Protanope

33. Lack of green cones – Deuteranope
34. lack of blue cones – Tritanope

35. Unlike nerve and muscle rods and cones do not show action potential by depolarization but by electronic
conduction.
SENSORY ORGANS EXERCISE # 1
EYE
Q.1 Aperture of an eye can be changed by (3) Iris muscles
(1) Aquous humor (2) Vitreous humor (4) Pupil
(3) Ciliary muscles (4) Iris
Q.9 Night blindness is caused due to
Q.2 Which is responsible for colour detection (1) Hypermatropia
(1) Cones (2) Rods (2) Myopia
(3) Rods and cones (4) Choroid (3) Defective cornea
(4) Deficiency of rhodopsin in rods
Q.3 Pigmented layer in eye is called
(1) Cornea (2) Sclerotic Q.10 During night when the intensity of light is
(3) Retina (4) All low, it is detected by
(1) Rods (2) Cones
Q.4 Photosensitive pigment is (3) Both (4) Crystalline lens
(1) Similar in all eyes
Q.11 To correct myopia vision one should use
(2) Different in all eyes
(1) Convex lens (2) Concave lens
(3) Similar in all vertebrate eyes
(3) Plane lens (4) None
(4) Red in all eyes
Q.12 Where is the cavity of vitreous humor
Q.5 Rhodopsin is a constituent of
found
(1) Cornea (2) Choroid
(1) Between sclerotic and choroid
(3) Rods (4) Cones (2) Infront of lens
Q.6 If the source of bright light in front of eye (3) Behind lens
suddenly become bright (4) Between choroids and retina
(1) Pupil contract Q.13 Function of iris is to
(2) Focus of lens changes (1) Alter diameter of pupil
(3) Vitreous humor becomes liquid like (2) Close eye lids
(4) Retina blood supply is cut-off (3) Secreted aqueous humor
(4) Move the lens
Q.7 Retina of the vertebrates eye consists of
(1) Neurons and neuroglia Q.14 The pigment found in rods is
(2) Rods, cones, neurons and neuroglia (1) Retinene (2) Melanine
(3) Rods, cones and neuroglia (3) Photosin (4) Keratin
(4) Rods and cones
Q.15 Which pigment helps some noctural animals
Q.8 The focal length of the lens in eye is to see at night
controlled by (1) Haemoglobin
(1) Vitreous humor (2) Porphyrin
(2) Cillary muscles (3) Guanin
(4) Heparin (1) Behind retina and can be corrected by
using convex lens
Q.16 Eye is most sensitive to
(2) Behind retina and can be corrected by
(1) 20 Å (2) 1000 Å
using concave lens
(3) 5000 Å (4) 7000 Å
(3) Infront of retina and can be corrected by
Q.17 Area of most active vision in eye where using concave lens
sharp image is formed is called (4) Infront of retina and can be corrected by
(1) Blind spot (2) Yellow spot using convex lens
(3) Lens (4) Pupil
Q.24 Iodopsin is related with
Q.18 Blind spot in the eye is located (1) Brain (2) spinal cord
(1) In the centre of pupil (3) Cones (4) kidney
(2) In the centre of lens
(3) In fovea centralis Q.25 Convex lens is used to correct
(4) Where optic nerves leaves retina (1) Hypermatropia (2) Myopia
(3) Cataract (4) Glaucoma
Q.19 Lens and retina of vertebrate eye develop
from Q.26 Owls moves freely during night since they
(1) Mesoderm (2) Ectoderm have
(3) Endoderm (1) Adjustable pupil
(4) Partly from ectoderm and partly from (2) Only cones in retina
endoderm (3) Only rods in retina
(4) Vitamin a deficiency
Q.20 The common defect of eye which develops
in old age is Q.27 Which one of the following diseases in man
(1) Glaucoma (2) Astigmatism belongs to the same category as
(3) Presbyopia (4) Myopia haemophilia
Q.21 Ciliary muscles are found in (1) Hyper matropia
(1) Junction of choroids and iris in eye ball (2) Rabies
(2) Inside larynx toregulate tension in eye (3) Nigh blindness
ball (4) Colour blindness
(3) Between ribs to assist in breathing
Q.28 Transmission of light into nerve impulse is a
movement
(1) Mechanical process
(4) At base of cilia in ciliated epithelium
(2) Physical process
Q.22 The aperture controlling the light entering (3) Chemical process
in eye is called (4) Biochemical process
(1) Iris (2) Pupil
(3) Blind spot (4) Sclerotic layer Q.29 Colour blindness in human being is due to
(1) Vitamin A deficiency
Q.23 Myopia is a defect in human eyes in which (2) Sex linked inheritance
the image is formed (3) Over activity of adrenal gland
(4) Excessive drinking of alcohol
Q.38 A small region on the retina of the eye
Q.30 How many oblique and rectus muscles are
which contains only cones is called
found to move the eye ball in various
(1) Area centralis (2) Fovea centralis
direction inside the eye orbit
(3) Blind spot (4) Ora serrata
(1) Two (2) Four (3) Six (4) Eight
Q.39 In man nictitating membrane is
Q.31 Meiboniam gland are associated with (1) Absent (2) Vestigeal
(1) Eyes (3) Non-functional (4) Functional
(2) Ears
(3) Reproductive organ Q.40 Hyalocytes cells occurs in
(1) Aqueous humor
(4) Skin
(2) Vitreous humor
Q.32 Harderian gland occurs in (3) Both
(1) Whale (2) Frog (4) None of them
(3) Birds (4) All the above
Q.41 For the synthesis of rhodopsin, which of the
Q.33 In old age farsightedness is a defect of eye following food is needed
in man, in which (1) Mango (2) Rice
(1) Eye ball becomes short (3) Carrot (4) Tomatoes
(2) Eye ball becomes elongated
(3) Lens become more concave Q.42 No image formation occurs on blind-spot of
(4) Lens become more spherical retina because
Q.34 Stereoscopic vision is found in (1) It is not present of the optical axis of the
(1) All mammals (2) All vertebrates eye
(3) Primates (4) Frog (2) Here cones and rods are absent
Q.35 Pigmented connective tissue in rabbit (3) On this part only cones are present
occurs in (4) The nerve fibres of this region do not
(1) The eyelids contribute in the formation of optic
(2) The choroids of eye chiasma
(3) The adipose tissue of skin
(4) The choroids y iris of eye Q.43 ''Telescopic vision'' found in
(1) Amphibians (2) Mammals
Q.36 Tear is a (3) Birds (4) None of these
(1) Secretory fluid
Q.44 Binocular vision found in
(2) Excretory fluid
(3) Pure fluid (1) Man (2) Monkey
(4) Lymphatic fluid (3) Apes (4) All the above
Q.45 Perception of various colour is possible in

Q.37 The nictitating membrane of rabbit is
(1) All vertebrates
(1) Also called third eye lid
(2) Situated in the inner corner of the eye (2) Most of the mammals
(3) Movable across the eye ball to clean it (3) Man only
(4) All of the above (4) Birds only
Q.46 Highly vascular and pigmented layer of
Q.53 Aqeous humor and vitreous humor are
Rabbit's eyes is
secreted by
(1) Retina (2) Sclerotic
(1) Iris (2) Ciliary body
(3) Choroid (4) None of these
(3) Lens (4) Cornea
Q.47 The part of Rabbit's eye which acts like
Q.54 Pecten a comb like structure is found in the
diaphragm of camera is
eye of
(1) Pupil (2) Iris
(1) Amphibians (2) Reptiles
(3) Lens (4) Cornea
(3) Birds (4) Mammals
Q.48 Which of the following medicine is used to
Q.55 Lens of eye of frog is
dilate pupil is
(1) Oval (2) Biconcave
(1) Atropine
(3) Circular (4) None of them
(2) Cocain
(3) Beladona Q.56 Aqeous humour & vitreous humour are
(4) All of the above separated by
(1) Cornea (2) Conjunctiva
Q.49 A circular canal which found in limbus part
(3) Lens (4) All
of eyes is called
(1) Hyaloid canal Q.57 In Glaucoma
(2) Canal of Schlemm (1) Eye ball elongates
(3) Canal of Cloquet (2) Eye ball shortened
(4) Eustachian tube (3) Fluid pressure increase in eye
(4) Cornea become opaque
Q.50 Eye and ear are the example of
(1) Teleoreceptor Q.58 Space between cornea & lens is
(2) Gustato receptor (1) Aqueous chamber
(3) Extero receptor (2) Vitreous chamber
(4) Intero receptor (3) Fovea centralis
(4) Canal of schlemm
Q.51 Three layers in eye ball from inside to out
side are Q.59 In frog eyelids are
(1) Retina, choroids, sclerotic (1) Functional
(2) Choroid, retina, sclerotic (2) Non-functional
(3) Sclerotic, choroid, retina (3) Absent
(4) Sclerotic, retina, choroid (4) None
Q.52 In eyes the image which is formed on the Q.60 Colour blind ness is due to
(1) Deficiency of Vit. A
retinal is
(2) Deficiency of Vit. D
(1) Erect and real
(3) Deficiency of Vit. E
(2) Erect and virtual
(4) None of these
(3) Inverted and real
(4) Inverted and virtual Q.61 Cavity of aqueous humour is
(1) Behind the lens Q.69 Mucoprotein which found in vitreous humour
(2) Infront of lens is
(3) Between choroids and sclerotic (1) Albumin (2) Vitrin
(4) None of these (3) Globulin (4) Lysozyme
Q.62 Harderian gland are are absent in Q.70 Which of the following in rabbits eyes is
(1) Frog responsible for frictionless blinking
(2) Birds (1) Lachrymal glands
(3) Human Human and rabbit (2) Meibomian gland
(4) Human and rabbit (3) Harderian gland
Q.63 Vision in frog is (4) All of the above
(1) Binocular (2) Monocular Q.71 Which of the following glands are found in
(3) Both of them (4) None of them majority of mammals associated with their
eyes
Q.64 The eye defect, Astigmatism can be corrected (1) Harderian and meibomian
by using (2) Lachrymal and suborific
(1) Convex lens (3) Lachyrmal and meibomian
(2) Concave lens
(4) Harderian and Lachrymal gland
(3) Cylindrical lens
(4) Surgery Q.72 Conjuctiva of eye is derived from
(1) Epidermis
Q.65 In Frog eyes are
(2) Dermis
(1) Myopic on land
(3) Mesoderm
(2) Hypermetropic in water
(4) Endoderm
(3) Bulging
(4) All Q.73 Supporting cells of retina
(1) Dieter's cells
Q.66 In frog's eye the sclerotic is made up of
(2) Hensen's cells
(1) Bone
(3) Mullar's cells
(2) Cartilage
(4) Amacrine cells
(3) Muscles
(4) Fibrous connective tissue Q.74 ''Miosis'' in eye refers to
(1) Reduction in diameter of pupil
Q.67 Largest eyes with body surfaces area amongst
(2) Increased diameter of pupil
vertebrates found in
(3) Reduction division in retina
(1) Elephant (2) Deer
(4) Shrinkage of eye ball
(3) Horse (4) Man
Q.75 Stye is present due to infection of
Q.68 Supporting cells of organ of corti are
(1) Harderian gland
(1) Deiter's cell (2) Rod cells
(2) Gland of zeis
(3) Hensen's (4) All of the above
(3) Meibomian gland
(4) Lacrimal gland
Q.76 Which one of the following is the correct acuity
difference between Rod Cells and Cone (4) Visual iodopsin Rhodopsin
Cells of our retina ? [AIPMT-2008] Pigment
Rod Cells Cone Cells contained
(1) Overall Vision in poor Colur vision
Q.77 Cornea transplant in humans in almost
Function light and detailed
never rejected. This is because
vision in [AIPMT-2008]
bright light (1) It is composed of enucleated cells
(2) Distribution More Evenly (2) It is a non-living layer
Concentrated distributed all (3) Its cells are lest penetrable by bacteria
in centre of over retina (4) It has no blood supply
retina
(3) Visual High Low
EAR
Q.78 Fenesta ovalis is the opening of (3) Haemolymph (4) Lymph
(1) Cranium
Q.83 Eustachian tube connects
(2) Tympanum
(1) Left atrium with right atrium
(3) Tympanic cavity
(2) Left ventricles with right ventricle
(4) Brain
(3) Middle ear with external ear
Q.79 Passage connecting middle ear with pharynx (4) Middle ear with pharynx
is called
Q.84 Chief function of semicircular canals of
(1) Cochlear canal
internal ear
(2) Vestibular canal
(1) Balancing and hearing
(3) Tympanic canal
(2) To perceive sound vibrating of high
(4) Eustachian canal
frequency
Q.80 Arrangement of ear ossicles, starting from (3) To maintain dynamic equilibrium of the
ear drum is body while the body is inbalance
(1) Stapes, malleus, incus (4) To transmit sound vibration to the
(2) Malleus, incus, stapes auditory nerve
(3) Incus, stapes, malleus
Q.85 In mammals organ of corti occurs in
(4) Stapes, incus, malleus
(1) Main canal
Q.81 Organ of corti is found in (2) Ear canal
(1) Kidneys (2) Heart (3) Cochlear canal
(3) Nasal chamber (4) Internal ear (4) Tympanum
Q.82 The fluid found in semicircular canals of Q.86 Organ of corti in rabbit is concerned with
internal ear of rabbit is the sense of
(1) Perilymph (2) Endolymph (1) Smell
(2) Hearing Q.93 The fluid surrounding to membranous labyrinth
(3) Taste of rabbit is called
(4) Equilibrium (1) Perilymph
Q.87 Which structure helps a person to maintain (2) Endolymph
equilibrium (3) Haemolymph
(1) Cochlea (4) Cerebrospinal fluid
(2) Eustachian tube Q.94 Rabbit has
(3) Semicircular canal (1) Monocular vision
(4) Hammer like bone (2) Binocular vision
Q.88 Cochlea of mammalian ear is concerned (3) Conjunctiva
with (4) Cornea
(1) Balancing of body Q.95 Cochlea contains
(2) Hearing (1) Scala vestibule
(3) Pereception of atmospheric pressure (2) Scala tympani
(4) Both and (1) and (2) (3) Scala media
Q.89 All bones provide support and protection to (4) All the above
body parts which bone is different in it's
Q.96 By the stimulation of which structure of
function
human ear, the sound waves are perceived by
(1) Ribs
brain
(2) Atlas vertebra
(1) Basilar membrane
(3) Malleus
(2) Tectorial membrane
(4) Radius
(3) Meissner's membrane
Q.90 External ear are characteristic of (4) Sensory hair cells of organ of corti
(1) Mammals (2) Reptiles
Q.97 Which of the following is not an ear ossicle
(3) Amphibians (4) Fishes
(1) Incus
Q.91 Our ear hear sound waves of the frequency (2) Malleus
(1) Above 20,000 cycles/sec (3) Humerus
(2) 5-100 cycles/sec (4) Stapes
(3) 50-20,000 cycles/sec
(4) 20-20,000 cycles/sec Q.98 Cochlea arises from
(1) Utriculus
Q.92 The Eustachian tube which connects middle
(2) Sacculus
ear to pharynx is found in
(3) Middle era
(1) All the land vertebrates in general
(4) Semicircular canals
(2) All vertebrates
(3) Amphibians only Q.99 The other name of internal ear is
(4) Mammals only (1) Utriculus
(2) Membranous labyrinth
(3) Sacculus
(4) Ductus endolymphaticus (1) Are also called pinnae
Q.100 External auditorymeatus contains which of (2) Are absent in monotremes
the following gland (3) Can be moved in various direction by
(1) Ceruminous gland many mammls
(2) Lachrymal gland (4) All of the above
(3) Harderian gland
(4) Meibomian gland Q.108 The ear ossicles of rabbit lie in the
Q.101 How many semicircular canals are found in (1) Auditory capsules
internal ear of rabbit (2) External auditory meatus
(1) Two (2) Three (3) Tympanic cavity
(3) Four (4) One (4) Tympanic bulla
Q.102 Organ of corti is located in Q.109 The internal ear of rabbit originates from
(1) Cochlea (1) Ectoberm
(2) Scala tympani
(2) Endoderm
(3) Scala media
(3) Mesoderm
(4) Scala vestibuli
Q.103 Otolith (otoconia) are CaCO3 particles found
in Q.110 In rabbit the muscles which move the
(1) Perilymph pinnae are
(2) Endolymph (1) Absent
(3) Bones (2) Vestigeal
(4) Vitreous humor (3) Non-functional
Q.104 Which of the following in anvil shaped ear (4) Functional
ossicle Q.111 The middle ear and internal ear of
(1) Incus (2) Malleus mammals are enclosed in which of the
(3) Satpes (4) Humerus following bones
Q.105 Which of the following is stirrup shaped ear (1) Mastoid
ossicle (2) Ethmoid
(1) Incus (2) Stapes (3) Tympanic bulla
(3) Malleus (4) Humerus (4) Tympanic bulla and periotic bone
Q.106 In man the muscles which move the pinnae (temporal bone)
are
Q.112 Middle ear and eustachian tube of rabbit
(1) Absent
originates from
(2) Vestigeal
(3) Functional more (1) Ectroderm
(4) Functional (2) Endoderm
(3) Mesoderm
Q.107 The external ears of mammals
(4) All the above
(3) Both balancing and hearing
Q.113 The scala vestibule communicates with (4) Perception of colour
scala tympani through narrow canal called
Q.120 The bone which is in contact with fenestra
(1) Ductus endolymphaticus
ovalis is
(2) Helicotrema
(1) Malleus
(3) Ductus utriculi
(2) Incus
(4) Sacculo utricular canal
(3) Stapes
Q.114 Between malleus & incus is found (4) None
(1) Synovial hinge joint
Q.121 Ear ossicle from inner side of middle ear
(2) Synovial ball socket joint
are
(3) Pivot joint
(1) Malleus, Incus, stapes
(4) Glinding jont
(2) Stapes, Incus, Malleus
Q.115 Dieter's cells found in (3) Incus stapes & malleus
(1) Reissner's membrane (4) Malleus, stapes, incus
(2) Malleus
Q.122 Trachoma disease is due to infection of
(3) Organ of corti
bacteria
(4) None
(1) Chlamdia trachomastis
Q.116 The tympanic cavity is (2) Bassilus
(1) Columella auris (3) E. Coli
(2) Middle ear (4) Salmonella
(3) Eustachian tube
Q.123 Endolymph is contains white crystals of
(4) Internal ear
CaCO3 called
Q.117 One of the following is correct (1) Otoconia (2) Otoliths
(1) Semicircular canal-balancing (3) Ear dust (4) All of the above
(2) Cochlea-hearing
Q.124 How many coils are present in conchlear
(3) Utriculus-& sacculus-balancing
duct of man
1 1
(1) 1 (2) 2
Q.118 In the tympanic cavity there is an aperture 4 4
in which the stapes is fitted it is 1 3
(3) 2 (4) 2
2 4
(1) Foramen rotundus
(2) Foramen triosseum Q.125 Ear ossicles which present in middle ear
(3) Fenestra ovalis cavity of frog's ear is
(4) Fenestra totandus (1) Malleus (2) Incus
(3) Stepes (4) Columella
Q.119 Cochlea is mainly responsible for
(1) Balance only Q.126 Which of the following is part of middle ear
(2) Hearing only (1) Cochlea
(2) Utriculus (1) Eustachians tubes
(3) Sacculus (2) Tensor tympani muscles
(4) Malleus (3) Stapedius muscles
Q.127 How many coils are present in cochlear (4) All of the above
duct of Rabbit
Q.133 The tensor tympani muscles is attached to
1 3
(1) 2 (2) 2 (1) Malleus
2 4
(2) Stapes
1 1
(3) 1 (4) 1 (3) Incus
2 4
(4) Tympanum
Q.128 ''Tensor tympani'' & ''Stapediusmuscles'' are
found in Q.134 The structure in the internal ear which
resembles a ''snail shell'' is called
(1) External ear
(1) Organ of corti
(2) Middle ear
(2) Membranous labirynth
(3) Internal ear
(3) Cochlea
(4) External auditory meatus
(4) Ear ossicles
Q.129 The organ of corti is a modification of
Q.135 Serves as ''harps of piano'' in the ear
(1) Ear drum
(2) Reissner's membrane
(2) Endolymph
(3) Basilar membrane
(3) Ear ossicles
(4) Meissner's membrane
(4) Cells of organ of corti
Q.130 Malleus, incus and stapes the three ear
Q.136 The sound vibration are finally exhausted in
ossicles are derived respectively from which
(1) Organ of corti
of the following jaw bones
(2) Fenestra rotundus
(1) Articular, quadrate & hyomandibular
(3) Fenestra ovalis
(2) Hyomandibular, quadrate & articular
(4) Tympanic membrane
(3) Quadrate, articular & hyomandibular
Q.137 What is the cause of stereoscopic vision in
(4) Humerus, articular & squamosal
human
Q.131 Function of eustachian tube is to (1) Refraction power of eye is high
(1) Provide air to the ear ossicles (2) Well developed retina
(2) Remove dirt from the middle ear (3) High developed cerebral cortex
(3) Keep middle ear in proper shape (4) Presence of biconvex lens
(4) To maintain proper air pressure in middle
Q.138 Astigmatism is developed when
ear and internal ear form protecting them
(1) Lens become opaque
from damage by loud sound
(2) Curvature of conjunctiva is changed
Q.132 The damage to ear by sudden explosion (loud (3) Lens become nonflexible
sound) is prevented by (4) Curvature of cornea is changed
(2) Retina start damage
Q.139 What conditions are developed after deficiency
(3) Person may become blind
of vitamin A
(4) All the above
(1) Nigh blindness
(2) Keratinization of cornea Q.146 Guanin pigment is present in
(3) Keratinization of conjuctiva (1) Tapetum lucidum
(4) All the above (2) Tapetum fibrousum
(3) Tapetu cellulosum
Q.140 Function of vitreous humor is
(4) All the above
(1) Nutrition of lens
(2) Maintain intraocular pressure Q.147 When the person is not having green cones
(3) Reflection then the condition is called
(4) All the above (1) Tritanopes
(2) Pratanopes
Q.141 Which of the following structure of eye is
(3) Deuteranopes
artificially implanted
(4) Trichromates
(1) Cornea
(2) Lens Q.148 Which of the following structure is not
(3) Retina related to body balance
(4) Corena & lens both (1) Maculae
(2) Crista
Q.142 When the human comes in bright light then
(3) Organ of corti
what will happen
(4) Ampulla
(1) Synthesis of rhodopsin
(2) Mydriasis Q.149 Scala media is
(3) Miosis (1) Part of cochlea
(4) None of the above (2) Cochlear canal
(3) Chamber of semicircular
Q.143 Which structure of eye is related to focusing
(4) Chamber which is related to perilymph
of eye
(1) Lens Q.150 Ear dust is not situated in endolymph of
(2) Cornea (1) Utriculus
(3) Retina (2) Ampulla
(4) Aqueous and vitreous humor (3) Sacculus
(4) Endolymphatic sac
Q.144 What statement is wrong about conjuctiva
(1) Ectodermal origin Q.151 Body balance during dynamic condition is
(2) Presents on the central part of cornea initiated by which structure -
(3) Vascular (1) Otoconia
(4) Covers the anterior part of sclera (2) Cupula
(3) Stereocilia of crista
Q.145 When the canal of schlemm is blocked then
(4) Kinocillium of maculae
what condition is developed
(1) Intraocular pressure is increased
Q.152 Number of coils of cochlear canal in human Q.159 A feeling of pain in one's stomach would be
is due [AIIMS-1998]
3 (1) Exteroceptors (2) Teloreceptor
(1) 2 (2) 2 1
4 2 (3) Proprioceptors (4) Interoceptors
(3) 1 1 (4) 3 Q.160 Thermoreceptors are [CPMT-1992]
2
(1) Organ of ruffini
Q.153 Eustachian tube is related with
(2) Krause end bulb
(1) External ear
(3) Ampallae of lorenzini
(2) Middle ear
(3) Internal ear
(4) Auditory canal Q.161 Bowman's gland are located in the
[AIPMT-2006, 2007]
Q.154 Fluid present in the organ of corti is
(1) Proximal end of uriniferous tubules
(1) Endolymph
(2) Perilymph
(3) Female reproductive system of cockroach
(3) Cortilymph
(4) Plasma (4) Olfactory epithelium of our nose
Q.155 Which of the following muscles are related Q.162 Given below is a diagrammatic cross section
with middle ear of a single loop of human cochlea
(1) Tensor tympani [AIPMT-2008]
(2) Stapedius
(3) Both (1) and (2)
(4) Extrinsic and intrinsic muscles
Q.156 Merkel's disc in the skin of rabbit are

[CPMT-1992]
(1) Tangoreceptor
(2) Pain receptor
(3) Thermoreceptors
Which one of the following options
(4) Vibroreceptor
correctly represents the names of three
Q.157 Pacinian corpuscles occur in the skin of different parts ?
certain parts of body. These are (1) D : Sensory hair cells, A : Endolymph B :
[AIIMS-1998]
Tectorial membrane
(1) Pain receptor
(2) A : Perilymph, B : Tectorial membrane
(2) Types of gland
C: Endolymph
(3) Nacked tactile receptor
(4) Encapsulate pressure receptor (3) B : Tectorial membrane, C : Perilymph,
D : Secretorycells
Q.158 Pacinian corpuscle present in skin detect
[RPMT-1998]
(4) C : Endolymph, D : Sensory hair cells,
(1) Pain A : Serum
(2) Temperature
(3) Pressure contact
(4) Movement
Q.1 Maximum refraction of light takes place at

(1) Cornea
(2) lens
(3) iris
(4) aqueous humour
Q.2 Which of the following neve supplies for
organ of Corti [JHARKHAND-2003]
(1) Auditory (2) Olfactory

(3) Trochlear (4) Vagus
Q.3 Vitreous humor is [BIHAR-2006]

(1) colloid
(2) watery fluid
(3) mucoid connective tissue
(4) all of the above
Q.4 Accoustic spots in frog are present in
[UP-CPMT-2002]
(1) ossious labyrinth
(2) carotid
(3) membranous labyrinth
(4) all of these
Q.5 In the internal ear the 'organ of Corti'

which bears hairs cells, is located in……..
[MP-PMT 2004]
(1) Scala tympani
(2) Scala media
(3) Scala vestibuli
(4) Sacculus
Q.6 Ear ossicle, incus is modified from of
which bone [MP-PMT 2004]
(1) Jugal
(2) Articular
(3) Quadrate
(4) Hyomandibular
Q.7 The vitreous humour, a jelly like substance Q.10 When the intensity of light is low during
which is found in posterior part of night the light is detected by
[MP-PMT-2005] [MP-PMT 2002]
(1) Eye (1) Rods
(2) Ear (2) Cones
(3) Nose (3) Lens
(4) Heart (4) Both rods and cones
Q.8 Pharynx and middle ear are interconnected Q.11 The receptors found in the muscles,
by [MP-PMT 2001] tendons and joints are :
(1) Tympanic canal [MP-PMT-2002]
(2) Eustachian canal (1) Teloreceptors

(3) Cochlear canal (2) Proprioceptors
(4) Vestibular canal (3) Interoceptors
(4) Thermoreceptors
Q.9 Only rods are present in the eyes of one of
Q.12 In mammals ear, a membraneous structure
the following animals
which separate the scala vestibule and
[MP PMT-2001]
scala media is
(1) Pigeon
[MP-PMT-2003]
(2) Squirrel (1) Basilar membrane
(3) Fowl (2) Reissner's membrane
(4) Owl (3) autolith membrane
Q.13 ''Organ of Corti'' is found in
[MP-PMT-2003]
(1) Scala rotundes
(2) Scala media
(3) Scala vestibule
(4) Scala tympani
SENSORY SYSTEM 41
EYE AND EAR EXERCISE # 3
Assertion-Reason based question : (2) If both Assertion and Reason are correct
Each of the questions given below consist of but Reason is not the correct explanation
Assertion and Reason. Use the following of Assertion.
Key to choose the appropriate answer. (3) If Assertion is correct but Reason is
(1) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, incorrect.
and Reason is the correct explanation of (4) If Assertion is false but Reason is correct.
Assertion.
Q.1 Assertion : Main function of ear is body Reason : Gap between two eye balls is less
balance os they cannot analyse the dimensions.
Reason : Organ of corti help to maintain
Q.8 Assertion : Blind spot of the retina of the
body equilibrium
eye is devoid of the ability of vision.
Q.2 Assertion : Inverted & real image is Reason : The photoreceptor rods & cone
formed on retina. cells are absent in the blind spot.
Reason : Aquous humor refract the light Q.9 Assertion : Accomodation is done by Iris
of eye.
Q.3 Assertion : The sensory cells of organ of
Reason : Lens is biconcave and flexible in
corti transmit impulse to the cerebral
nature and cilliary body muscles does not
cortex to cause sensation of sound.
help for this process.
Reason : The organ of corti is located in
the utriculus Q.10 Assertion : Accomodation power is present
in human eye.
Q.4 Assertion : A real and inverted image is Reason : It depends on the sliding of lens
obtained on the retina forward and backward.
Reason : Maximum refractive of light is
caused by aqueous humor and lens.
Q.5 Assertion : Some person unable to see in

the dark.
Reason : They lack rhodopsin due to high
vitamin 'A''
Q.6 Assertion : Rise in pressure of aqueous

chamber is useful.
Reason : It provide extra nutrition to
retina
Q.7 Assertion : Monocular vision found in

primates.
ANSWER-KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 1 3 3 3 1 2 2 4 1 2 3 1 1 3 3 2 4 2 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 2 3 3 1 3 4 4 2 3 1 4 3 3 4 1 4 2 2 2
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 2 3 4 2 3 2 4 2 1 1 3 2 3 3 3 3 1 1 4
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 2 4 2 3 4 4 2 4 2 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 4 3 4 2
Que. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 4 2 4 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 4 4 3 2 2 1
Que. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 2 3 2 1 2 2 4 3 1 4 4 2 2 1 3 2 4 3 2 3
Que. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 2 1 4 4 4 4 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 3 4 2 3 4 4 2
Que. 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
Ans. 2 3 1 2 4 1 3 3 2 2 2 1 2 3 3 1 4 3 4 4
Que. 161 162
Ans. 4 2
EXERCISE # 2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Ans. 1 1 4 3 2 3 1 2 4 1 2 2 2 1
EXERCISE # 3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 1 3 3
CAREER POINT . PRE-MEDICAL
CLASSIFICATION
&
NOMENCLATURE
Corporate Office: CP Tower, IPIA, Road No.1, Kota (Raj.), Ph: 0744-3040000 (6 lines) Classification & Nomenclature 1
PRE-MEDICAL CAREER POINT .
CLASSIFICATION & NOMENCLATURE
1. KEKULE’S PRINCIPLE
Carbon has four valencies.

Carbon has a property of catenation. It can make a large chain with addition of other carbons.
A carbon atom can share 2, 4 or 6 electrons with other carbons & can form single, double or triple bond.
For a carbon atom, it is not possible to make more than 3 bonds with adjacent carbon atom because a carbon atom
complete its octet from overlapping which consists directional property.
2. THE FOUR VALENCIES OF CARBON ATOM CAN BE REPRESENTED BY FOLLOWING WAY
Structure σ bonds π bonds Hybridisation Shape Bond Angle No. of Bond

angles
4 0 sp3 Tetrahedral 109º28' 6
C (Non planar)
3 1 sp2 Planar (Trigonal) 120º 3
C
C 2 2 sp Linear 180º 1
C 2 2 sp Linear 180º 1
3. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBON
There are four types of carbon present in organic compounds. The carbon which is directly attached with one, two,
three and four carbon atoms are known as primary, secondary, tertiary and quarternary carbon atom respectively.
On the basis of carbon atom, hydrogen atoms bonded with 1º, 2º or 3º are named as primary, secondary or
tertiary hydrogen atom respectively.
3ºC C 4ºC
C–C–C–C–C
1ºC
2ºC C C
4. CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Organic compounds
Open chain compounds Closed chain

or or ring compounds
Acyclic compounds or cyclic compounds
Saturated Unsaturated
Homocyclic Heterocyclic
or
Carbocyclic
Alicylic Aromatic
Alicylic Aromatic
Benzenoid Non-benzenoid
SPECIAL POINTS :
Saturated compounds having carbon-carbon single bonds.
e.g. CH4, CH3–CH3, CH3–CH2–CH3
Unsaturated compounds having atleast one carbon-carbon multiple bond (= or ≡)
e.g. CH2=CH2, HC≡CH, HC≡C–CH3, H2C=CH–CH3, CH2=C=CH2, CH2=CH–C≡CH, HC≡C–C≡CH
Homocyclic compounds having similar types of atoms in the complete cycle. Whereas heterocyclic compounds
having atleast one different atom (O, S, N) in the cycle.
Alicyclic = Aliphatic + homo/hetero cyclic
⇓
(Alipher = Fats)
O
O O
O
O
O NH
e.g. O
Homocyclic Heterocyclic
Aromatic compounds having sweet smell (aroma), cyclic resonance and follow Huckle's rule (4n + 2 = π electrons)
e.g. Benzenoid compounds :
Benzene Naphthalene Biphenyl Anthracene Phenanthrene

e.g. Non-Benzenoid compounds :
Azulene
e.g. Heterocyclic compounds :
O S NH N
Furan Thiophene Pyrrole Pyridine
5. HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
The organic compounds which are structural ly similar having same functional groups, combinedly gives a series
known as homologous series and the members as homologues. The homologous series is characterised by :
(i) The two adjacent members are differ by a – CH2 – group or 14 atomic mass unit.
(ii) All the members of a series have same general formula, general methods of preparation and similar chemical
properties due to same functional group.
(iii) The homologues shows difference in physical properties due to change in molecular mass and structural
arrangement of molecule.
SOME STANDARD HOMOLOGOUS SERIES ARE :

S.No. Name of Series General Formula I-homologue II-homologue
1. Alkane CnH2n+2 CH4 CH3–CH3
2. Alkene CnH2n CH2=CH2 CH2=CH–CH3

3. Alkyne CnH2n–2 HC≡CH HC≡C–CH3
4. Halo alkane CnH2n+1X CH3–X CH3–CH2–X
5. Alcohol CnH2n+2O CH3–OH CH3–CH2–OH
6. Ether CnH2n+2O CH3–O–CH3 CH3–O–CH2–CH3
7. Aldehyde CnH2nO H–CHO CH3–CHO
8. Ketone CnH2nO CH3–C–CH3 CH3–C–CH2–CH3
O O
9. Carboxylic acid CnH2nO2 H–COOH CH3–COOH
10. Ester CnH2nO2 H–C–O–CH3 H–C–O–CH2CH3

O O
or CH3–C–O–CH3
O
11. Amide CnH2n+1NO H–CONH2 CH3–CONH2
12. Nitro alkane CnH2n+1NO2 O O
CH3–N CH3–CH2–N
O O
13. Amine CnH2n+3N CH3–NH2 CH3–CH2–NH2
6. NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Mainly three system are adopted for naming of an organic compound :

(a) Common Name or Trivial Name System
(b) Derived Name System
(c) IUPAC Name or Jeneva Name System
6.1 SOME COMMON NAMES BASED ON SOURCE :
S.No. Compound Common Name Source
1. CH4 Marsh gas (Fire damp) Marshy places
2. CH3OH Wood spirit (Carbinol) Destructive distillation of wood
3. CH3CH2OH Grain alcohol Grain
4. NH2–C–NH2 Urea (Carbamide) Urine
O
5. HCOOH Formic acid Formica (Red ants)
S.No. Compound Common Name Source
6. CH3COOH Acetic acid Acetum (Vinegar)
7. HOOC–COOH Oxalic acid Oxalis plant
8. CH3–CH–COOH Lactic acid Lactum (Milk)
OH
9. CH3CH2CH2COOH Butyric acid Butter
10. HO–CH–COOH Tartaric acid Tamarind
HO–CH–COOH
11. HO–CH–COOH Malic acid Malum (Apple)
CH2–COOH
12. CH2–COOH Citric acid Citron (Lemon)
HO–C–COOH
CH2–COOH
6.2 SOME STANDARD COMMON NAMES (TO BE REMEMBER) :

S.No. Common Name Structure Formula
1. Isoheptane or Triptane
CH3
CH3–CH–C–CH3
CH3 CH3
2. Isooctane
CH3
CH3–CH–CH2–C–CH3
CH3 CH3
3. Ethylene
H2C = CH2
4. Acetylene HC ≡ CH
5. Allylene HC≡C–CH3
6. Crotonylene CH3–C≡C–CH3
7. Allene
CH2=C=CH2
8. Ketene CH2=C=O
9. Acetone or Dimethyl Ketone CH3–C–CH3
O
10. Pavaldehyde CH3
CH3–C–CHO
CH3
11. Chloral Cl3C–CHO
12. Acrolein or Acryl aldehyde CH2=CH–CHO
13. Acetophenone or Methyl phenyl Ketone
CH3–C
O
14. Benzophenone or Diphenyl Ketone

C
O
15. Pinacol CH3 CH3
CH3–––C–––C–––CH3
OH OH
16. Pinacolone CH3

CH3–C–––C–––CH3
O CH3
17. Mesityl oxide (Dimer of acetone) CH3–C=CH–C–CH3
CH3 O
18. Phorone (Trimer of acetone) CH3–C=CH–C–CH=C–CH3
CH3 O CH3
19. Oxalic acid HOOC–COOH
20 Malonic acid HOOC–CH2–COOH
21. Succinic acid HOOC–(CH2)2–COOH
22. Gluteric acid HOOC–(CH2)3–COOH
23. Adipic acid HOOC–(CH2)4–COOH
24. Pimelic acid HOOC–(CH2)5–COOH
25. Maleic acid H–C–COOH

(Cis)
H–C–COOH
26. Fumeric acid H–C–COOH
(Trans)
HOOC–C– H
27. Cyanic acid HO–C≡N

28. Isocyanic acid (Tautomer of cyanic acid) O=C=NH
29. Isourea (Tautomer of urea) H2N–C=NH
OH
30. Chloroform (Anaesthatic agent) CHCl3
31. Chloropicrin (Nitro Chloroform) Cl3C–NO2
32. Chloretone CCl3

(Chloroform + acetone) CH3–C–CH3
OH
33. Pyrene (Fire - extinguisher) CCl4
34. Westrosol Cl H
C=C
or Triclene Cl Cl
35. Westron Cl Cl
CH – CH
Cl Cl
36. Tetraclene Cl Cl
C=C
or Perclene Cl Cl
37. Isoprene CH2=C–CH=CH2

CH3
38. Chloroprene CH2=C–CH=CH2
(Monomer of Neoprene Polymer) Cl
39. AAE (Aceto acetic ester) CH3–C–CH2–C–OC2H5

or EAA (Ethyl aceto acetate) O O
40. Acrylic acid CH2=CH–COOH

41. Crotonic acid CH3–CH=CH–COOH
42. Cinnamic acid

CH=CH–COOH
43. Glycol CH2–OH

CH2–OH
44. Glycerol CH2–OH
CH–OH
CH2–OH
45. Phosgene Cl–C–Cl

or Carbonyl chloride O
46. Glyceraldehyde CH2–OH

CH–OH
CHO
47. Glyceric acid CH2–OH
CH–OH
COOH
48. Glyoxal CHO
CHO
49. Glycine H2N–CH2–COOH
50. α-Alanine H2N–CH–COOH
CH3
51. Tilden reagent Cl–N=O
52. Grignard reagent R–MgX
53. Frankland reagent R–Zn–R
54. Hinsberg reagent (used in N-compounds)
SO2Cl
55. Mustard Gas Cl–CH2–CH2–S–CH2–CH2–Cl

(Explosive used in I-world war)
56. Lewisite (Explosive used in II-world war) Cl–CH=CH–AsCl2
57. Semicarbazide H2N–NH–C–NH2
O
58. Schiff's Base or Anil R–CH=N–R
59. Methylal OCH3
CH3–CH
OCH3
60. Ethylal OCH2CH3

CH3–CH
OCH2CH3
61. Mercaptal R SR
C
H SR
62. Mercaptol R SR
C
R SR
63. Mercaptan R–SH
64. Mercaptide R–S–R
65 Mesitylene CH3
H 3C CH3
66. Toluene
CH3
67. Cummene
or Isopropyl benzene CH–CH3
CH3
68. Acetanilide
CH3–C–NH
O
69. Benzanilide
C–NH
O
70. Anisole
OCH3
71. Phenetole
OC2H5
72. Azo benzene
N=N
73. Hydrazo benzene
NH–NH
74. Phthalic acid COOH
COOH
75. Phthalic anhydride CO
O
CO
76. Phthalimide CO
NH
CO
77. Anthranilic acid COOH
NH2
78. Sulphanilic acid SO3H
(Forms zwitter ion)
NH2
79. Aspirin COOH
(Analgesic)
O–C–CH3
O
80 Salol (Antiseptic) OH
C–OCH3
O
81 Oil of wintergreen OH
C–OPh
O
82. o-Cresol OH
CH3
83. o-Toluic acid COOH
CH3
84. o-Toluidene NH2
CH3
85. p-Benzoquinone O O (Antiaromatic)
86. Gammexane Cl
or Lindane Cl Cl
(Alicyclic)
or BHC (Benzene hexachloride)
Cl Cl
Cl
87. Salicylaldehyde OH
CHO
88. Salicylic acid OH
COOH
89. Picric acid OH
O2N NO2
NO2
90. Tosyl chloride
CH3 SO2Cl
91. Styrene
CH=CH2
92. o-Xylene CH3
CH3
6.3 SYSTEMATIC COMMON NAMES OF HYDROCARBON :
CH3
CH3–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH3 CH3–CH–CH2–CH3 CH3–C–CH3

CH3 CH3
n-Pentane Isopentane Neopentane
CH3–CH2–CH2–CH3 CH3–CH–CH3
CH3
n-Butane Isobutane
CH2=CH–CH2–CH3 CH3–CH=CH–CH3 CH2=C–CH2

CH3
α-Butylene β-Butylene Isobutylene
SPECIAL POINTS :
prefix "n" is used for unbranched carbon chain.
prefix "iso" is used when one methyl group is attached on 2nd carbon from either terminal
prefix "neo" is used when two methyl groups are attached on 2nd carbon from either terminal.
Prefix "α/β" is used to locate the position of double bond.
6.4 RADICALS :
COMMON NAMES OF HYDROCARBON RADICALS
n-Propyl CH3–CH2–CH2–
Iso propyl CH3–CH–
|
CH3
n-butyl CH3–CH2–CH2–CH2–
Isobutyl CH3–CH–CH2–
|
CH3
s-butyl CH3–CH2–CH–CH3
|
CH3
|
t-Butyl CH3–C–
|
CH3
n-Pentyl CH3–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH2–
s-Pentyl CH3–CH2–CH–CH2– CH3
|
|
Active s-pentyl CH3–CH–CH2–CH2–CH3
Isopentyl CH3–CH–CH2–CH2–
|
CH3
Active isopentyl CH3–CH–CH–CH3
| |
CH3
CH3
|
Neopentyl CH3–C–CH2–
|
CH3
|
t-Pentyl CH3–C–CH2–CH3
|
CH3
Active pentyl –CH2–CH–CH2–CH3

|
CH3
Vinyl CH2=CH–
Allyl CH2=CH–CH2–
Propargyl HC≡C–CH2–
Phenyl or Ph–
Benzyl CH2–
Benzal or Benzylidene CH
Benzo or Benzylidyne C
6.5 COMMON NAMES OF HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES :
For systematic common names of these compounds we are dividing whole functional groups in following two
systems :
6.5.1 SYSTEM - I :
In this system prefix is decided by hydrocarbon radical (as discussed above) and suffix is given by following table:
S. No. Functional Group Suffix

1 –SO3H sulphonic acid
2 –OH alcohol
3 –SH thioalcohol
4 –NH2 /–NH– / N amine
5 –O– ether
6 –S– thioether
7 –X halide
8 –C– ketone
||
O
9 – C≡N cyanide
10 − N ==C isocyanide
e.g.
CH3 *
| CH3 –CH–CH–CH3 CH3–O–CH2CH3
CH3–CH–SO3H CH3–C–OH | |
| | CH3 NH2
CH3 CH3
Isopropyl sulphonic acid t-Butyl alcohol Active isopentyl amine Ethyl methyl ether
or
Active isoamyl amine
→
CH3–C–CH–CH3 CH3–N=C
CH2 –Br || |
CH3CH2–N–CH2CH3 O CH3
|
CH2CH3 Benzyl bromide Methyl isocyanide
Isopropyl methyl ketone
Triethyl amine
CN
CH2=CH–S–CH2–C≡CH CH
CN
Propargyl vinyl thioether Benzal (di) cyanide
6.5.2 SYSTEM II :
In this system prefix is decided by total number of carbon atoms in the compound
If total carbon ⇒ One Two Three Four Five
Prefix ⇒ Form Acet Propion Butyr Valer
And suffix is given by following table :
S. No. Functional Group Suffix

1 ––COOH ic acid
2 –CO ic anhydride
O
–CO
3 –C– OR Alkyl …… oate
||
O
4 –COX yl halide
5 –CONH2 amide
6 –CHO aldehyde
7 – C≡N onitrile
8 − N ==C oisonitrile
e.g.
CH3
|
H–COOH CH3 –C–Cl CH3 –CH–CHO CH3 –C–CONH2
|| | |
O CH3 CH3
Formic acid Acetyl chloride Isobutyraldehyd Neovaleramide
O
O ||
|| CH3–C
CH3 –C–O–CH3 CH3–C O
|| O
O CH3–CH2–C
CH3–C ||
|| O
Methyl acetate O
Acetic anhydride Acetic propionic anhydride
SPECIAL POINTS :
Prefix "Acryl" is used for the compounds which have total three carbon atoms and double bond is on 2nd carbon.
(only for system II groups)
e.g CH2 = CH–COOH Acrylic acid
CH2 = CH–CHO Acryl aldehyde
CH2=CH–CONH2 Acrylamide
Prefix "Croton" is used for the compounds which have total four carbon atoms and double bond is on 2nd carbon
(only for system II groups)
e.g CH3–CH = CH–COOH Crotonic acid
CH3–CH = CH – CHO Croton aldehyde
CH3–CH = CH – COCl Crotonyl chloride
Prefix "Pyruv" is used when CH –C– is directly attached with (system II) functional groups.
3
O
e.g.
CH3–C—COOH CH3–C—CHO CH3–C—COBr
CH3–C—CONH2
O O O
O
Pyruvic acid Pyruvaldehyde Pyruvamide Pyruvyl bromide
–CN and –NC groups are considered in both systems.
e.g.
System (I) System (I)
Isopropyl isocyanide Isopropyl cyanide
→ CH3–CH–C≡N
CH3–CH–N= C
| |
Isobutyroisonitrile CH3 Isobutyronitrile
CH3 System (II) System (II)
System (I) System (I)

Vinyl cyanide Vinyl isocyanide
→
CH2=CH–C≡N CH2=CH–N= C
Acrylonitrile Acryloisonitrile
System (II) System (II)
7. DERIVED NAME SYSTEM
According to this system name of any compound is given according to the representative compound of the
homologous series. This system is reserved for following homologous series :
Series Name of Homologous series Name of Representative Structure of group
compound
1 Alkane Methane
–C–
2 Alkene Ethylene >C=C<

3 Alkyne Acetylene –C≡C–
4 Alkanol Carbinol
–C– OH
5. Alkanal Acetaldehyde
–C– CHO
6. Alkanoic acid Acetic acid

–C– COOH
7. Alkanoyl halide Acetyl halide

–C– COX
8. Alkanamide Acetamide |
–C– CONH2
|
9. Alkanone Acetone
–C–C –C–
O
e.g.
H H CH3
| | |
CH3–C– CH3 CH3– CH2 – C – CH3 CH3–C– CH3
| | |
CH3 CH3 CH3
Trimethyl methane Ethyl dimethyl methane Tetramethyl methane
CH3 H H CH3O
| | | | ||
CH3–C – C–CH–CH3 CH3–CH2–C–OH CH3– C– C –H
| | | | |
CH3 H CH3 CH3 CH3
Tertiarybutyl Isopropyl methane Ethylmethyl carbinol Trimethyl acetaldehyde
H O H O
| || | ||
CH3– CH2 – C – C–H CH3–C – C–OH H CH3
| | C=C
CH3 CH3 CH3 H
Ethylmethyl acetaldehyde Dimethyl acetic acid Symmetrical dimethyl ethylene
CH3 CH3
CH3 H CH3 CH3 C=C
C=C C=C CH3 CH3 CH3–C≡C–CH3
CH3 CH3 H
H
Unsymmetrical dimethyl ethylene Trimethyl ethylene Tetramethyl ethylene Dimethyl acetylene
8. IUPAC NAME SYSTEM OR GENEVA NAME SYSTEM

(International union of pure and applied chemistry)
8.1 Parts and format of IUPAC name :
Secondary prefix + Primary Prefix + Root word + Primary suffix + Secondary suffix
It represents substituents It is used in cyclic It represents number of It represents saturation or It represents (main)
or branches compounds (cyclo) carbon atoms in selected unsaturation in principle functional group.
principle carbon chain carbon chain
e.g. ane, ene, yne
8.2 Rules for IUPAC nomenclature :

Rule – 1 : Select the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms which have maximum number of substituents,
multiple bonds and functional groups.
Priority order : Functional group > Multiple bond (= or ≡) > Substituent
Rule – 2 : Selected principle carbon chain is numbered from the side where substituent or multiple bond or
functional group is nearer (lowest possible number):
Priority order : Functional group > Double bond > Triple bond > Substituent
e.g.
CH3
3 2 1 7 6 5 4 3 | 2 3 4
CH3–CH–CH2–COOH CH3–CH2 –CH2–CH2–CH–CH3 CH3–CH–C–CH2–CH3
| ||
4 CH2 CH2–CH3 CH2
2 1 1
5 CH3 2-Isopropy but-1-ene
3-Methyl heptane
3-Methyl pentanoic acid or
2-Methyl ethyl but-1-ene
SPECIAL POINTS :
If the compound contain more than one similar alkyl groups, their positions are indicated separately and an
appropriate numerical prefix di, tri, tetra......, is attached to the name of the substituent. The positions of the
substituents are separated by commas
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3 1
e.g. 1 CH3– C– CH2– CH–5CH3
2 3 4
CH3–2CH–3CH–4CH2–5CH3
CH3
2,3 – Dimethyl pentane 2,2,4- Trimethyl pentane
If there is different alkyl subsitituents present in the compound, their names are written in the alphabetical order.
However, the numerical prefixes such as di, tri etc, are not considered for the alphabetical order. For example ,
C2H5
1
CH3–2CH–3C–4CH2–5CH3
CH3 CH3
3 –Ethyl-2,3-dimethyl pentane
If two different alkyl groups are located at the equivalent positions, then numbering in the carbon chain is done in
such a way that the alkyl group which comes first in alphabetic order gets the lower position.
C2H5 CH3
1
CH3–2CH2–3CH–4CH–5CH2–6CH3
3 –Ethyl-4-methylhexane
If a compound has two or more chain of the same length, then principle chain is selected in such a way that greater
number of substituent works as prefix.
5
CH3–4CH2–3CH–CH2–CH3
2
CH–CH3
1
CH3
3 –Ethyl -2- methyl pentane
In case some functional group (other than C=C and C ≡ C) is present in molecule, it is indicated by adding
secondary suffix after the primary suffix. The terminal ‘e’ of the primary suffix is generally removed before
adding the secondary suffix. The terminal ‘e’ of the primary suffix is removed if it is followed by a suffix begining with
‘a’, ‘i’, ‘o’, ‘u’ or ‘y’ .
e.g. 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
CH3–CH–CH–CH3 CH2=CH–CH2–COOH
CH3 OH But-3-enoic acid
3-Methyl butan-2-ol
Some of functional group always works as prefix
Functional group Prefix name
–X Halo
– OR Alkoxy
–C–C– Epoxy
O
– NO2 Nitro
– NO Nitroso
3 2 1 1 2 3 4
CH3CH2CH2–O–CH3 CH2–CH–CH2–CH3
1-Methoxy propane O
1, 2-Epoxy butane
If the molecule contains more than one dissimilar functional groups, the numbering of the parent chain is done in
such a way that the functional group of higher priority gets the lower number. The order of priority of various
groups for the sake of numbering is given in following table :
S.No. Functional group Prefix Suffix

1 –C–OH carboxy oic acid
||
O
2 – SO3H sulpho sulphonic acid
3 –C–O–C– × oic anhydride

|| ||
O O
4 –C–O–R alkoxy carbonyl alkyl ....... oate
||
O or carbaloxy
5 –C–X halo formyl oyl halide

||
O or
halo carbonyl
6 –C–NH2 carbamoyl amide

||
O or amido
7 C≡N cyano nitrile
8 – N=rC carbyl amino isonitrile
or isocyano
9 –C–H formyl al
||
O or oxo
10 –C– keto one
||
O or oxo
11 – OH hydroxy ol
12 – SH mercapto thiol
13 – NH2 amino amine
14 –O– alkoxy ×
15 C=C × ene
16 C≡C × yne
17 –X halo ×
18 – NO2 nitro ×
e.g.
CH3 Suffix
|
4
CH3–3C—2C—1CH3
| ||
OH O 3
CH3 –2C–1CH=O 3
CH2 –2CH2–1COOH
Prefix || |
O CN
3-Hydroxy-3-methylbutan -2- one 2-keto propanal 3-cyano propanoic acid
8.3 Sometimes a special suffix is used for given functional groups :
S.No. Functional group Suffix
1 –COOH Carboxylic acid
2 –COOR Alkyl …. carboxylate
3 –COX Carbonyl chloride
4 –CONH2 Corboxamide
5. –CN Carbonitrile
6. –NC Carbo isonitile
7. –CHO Carbaldehyde
It is used in acylic compounds when 3 or more functional groups are presents.
e.g.
CH2 — CH — CH2 CH2 — CH — CH2— CH — CH3
| | | | | |
COOH COOH COOH CHO CHO CHO
Propane –1,2,3,-tricarboxylic acid Pentane –1,2,4,-tricarbaldehyde
CN CH2–CH–CH2
CH3–C–CH2–CH2 CN CH2 CN
CN CN CN
Butane-1,3,3-tricarbonitrile 3-Cyanomethyl pentane-1,5-dinitrile
It is used in cyclic compound when functional group is directly attached to the cycle.
e.g. C–O–CH2–CH3
COOH
O
Cyclopropane carboxylic acid Ethyl cyclobutane carboxylate
CHO
Cl C Cl
CHO
O
CHO
4-Chloro cyclohexane carbonyl chloride Cyclohexane-1,2,4-tricarbaldehyde
NH2
OH
CONH2
COOH
2-Hydroxy benzene carboxylic acid 3-Amino benzene carboxamide

or or
2-Hydroxy benzoic acid 3-Amino benzamide
8.4 IUPAC NOMENCLATURE ALICYCLIC COMPOUNDS :
Names of alicyclic compounds are given by putting another prefix ‘cyclo’ before the root word which depends
upon the number of carbon atoms in the ring. The suffixes ane, ene or yne are written depending upon saturation or
unsaturation in the ring.
If some substituent or functional group is present, it is indicated by some appropriate prefix or suffix and its
position is indicated by numbering the carbon atoms of the ring. The numbering is done in such a way so as to
assign least possible number to the functional group or substituent in accordance with the rules already discussed.
e.g.
OH NO2
1 3
2 2
3 1
CH3 CH3
Cyclohexane Cyclopentene 3-Methylcyclo-hexanol 1-Methyl-3-Nitrocyclohexene
CH3 O 4 3 2 1
3 2 CH CH3 1 2
3 CH3–CH–CH=CH2
3
1 C2H5 OH
2,3-Dimethylcyclopentene 1-Ethy-2-Methylcyclobutene 3-Hydroxycyclohexanone 3-Cyclopentyl-1-butene
8.5. IUPAC NOMENCLATURE OF COMPOUNDS WITH BOND LINE FORMULA
In this representation of organic molecules, carbon and hydrogen atoms are not shown and the lines representing
carbon – carbon bonds are drawn in zig-zag manner. A single line (–) represents a single bond, two parallel lines
(=) represents a double bond and three parallel lines (≡) represent a triple bond. The only atoms specitically written
are those that are neither carbon nor hydrogen bound to carbon. The intersection of lines represent carbon atoms
carrying appropriate number of hydrogen atoms.
e.g.
2
1 6 1 OH
2 4 3
2 O
4
3 5
1 2 5 5
4 6
Methylpenta-1,3-diene 6-Ethyl-1-methylcyclohexa-1,3-diene 2,6-Dimethylhept-2,5-dien-oic acid
Br
2 4 23 2 4
OH 3
1 1 5
4
1 3 5 5 O
Hexa-1,3,5-triene Pent-1-en-3-ol 2-Bromopentan-3-one
8.6 IUPAC NOMENCLATUERE OF BRIDGED BICYCLIC HYDROCARBONS
Saturated bicyclic systems having two or more atoms in common are named by prefixing ‘bicyclo’ to the name of
the cyclic parent hydrocarbon system containing the same total number of carbon atoms in the skeleton. The
number of carbon atoms in each of the three bridges, connecting the two tertiary carbon atoms is indicated in
parentheses, in descending order and arabic numerals are used to indicate the number of carbon atoms and the
numbers are separated by full stops.
The bicyclic system is numbered starting with one of the tertiary bridging cabon and proceeding through longest
bridge to the second bridging carbon continuing back to the first bridging carbon through the second longest chain.
Numbering is completed by numbering the shortest bridge beginning with the atom next to the first bridging
carbon.
e.g.
1
1
6 2 2
7 8
5 3 6 9 3
4 5 4
Bicyclo [2,2,1] heptane Bicyclo [3,2,2] Nonane

8.7. IUPAC NOMENCLATURE OF SPIRO BICYCLIC HYDROCARBONS
Spiro bicyclic hydrocarbons contain two rings consisting of carbon atoms only and the two rings are linked by a
common carbon. These compounds are named by placing prefix ‘spiro’ before the name of the acyclic parent
hydrocarbon with same number of skeletal carbon atoms. The numbers of skeletal atoms linked to the spiro atom
are indicated by arabic numbers, separately by a fullstop. The numbers are written in ascending order and enclosed
in square brackets.
Numbering of a spiro bicyclic hydrocarbon starts with a ring carbon next to the spiro atom and proceeds first
through the smaller ring and then through the spiro atom and around the second ring. For example :
e.g.
9 10 1 2 CH3
1 7 6 5
8
3 3
7 6 4
2 4 5
Spiro [2,4] 2-Methylspiro [4, 5] deca-1, 6-diene
Skeletal System
Topic
Skeletal system Theory

Exercises
Syllabus
Skeletal System
skeletal system
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
ETOOSINDIA.COM
HelpDesk : 92-14-233303
SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 spine (1–5 )
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
Intervertebral Synovial
Synovial
disc (or joint)
membrane
cavity

SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

SKELETAL SYSTEM
TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 104
Dermal exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
endoskeleton.

Axial skeleton - 80
----------------
206
----------------
Ilium
Pectoral girdle
Acetabulum
Clavicle Innominate
Obturator
Humerus

Ischium
Head
Trochlea Shaft
Femur
Condyle
Ulna
Patella
Radius (knee cap)
Tibia
(Shin bone)
Carpals (8)

1
5 Metatarsals (5)
5 4
2 34 32 1 Phalanges (14)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 105

Girdle bones
(A) Pectoral girdle

Coracoia process
Superior

shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle

Ilium - Upper side
Pubis - Inner side

SKELETAL SYSTEM 106
Limb Bones
Bones of fore limb

ulna (inner)
Wrist - Carpals - 8
-----------------
30
-----------------
The Humerus

medialy with ulna
extended.
The Radius & Ulna
the elbow joint.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 107

elbow joint hinge.
Carpal Bones
Hammate.
lateral to medial.
Bones of hind limb

Thigh - Femur - 1
Fibula (outer)
Ankle - Tarsals - 7
-----------------
30
-----------------
Femur
joint.
lateral.
muscles.
Tibia
large condyles.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 108
Fibula
tibia.
Tarsus
rows
of heal.
Meta tarsus
Phalanges
AXIAL SKELETON
– Skull – Ribs
SKULL
SKELETAL SYSTEM 109

Internal nares
(A) Cranium
spinal cord.
Frontal - 1
Parietals - 2
Temporal - 2
Occipital - 1
Sphenoid - 1
Ethmoid - 1
---------------
8 bones
---------------
SKELETAL SYSTEM 110
comes out.
(B) Face
Maxillae - 2
Palatine - 2
Nasals - 2
Lacrymals - 2
Vomer - 1
Maldible - 1
------------------
14 bones
------------------
Note :
(C) Hyoid bone

(D) Sensory capsule

RIBS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 111


Costal Cartilages
wall.
STERNUM
Body - Middle part
(Xiphisternum)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 112
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Atlas
Axis 1
Cervical 2 Neural
curve 3
Centrum
4 (1–7)
5
6
(Neck region)
7
1
2
3
Facets 4
for ribs 5
Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic 6 (1–12)
8
Centrum 9
10
11 Neural
12 spine
Centrum 1
2
Lumbar 3 (1–5 )
spine
5
Scaral vertebrae
(Pelvis)
(5 fused)
Sacral
curve Coccygeal
(4 fused)
General facts
cavity)
SKELETAL SYSTEM 113

Note :

Groups of vertebrae

SKELETAL SYSTEM 114
cord).
joints.


upper surface
Sacral foramen
Lateral part
Transverse
ridges
Coccyx
Fig.: Sacrum of man
SKELETAL SYSTEM 115

JOINTS

Types of joints
Articular
cartilage Joint
Suture capsule
cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 116
joint.
joint.
bone of skull.
SKELETAL SYSTEM 117

SKELETAL DISORDER

position.


(i) Long bones
(ii) Short bones
(iii) Flat bones
(v) Sesamoid bones
SPECIAL POINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM 118
respectively.
DISORDERS OF BONES
1. Arthritis
SKELETAL SYSTEM 119
causes pain.
immovable.
(B) Osteoarthritis
2. Osteoporosis

mesosternum (bone).
ischium.
of hand is 02233.
Note :
SKELETAL SYSTEM 120
EXERCISE#1
(1) 206 (2) 406 (3) 106 (4) 306 (1) 33 (2) 32 (3) 35 (4) 45
(1) Synovial joints
(1) 120 (2) 142 (3) 80 (4) 206 (3) Symphyses
process of the axis
(1) 14 (2) 29 (2) Spinal cavity
SKELETAL SYSTEM 121

(3) Protection
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 7 (4) 8
(1) C4T8L4S8C8 (2) C7T8L5S6C7
human being is-
human beings is-
(1) Fibrous joints
SKELETAL SYSTEM 122
(4) Synovial fluid (1) 14 (2) 18 (3) 28 (4) 16
of - (1) 5 (2) 7
(1) Frogs (2) Reptiles (3) 4 (4) 12
(1) 40-44 (2) 42-48
(3) 44-47 (4) 47-50
is formed by-
(2) Pubis and ilium (1) 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 (2) 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
(4) Coelomic fluid
(1) Atlas (2) Axis
bones because-
SKELETAL SYSTEM 123

[MPPMT 1990]
[CPMT 1987]
[CPMT 1983]
[CPMT 1987]
[BHU 1985]
(2) Outer skeleton
(1) 8 (2) 10
(3) Axial skeleton
(3) 12 (4) 16
[CPMT 1974, 1976] [CBSE 1994]
[CPMT 1972]
MPPMT 1994, 1995]
(2) Tibio-fibula
(4) Tarsus
gland [CBSE 1997]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 124
[BHU 1997] [Wardha 2001]
(1) llium
[CBSE 2000]
(2) Arytenoid
(3) Pterygoid
(4) Skull of frog
[MPMT 2000]
[CBSE 2007]
skeleton
for - [B.V 2001] [RPMT 2011]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 125

(1) Femur and ulna
[UP CPMT 2006] [MP PMT 2002]
SKELETAL SYSTEM 126
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM 127

Locomation & Movements
Topic Page No.
Muscles Theory 01 - 12
MUSCULATURE OF LIMBS Exercises - I 13 - 16

SKELETAL SYSTEM Exercises - II
17 - 17
Answer Key
18 - 18
Syllabus
Locomation & Movements
Muscles
Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________
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MUSCLES
INTRODUCTION
Study of muscles known as Myology.
Myology also known as Sarcology.
Development of muscles : -
Except muscles of Iris & cilliary body all muscles of body develop from mesoderm.
– Muscle of Iris, cilliary body & myoepithelial cell of sweat gland develop form Ectoderm. Conductivity &
contractility are the two main characteristics of muscles.
Three types of muscles are found in the body.
(i) Voluntary or skeletal muscles.
(ii) Involuntary or smooth muscles.
(iii) Cardiac muscles.
Muscle fibre
Plasma membrane Cytoplasm

(Sarcolemma) (Sarcoplasm)
Sarcoplasmic Sarcoplasmic inclusion

organelles (Myoglobin, Lipid, glycogen
CPK, ATPase, Myokinase)
Mitochondria Nucleus Myofibrils or E.R.

(Sarcosome) (Syncytial) Microsome 2 Types
more in number (Actin, Myosin) (Sarcoplasmic Reticulum)
T-tubules L-tubules
(lying Transverse to Myofibril) (lying parallel or
longitudinal to myofibrils)
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CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SKELETAL MUSCLES
75% water 25% solid
20% Muscle proteins 5% other substance
Sarcoplasmic protein Contractile protein Nitrogenous Nonnitrogenous

Globin, Globulin, Extractive extractive
Myoglobin Creatine & creatine glycogen
phosphate Inorganicion
Eg. K+, Na+ , HCO3–
Froce generating Regulating Structure
Protein Protein Protein
G-Actin
Actin Tropomyosin Z line Protein

(Actinin)
F-Actin Troponin (Tp)
HMM
Sub unit
Myosin
T PC
LMM
T PI
T PT
S1 unit S2 unit
FORCE GENERATING PROTEIN
Actin –
The Actin or thin filament is a double helix made up of protein molecule called as. G-Actin.
(Globular actin) Many G-actin combined to form a filament like structure, which is called as
filamentous-actin. G-actin contain a active site where myosin head is attached.
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Myosin –
Each myosin molecule consist of a tail & a head. Tail is made up of two chains interwined with each other
like double helix.
The myosin head has sites for attachments with (i) The actin filament (ii) ATP molecules.
Each myosin (thick) filament is also a polymerised protein. Many monomeric proteins called Meromyosins
constitute one thick filament. Each meromyosin has two important parts, a globular head with a short arm
and a tail, the former being called the heavy meromyosin (HMM) and the latter, the light meromyosin
(LMM)> The HMM component, i.e.: the head and short arm projects outwards at regular filament and is
known as cross arm. The globular head is an active ATPase enzyme and has binding sites for ATP active
sites for actin.
REGULATING PROTEIN
Tropomyosin –
It is one type of contractile protein. In the relaxed state of the muscle situated in such a way, that the active
sites remain covered by the Tropomyosin & attached at the terminal end of actin.
Troponin –
It is one type of protein which attached with one of ends of the tropomyosin molecules.
Troponin is made up of three subunit.
(a) Troponin I (b) Troponin T (c) Troponin C
(Inhibitory site) (Tropomyosin site) (Ca+2 binding site)
STRUCTURAL PROTEIN
Actinin –
It is one type of protein which found in Z-line.
PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLES CONTRACTION...
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PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Neuromuscular Junction
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SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY
This theory is given by A.F. HUXLEY, H.E. HUXLEY & HANSEN

The junction of Nerve & muscle is called as neuromuscular junction.
Terminal branches of Axon of motor nerve is embedded into sarcolemma.
Its bulb like structure is called as motor end plate.
Sarcolemma invaginate inside & form a fimbriated structure which is called synaptic gutter or subneural
cleft. The cell membrane of the bulbous terminals is called as the pre junctional membrane where as the
cell membrane of muscle fibre which invaginates called post junctional membrane.
In motor end plate large number of vesicles & mitochondria are present. Each vesicle contains Ach in high
concentration. In post junctional membrane, Ach receptor are presented.
(Ach = Acetylcholine, it is a neurotransmitter chemical)
Neuromuscular Transmission –
– When motor nerve fibre stimulated it develops an Action potential (Resting potential 50 to 100 mV)
– AP reaches in the neuromuscular junction & goes to bulbous expansion of the nerve terminal.
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– Than it increases permeability of Ca++ in the Pre junctional membrane & Ca++ enter from E.C.F. in to the
cytosol of motor end plate by penetrating the prejunctional membrane.
– Ca++ ions causes bursting of the vesicles & releases the Ach.
– These Ach now cross the prejunctional membrane. via subneural cleft reach the post junctional
membrane attach the Ach receptor also called as End plate receptor.
– End plate receptor stimulate & develop end plate potential by opening of Na+– K+ channels in post
synaptic membrane.
– When end plate potential sufficiently higher than A.P. develop on sarcolemma & myofibril.
– Sarcolemma invaginates inside & form transvers & longuituidnal tubules which are also called as
T-tubul and L-tubule
– T-tubules are parallale = to Z-line whereas L-tubule is perpendicular to the Z-line.

– T-Tubules communicates with ECF.
– T & L system of tubules together called as endoplasmic reticulum.
– L-Tubules dilated on both side of T-Tubules this dilated part called cisterns.
– A.P. proceeds along the sarcolemma & A.P. contact with T-Tubules & further proceeds via T-tubules &
enter with in muscle fibre & now this AP called as T-tubule potential.
– T-tubule potential come in close contact of L-tubules at region of the Triads (T + L-tubules).
– L-tubules in very rich source & store house of Ca ++ ion in higher concentration release of Ca++ ion in
large amount.
– Released Ca++ ion combine with troponin C.
– In Relaxed state tropomyosin covers the active site of actin.
– But troponin-C combines with Ca++ ion some physiochemical changes occur in tropomyosin &
Tropomyosin move away from active site of actin.
– Myosin have strong tendency to bind the actin molecule & Actomyosin complex
– Myosin head attach on active site of actin with the help of cross bridges.
– Now the myosin head twists in the groove of the active site of actin-F. This causes movement of actin
toward H-zone.
– Contraction is caused by overlapping of actin filament over myosin – sliding filament hypothesis.
– All the cross bridges move simultaneously in one direction so the actin filaments move vigorously
towards H-zone.
– When cross bridge disrupted than myosin molecule detached & reattach the new active site of actin.
– After muscle contraction H-Zone disappears & length of sarcomere & I-band decreases by 20%.
The length of A-band remains unchanged.
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All process are reversible, at the time of relaxation Ca++ are goes into L-tubules.
Role of ATP –
(i) The Rotational movement of myosin head with in the groove.
(ii) Deattachment of myosin head form the actin.
Depolarisation

     Sarcoplamic reticulum

2+
     Ca (Cistern)

     Myosin ATPase

     Cross-bridges

     Actin-Myosin Complex

     Muscle Contraction
Chemical reaction in Muscles :
1. ATP + H2O Creatine

  kinase
 ADP + P1 + Energy (For contractile muscle)

2. Creatine phosphate + ADP  Creatine + ATP (Muscle contraction )
3. Gycogen Glyocysis
   Lactic acid + Energy
4. 80% Lactic acid + Water ATP

 Glycogen (Liver cell)
5. 20% Lactic acid + Oxygen  CO2 + H2O + ATP (Liver cell)
6. Creatine + ATP  

 Creatine phosphate + ADP (Resting Muscle)
PROPERTIES OF MUSCLES
Terminology
1. Origin – Fixed end of muscle (Proximal end)
Insertion – Distal end of muscle which is attach to bone (Movable end)
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2. Excitability – Muscles responds to stimuli which can be nervous, chemical, electrical & thermal
mechanical.
Conductivity – Stimulus acting in one region of muscle fibres propagated to all parts within no time.
Contractility – On being stimulated the muscle fibres contract & shorten followed by Relaxation.
3. Threshold stimulus – Intensity of stimulus below the threshold value does not produces contraction in
muscle fibres is called.
Sub threshold Stimulus shambles stronger than threshold one is called suprathreshold stimulus.
4. All or none law – Response of muscle fibre is maximum whether the stimulus has threshold value or
suprathreshold value. Response is absent when intensity is subthreshold. (Below threshold value)
5. Muscle twitch – It is single isolated contraction of Muscle fibres due to single stimulus. Muscle curve or
kymograph indicates three phases.
(a) Period of latent excitation (Latent period) Interval between the application of appropriate stimulus &
initiation of contraction
It is 0.01 sec. in skeletal muscle. 3sec. in smooth muscle.
(b) Contraction phase – Duration for which muscle remain contracted state. It is 0.04 sec. in skeletal
muscle. 20 sec. in smooth muscle.
(c) Relaxation phase – Interval for contracted muscle to regain its original/Relaxed state 0.05 sec. in
skeletal muscle 23 sec. in smooth muscle.
6. Refractory Period – It is period between two twitched during this muscle does not respond to second
stimulus after single twitch.
It is 0.002 – 0.005 second in skeletal muscles and 0.1 – 0.2 second in visceral muscles.
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7. Summation of stimuli – Two subliminal stimuli Applied simultaneously get added up & Evoke the
response
Muscle response = (1 st stimulus +2nd stimulus threshold value)
Subliminal subliminal
Howerver a muscles consist of large no. of muscle fibres with different threshold value so in intensity of
stimulus increases contraction of muscle although individual fibres obey all/none law.
Summation of IInd stimulus during contration phase
8. Muscle tone – In relaxed muscles, a few fibres always undergoing contraction alternately so maintain the
health of muscles. It is known as Muscles tone
9. Tetanic condition – It is sustained muscles contraction due to rapid series of impulse, during this
relaxation of muscles does not take place.
Tetany Tetanus
It is due to hypocalcaemia It is bacterial disease
It is hormonal deficiency disease (Clostridium tetani) Lock jaw disease during this
abnormal muscles contraction of jaw muscle take place.
10. Paralysis – Supply of motor nerve impulse completely cut off. So function of muscle contraction is stoped.
11. Shivering – Involuntary contraction of muscles to make body warm.
12. Muscle tension – force produced during contraction of muscle is known as muscle tension.
Isometric contraction Isotonic contraction

Length same but tone changed Length changed but tone same
Eg. Pushing against an immovable object.
Isometric –
Contraction occur when a muscle is stimulated adequately but is prevented to shorten.
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eg. applying too heavy load against the muscle so that the muscle but cannot lift the at all ext. work done is
zero Isotonic –
When muscles is stimulated adequately & is allowed to shorten, then the contraction is called Isotonic some
external work is done. Technically called a load is lifted
13. Antagonistic muscles–

They are pair of muscles which causes opposite movement at the same site when one muscle is contracting,
the other is relaxes & viceversa.
e.g. – Biceps (flexor) & Triceps of arms (extensor)
14. Motor unit – Groups of mucles fibres supplied by single motor neuron. It is a functional unit of muscles
because all the muscle fibres of motor unit contract & relax simultaneously.
15. Cori cyles – Lactic acid accumulated in muscles during sustained contraction. formed lactic acid
transported in blood as blood lactate to liver where is changes into liver glycogen which is changed in to
glucose.
Glycogen Muscle
  Lactic acid Liver
 Glycogen
16. Speed of – Skeletal muscle = 0.1 sec. per contraction per cycle
Cardiac muscle = 0.8 sec. per contraction per cycle
Smooth muscle = 46 sec. per contraction per cycle
17.
Red muscle fibres White muscle fibres
– Slow & Tonic muscles fibres Fast & twitch muscle fibres
– Dark red b/o myoglobin + Pale
– Mitochondria ++ Mitochondria+
– Slow sustained work from long Perform fast, strenuous work for short duration
period & get
without getting fatigue fatigued quickly accumulation of lactic acids.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum – less More
Eg : Extensor muscles of back, Eg : eyeball muscles
flight muscles
18. Fatigue : Marathian athelets develops red fibers in thigh muscles due repeated contraction
Due to sustained contraction initially muscle give beneficial effects of contraction (warm ups) but after it
ATP is exhausted & muscle is as state of permanent contraction & no relaxation because no fresh ATP
Available for detachment of actomysosin complex.
– B/o 1. Accumulation of lactic acids

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2. Consumption of stores glycogen. ATP, CTP (Creatinine phosphate)
Infatigue–
(i) Increase latent period and phase of relaxation
(ii) decrease height of contraction
19. Rigor Mortis

After death fresh supply of ATP. become impossible so one the local store of ATP molecule are exhausted.
Due to non availability of ATP/C.P. deattachment of myosin from actin cannot take place resulting in
permanent state of contraction of muscle. This phenomenon is called rigor mortis. This condition helps
fixation of the hour of death.
20. E.D.T.A (Ethylane diamine tetra acetic acid) injected inside muscle combined with Ca+ and stops
contraction
21. Muscle and nerve exitability is reduced by K+.
22. During muscle contraction chemical energy changed into mechanical energy.
23. Over stretching of tendon is called sprain.
MUSCLE TYPES ON BASIS OF MOVEMENTS
1. Flexor = Fore arm move in upward direction. (Bend)

Bending of part over one another Eg. biceps brachii
Extensor – Fore arm move in downward direction. Straighting of bending part
Eg. Triceps
2. Adductor - Toward body axis. Towards the body
Lattissimus dorsi brings the arms towards body
Abductor-upper & lower limb move away from body axis. Away from the body (midline) deltoids.
3. Pronator – Palm state in down. Rotate downward eg pronater teres

Supinator – Palm state in upward Rotate upward eg brachioradialis
4. Dilation – Diameter increases, widening of Iris (radial muscle of iris)

Constrictor – Diameter decreases, Closing an aperture–sphincter ani closes anus
5. Depressor – Lower Jaw move in downward direction. Lowering part depressor mandibularis
Elevator–Lower Jaw move in downward direction.Raising the part eg. Massetar.
6. Median Rotation – Upper & lower limb rotate in inward direction.

Lateral Rotation – Outward direction rotation
7. Inversion when sole of foot turn toward body axis.
Eversion - Away from body axis
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Aryeiglotticus muscle is called Hilton muscle.
Gastrocenemius muscle present in shank.
Sartorius the longest muscle of body
Gluteus maximus (Buttock muscles) – Largest muscle of body
Stapedius – smallest muscle of body.
In Human beings 639 muscle are found 634 muscle are paired and 5 muscle are unpaired. 400 muscles are
striated & most of muscles are found in back region & number of back muscles are 180. Jaw muscles are
strongest. Longest smooth muscles is present in present in uterus of pregnant lady.
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MUSCULATURE OF LIMBS EXERCISE # I
Q.1 Functionally cardiac muscles are similar to (4) Dendron
(1) Involuntary muscles
(2) Unstriped muscles Q.8 Mitochondria in cardiac muscles
(3) Striped & Unstriped muscles (1) More than other muscles fibres
(4) None (2) Less than other muscles fibres
(3) Equal than other muscles fibres
Q.2 Covering of striped muscle
(4) None
(1) Epimysium
(2) Perimysium
Q.9 SA Node is
(3) Endomysium (1) Group of specilised muscle fibres
(4) Plasma lemma (2) Cartilage in node of heart
Q.3 Myofibrils contain (3) Connective tissue node
(1) Actin (4) None
(2) Myosin
Q.10 Rigor mortis is–
(3) ATP
(1) Contraction of muscles after death
(4) All of above
(2) Contraction of muscles befor death
Q.4 Cross bridge are formed during (3) Shivering of muscles
(1) Muscle contraction (4) None
(2) Nervous contraction
(3) Tissue regeneration Q.11 Red muscle fibre are more in –
(1) Smooth muscles
(4) All the above
(2) Skeletal muscles
Q.5 Time B/W two successive contraction (3) Cardiac muscles
(1) Refractory period (4) None
(2) Total period
Q.12 Unstriped muscle are also known as
(3) Break period
(1) Visceral
(4) Lag period
(2) Smooth
Q.6 During contraction of muscles (3) Involuntary
(1) Actin Filament slide over actin (4) All
(2) Myosin filament slide over actin
Q.13 Myofibres also known as
(3) Actin filament slide over myosin
(1) Sacro axis
(4) Myosin filament slide over actin
(2) Sacro mysium
Q.7 Purkinje fibres (3) Sacrostylets
(4) None
(1) Muscle fibres
(2) Nerve fibre Q.14 Contractile unit of muscle fibre
(3) Axon (1) H line
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(2) Sarcomere Q.22 Flight muscles of bird
(3) H zone (1) Biceps & Triceps
(4) None (2) Gastro memius
(3) Pectoralis major & Minor
Q.15 One of following has contractile properties (4) Papillary & ciliary
(1) Actin (2) Myosin
Q.23 Contraction of shortest duration is of
(3) Troponin (4) None 7
(1) Heart (2) Eye lids
Q.16 Epimysium of mucles are made up of (3) Arm (4) Jaws
(1) White fibrous connective tissue
Q.24 ATP ase activity found in
(2) Adipose connective tissue
(1) Myosin filament
(3) Reticular connective tissue
(2) Actin filament
(4) Aerolor connective tissue (3) Both
Q.17 Myosin filament appear dark under (4) None
microscope due to
Q.25 Total no. of muscles in our body is
(1) Dark colour
(1) 256 muscles (2) 639 muscles
(2) Melanin colour
(3) 400 muscles (4) 421 muscles
(3) Black colour
(4) Double refractive index
Q.26 Longest smooth muscles are
Q.18 Isotonic contraction takes places during (1) Intestine
(1) Running (2) Stomach
(2) Simple Walking (3) Uterus (Pregnant)
(3) Exercise (4) Urinary bladder
(4) All
Q.27 Strongest muscles
Q.19 Largest muscle is (1) Thigh muscle (2) Leg muscle
(1) Gluteus maximus (3) Arm muscle (4) Jaw muscle
(2) Gluteus medius
(3) Triceps Q.28 Muscles of Iris & Ciliary body originate
(4) Biceps (1) Ectoderm (2) Mesoderm
(3) Endoderm (4) All of above
Q.20 Coricyle relation ship between the
(1) Muscle glycogen & liver glycogen Q.29 Multi unit musles Fibres found in
(2) Muscles pyruvate & liver Lactic-Acid (1) Ciliary & Iris of eyes
(3) Muscles glycogen & blood glucose (2) Arrector pilli of Dermis
(4) All of above (3) Wall of large blood vessels
(4) All of above
Q.21 Papilary muscle found in
(1) Heart (2) Live Q.30 Cardiac muscles Fibres
(3) Kidney (4) Lung (1) Involuntary (2) Non-fatigue
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(3) Striated like (4) All
Q.38 Tetanus is substained contraction of muscle
Q.31 Belly is
is due to
(1) Upper part of muscle
(1) Parathyroid deficiency
(2) Middle part of muscle
(2) Ca++ deficiency
(3) Lower part of muscle
(4) None (3) Bacterial Disease
(4) Auto Immune disease
Q.32 Striated muscle fibres
(1) Trachea Q.39 Sliding theory muscle contraction proposed
(2) Lung by
(3) Leg (1) hansen
(4) Gall bladder (2) Huxley
(3) Bohr
Q.33 Smooth muscles fibres
(4) Huxley, Huxlay & Hensen
(1) Spindle shaped
(2) Unbranched & Involuntary Q.40 Phosphogen in vertebrates
(3) Uninucleated (1) Phospho creatine
(4) All of above
(2) Phospho arginine
(3) ATP
Q.34 Basic unit of muscle contraction
(4) Phosphoric acid
(1) Actin
(2) Myosin Q.41 Smallest muscles in rabbit & man
(3) Sarcomere (1) Gluteus minimus
(4) Actomyosin (2) Stapedius
Q.35 Each myfibrils has diameter of (3) Sartorius

(4) Gracilis
(1) 0.1 to 0.2 m
(2) 1–2 m Q.42 Antagonistic muscles of biceps
(3) 0.001 – 0.002 m (1) Quardrieps femoris
(4) None (2) Quadratus femoris
(3) Triceps
Q.36 Chemical Ions responsible for muscles
(4) Brachialis
contraction
(1) Ca ++ & K+ (2) Na+ & K+ Q.43 Red muscle fibres present over
(3) Na+ & Ca++ (4) Ca++ & mg++ Ions (1) Extensors of backs
(2) Flight muscle of birds
Q.37 Muscle length doesn't changes
(3) Atheletes of marathon race
(1) Isotonic contraction
(4) All of above
(2) Isometric contraction
(3) Tetanic contraction Q.44 White muscle fibres present
(4) None (1) Eyeball muscles
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(2) Pectoralis major
(3) Deltoids
(4) All of above
Q.45 Which of following moveable part of

muscles
(1) Belly (2) Origin
(3) Insertion (4) None
Q.46 When subminimal stimulus given then

(1) Muscle contract vigorously Q.48 The type of muscles present in our :
(2) Muscle contract slowly [AIPMT MAINS - 2011]
(3) Muscle never contract (1) upper arm are smooth muscle fibres
(4) Muscle become Fatigue fusiform in shape
(2) heart are involuntary and unstriated
smooth muscles
Q.47 When supra liminal stimulus given than (3) intestine are striated and involuntary
(1) Muscle contraction more then normal (4) thigh are straiated and voluntary
(2) Muscle contraction less than normal
(3) Muscle contraction below average
(4) Muscle contraction same as threshold
stimulus
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SKELETAL SYSTEM EXERCISE # 2
These questions consist of two statements each, printed as “ASSERTION” and “REASON”.
While answering these Questions you are required to choose any one of the following responses.
Assertion.
Q.1 Assertion : On the basis of structure cardiac

muscles are striated type.
Reason : Its contraction is depend on the
will power.
Q.2 Assertion : Voluntary muscles is controlled

by will power.
Reason : It is syncytial and myofibril Q.4 Assertion : Dark-band is also called as A-
arranged in special pattem. band in striped muscles.
Reason : Dark band is made up of both actin
Q.3 Assertion : When the muscle fibre contracts, and myosin filament.
sacromere length is reduced.
Reason : Sliding of myosin filament due to Q.5 Assertion : When the threshold stimulus is
rotational movement of myosin head. applied on skeletal muscle continuously
initially muscle give beneficial effects of
contraction.
Reason : Initially latent period is short and
height of contraction of muscle is increased.
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ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 4 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 4 3 2 1 1 4 2 1 1
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 3 2 1 2 3 4 1 4 4 2 3 4 3 2 4 2 3 4 1
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
Ans. 2 3 4 4 3 3 4 4
EXERCISE # 2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5
Ans. 3 2 3 1 1
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THE LIVING WORLD

Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________

1. Basis of life is C secrate of life.

2. Binomial nomenclature given by.

4. Listing of flora based on -

5. Economical importance based classification -

6. Plant classification based on alphabetical order -

7. Phylogenic term given by -

8. Phylogemic concept given by -

9. Taxonomic categones number is -

10. Taxonomic name for plant given by -

11. Suffix-Phytina use for -

12. Species concept given by -

14. Taxonomic tools whice based on centrasting charaetristics -

15. Taxonomy related with -

16. Duplicate of holotype is -

17. Standard size of harabarium swet -

18. Binomen elature based book is -

19. Correct name is -

20. Which option mismatch -

1. Term new systematics given by -

2. Most approved concept for speeies -

3. First step of Taxonomy -

4. When we lost Holotype, see on holotype from originae plant is know as -

5. Species belong to different geographical arcas is known as -

7. Morphological same but reproductive isolated species are known as -

8. Cauli hawer cabbage & knol-knol are -

9. Species are continous changable according -

10. Development in systematic order is known -

11. Taxonomy based on morphology, origin & development -

12. Enquiry in to plants books written by -

13. Linnaeus book not -

14. Theories elementaire de la Batanique written by -

16. Taxen given in following -

17. Linnalus plant classification is -

18. Plant phylogenetic classification given by -

19. Binomial nomenclature based on -

20. Bringil, pottato, Ginger related -

3. Taxonomy natural system based on -

5. Cohort related group of -

6. Word ‘cladistics’ of plant taxonomy related with -

7. Specific properties of plant which absent in animals -

8. Binomial classification of plant effective from -

9. Selecty correct option -

10. Organnism with highest number -

11. Two similar holotype know as -

12. Systema naturae written by -

13. ‘Biological Nomenclature’ interanatical apply for -

15. ‘Systematics’ derved from -

16. Polytypic species related with -

17. All living related with mostly -

18. Select correct order of Taxonomic categeries

19. ‘Theory of special cration’ given by -

20. Morphological same but reproductively isolated species is -

Systematics :- (Branch related with taxonomu)

New systematics or Neo systematics or Biosystematics :-

Practical significance of taxonomy :-

ICBN :- "International code for botanical Nomenclature"

(1) Collection of rules regarding scientific - nomenclature of plants is known as ICBN.

Main rules of ICBN :-

(3) Specific name can be repeated on one kingdom.

09214233343 No. 1 Online Coaching for IIT-JEE | PRE-MEDICAL | CBSE

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