Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
by
JAMES C. GREENLAW
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
March 1994
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(Signature)
Date (L ,9q•t-
DE-6 (2/88)
ABSTRACT
theories.
Others.
ii
The advantage to students who use postcolonial reading
i_li
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Abstract ii
Table of Contents iv
Acknowledgements v
Dedication vi
7.TheAntiracistConception 253
8. Conclusions 282
References 315
Appendix A 341
Appendix B 344
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
v
DEDICATION
vi
Chapter 1.
1 In Said’s Culture
control over colonial lands and subjects.
marginal communities.
1
subaltern resistance, and the production of narratives are
2 But,
as an important vehicle for identity formation.
2
because from the postcolonial perspective culture itself is
3
3 Rather than simply accepting either the
imperialism.
) the
comparing (or as Said terms it, by “counterpointing”
5
4
alternative both to a politics of blame and to the even more
p. 18).
6
investigation s. Instead, when English teachers of
5
confronted with what they believed to be the “essential and
7 Thus, high
feminism, reader response, and antiracism.
6
Spivak, Lisa Lowe, Rey Chow, Trinh T. Minh-ha, and Arnold
7
shows, and computer forums through which students attempt to
8
Borovilos, an Ontario high school English teacher (whose
broad definition.
9
contains works by Japanese, Chinese, Indian, Native, and
reading techniques.
10
linguistic variance, can form the basis for analyses of
11
have a better chance to question their own assumptions about
12
be filled by students using appropriate supplementary
8
important.
(1989), that, while the concept of “race” has been used for
one another.
13
from the canon of great literary works worthy of study in
14
deconstruct the discourse of race through their reading of
multicultural texts:
15
By moving back and forth across the borders which
16
enables these students “to engage in cultural remapping as a
17
their identities are significantly affected by the ways in
18
basic condition for understanding the limits of one’s own
19
In reading we produce text within text; in interpreting
we produce text upon text; and in criticizing we
produce text against text. As teachers of literary
texts we have two major responsibiliti es. One is to
devise ways for our students to perform these
productive activities as fruitfully as possible: to
produce oral and written texts themselves in all three
of these modes of textualization: within, upon, and
against. Our other responsibility is to assist
students in perceiving the potent aura of codification
that surrounds every verbal text. Our job is not to
produce “readings” for our students but to give them
the tools for producing their own. (p. 24)
20
playing with, and fighting with the discourses which inform
Chinese community) and Amy Tan’s The Joy Luck Club (1989)
Chinatown), she might ask the question, “How are the people
21
a traditional reader—response pedagogy, as the student
22
forces which must necessarily enrich and complicate this
definition. 10
23
patriarchal domination, because postcolonialism sees
24
diversity of Black practices in the modern and postmodern
within which we are all caught. At the same time they would
(p. 35)
reading the works of Lee and Tan, for instance, she is also
25
it. In other words, postcolonial critical strategies can
same time, they can provide her with some of the tools which
26
Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978) was one of the first
“texts can create not only knowledge but also the very
in which objects are what they are because they are what
they are, for once, for all time, for ontological reasons
70).
27
plethora of stereotypes to which Westerners subsequently
28
to fade into another mode of discourse” (pp. 100-101). If
(mis)representations of Asians.
29
Primitive (1990). Whether dominant culture depictions of
30
The belief that primitive societies reveal origins or
natural order depends on an ethnocentric sense of
existing primitive societies as outside of linear time,
and on a corresponding assumption that primitive
societies exist in an eternal present which mirrors the
past of Western civilization. This temporal illusion
has been among the most persistent aspects of
primitivism in the West -both in high culture and in
popular culture, like the Tarzan novels (p. 46).
31
‘truth.’ To raise the question of representing the
Other is, therefore, to reopen endlessly the
fundam ental issue of science and art; documentary and
fiction ; objecti vity and subjectivity; universal and
person al; mascu line and feminine; outsider and insider.
(1991, p. 65)
their fiction cannot be seen from the inside and the outside
32
are hyphenated selves. For instance, those who have arrived
Hong Kong, Korea, and India are already grappling with the
another.
one of the most pervasive gaps which students can look for
them with their African past or with the strange new land
33
2 When slaves were taken across
which they came to inhabitJ
34
appropriating and changing the masters’ language to better
35
embedded, it is necessary to remind the student: Whose
interests are being served by the representations in
question? Within a given set of representations, who
speaks, for whom, and under what conditions? Where can
we situate such representations ethically and
politically with respect to questions of social justice
and human freedom? What moral, ethical, and
ideological principles structure our reactions to such
representations? (Giroux, 1992a, p. 219)
the phase one depictions of their place and wish to see the
36
3) indigenous writers fight back - these descriptions of the
of their land.
place.
37
ever simply (re)present to us in words a place’s underlying
38
negatively to validate the dominant group’s authority, the
39
types of texts, including the political, religious,
discursive practices.
40
conception, by first attempting to explain some of the key
Notes
41
4. As Said points out, while Conrad was intent upon
exposing the evils of the imperialist ivory trade, at the
same time, he firmly believed that Africans were inferior to
their imperialist masters and therefore incapable of
achieving independence (1993, p.. 25). But at the same time
Said argues that “by accentuating the discrepaney between
the official ‘idea’ of empire and the remarkably
disorienting actuality of Africa, Marlow unsettles the
reader’s sense not only of the very idea of empire, but of
something more basic, reality itself” (p. 29). The
narratives of empire can thus be deconstructed by inserting
into gaps like these the Other’s counternarra tives.
42
literary depictions as revelations of static, monologic
cultural identities is to perpetuate both imperialist and
nationalist, racist stereotypes.
43
11. Among the examples of stereotypes of Asian women
deconstructed by Tajima is the following: “In 1985 director
Michael Cimino cloned Suzie Wong to TV news anchor Connie
Chung and created another anchor, Tracy Tzu (Arianne), in
the disastrous exploitation film Year of the Dragon. In it
Tzu is ostensibly the only positive Asian American charac ter
in a film that villifies the people of New York’s Chinatown.
The Tzu character is a success in spite of her ethnicity.
Just as she would rather eat Italian than Chinese, she’d
rather sleep with white men than Chinese men. (She is
ultimately raped by three “Chinese boys.” ) Neithe r does she
bat an eye at the barrage of racial slurs fired off by her
lover, lead Stanley White, the Vietnam vet and New York City
cop played by Mickey Rourke” (1989, 313).
44
Chapter 2
45
Practical Criticism (1929) or Frye’s Anatomy of Criticism
criticism.
46
because I plan in this chapter to deal with the controversy
47
illustrate instead how all words gain their meaning in
48
differance, in which a word gains its constantly shifting
49
Derrida deconstructs this phonocentric perspective by
points out that all people write (in his broader definition
50
into question by students of multicultural literature as
are not mere dichotomies of the type which New Critics would
assumptions.
51
structure of contrasts between the familiar, industrious,
52
negative features of the institution of psychiatry during
53
out that, in order to perform deconstructive reversals,
accept the basic premise that the two terms, nature and
54
Vincent Leitch offers the following example of the
55
library and {CalibanJ a savage who had no speech at all
56
For poststructuralists, the deconstructive reading
7
construction.
57
explains, in her analysis of intertextuality among classical
58
a discourse community comprised of teachers, community
59
Concerning the methods of their reading and writing
60
In his article, “The Political Responsibility of the
61
oppositional political agenda. This is because, as Smith
62
such as Jean—Frangois Lyotard with his desire to overthrow
63
“crisis of representation” characterise the Euro—
American post—modernist mood, such expressions of
“breakdown” and “crisis” instead signal promise and
decolonisational potential within post-colonial
discourse. Pastiche and parody are not simply the new
games Europeans play, nor the most recent intellectual
self-indulgence of a Europe habituated to periodic fits
of languid despair, but offer a key to destabilisation
and deconstruction of a repressive European archive.
Far from endlessly deferring or denying meaning, these
same tropes function as potential decolonizing
strategies which invest (or reinvest) devalued
“peripheries” with meaning. (p. x)
64
necessarily bifurcates under a dual agenda: which is to
(p. 9):
65
Noticing, just as Tiff in and Slemon have done, that
66
contemporary African cultural life what has come to
—
67
also important to note that postcolonial theorists in
68
teachers with the pedagogical strategies they required in
69
curriculum theorists’ analyses of issues in the area of
70
observations about the responses of the OAC students to the
71
a set of criteria by which the relative merits of each
in turn.
72
subjects and cultures represented within their
multicultural texts?
two experiences are less and less distinct” (p. 9). I will
73
postcolonial theory of representation takes into account the
74
associated with intercultural communication and
communications networks.
literary tradition.
75
characterizes the return to Hirsch’s type of monocultural
76
address itself to the point that many students in our
canon” (p. 45). Then she asks, “Does this list imply that
and Scott Walker, the editors point out that, unlike E.D.
Canada as well:
77
citizens to have not only a fundamental understanding
of their own culture (in part to conserve it), but also
a knowledge of the cultures of the rest of the world.
However, the citizens of the United States are
profoundly ignorant of world literatures, histories,
mythologies, and politics. For the United States to
continue to have cultural and economic relevance, this
inadequacy must be addressed. (p. xi-xii)
multicultural literacy.
James Clifford, Lisa Lowe, Jane Miller, and Madan Sarup, can
78
In Chapter 4 I contrast archetypal literary analyses
Columbia.
feminist readings.
79
analysing how Chinese—Canadian students in Vancouver and
80
multicultural literature, I provide examples of OAC English
81
this stage. I do not pretend to be offering a comprehensive
project.
82
Notes
83
negative activity of discourse where traditional
philosophers and historians have been preoccupied with its
positive role. The strategy of reversal in its broadest
usage leads us to discard the assumption that human thought
— which Foucault calls discourse because thought is always
expressed in a particular linguistic form — is at root
rational and positive, that when it fails to be rational and
positive it is merely an aberation, a departure from its
true nature. Foucault assumes, for example, that those
elements that seem to hold a discourse together, that
guarantee its connection to some non—discursive reality,
cannot perform these functions without also performing
negative ones that limit the discourse or rarefy it” (1989,
pp. 15—16)
84
that may be derived from them. That kind of structure is
now seen as part of a larger practice that is not merely
linguistic or intellectual, but social” (1989, p. 103).
85
chapter 3
86
predecessor, New Criticism, to become what some have
(1977, p. 151—152).
interpreted.
87
it, but, rather, is perceived as “the presentation and
(p. 152):
became the material for his lectures and for his text,
88
which the students had committed. For example, he would
(p.
The interpretation s of good readers will vary
appreciably with their varied minds. No one can say,
“There is only this and this in the poem and nothing
more.” There is everything there which a reader who
starts right and keeps in a balanced contact with
reality can find. But minds too much subjugated to
their own fixed stock responses will find nothing new,
will only enact once more pieces from their existing
repertory. 239-240)
89
students and teachers to grapple with the text’s formal
quo:
text, since the l950s has been questioned not only by neo
90
K. Wimsatt and Monroe C. Beardsley identified two more
unity.
91
wrote the highly influential text, Understanding Poetry
action:
92
the credibility of character and action,” and it increases
around her.
facts are presented in the plot and those which the author
are left to puzzle over the few key pieces of a mosaic meant
obscure.
93
One of the literary disciples of Brooks and Warren,
with notes about how the elements of fiction are used by the
94
text and their arguments about it within the debates which
95
Hermann Hesse’s novel, Siddhartha. In his article,
West:
the basis of the principle “that the values of the West must
96
contemporary thinker’s distinction between science and
97
formal appreciation of the text’s well-wrought unity of
98
similarities and differences between the works’ various
99
it is necessary to examine how the tradition of New
the short story” (p. 24). The story takes place in “Ghana
100
“change,” “people,” “values,” and “reality,” she realized
story was studied, were not about power, class, culture, and
truths which are supposed to speak “to all times and all
is to make “sure that the young minds will not get any
curriculum.
101
traditionally taught students to avoid such modes of
102
been (mis)represented by Western writers. Said’s analysis
103
biases. Postcolonial deconstructions of literary
prejudices.
104
The point is that not even a well-intentioned Karl Marx
6
interpretation s.
105
In Salman Rushdie’s critique of various British films
p. 102) :
One of the major final let downs of the film comes when
we see Fielding and Stella projected against the
Himalayas with loud background music and a submissive
Aziz bidding them goodbye. The novel admitted that
power relations cannot be transformed into friendships.
The film papers over this profound statement in a most
awkward and disturbing manner. (p. 1O3)
106
India, he observes that Forster had discovered how to use
for and even intimacy with some Indians and India generally,
107
Passage to India nevertheless founders on the
undodgeable facts of Indian nationalism. Forster
identifies the course of the narrative with a
Britisher, Fielding, who can understand only that India
is too vast and baffling, and that a Muslim like Aziz
can be befriended only up to a point, since his
antagonism to colonialism is so unacceptably silly.
The sense that India and Britain are opposed nations
(though their positions overlap), is played down,
muffled, frittered away. (pp. 203—204)
of Orientalism.
8 Lowe argues that Orientalist discourse
108
ruled Other of the British ruler, it also includes the
Indian textual responses provoked by and implicated in
these texts. The discussion by Indian critics of
Forster’s controversial novel, and indeed all Indian
criticism in English, must be considered as bearing a
significant, if not paradoxical, relationship to the
British dominated institution of English literary
study. Although some of the Indian work may be
interpreted as reproducing traditional English ideas
about literary aesthetics and genre, a significant
portion of this scholarship cannot be dismissed as
merely a quiescent colonial counterpart to the British
literary tradition; rather it is one of the possible
locations of significant challenges to the colonial
hegemony that characterizes that tradition. (p. 105)
109
Miss Quested and Mrs. Moore, the two main white British
them.
110
Management of Grief,” by Bharati Mukherjee, and “Dhowli,” by
haunted by the spirits of her husband and sons who had been
111
conununities in West Bengal by high-caste landlords,
112
gender equity. Although the students’ discussions obviously
- 113
simply had never talked in these ways about novels and short
was superior to that which they would have attained had they
114
immigration system, the Canadian social welfare system, and
economic difference.
115
New Criticism’s avoidance of overtly political
116
literary theorists but that they begin to develop complexity
Notes
117
Mahabharata.
c) How can the postcolonial goals of decentering and
disseminating discourse be achieved by examining the
contexts of the literature with the help of perspectives
from history, visual art, music, sociology, anthropology,
philosophy, media studies, film, drama, politics, geography,
and comparative religion?
118
difference, especially once this is seen as not simply
received from tradition, language, or environment but also
as made in new political—cultural conditions of global
reality” (p. 274).
119
Children, and I am not suggesting that this novel should be
taught as a core text for the entire class. However, I have
found that some of my more talented students were able to
read the novel for their independent study project with the
help of suggestions for analysis from the work of the
following postcolonial theorists: John Thieme (1983), Maria
Couto (1983), Ron Shepherd (1985), John Stephens (1985),
Aruna Srivastava (1990), and, of course, Salman Rushdie,
himself (1991).
120
Chapter 4
121
Like her mentor, the Native American writer, critic,
this chapter.
122
The theory of archetypes is very important to the study
of Indian mythology, particularly if the mythology is
to be seen as having depth and profundity equal to that
of other world mythologies. Indian mythology has
frequently been discredited because scholars of Western
literature have not recognized its depth and scope. An
archetypal examination of Indian myths proves this
attitude invalid. Though the form and events of Indian
mythology may be quite different, it can be of some
comfort to uninitiated readers that the themes and
motifs are quite often familiar. (p. 20)2
123
one of its goals the discovery in Native literature of
unlike Jung, Grant, and Allen, Frye does not invest the
124
theory such as Marxism, Freudianism, or existentialism, upon
patterns which can be found within other works from the body
of literature as a whole:
125
whether such a ritual had any historical existence or
not. (p. 109)
critical framework.
4 Although there is a clear effort on the
126
which the stories derive, a sampling of the contents of the
127
essential Native beliefs which are of such importance in
Grant’s curriculum.
5 Nor does it enable the students to
Longfellow’s poem:
128
The second high school Native literature unit which I
two views set the stage for the disaster that was played out
129
(p. 20). A second theme which Hoeveler’s students explore
(p. 20). And the third theme of her course is “the power of
the observation that she and her students are “humbled and
130
to hear Natives speaking in their own voices through
people:
131
one of the twentieth century’s most popular Native texts,
132
as David Murray
signifier of the visionary experience, but,
(1991) there
Representation in North American Indian Texts,
as well if
are other factors which need to be considered
seen within
Black Elk’s intercultural struggles are to be
s which
the various political and religious discursive field
his
aided and blocked the production and reception of
cultural inscription:
.
The popularity of Black Elk Speaks in the 1960s has..
to
to be seen in the context of what the Indian came
represent in the period . First publish ed in 1932 and
its
largely ignored, the book only became popular after
paperback reissue in 1961, when the growing counte r—
ral
cultural predilection for the irrational, supernatu
and primitive led to an increasing interest in, and
idealization of, Indian culture. Black Elk Speaks
seemed to offer ecolo gical awaren ess, mind—expanding
visions and an indictm ent of white Ameri can
civilization, and its succes s encour aged publication of
many other works of variable quality that presented
Indians in this light. (p. 71)
133
reminiscent of Christian symbols, yet keeping a Lakota
assume that anyone can read their tales in English and then
134
English language and literary techniques to fashion their
culture.
135
expression and thought patterns the same way that they write
136
their history. Cornell’s second point is that
reasons why they “do things and make things, the ways in
137
then they can better appreciate how its writers use and/or
view films such as Dances with Wolves and Black Robe, for
example, Goldie would argue that they can learn from their
Native people, and that all Maoris, Lakotas, and Hurons must
138
be either violent warriors or mystical environmentalists.
white ethnographers:
139
Native language and generic form to evoke and
articulate possibilities of being Indian. The culture
which alienated Momaday from his people authorizes the
language and form of his art...Momaday invents
imaginatively to evoke an ‘Indianness’ for his readers
(amajority of whom presumably would not be Indians)
through an Anglo—American literary structure that must
prohibit any authentically Indian imaginative form. (p.
17—18)
140
spiritual issues at stake. Before I turn to an analysis of
Arnold Krupat.
and Course Designs (1983), where she argues that reality for
141
traveller will describe the same sights and sounds and
will enter and return in like fashion. (p. 17)
sequential”:
142
Instead of Allen’s reliance upon the archetype of the
divergent cultures:
143
community. She believes, for example, that in the English
living whole and that all parts of that whole are related to
being” (p. 8)
144
students need to learn to respect, is to move away from
145
anxious to meet her compatriot, Helmut Walking Eagle, who is
the face.
so, ever since Erica was a small child, she had spent her
146
As an outsider, Hilda expected the Natives to be
still extremely involved in their religion and she
finds it strange that Lucy has never been to a sun
dance. She also can’t wait to meet Helmut Walking
Eagle because, for her, he seems to epitomize what an
Indian should be, even though he is not really Native.
I think Hilda represents the members of white society
who want to keep the Natives whooping, hollering,
savages.
Lucy represents a typical Native woman, in a
typical Native situation. She does not have all the
amenities that we are used to, no running water or
washing machine; instead, she has a husband who drinks
and stays out all night. And yet Lucy is a very
strong, independent person who has her own ideas on
religion that she’s not afraid to show.
The other thing I noticed is how much of a
community everyone is. Family ties are observed, no
matter how distant they are, and everyone wants to help
everyone, in some small way; this is encouraging,
although there is still some in-fighting which is true
in every family.
But perhaps the most interesting part of the story
is Helmut Walking Eagle, the German turned “Native.”
To me he epitomizes everything Natives are not. Not
only does he practice a mixture of Indian religions he
was not raised with, but also, he wrote a book about it
for a white audience. Religion is, and always has
been, something sacred and special to the Indians, not
something they would write such a book about. And to
top it all of f, Helmut Walking Eagle is very rude to
Hilda and to Lucy. This is just the opposite of what
all the other Natives have demonstrated in this story
which proves you cannot become Native just because you
want to be. It’s something you’re born and raised
with, something special.
147
references to the sun dance, then she would probably have
because she did not have the freedom Helmut Walking Eagle
relatives and doing favours for her friends to have the time
148
Native perspectives. Unlike Erica, however, notice that
149
From Sara Jean’s perspective it was fitting that the
150
that he could “never turn into a white man.” It is
obvious that the Germans (and all whites) take Natives
for granted. We only want to partake in their culture
to experience its enjoyable aspects, but fail to take
responsibility for its downfalls. This is indeed our
responsibility because we are denying the Natives equal
opportunities and the right to unconditionally respect
their own culture. Although Sonny claims that he could
never become a white man, white culture has been forced
upon Natives and forces them to compromise themselves
to attempt to be a part of our white, Western world.
It is ironic that Hilda maintains that Helmut Walking
Eagle would have something to share with her because
this story implies that between cultures, nothing can
be guaranteed.
151
juxtapositions of real and stereotypical representations of
held by each group about self and Other, then I would argue
152
teachers, Joseph Kalfics, told Quinn, during the school’s
dangerously low:
episode:
153
people had something against the color of my skin, I
was not going to serve them.” (p. 44)
154
In early March of 1993, just shortly after the Macleans
155
interested in “the interactive possibilities of
his students had been “at risk” before they moved out of the
156
As Daryll Vermiere’s students discussed Native poetry
with us, for instance, I wanted them not only to enjoy the
poetry for its own sake but also to learn something about
157
Similarly, when they read together Andre Brink’s novel
(p. 56).
158
was to find out what they could about each other through the
introductory message:
159
niece, and another will be born in July of 93. I am
nineteen years old and my birthday is on July 23. I am
a Native Indian and I come from the Thompson tribe. I
enjoy the outdoors and like taking risks and
challenges. For the coming school year I hope to go to
college in Kamloops B.C. My dream is to become a
lawyer. I’m not exactly sure yet. I think I’ll just
keep on continuing my education and then decide later
what I want to do with myself. I think this is a great
way to meet people and get to know their backgrounds.
All my relations,
Dianne
160
Growing up, [Moses] understood that [his family’s
Mohawk] language constructed reality in one way; as an
adult, he caine to know that the language surrounding
him was asking him to live in another way. Could he
reconcile the two sets of expectations? Should he have
to? Could he live with both? Would the division
between the two make living with both unbearable? This
is, [Moses] writes, “a world where Native people,
Native traditions assume the existence of a spirit
world as a given, a gift, and where non—Native people
scoff or keep secrets.” Such a division both displays
and constructs a hierarchy of power. Scoff ing is a
refusal to listen, sometimes in case the alternative
should prove to be more compelling than the convention
accepted as normality. Sometimes people are willing to
listen only to the voices that confirm the conventions
they already know. The unfamiliar makes them fear. Or
makes them condescend. Neither fear nor condescension
encourages listening. And no one who does not listen
learns to hear. (p. 4)
161
the special one to my grandma. My grandma used to take
my mom everywhere with her. Once she even took my mom
on a mountain and showed her a sacred rock with
drawings all over it. It was told that if anyone was
to take this rock that they were going to have bad luck
for the rest of their lives. I also heard that a
couple of guys found an old burial ground and took
something from it. As they were going down the
mountain they ran of f the road and were both killed.
My mom also found an old cave with an old bowl with
drawings in it. Those were the stories I was told by
my grandmother.
in both schools read these two poems and then used them as
162
unit, for instance, we received the following message from
Daryll Vermiere:
their elders, and for the stories which they would tell, so
163
characteristics that they have come alive when we see
these characteristics as well in nature.
164
While the chat which took place, in itself, was not
their own class whom they thought they had “known” for
years.
Karen and Sam (who are Chinese), and Pete (who is Inuit)
165
in full flight. Some of the more vocal members of the class
the next class and we left the room wondering just what had
happened to us all.
day about the issue. When they arrived for class they said
that they were ready to speak their minds with the help of
some of their friends who had already agreed with them that
166
racist slurs. After hearing what the people of colour in
her, and she said that she was pleased to see that people
about who they are and to be proud of how they have learned
the oral tradition, the role that I saw the poetry by Daniel
David Moses and Louise Bernice Halfe serving was not so much
167
to develop the students’ skills as literary aesthetes as it
168
As well, I have applied the postcolonial notions of
Notes
169
‘primitive’ state. The way in which these archetypes are
interpreted into symbols and are understood form the various
cultures (1986a, p. 19).
170
encouraged to research their own oral stories from elders
and relatives. [As well) guest speakers will be invited in
from the neighbouring reserve communities.” She plans, for
instance, to invite Native writer Richard Greene to work
with her students while they research, write, and dramatize
their own oral stories. Another indication of the strong
link which her course provides between the Native community
and the school system is that before Little will be allowed
to teach the course a Community Advisory Panel comprised of
Native parents has been granted the power to approve or
reject Little’s proposed course.
171
2,000 teachers connected to the Internet through an
organization called the Electronic Village. This
organization is funded in part by the Ontario Teachers
Federation, so high school teachers like myself have become
involved in international computer communications at no cost
to themselves or to their schools.
Michael Wilson’s Internet address is
idoy@cruxl.cit.cornell.edu, and teachers who wish to join
the conference need simply contact him to find out how to
become participants in this fascinating and very active
forum. Some of the topics for discussion on
soc.culture.native, for example, are “Spirituality and the
World,” “What Indian Activism Means to Me,” and “Rationalism
and Racism.”
172
Chapter 5
173
of Chinese women than are available in traditional feminist
interpretations of them.
Amy Tan.
174
of feminism as it is to look for some of the more pervasive
175
critical quilt of plurality, strong and varied, pieced
in community. (1989, p. 180)
176
phallogocentric and how therefore its symbolic discourse is
177
Germany, but as Showalter observes, it suffered from some
178
speak for, why do we need feminist criticism?” (Showalter,
179
certainly not the goal of the postcolonial curriculum
180
First World feminist must learn to stop feeling privileged
(1991a, p. 152).
181
of manuals on the “Art of the Bedchamber” which date from
(1988, P. 139).
182
within Chinese culture. Thus, in the opening pages of her
a collection of “calm...piercing...unaggressive...eyes...on
the far side of the abyss of time and space” (1977, p. 11).
She then says that she wants “to put into relief...one
good Maoists.
2
version:
183
principle with “silence” and “negativity” that
traditionally allows its coexistence and collaboration
with Confusianism’s misogyny. In a culture
constructed upon the complicity between these master
systems, Chinese women not only are oppressed but also
would support their own oppression through the
feelings of spiritual resignation that are dispersed
throughout Chinese society on a mundane basis.
Kristeva is told this bitter truth by a Chinese woman
whom she interviews, but, intent on her own
“materialist” reading of China, she does not want to
believe it.... About Chinese Women repeats, in spite
of itself, the historical tradition in which China has
been thought of in terms of an “eternal standstill”
since the eighteenth century. By giving the tradition
a new reading, Kristeva espouses it again, this time
from a feminized, negativized perspective. (1991, p.
9)
184
India, and Yuan-tsung Chen of China. One of the goals of
185
Global: The International Women’s
Movement Anthology
(1984). Davis finds that the student-c
entred pedagogy
which she employs throughout the
course and the feminist
theory which her students are enc
ouraged to use in their
analyses help both to empower the
young women (by
convincing them that they are par
t of a sisterhood which is
global in its dimensions) and
to inform the young men (by
presenting them with a body
of literature which they had
previously tended to overlook
as uninteresting and
unimportant to them).
186
to wear are not sufficiently modified to allow for the
how they are to make use of these materials she does not
187
traditional feminist definitions of women and recent
188
and what effect the character’s answers then had upon
text should enable her to see how this character has been
189
student to problematize the representations of self, place,
Jennifer might have asked, over and above those which she
190
assumptions be reassessed by her in attempting her
the world.
191
are added to the discussion. To explain further how
literature.
192
important connections between two of Maxine’s aunts who
193
concentration upon feminist interpretive strategies raises
194
themselves be criticized from the perspective of the
Chinese—woman-as—Other.
195
form — memoir, apology, confession” (p. 46). The forms and
Ghosts (1976):
196
the young Maxine that she should refrain from sexual
illustrates:
197
But, while both Smith and Chad have made astute
technical terminology.
198
As Lisa Lowe has observed about interpretations of the
199
as audience, agent, and participant in stories that are
200
I found Kingston to be much like her aunt in that both
are being pursued by their Chinese culture. It is
threatening to consume both of them. The aunt lost
her life to it and Kingston’s personality is being
shaped by it even though she is attempting to shape
herself on her own. She is also like her parents in
that they too are haunted by a past that they are
trying to forget but cannot.
then argued that the aunt’s actual identity was beside the
point, and that she may not even have existed at all but
201
the story which they believed were peculiar to Chinese
what the connections might be between the pigs and the aunt
on the one hand and between her husband and the rooster on
the other hand. And from the students in the class who
202
discourses in the film a relatively pleasurable experience
203
the Fangs stay with the Chaos Liii begins to do less
and less work as she begins to act more and more like
Paul (i.e. sitting around playing arcade games, etc.).
In comparison with the work ethic trying to be
established in her by her elders (e.g., Liu’s father
telling her to memorize the English dictionary) the
American work ethic seems to be based on less work and
more play.
The title, A Great Wall, has a very important
symbolic meaning. The Great Wall is the Great Wall of
China, built to keep out invaders. This is symbolic
of the differences between the two families, the Fangs
and the Chaos. The Fangs are like the invaders
bringing foreign ideas with them into China. But the
Great Wall built by the people around their culture
allows them to ward off most of the outside influences
that they are presented with. This is why it is very
important that it is Liu who wins the final ping pong
match against Paul. This represents the repulsion of
the rebellious foreign attitudes from the Chinese
culture. 6
204
culture. His analysis, in fact, bears some promising
205
the novel also represents antagonisms that are not
exclusively generational but are due to different
conceptions of class and gender among Chinese—
Americans. (Lowe, 1991b, p. 36)
Tan’s The Joy Luck Club (1989) for their independent study
206
the students to play deconstructively with the novel’s many
Earth and Tan’s The Joy Luck Club she discovered that the
207
Tarrytown, New York, not Teinsin, China” (Tan, p.
123). However, despite what she thought was an escape
from her culture, over the years Ted proved to be the
leader in their marriage, much the same as was Wang
Lung in Buck’s depiction of a traditional Chinese
relationship.
208
Chinese and thought their mothers stupid when they
explained things in fractured English” (Tan, p. 31).
They took pleasures for granted without concerning
themselves with what their mothers had to give up in
order to make them happy.
Madame Wu of Pavilion of Women and the mothers of
The Joy Luck Club felt, as many Chinese do today, that
Europe and America were spreading too much of their
influence in other countries. The only way they saw
to combat this was to remember who they were and to
remember the things that made them unique.
in these novels.
209
reading fiction by Chinese women from the People’s Republic
critique:
210
The Western aspects of her life caused her great
grief, but during her six and a half years of solitary
confinement it was her poems and her strong belief
that she did nothing wrong that kept her alive and
sane.
city where Liang Heng and Chairman Mao had grown up, I
211
of Shell Petroleum in Shanghai. So I pointed out to the
multicultural structure.
212
issues from racism, to imperialism, to class struggles, to
213
Notes
214
twist occurs in the last sentence of the chapter. ‘My aunt
haunts me...I alone devote pages of paper to her...I do not
think she always means me well. I am telling on her, and
she was a spite suicide, drowning herself in drinking
water” (Hunt, 1985, p. 7).
215
Leo’s son, Paul, also feels he is being treated differently
because of racism. But in this instance it is his father
who is being prejudiced against his choice of a white
girlfriend over a Chinese one. Finally, Mr. Chao is shown
as being racist towards Americans. He says that all
Americans are promiscuous and does not want his daughter to
travel to America where she will be with people who are not
of her same culture. It is interesting that Paul says that
his father’s wish for him to have a Chinese girlfriend is
racist and that he covers it up with culture and tradition.
Are these actions racist or merely a way of preserving a
cultural heritage? It is obvious that they are all forms
of racism based in ignorance (i.e., Leo cannot do the job
of the young white man and all Americans are promiscuous).”
216
Chapter 6
Asian—Canadian.
217
Electronic mail (e-mail), we thought, would provide David’s
translation.
computer forums as Japan Food and Culture and the South East
218
high school near Kyoto, Japan. Hillel Weintraub, an English
responses to involve.
219
implicit underlying cultural and social assumptions of any
evoked work, and that they be helped to make these the basis
220
I need to examine the objections which Rosenblatt has raised
the text, and the poem. The text belongs to the author, but
221
temperaments and worlds, lived through in their own persons”
(1978, p. 68).
whose response?”
222
They are concerned with abstracting the underlying
system of codes and conventions that the text possesses
for a particular “interpretive community.” Author and
reader become mere carriers of cultural conventions,
and both fade away under the extreme relativism of the
deconstructionists and the “cultural” critics.... The
critical processes and teaching procedures that serve
this overemphasis on the text result in neglect of the
personal aesthetic experience. The stress is placed on
efferent analysis, whether of codes and conventions,
logical self contradictions, or ideological
assumptions. The advocates of these textually oriented
theories find no problems in continuing the teaching
practices of the traditionalists and the formalist New
Critics. (1990, p. 105)
examine propaganda.
3 Is it fiction or non-fiction? Is the
223
only expands our notion of fiction but it also undermines
224
as “hyphenated selves.” Her point is that the very
p. 73):
225
by sharing with each other through e—mail correspondence
226
sufficient cultural background to engage meaningfully with
227
these literature classrooms has not yet been adequately
228
“think Eastern” (p. 25) if given sufficient background
229
instead, we simply asked them to collaborate with their key
230
Kyoto, observed that he did in fact feel the type of
perspective.
231
The students’ abilities to move freely back and forth
232
cultural trace that valorizes the social fabric over
all, and the teacher’s representing that fabric, that
flow. (1991, p. 3—4)
would rather write than talk. Thus she was more willing to
share her feelings and ideas with her key pal than she was
233
communities. For example, the Kyoto students pointed out
temples and shrines that people from all over the world come
talking with friends and other things” that their key pals
much they had in common with their key pals. For example,
when asked what she and her friends did in their spare time,
room and sing their heart out. The special thing about
234
singing here is that they have something like a TV screen
that writes out the words, the music fills up the room, and
one. After Masae discussed the years she had formerly spent
235
crisis in self—image which this displacement produces” are
236
“Spring Storm” was originally written in Japanese and
237
Japanese men and women. As Yayori Matsui has made clear in
This story probably got its title from the part where
Midori and Yusuke talk about the storm and the cherry
blossoms. When I read this story, I interpreted that
the cherry blossoms were intended to symbolize women
trying to “blossom” out into what was known up until
then as the “men’s world.” The storm shows the men’s
discriminatory ideas against women, standing in their
way and not letting them blossom. You can tell from
what Yusuke says, that once the storm “stops,” more
women will be involved in the world. Midori’s reply of
how there will be more storms explains, in a way, that
there will be more obstacles for women before they can
really blossom.
238
As an example of a traditional reader—response
equity.
239
into the business world because it’s a man’s world. She said
her dialogue with Jennifer she had come to think about the
she would not have been able to make this final, distanced
240
Throughout their correspondence Masae had gained the
241
about the stereotypes which Mon Yoko had constructed in
“Spring Storm.”
the way he responded to the story and the fact that he was
What you said about the names of the characters and the
author is really funny, partly because I can relate to
it. I think I forgot to mention that I’m Chinese. If
I didn’t, well now you know. As I was saying, a lot of
the time I read stories that have been translated from
242
Chinese to English, and the names, most of the time are
reversed.
243
the type which our students carried out offer opportunities
119):
244
Noda and Rosenblatt simply have not taken into consideration
245
of intercultural communication which has enhanced both their
students all wished that they could have had more time to
come to know their key pals better, they felt that they had
made some good friends during the exchange. When the Kyoto
246
to be marked for this activity, Shingo said, “I think it
worlds.
Brier were asked how they felt about the process, they both
said that the next time the students should be given some
247
and biases to be found in the films’ representations of
Kyoto that “When I read your point of view about the story I
248
students were very fortunate to take part in an activity
7
immaterial.
249
Notes
250
deconstruction of the term “apartheid” as it is used in
South African juridical and religious discourses (Derrida,
1985b) and Hilary Janks’s analyses of the uses of propaganda
in South African journalism (Jariks, 1989) and education
(Janks, 1990).
251
Theory, Criticism, and Pedagogy, under the title, “Reading
Between Worlds: Computer—Mediated Intercultural Responses to
Asian Literature.” I was able to carry out this research
work as a member of the Learning Connections Project, under
the guidance of its directors, Dr. John Willinsky of the
University of British Columbia’s Centre for the Study of
Curriculum and Instruction and Dr. Lorri Neilsen of Nova
Scotia’s Mount St. Vincent University. The Learning
Connections Project was funded in part by the Social
Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
252
Chapter 7
education:
253
the inherent Eurocentrism of their literature curricula and
over the past 120 years, for example, has exposed the
254
‘multiculturalism’ of recent Ontario government
education.
255
European missionaries and reveals how the internal
and not with others and whether the figures in the novel
Eurocentric biases.
256
much more direct approach to confronting racism in
education:
257
school English/Language Arts teachers, the title of which
258
with regard to their depiction of these groups. He also
259
Does the work present colour symbolism that implies
that white is positive and other colours are negative?
(p. 14)
260
3. As a reading exercise, ask students which comments
made by Mrs. Merriweather would insult the black
servant serving the coffee and why she might remain
silent. (p. 25)
261
to help students to break through barriers of racial and
262
acquired a basic understanding of the course’s subject
matter.
4).
multicultural policy:
263
criminal societies?... Such questions do not seem to be
the concern of the government’s multicultural programs,
superficial and exhibitionistic as they have become.
(Borovilos, 1990, p. 190)
264
notion of literary representation to include a fluid and
265
For instance, they should be made aware that racism has
75).
266
four years before it was repealed” (Li, 1988, p. 2). During
(Bolaria, p. 200).
267
A view of racial difference which does not focus the
268
between the racist state and racially—defined oppressed
269
education constructed by the oppressors to maintain the
270
postcolonial deconstruction of this key term in the
Beulah Show,” “The Nat King Cole Show,” “Julia,” “East Side,
271
viewing audience. In shows about white families in the
272
incorporati through which the
of subjection and 9
n
subject is produced. (p. 309)
beings.
273
which they encounter both in imperialist fiction such as
3
anthology.
number of years with two black men. He had met them both in
274
feelings of displacement as, for example, he is conscripted
275
One student, for example, offered the following
antiracist project:
the United States. But even more significant was the fact
276
authentic and noble black brother from their ancestral
and whiteness.
277
Emergent” with what he had been learning in his independent
Season”:
278
excuse for Ben’s inaction. These characters both note
that Ben’s ignorance was due in part to his living with
his eyes closed....Only by having a white narrator can
Brink have a realistic means to enter into the true
bureaucracy ofthe South African system of government.
Du Toit’s failed inquests into the deaths of the
Ngubenes vivify the injustice of the system. A black
narrator would tell of the turmoil of the townships
better but would not even get through the doors of
government buildings where the root of the problem is
found.
279
the hands of European colonizers. In Achebe’s second
novel, the English don’t have the same influence as
they did during the nineteenth century, but it seems
that they still dominate the economy. A combination of
corrupt, bribe-propelled politicians and a foreign-
based economy, provide an inhospitable environment for
the heroic Obi Okonkwo to succeed.
280
Notes
281
Chapter 8
Conclusions
282
In Chapter 4 I deconstructed the archetypal
border intellectuals.
Tan.
283
the United States today bring to their interpretations of
284
criteria which I have employed to measure the effectiveness
285
curricula and to expand upon the theoretical foundations of
this project.
286
multicultural literacy attained by the students, I have
understand who they are and how they can change and enhance
287
not only “their own lives but the lives of others as well.”
Canada, while, at the same time, she felt that she had
288
took place between bilingual Japanese students in Kyoto and
289
their work, not only their newly acquired skill at comparing
290
is to take into account postcolonialism’s concerns about the
level.
291
pedagogical method, or as a pervasive and foregrounded
structural topic of discussion. I am not discouraging
theoretical teaching, or even an integration of theory
into the general approach, on the undergraduate level.
And I insist that the critical moment be included in
teaching the great masters of European criticism, a
practice that is all—too—often ignored even in graduate
teaching. (p. 274)
292
has a century-old tradition of reproducing British
their texts.
293
with texts and with one another in the space that opens up
“What is an Author?”:
294
out, with regard to the notion that a speaker’s social
points out, for example, that “it has long been noted that
295
development teams have not found it advantageous under
1
others.
296
ethical principles misinterpret attempts by theorists such
2
knowledge.
297
Foucault follows Nietzsche in deconstructing those
systems of thought which mask their incessant will to
power behind a semblance of objective knowledge. His
analysis of these various ‘discursive practices’
constantly points to their being involved in a politics
none the less real for its inextricably textual
character. Edward Said, in his book, Orientalism
(1978), has offered a very practical example of how
deconstruction can engage cultural history on its own
textual ground and contest its claims to objectivity.
The image of ‘the Orient’ constructed by generations of
scholars, poets and historians is shown to be governed
by an ethnocentric discourse secure in the power of its
superior wisdom. (pp.
Occidental reason is confirmed point
for point in its mythography of oriental laziness,
guile and ‘exotic’ irrationalism. To combat this
discourse by exposing its ruses of metaphor is not to
set up as a ‘science’ unmasking the confusions of
ideology. It is an act of challenge which situates
itself on rhetorical ground the better to meet and turn
back the claims of a spurious objectivity. 87—8)
298
however, on a regular basis, to reason through and defend
299
about local cultures may themselves be greatly influenced by
300
been constructed. This, of course, does not preclude them
transcendental ground.
speak with, rather than to speak for the Other, and in which
301
in related theories take place. Thus researchers and
Literature.
302
according to the needs and interests of the classes
University:
303
readings of related information whenever the author makes
While the main focus of this thesis has been upon how
304
the wide range of films that are now available on videotape
film:
305
understanding of the cultural contents of the tale. If
306
challenge ahead is to provide students with opportunities to
literature can learn to focus not only upon how the victims
307
need to share their findings with colleagues so as to
308
those available on the Internet to enable students of
(Atkins & Johnson, 1985; Barker & Kemp, 1990; Crowley, 1989;
309
difference are presently being deconstructed in university
310
the heterogeneous speech patterns uttered by their
311
has been my intention to show that each of these conceptual
Notes
312
words is one way to begin. This procedure would be most
successful if engaged in collectively with others, by which
aspects of our location less highlighted in our own minds
might be revealed to us (p. 25).... 3. speaking should
always carry with it an accountability and responsibility
for what one says. To whom one is accountable is a
political/epistemological choice contestable, contingent,
and as Donna Haraway says, constructed through the process
of discursive action. What this entails in practice is a
serious and sincere commitment to remain open to criticism
and to attempt actively, attentively, and sensitively to
‘hear’ (understand) the criticism. A quick impulse to
reject criticism must make one wary (pp. 25—26).... 4. In
order to evaluate attempts to speak for others in particular
instances, we need to analyse the probable or actual effects
of the words on the discursive and material context. One
cannot simply look at the location of the speaker or her
credentials to speak, nor can one look merely at the
propositional content of the speech; one must also look at
where the speech goes and what it does there” (p. 26).
313
of whom ‘China’ is served on the screen” (Chow, 1991, p.
11). If media literacy teachers in high schools wish to
help their students to decode the (mis)representations which
Tajima and Chow are discovering in such films, then more
research is necessary into how postcolonial theory can
providethe tools for this decoding process.
314
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Appendix A
Poetry Corner
Look, Mom, how the second full moon this month rises
through its purpler side of the dusk not quite a ghost
Page — 341
prettier than the way Granpa lost his and no
-
In her den
covered wall to wall
herbs hang
carrot roots, yarrow,
camomile, rat—root,
and cha cha moose e gun
Satisfied
she selects the chosen few
grinds them on a small tire grater
Small mounds of powder collect
Her large paws take a patch
of soft deer skin
In it she mixes and wraps her poultice
until hundreds of tiny bundle chains
swing from the rafters
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and earth medicine ties
Page — 343
Appendix B
Racism Chat
Page — 344
fOnt.] Any responses to our discussion on substance
abuse? NO NAMES.
[Newf.) It isn’t as big a problem as it was last year but
there is still abuse here. To correct what I said before
there were only some attempts to commit suicide related to
drugs. The two suicides we did have were not related to
drugs.
[B.C.] Substance abuse isn’t a major problem among us
students in school, but it is for the few drop outs we had.
[B.C.) How do you feel about Native Fishing Issues?
[Newf.] It is not a really big issue in this area. How
do you feel about the fishing problems that Newfoundlanders
face?
[B.C.) (Manie) Hi, Traci. How are you doing?
[Ont.] Our local Cape Croker Reserve recently sold fish
to our community illegally to supplement their incomes.
[Ont.] (Traci) Hi Manie!
[B.C.) Over here the Natives were blamed for depleting
the salmon stocks in the Fraser River. But meanwhile it was
all those big boats in the ocean catching them before they
go up the river.
[B.C.) Is racism a problem in your school?
[Ont.] Sometimes yes. People who don’t think that they
are, are sometimes the worst.
[Newf.) No racism is not a problem in our school. We
don’t have a lot of different cultures in our school. How
many students are in your class now doing this chat?
[B.C.] 16 students are now in the chat. Jerry, our
Native language teacher is here. He says “Ye ak qwin” “Are
you well?
fOnt.] Yes, thanks.
fOnt.) Karen has had racist slurs directed toward her
while she was working in a restaurant.
[Newf.] We don’t think that was very nice.
[B.C.] Dianne knows how it feels, the same thing has
happened to her while she was working in a restaurant. You
could read about it in the Macleans Magazine Feb. 22, 1993.
We are sending a photo copy of the article.
fOnt.) Our class has gotten into a big discussion about
racism now!
fNewf.) In Newfoundland we feel that there is a bit of
discrimination against us from other parts of Canada.
fOnt.) We read that article already. It was very
interesting. Racism in this school is not a problem. We’ve
got to go now, unfortunately, but we will all be back on
line in September. See you then!
[B.C.) OK :-) Catch you later, have a nice Holiday!!
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