V.L.

SINGH’S RTR(a) PRIVaTE TUTORIaLS

(Instructor: Vinay Singh, Email: v.l.singh320@gmail.com , Mo: 08108304735)

 SYNOPSIS : VIVA QUESTIONS (WPC)

 Radio Frequency Spectrum

Name Abbreviation Frequency
Very Low Frequency VLF 3-30KHz
Low frequency LF 30-300 KHz
Medium frequency MF 300-3000 KHz
High frequency HF 3-30MHz
Very high frequency VHF 30-300 MHz
Ultra high frequency UHF 3000-3000 MHz
Super high frequency SHF 3-30GHz
Extremely High frequency EHF 30-300GHz

 Airborne Radio frequency utilization

System Frequency Band
Omega 10-14Khz
Decca 70-130KHz
Loran C 100Khz
ADF 200-1700Khz
HF COMMUNICATION 2-25KHz
MARKER BEACONS(OM,MM,IM) 75KHz
LOCALIZER 108-112MHz
VOR 108-118MHz
VHF COMMUNICATION 118-136MHz
GLIDESLOPE 320-340MHz
DME 963-1215MHz
SSR 1030MHz & 1090MHz
RADIO ALTIMETER 4.2-4.4GHz
WEATHER RADAR(C) 5.5GHz
WEATHER RADAR (X) 9.4MHz
DOPPLER (X) 8.8MHz
DOPPLER (K) 13.3MHz
1. What is difference between True North & Magnetic North?
Ans: True North is constant and refers to geographical north pole. Magnetic North tends to
shift and refers to pole of earth magnetic field. The angle between True north and
Magnetic north is called Magnetic Declination.

2. What is difference between Primary Radar & Secondary Radar?

Ans: Primary Radar:- In primary radar ,radio waves are broadcasted and then their
reflections are recorded. This depends upon the reflectivity of Aircraft to radio waves
and other objects(flick of birds,traffic,surface of ground,tall buildings,etc) ,thus causing
spurious returns.
Secondary Radar:- In secondary radar ,the radio signals are picked up by box of
electronics in Aircraft(Transponder). Transponder transmits its identity in the form of
Squawk Code(0000-7777). This Squawk can be displayed on Radar next to blip. In
mode-C transponder, you also get information about aircraft FL/Altitude apart from its
identity.

3. What is Bernoulli’s Principle?

Ans: Bernoulli’s principle states that for inviscid flow, velocity increases with decrease in
Pressure. Bernoullis’s Equation:

4. Does Speed of Light varies in Vaccum or in other medium like air?

Ans: Yes, Speed of Light varies according to the elasticity of the medium. It decreases with
increase in elasticity of the medium. It is highest in vaccum and comparatively lower in
glass or water .

5. Why NDB is called Non Directional? Why not Omni-Directional?

Ans: It is so called because the signal transmitted by NDB does not include directional
information, but ADF automatically searches for NDB signal.

6. What is Broadcast?
Ans: Broadcast is distribution of audio and video content simultaneously to all audience via
any audio visual medium. E.g:- ATIS

7. What is HOMER?
Ans: Homer are VHF Direction Finding stations.
8. Why “NM” is used in Aviation Industry & Maritime Industry for distance calculation?
Why not “Kilometre” or “Feet” ?
Ans: Because of their relationship with degrees and minutes of Lattitude and the
convenience of using latitude scale on map for distance measuring.
e.g. Since 1NM=1minute of latitude & 1min of Longitude at equator
So 60NM= 60 minutes=1⁰.
∴ Difference between an aircraft on 45⁰N and 50⁰N would be 300NM.
Also apart from Distance, Windspeed and Airspeed are calibrated in knots, so working
in same scale deceases possibility of error by eliminating need for conversion.

9. Convert 100 Watt into Decibel?

Ans: Formula: dB=10logWatt
∴dB=10log100
=10log102
=2⨯10
=20
10. What is difference between Radar and Radio Beacon?
Ans: Radio Beacon: A radio beacon is a transmitter at known location which transmits
continuous or periodic radio signal with limited information content on a specified
radio frequency. It is used for air navigation, marine navigation ,etc.
Radar: It is an object detection system which uses radio waves to determine the range,
altitude, direction and speed of light.

11. What is True Light?

Ans: It is period of decreasing light from sunset until dark.

12. What are Different Layers of Atmosphere?

Ans: Troposphere, Stratosphere,Ionosphere(D-50-100Km,E-100-150Km,F1-150-250Km,
F2-250-350Km)

13. What is difference between Headphone and Microphone?

Ans: Microphone:- It a device to convert Sound waves into audio frequency currents.
e.g.Carbon Microphone,Condenser Microphone, Ribbon Microphone.
Headphone:- It a device to convert audio frequency currents into sound waves.
Permanent Magnet Headphones and loudspeakers are commonly used.

14. Definations
i. Fading: Decrease in strength of received signal due to varying heights of atmospheric
 layers is called Fading. It is confined only to HF communication.
ii. Selectivity: It is quality of radio reciver to select the desired station and reject the
unwanted ones.
iii. Sensitivity: It is the quality of radio receiver to reproduce sufficiently strong signals
even when incoming station is very weak.
iv. Fidelity: Fidelity is the quality of radio receiver to faithfully reproduce the entire audio
frequency range received at the receiving antenna.
v. Automatic Volume Control: The AVC ensures a constant output of signals even when
the incoming station signal is varying. Weak signals are most and least signals are least
amplified.
vi. Squelch: Squelch circuit is incorporated in receiver to reduce its internal noise when
no station is calling.
vii. Bandwidth: Bandwidth of an antenna refers to range of frequencies over which the
antenna can operate correctly.
viii. Directivity: Directivity is the ability of an antenna to focus energy in a particular
direction when transmitting or to receive energy better from a particular direction
when receiving.
ix. Antenna Gain: Directive gain is defined as the ratio of power density in particular
direction of one antenna to power density that would be radiated by an omni-
directional antenna. Unit: Decibels
x. Beamwidth: The angular distance between halfpower points is called beamwidth
xi. Sidelobes: No antenna is able to radiate all the energy in one preferred direction. Some
energy is inevitably radiated in other directions. The peaks are referred to as Sidelobes.
xii. Nulls: Null is a zone in which effective radiated power is minimum.
xiii. Polarization: Polarization is defined as the orientation of electric field of
electromagnetic wave.
xiv. Front-to-Back ratio: Ratio of maximum directivity of an antenna to its directivity in
rearward direction.
xv. Radiation Resistance: Radiation resistance is the ratio of power radiated by antenna
to the square of current at feed point.
xvi. Skip Distance: It is the distance between transmitter and the point where sky wave
return to earth.
xvii. Skip Zone/Dead Zone: Also known as Zone of Silence is a region where radio
transmission cannot be received . It is located between points where ground wave
becomes too weak for reception and where the sky waves first return to the earth.

15. What is Spectrum ?

Ans: Spectrum is a range of frequencies in which the desired signal will be transmitted.
16. What is difference between Simplex and Duplex? Is mobile simplex or Duplex?
Ans: Simplex:- A method in which telecommunication between two stations takes place in
one direction at a time. e.g:- Walkie-Talkie, Mouse to CPU communication, etc.
Types of Simplex-Single Channel Simplex, Double channel Simplex, Offset frequency
Simplex
Duplex:-A method in which telecommunication between two stations can take place in
both direction simultaneously. e.g:- Mobile

17. What is the difference between Primary and Secondary Cell ?

Ans: Primary Cell:- In primary cell, electrochemical reaction is not reversible. Unlike a
secondary cell, reaction cannot be reversed by running a current into the cell.
e.g. Dry Cell, Zinc(cathode)-Carbon(anode) cell.
Secondary Cell:- It is rechargeable electric cell that converts chemical energy into
electric energy by a reversible chemical reaction. Also called storage cell.
e.g: Ni-Cd Battery (each cell-1.2V). In this Nickel-oxide Hydroxide is positive electrode
plate and Cadmium is negative electrode plate. Electrode-KOH

18. Explain Superheterodyne Receiver?

A Superheterodyne Receiver is a type of receiver where the received signal is transformed
into fixed intermediate frequency signal with its further amplification.
Principle of Operation: Heterodyning or Frequency mixing.

Fig. Block diagram of Superheterodyne receiver.

Operation:
RF Amplifier Stage: To receive a radio signal, a suitable antenna is required. This is often
built into a receiver, especially in the case of AM broadcast band radios. The radio waves
from various broadcasting station are intercepted by the antenna and are coupled to this
stage. The output of the antenna may be very small, often only a fewmicrovolts. Therefore,
this stage selects the desired radio wave and raises the strength of radio wave to desired
level using RF amplifier.
Mixer Stage: The amplified output of RF amplifier is then fed to Mixer stage where it is
combined with the output of Local oscillator. The two frequencies beat together and produce
an Intermediate frequency(IF). The IF is difference between Oscillator frequency and Radio
frequency. The IF is 455 KHz regardless of frequency to which receiver is tuned.
IF amplifier stage :The output of mixer is always 455KHz and is fed to the tuned IF amplifier.
These amplifiers are tuned to one frequency and render nice amplification.
Detector/Demodulator stage: The output from the last IF amplifier stage is coupled to the
input of detector stage. Here audio signal is extracted from IF amplifier output. Usually diode
detector circuit is used because of its low distortion and excellent audio fidelity.
AF Amplifier stage: The audio signal output of detector stage is fed to multi stage audio
amplifier. Here the signal is amplified until its sufficiently strong to drive the speaker. The
speaker converts the audio signal into sound waves at the broadcasting station .
Advantages:
 High RF amplification
 Improved Selectivity
 Lower Cost

19. What is Difference between Microburst and Macroburst?

Ans: Microburst: A small downburst with its outburst damaging winds extending only 4km
or less. Wind speed=75m/s
Macroburst: Downburst with its outburst damaging wind extending greater than 4km.

Fig. Microburst Macroburst

20. Line Squall Images

21. What is Emission designator?
Ans: An emission designator utilizes a seven-character “word” to represent the bandwidth,
modulation, nature of signal, and type of information transmitted by a particular radio.
An emission designator consists of seven characters as follows:
The first four characters identify the necessary bandwidth required to transmit the desired
information at the rate and with the quality required for the system employed;
The fifth character identifies the type of modulation of the main carrier;
The sixth character identifies the nature of signal(s) modulating the main carrier;
The seventh character identifies the type of information to be transmitted.
Types of Modulation of the Main Carrier – Fifth Character

Fifth Symbol- types of modulation of the main carrier.

1.Emission of an unmodulated carrier N

2.Emission in which the main carrier is amplitude-modulated (including cases where sub-carriers are angle-modulated):

Doubled-sideband A

Single-sideband, full carrier H

Single-sideband, reduced or variable level carrier R

Single-sideband, suppressed carrier J

Independent sidebands B

Vestigial sideband C

3. Emission in which the main carrier is angle-modulated:

Frequency modulation F

Phase Modulation G

Note: Whenever frequency modulation "F" is indicated, Phase modulation "G" is also acceptable.

4. Emission in which the main carrier is amplitude and angle- modulated either simultaneously or in a pre-established sequence D

5. Emission of pulses:

Sequence of unmodulated pulses P

A sequence of pulses:

Modulated in amplitude K

Modulated in width/duration L

Modulated in Position/Phase M

In which the carrier is angle-modulated during the period of pulse Q

Which is a combination of the foregoing or is produced by other means V

 6. Cases not covered above, in which an emission consists of the main carrier modulated, either simultaneously or in a pre-established W
sequence, in a combination of two or more of the following modes amplitude, angle, pulse

7. Cases not otherwise covered X

d) Sixth Symbol - nature of signal(s) modulating the main carrier:

1. No modulating signal 0

2. A single channel containing quantized or digital information without the use of a modulating sub-carrier, excluding time-division multiplex 1

3. A single channel containing quantized or digital information with the use of a modulating sub-carrier, excluding time-division multiplex 2

4. A single channel containing analogue information 3

5. Two or more channels containing quantized or digital information 7

6. Two or more channels containing analogue information 8

7. Composite system with one or more channels containing quantized or digital information, together with one or more channels containing 9
analogue information

8. Cases otherwise not covered X

e) Seventh symbol - type of information to be transmitted:

1. No information transmitted N

2. Telegraphy - for aural reception A

3. Telegraphy - for automatic reception B

4. Facsimile C

5. Data transmission, telemetry, telecommand D

6. Telephony (including sound broadcasting) E

7. Television (video) F

8. Combination of the above W

9. Cases not otherwise covered X

22. What is Propogation? What are the different modes of propogation?

Ans: Propogation is the way in which waves travels. Radio waves are propogated in three
forms.viz. i. Ground Wave Propogation
ii. Sky Wave Propogation
iii. Space wave propogation
i. Ground Wave Propogation:
 Ground wave propogation is the one in which ground waves travel along the surface of
the earth.
  Vertical aerials must be used for ground wave transmission , since the ground waves
are vertically polarized.
 Disadvantage: Long range transmission is not possible because of surface attenuation ,
Diffraction or Scattering ,etc.
NOTE: Surface Attenuation: As the waves travel along the surface of the earth, contact by the
radio wave with the earth surface induces current in the radio wave, causing it to loose some of
its energy and slowing it down. This slowing down makes the wave tilt forward and downward
towards the earth surface. Dry soil causes greter attenuation than sea. Also attenuation is
greater at higher frequency.
ii. Sky Wave Propogation:
 The electromagnetic waves (radio waves) , which reach the receiving antenna after
reflection from ionospheric layers of atmosphere are called Sky Waves. With the help of
these waves communication over a very long distance is possible.
 Disadvantages:
Sky Waves are sublect to ionospheric attenuation. The degree of attenuation depends
on three factors:
i. The greater the ionospheric density, the greater the attenuation
ii. The deeper the signal penetrates into the layer, the greater is the loss of energy
due to attenuation
iii. The lower the frequency, the greater the attenuation. That is why a higher
frequency is used for communication in HF band during day as compared to
night frequency.
iii.Space Wave Propogation:
The electromagnetic waves which travel directly from transmitting antenna to
receiving antenna,without being influenced by earth are called space waves. This type
of transmission is called Line of Sight transmission. The maximum range obtained is
about 200NM.

23. Explain HF & VHF communication?

Ans:HF Radio Communication :
 HF frequencies cover only a small proportion of the frequency spectrum and are in the
range of 3Mhz to 30 Mhz.
 A system designed to communicate over long distances usually anywhere between 100
and 3000 Kms when used with an antenna designed to radiate with a high angle of
elevation towards the sky for the signal to be reflected by the ionosphere to the receiving
station. (sky wave).
 The hf radio can also be effectively used for shorter range communications, from 0-
100Kms if the correct antenna is used to propogate the signal horizontally along the
ground (ground wave).
  Uses: The hf radio can be used for the communication of voice, fax and data. Fax and data
communications require a specific modem. A vehicle tracking system can also be added to
the equipment uses, this is based on a GPS (Global Positioning System) device.
VHF Radio Communication:
 VHF frequencies cover only a small proportion of the frequency spectrum and are in the
range of 30Mhz to 300 Mhz. However for communication , we use only 118-136MHz.
 The vhf medium uses direct wave propagation(Line of Sight propogation), covers short
range communications (3Km to 5Km)

24. What are the advantages and Disadvantages of HF Radio Communication ?

Ans: Advantages:
1. HF radio transmission is an inexpensive and reliable method of communications over
very long distances.
2. The equipment is completely self contained and does not rely on cables, repeaters or
satellites for communications.
3. Their mobility and ability to cover large distances makes them a versatile and powerful
communications medium .
4. By using Sky waves Day and night,, very long ranges are obtained for relatively less
power.
Disadvantages:
1. Atmospheric Interference
2. Interference from other stations
3. In HF communication, propogation is via sky waves, so frequency has to be changed
from day to night and from winter to summer , as the height of reflecting layers keeps
changing.
4. Fading, specially at sunrise and sunset.

25. What are the advantages and Disadvantages of VHF Radio Communication?
Ans: Advantages:
1. VHF radio transmission is an inexpensive and reliable communications medium, to
cover short range communications.
2. It enjoys distinctive advantage of giving clear reception, unaffected by weather on one
single frequency all the year round
3. Much less power is required for VHF(25-40W) than HF(80-400W).
Disadvantages:
1. As the system relies on direct wave propagation, the equipment requires line of sight
and does not work well when surrounded by tall buildings especially of metal or granite
construction.
2. Communication Range is small (about 250NM).
26. What are Day and Night Frequencies?
Ans: A frequency chosen for daytime transmission may not necessarily be a suitable frequency
for night time use. This is because that during the day the ionosphere has many layers that
absorbs the lower frequencies and reflects the higher frequencies (low frequencies being
2-10Mhz, higher frequencies being above 10Mhz). At night, the ionosphere becomes thinner
layered which then reflects the lower frequencies whilst the higher frequencies pass
straight through. At night aircraft goes into dead space and frequency has to be reduced.
During night D layer of Ionosphere disappears and electron density decreases in E layer. A
wave leaving transmitter has to penetrate further in ionosphere before getting refracted to
earth. Due to this skip distance increases and a receiver comes in dead space. HF
communication frequencies are reduced to half during night to prevent receiver to come in
dead space.

 Remember : high, Frequency high; low, frequency low

27. What is Modulation ? What are the Different types of Modulation?

Ans: A plane radio wave is like a blank newspaper, neither it can convey information nor it can
be heard. Therefore some form of intelligence must be impressed upon such a wave if it is
to convey information. Radio waves simply act as a vehicle for information (audible or
readable).The question arises how audio signal should be added to these radio waves(also
called carrier waves) and the answer is Modulation.
Modulation is a process of changing some characteristics of a carrier wave in
accordance with the intensity of signal.
Need for Modulation:
i. Practical antenna length is reduced.
ii. Energy of wave is proportional to frequency. Therefore, if frequency is increased, its
energy increases and hence operating range increases.
iii. Wireless communication is possible. At audio frequencies, radiation is not possible ,
however efficient radiation of electrical energy is possible at high frequencies.
Types Of Modulation :Amplitude Modulation
:Frequency Modulation
:Phase Modulation
Amplitude Modulation:
 When amplitude of High frequency carrier wave is changed in accordance with intensity
of signal, it is called Amplitude Modulation

 In India, Amplitude modulation is used in Radio Broadcasting, however in television

transmission, Frequency Modulation is used for sound signal amd Amplitude modulation
is used for Picture Signal.
Sideband frequencies:
 Suppose carrier frequency is 400KHz(fc) and signal frequency is 1KHz(fs). The AM wave
will contain 3 frequencies,viz. 400KHz(fc),401KHz(fc +fs),399(fc - fs) KHz.
 Bandwidth:B= (fc +fs) - (fc - fs)=2 fs =2 times signal frequency.
Limitations of Amplitude Modulation:
i. Noisy Reception
ii. Low efficiency
iii. Small Operating Range
iv. Lack of Audio quality

Frequency Modulation:
It is a process in which frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity
of signal. In this amplitude of modulated wave remains the same.
Advantages of FM over AM:
 Noiseless reception
 Operating range is quite large
 High fidelity reception
 Efficiency of transmission is very high
Phase Modulation:
Strictly speaking, there are two types of continuous wave modulation; Amplitude Modulation
and Angle modulation. Angle modulation may be subdivided into two parts: FM & PM.
Now, E = Eo sin (wt + ф). If ‘ф’ changes, ‘E’ changes, therefore the resulting wave is phase
modulated.

 Questions RELATED TO ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS:

28. Definations:
I. Resistance: It is measure of opposition to the flow of current. Unit: Ohms
II. Inductor: An inductor (also choke, coil or reactor) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component that stores energy in its magnetic field.
III. Inductance: Inductance is the ability of Inductor to store energy in magnetic field.
Unit : Henry
IV. Capacitor: A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal
electrical component used to store energy in an electric field.
V. Capacitance: It is the ability of Capacitor to store charge in electric field. Unit: Farad
VI. Reactance: It is opposition which an inductance or capacitance offers to the flow
alternating current. Unit : Ohms
VII. Impedance: It is measure of opposition to the flow of alternating current in an ac circuit.
Unit : Ohms.
VIII. Mutual Inductance: The phenomena in which an emf is induced in one circuit due
change in current in neighboring circuit is called Mutual Inductance.
IX. Power Factor: Ratio of True Power to Apparent Power is called Power factor. For a
resistive circuit its value is 1.
X. Zener Diode: A Zener Diode is a properly doped reversed biased silicon (or Ge) junction
diode operated in the breakdown region. Symbol:
XI. Transistor : Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device used to amplify and
switch electronic signals and electrical power. Two types: i)N-P-N, ii)P-N-P.
XII. Logic Gates : Logic gates are fundamental building blocks of Digital system. Types of
Logic Gates-OR gate, AND gate, NOT gate, NOR gate, NAND gate, etc.
XIII. Bandwidth: Bandwidth of an amplifier is the range of frequencies for which the
amplifier gives satisfactory performance.
XIV. Slew Rate: It is the maximum rate of change of output. It is usually expressed in Volt/sec
XV. Frequency:Number of radio wave passing through a point per second is called
Frequency of radio wave.
 XVI. Wavelength: The distance covered by a wave while travelling through 360⁰.

XVII. Amplifier: Amplifier is a device for increasing the power of a signal by use of external
energy source.
XVIII. Gain: Gain of an amplifier is the ratio of output power to input power and usually
measured in Decibels.

29. What is difference between Electrical & Electronic Devices ?

Ans: Electrical deals with current flow through conductor. It deals with low frequency high
power supply. e.g. Generators, Motors, etc.
Electronics devices deals with current flow through semi-conductors & vaccum tubes. It
deals with high frequency low power supply, e.g. Transistors, Diodes,IC’s,etc.

30. What is a Semi-Conductor? What are the types of Semi-Conductor?

Ans: A semi-conductor material is one whose electrical conductivity lie in between those of
good conductors and bad conductors. e.g: Germanium, Silicon,etc.
Note: Germainium and Silicon are tetravalent atoms having 4 electrons in its outermost
shell
Two Types: Intrinsic Semiconductor
: Extrinsic Semiconductor
Semiconductors without any impurity are called Intrinsic semiconductors. e.g : Ge,Si,etc.
A doped Ge or Si crystal is called Extrinsic Semiconductor.
Extrinsic Semiconductors are of Two types: P-type Semiconductor & N-type Semiconductor
P-type Semiconductor: If a trivalent impurity(Indium,Aluminium,Boron) is added is added
to tetravalent atoms,P-type Semiconductor is formed. Majority Carriers are holes.
N-type Semiconductor: If a pentavalent impurity (Arsenic,Antimony,Phosphorus ) is added
to tetravalent atoms, N-type Semiconductor is formed.

31. What is difference between EMF & Potential Difference?

Ans: EMF is the voltage across the source of electricity when there is no current through the
source i.e. when circuit is opened.
When the circuit is closed, there is current inside the source and hence there is drop of
potential across the internal resistance of the source. Hence in this case voltage across the
terminal of the source will less than the EMF of the source when there is no current. This
voltage is called Potential Difference.
In brief , An electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the open-circuit, or no-load voltage provided by a
source -such as a battery or generator whereas Potential difference is closed circuit voltage.
32. State Kirchoff’s Law.
Ans: Kirchoff’s Current Law: The algebraic sum of electric current meeting at any junction in
a circuit is Zero. i.e. ∑I=0

Kirchoff’s Voltage Law: In a closed loop, the algebraic sum of potential difference and EMF
applied is Zero. i.e. ∑E + ∑V=0

33. State Faraday’s Law of EMI

Ans: 1st Law: Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux associated with a circuit, an emf is
induced in the circuit.
2nd Law: The magnitude of induced EMF is directly proportional to time rate of change
of magnetic flux. e ⍺ dφ⧸dt volt

34. State Lenz Law.

Ans: The direction of induced current is such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux that
produces it. e = -Ndφ⧸dt volt

35. Explain Seeback Effect and Peltier effect?

Ans: Seeback Effect: The phenomena of production of electric current due to difference in
temperature of two junctions of two dissimilar metals forming a closed loop is known
as Seeback effect.
Peltier Effect: The heating and cooling of two junctions of a thermocouple initially at the
same temperature by passage of an electric current is known as Peltier effect.

36. What is Radiation pattern of Localizer?

Ans: Amplitude modulated by 90Hz and 150Hz on carrier frequency 108-112MHz.

37. What is radiation pattern of Glideslope?

Ans: Amplitude modulated by 90Hz abd 150Hz on carrier frequency 328-336MHz

38. What is Lattitude and Longitude of India ?

Ans: Lattitude: 20⁰N of Equator
Longitude: 77⁰E of Greenwich.
39. What is difference between Telegraph & Telephone?
Ans: Telegraph can only communicate by an on/off method (Morse code), The telephone, on the
other hand, required no special skill; you only needed to speak into the microphone, and
listen through the earpiece.

40. What is Transformer?

Ans: An electrical device by means of which the value of an alternating current can be increased
or decreased by using the phenomena of mutual inductance is called Transformer. In this,
frequency and power remains constant.
Referred values: R2’=a2R2, where a=N1/N2.

41. Why Transformer rating is in KVA?

Ans: KVA is the unit for Apparent power. Apparent power consists of active and reactive power.
Active power is the share of the apparent power which transmits energy from the source
(generator) to the user. Reactive power is the share of the apparent power which
represents a useless oscillation of energy from the source to the user and back again. It
occurs when on account of some »inertia« in the system there is a phase shift between
voltage and current. This means that the current does not change polarity synchronous with
the voltage. But the heat generated in a winding as well as the eddy current losses generated
in a transformer core depend on the current only, regardless of whether it aligns with the
voltage or not. Therefore the heat is always proportional to the square of the current
amplitude, irrespective of the phase angle (the shift between voltage and current). So a
transformer has to be rated (and selected) by apparent power.

42. What are Oscillators?

Ans: Many electronic devices require a source of energy at a specific frequency which may range
from few Hz to several MHz. This is achieved by an electronic device called an oscillator.
Therefore an electronic oscillator is defined as a circuit which generates a. output signals
having sine,square,triangularor saw tooth shapes without using external input signal.
Oscillators are used in radio and television receivers to generate high frequency wave in the
tuning stages. Resonant frequency of Tank circuit of Oscillator:

43. Various Formulas:

i. v=ʎf
ii. P=V2 /R=I2 R=IV
iii. T=2 П√L/G
iv. R = R1 + R2 + R3 + …(Series Resistance)
 v. 1 / R = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 +... (Parallel Resistance)
vi. Torque=Force × perpendicular distance

vii.
viii. Weight on Moon=1/6 times weight on Earth
ix. XL=2 ПfL
x. XC=1/2 ПfC
xi. Z=√R2+(XL∼X)2
xii. Irms=I0/√2

44. Various units:

Name of physical Quantity Unit
Length Metre
Mass Kg
Weight Newton
Time Sec
Temperature Kelvin
Amount of substance Mole
Force Newton
Work/Energy/Quantity of Heat Joule
Electric Charge Coulomb
EMF/P.D Volt
Resistance Ohm
Conductance Mho/siemen
Inductance Henry
Capacitance Farad
Impedance/Inductive reactance/Capacative Ohm
reactance
Magnetic Flux Weber
Pressure Pascal
Frequency Hertz
Magnetic Flux density Tesla
Area Square
Volume Cubic metre
Velocity m/s
Acceleration m/s2
Angular velocity Radian/sec
Illumination Lux

45. Various Constant Values:

i. Speed of Light: 3×108 m/s
ii. 1m=3.280ft
iii. 1Kts=1.84km/hr