Multiple Intelligences

Books by Dr. Armstrong

The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of
education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on
I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to
account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults. These intelligences are:

 Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”)

 Logical-mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”)
 Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”)
 Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”)
 Musical intelligence (“music smart”)
 Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”)
 Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”)
 Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”)

Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture focus most of their attention on linguistic and
logical-mathematical intelligence. We esteem the highly articulate or logical people of our
culture. However, Dr. Gardner says that we should also place equal attention on individuals who
show gifts in the other intelligences: the artists, architects, musicians, naturalists, designers,
dancers, therapists, entrepreneurs, and others who enrich the world in which we live.
Unfortunately, many children who have these gifts don’t receive much reinforcement for them in
school. Many of these kids, in fact, end up being labeled “learning disabled,” “ADD (attention
deficit disorder,” or simply underachievers, when their unique ways of thinking and learning
aren’t addressed by a heavily linguistic or logical-mathematical classroom.

The theory of multiple intelligences proposes a major transformation in the way our schools are
run. It suggests that teachers be trained to present their lessons in a wide variety of ways using
music, cooperative learning, art activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, and
much more (see Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, 4th ed.). The good news is that the
theory of multiple intelligences has grabbed the attention of many educators around the country,
and hundreds of schools are currently using its philosophy to redesign the way it educates
children. The bad news is that there are thousands of schools still out there that teach in the same
old dull way, through dry lectures, and boring worksheets and textbooks. The challenge is to get
this information out to many more teachers, school administrators, and others who work with
children, so that each child has the opportunity to learn in ways harmonious with their unique
minds (see In Their Own Way).

The theory of multiple intelligences also has strong implications for adult learning and
development. Many adults find themselves in jobs that do not make optimal use of their most
highly developed intelligences (for example, the highly bodily-kinesthetic individual who is
stuck in a linguistic or logical desk-job when he or she would be much happier in a job where
they could move around, such as a recreational leader, a forest ranger, or physical therapist). The
theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole new way to look at their lives, examining
potentials that they left behind in their childhood (such as a love for art or drama) but now have
the opportunity to develop through courses, hobbies, or other programs of self-development (see
7 Kinds of Smart).

How to Teach or Learn Anything 8 Different Ways

One of the most remarkable features of the theory of multiple intelligences is how it provides
eight different potential pathways to learning. If a teacher is having difficulty reaching a student
in the more traditional linguistic or logical ways of instruction, the theory of multiple
intelligences suggests several other ways in which the material might be presented to facilitate
effective learning. Whether you are a kindergarten teacher, a graduate school instructor, or an
adult learner seeking better ways of pursuing self-study on any subject of interest, the same basic
guidelines apply. Whatever you are teaching or learning, see how you might connect it with

 words (linguistic intelligence)

 numbers or logic (logical-mathematical intelligence)
 pictures (spatial intelligence)
 music (musical intelligence)
  self-reflection (intrapersonal intelligence)
 a physical experience (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence)
 a social experience (interpersonal intelligence), and/or
 an experience in the natural world. (naturalist intelligence)

For example, if you’re teaching or learning about the law of supply and demand in economics,
you might read about it (linguistic), study mathematical formulas that express it (logical-
mathematical), examine a graphic chart that illustrates the principle (spatial), observe the law in
the natural world (naturalist) or in the human world of commerce (interpersonal); examine the
law in terms of your own body [e.g. when you supply your body with lots of food, the hunger
demand goes down; when there’s very little supply, your stomach’s demand for food goes way
up and you get hungry] (bodily-kinesthetic and intrapersonal); and/or write a song (or find an
existing song) that demonstrates the law (perhaps Dylan’s “Too Much of Nothing?”).

You don’t have to teach or learn something in all eight ways, just see what the possibilities are,
and then decide which particular pathways interest you the most, or seem to be the most effective
teaching or learning tools. The theory of multiple intelligences is so intriguing because it
expands our horizon of available teaching/learning tools beyond the conventional linguistic and
logical methods used in most schools (e.g. lecture, textbooks, writing assignments, formulas,
etc.). To get started, put the topic of whatever you’re interested in teaching or learning about in
the center of a blank sheet of paper, and draw eight straight lines or “spokes” radiating out from
this topic. Label each line with a different intelligence. Then start brainstorming ideas for
teaching or learning that topic and write down ideas next to each intelligence (this is a spatial-
linguistic approach of brainstorming; you might want to do this in other ways as well, using a
tape-recorder, having a group brainstorming session, etc.). Have fun!

Theory of multiple intelligences

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The theory of multiple intelligences differentiates human intelligence into specific 'modalities',
rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. Howard Gardner
proposed this model in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.
According to the theory, an intelligence 'modality' must fulfill eight criteria:[1]

1. potential for brain isolation by brain damage,

2. place in evolutionary history,
3. presence of core operations,
4. susceptibility to encoding (symbolic expression),
5. a distinct developmental progression,
6. the existence of savants, prodigies and other exceptional people,
7. support from experimental psychology, and
8. support from psychometric findings.

Gardner proposed seven abilities that he held to meet these criteria:[2]

1. musical-rhythmic,
2. visual-spatial,
3. verbal-linguistic,
4. logical-mathematical,
5. bodily-kinesthetic,
6. interpersonal,
7. intrapersonal

He later suggested that existential and moral intelligences may also be worthy of inclusion.[3]

Although the distinction between intelligences has been set out in great detail, Gardner opposes
the idea of labeling learners to a specific intelligence. Gardner maintains that his theory should
"empower learners", not restrict them to one modality of learning.[4] According to Gardner, an
intelligence is "a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a
cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture."[5] According
to a 2006 study, each of the domains proposed by Gardner involves a blend of the general g
factor, cognitive abilities other than g, and, in some cases, non-cognitive abilities or personality
characteristics.[6]

Musical-rhythmic and harmonic

Main article: Musicality

This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music. People with a high
musical intelligence normally have good pitch and may even have absolute pitch, and are able to
sing, play musical instruments, and compose music. They have sensitivity to rhythm, pitch,
meter, tone, melody or timbre.[7][8]

Visual-spatial

Main article: Spatial intelligence (psychology)

This area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye. Spatial
ability is one of the three factors beneath g in the hierarchical model of intelligence.[8]

Verbal-linguistic

Main article: Linguistic intelligence

People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and languages. They
are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and memorizing words along with dates.[8]
Verbal ability is one of the most g-loaded abilities.[9] This type of intelligence is measured with
the Verbal IQ in WAIS-IV.

Logical-mathematical

Further information: Reason

This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning, numbers and critical thinking.[8] This also
has to do with having the capacity to understand the underlying principles of some kind of causal
system.[7] Logical reasoning is closely linked to fluid intelligence and to general intelligence (g
factor).[10]

Bodily-kinesthetic

Further information: Gross motor skill and Fine motor skill

The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's bodily motions and
the capacity to handle objects skillfully.[8] Gardner elaborates to say that this also includes a
sense of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical action, along with the ability to train
responses.

People who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should be generally good at physical
activities such as sports, dance, acting, and making things.

Gardner believes that careers that suit those with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence include:
athletes, dancers, musicians, actors, builders, police officers, and soldiers. Although these careers
can be duplicated through virtual simulation, they will not produce the actual physical learning
that is needed in this intelligence.[11]

Interpersonal

Main article: Social skills

In theory, individuals who have high interpersonal intelligence are characterized by their
sensitivity to others' moods, feelings, temperaments, motivations, and their ability to cooperate in
order to work as part of a group. According to Gardner in How Are Kids Smart: Multiple
Intelligences in the Classroom, "Inter- and Intra- personal intelligence is often misunderstood
with being extroverted or liking other people..."[12] Those with high interpersonal intelligence
communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be either leaders or
followers. They often enjoy discussion and debate." Gardner has equated this with emotional
intelligence of Goleman.[13]

Gardner believes that careers that suit those with high interpersonal intelligence include sales
persons, politicians, managers, teachers, lecturers, counselors and social workers.[14]

Intrapersonal

Further information: Introspection

This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. This refers to having a deep
understanding of the self; what one's strengths or weaknesses are, what makes one unique, being
able to predict one's own reactions or emotions.

Naturalistic

Not part of Gardner's original seven, naturalistic intelligence was proposed by him in 1995. "If I
were to rewrite Frames of Mind today, I would probably add an eighth intelligence – the
intelligence of the naturalist. It seems to me that the individual who is readily able to recognize
flora and fauna, to make other consequential distinctions in the natural world, and to use this
ability productively (in hunting, in farming, in biological science) is exercising an important
intelligence and one that is not adequately encompassed in the current list."[15] This area has to
do with nurturing and relating information to one's natural surroundings.[8] Examples include
classifying natural forms such as animal and plant species and rocks and mountain types. This
ability was clearly of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it
continues to be central in such roles as botanist or chef.[7]

This sort of ecological receptiveness is deeply rooted in a "sensitive, ethical, and holistic
understanding" of the world and its complexities – including the role of humanity within the
greater ecosphere.[16]

Existential

Main article: Spiritual intelligence

Gardner did not want to commit to a spiritual intelligence, but suggested that an "existential"
intelligence may be a useful construct, also proposed after the original 7 in his 1999 book.[17] The
hypothesis of an existential intelligence has been further explored by educational researchers.[18]

Additional intelligences

On January 13, 2016, Gardner mentioned in an interview with BigThink that he is considering
adding the teaching-pedagogical intelligence "which allows us to be able to teach successfully to
other people".[19] In the same interview, he explicitly refused some other suggested intelligences
like humour, cooking and sexual intelligence.[19]

Critical reception
Gardner argues that there is a wide range of cognitive abilities, but that there are only very weak
correlations among them. For example, the theory postulates that a child who learns to multiply
easily is not necessarily more intelligent than a child who has more difficulty on this task. The
child who takes more time to master multiplication may best learn to multiply through a different
approach, may excel in a field outside mathematics, or may be looking at and understanding the
multiplication process at a fundamentally deeper level.

Intelligence tests and psychometrics have generally found high correlations between different
aspects of intelligence, rather than the low correlations which Gardner's theory predicts,
supporting the prevailing theory of general intelligence rather than multiple intelligences (MI).[20]
The theory has been criticized by mainstream psychology for its lack of empirical evidence, and
its dependence on subjective judgement.[21] However research by Dweck (2006),[22] referred to as
Growth Mindset Theory, shows that individuals with low correlations can attain also high
correlations through intelligence growth. This challenges the notion of fixed or static intelligence
levels that general intelligence tests measure. More importantly, it challenges the notion that
intelligence test scores are an accurate predictor for future ability.

Definition of intelligence

One major criticism of the theory is that it is ad hoc: that Gardner is not expanding the definition
of the word "intelligence", but rather denies the existence of intelligence as traditionally
understood, and instead uses the word "intelligence" where other people have traditionally used
words like "ability" and "aptitude". This practice has been criticized by Robert J. Sternberg,[23][24]
Eysenck,[25] and Scarr.[26] White (2006) points out that Gardner's selection and application of
criteria for his "intelligences" is subjective and arbitrary, and that a different researcher would
likely have come up with different criteria.[27]

Defenders of MI theory argue that the traditional definition of intelligence is too narrow, and
thus a broader definition more accurately reflects the differing ways in which humans think and
learn.[28]

Some criticisms arise from the fact that Gardner has not provided a test of his multiple
intelligences. He originally defined it as the ability to solve problems that have value in at least
one culture, or as something that a student is interested in. He then added a disclaimer that he has
no fixed definition, and his classification is more of an artistic judgment than fact:

Ultimately, it would certainly be desirable to have an algorithm for the selection of an

intelligence, such that any trained researcher could determine whether a candidate's intelligence
met the appropriate criteria. At present, however, it must be admitted that the selection (or
rejection) of a candidate's intelligence is reminiscent more of an artistic judgment than of a
scientific assessment.[29]

Generally, linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities are called intelligences, but artistic,
musical, athletic, etc. abilities are not. Gardner argues this causes the former to be needlessly
aggrandized. Certain critics are wary of this widening of the definition, saying that it ignores "the
connotation of intelligence ... [which] has always connoted the kind of thinking skills that makes
one successful in school."[30]

Gardner writes "I balk at the unwarranted assumption that certain human abilities can be
arbitrarily singled out as intelligence while others cannot."[31] Critics hold that given this
statement, any interest or ability can be redefined as "intelligence". Thus, studying intelligence
becomes difficult, because it diffuses into the broader concept of ability or talent. Gardner's
addition of the naturalistic intelligence and conceptions of the existential and moral intelligences
are seen as the fruits of this diffusion. Defenders of the MI theory would argue that this is simply
a recognition of the broad scope of inherent mental abilities, and that such an exhaustive scope
by nature defies a one-dimensional classification such as an IQ value.

The theory and definitions have been critiqued by Perry D. Klein as being so unclear as to be
tautologous and thus unfalsifiable. Having a high musical ability means being good at music
while at the same time being good at music is explained by having a high musical ability.[32]

Henri Wallon shows that « We can not distinguish intelligence from its operations »[33]. Yves
Richez discovers 10 Natural Operating Modes (Modes Opératoire Naturel - MoON)[34]. The
Richez's studies show a gap between Chinese thought and Western thought. In China, notion of
« Being » (Self) and notion of « intelligence » don't exist. Those are greek-Latin inventions
(Platon). Instead of intelligence, Chinese speaks of « operating modes ». Thus, Yves Richez
doesn't talk of « intelligence » but of « natural operating modes » (Mo.O.N.).

Neo-Piagetian criticism

Andreas Demetriou suggests that theories which overemphasize the autonomy of the domains are
as simplistic as the theories that overemphasize the role of general intelligence and ignore the
domains. He agrees with Gardner that there are indeed domains of intelligence that are relevantly
autonomous of each other.[35] Some of the domains, such as verbal, spatial, mathematical, and
social intelligence are identified by most lines of research in psychology. In Demetriou's theory,
one of the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, Gardner is criticized for
underestimating the effects exerted on the various domains of intelligences by the various
subprocesses that define overall processing efficiency, such as speed of processing, executive
functions, working memory, and meta-cognitive processes underlying self-awareness and self-
regulation. All of these processes are integral components of general intelligence that regulate
the functioning and development of different domains of intelligence.[36]

The domains are to a large extent expressions of the condition of the general processes, and may
vary because of their constitutional differences but also differences in individual preferences and
inclinations. Their functioning both channels and influences the operation of the general
processes.[37][38] Thus, one cannot satisfactorily specify the intelligence of an individual or design
effective intervention programs unless both the general processes and the domains of interest are
evaluated.[39][40]

Human adaptation to multiple environments

The premise of the multiple intelligences hypothesis, that human intelligence is a collection of
specialist abilities, have been criticized for not being able to explain human adaptation to most if
not all environments in the world. In this context, humans are contrasted to social insects that
indeed have a distributed "intelligence" of specialists, and such insects may spread to climates
resembling that of their origin but the same species never adapt to a wide range of climates from
tropical to temperate by building different types of nests and learning what is edible and what is
poisonous. While some such as the leafcutter ant grow fungi on leaves, they do not cultivate
different species in different environments with different farming techniques as human
agriculture does. It is therefore argued that human adaptability stems from a general ability to
falsify hypotheses and make more generally accurate predictions and adapt behavior thereafter,
and not a set of specialized abilities which would only work under specific environmental
conditions.[41][42]

IQ tests

Gardner argues that IQ tests only measure linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities. He
argues the importance of assessing in an "intelligence-fair" manner. While traditional paper-and-
pen examinations favor linguistic and logical skills, there is a need for intelligence-fair measures
that value the distinct modalities of thinking and learning that uniquely define each
intelligence.[8]

Psychologist Alan S. Kaufman points out that IQ tests have measured spatial abilities for 70
years.[43] Modern IQ tests are greatly influenced by the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory which
incorporates a general intelligence but also many more narrow abilities. While IQ tests do give
an overall IQ score, they now also give scores for many more narrow abilities.[43]

Lack of empirical evidence

According to a 2006 study many of Gardner's "intelligences" correlate with the g factor,
supporting the idea of a single dominant type of intelligence. According to the study, each of the
domains proposed by Gardner involved a blend of g, of cognitive abilities other than g, and, in
some cases, of non-cognitive abilities or of personality characteristics.[6]

Linda Gottfredson (2006) has argued that thousands of studies support the importance of
intelligence quotient (IQ) in predicting school and job performance, and numerous other life
outcomes. In contrast, empirical support for non-g intelligences is either lacking or very poor.
She argued that despite this the ideas of multiple non-g intelligences are very attractive to many
due to the suggestion that everyone can be smart in some way.[44]

A critical review of MI theory argues that there is little empirical evidence to support it:

To date, there have been no published studies that offer evidence of the validity of the multiple
intelligences. In 1994 Sternberg reported finding no empirical studies. In 2000 Allix reported
finding no empirical validating studies, and at that time Gardner and Connell conceded that there
was "little hard evidence for MI theory" (2000, p. 292). In 2004 Sternberg and Grigerenko stated
that there were no validating studies for multiple intelligences, and in 2004 Gardner asserted that
he would be "delighted were such evidence to accrue",[45] and admitted that "MI theory has few
enthusiasts among psychometricians or others of a traditional psychological background"
because they require "psychometric or experimental evidence that allows one to prove the
existence of the several intelligences."[45][46]

The same review presents evidence to demonstrate that cognitive neuroscience research does not
support the theory of multiple intelligences:
... the human brain is unlikely to function via Gardner's multiple intelligences. Taken together
the evidence for the intercorrelations of subskills of IQ measures, the evidence for a shared set of
genes associated with mathematics, reading, and g, and the evidence for shared and overlapping
"what is it?" and "where is it?" neural processing pathways, and shared neural pathways for
language, music, motor skills, and emotions suggest that it is unlikely that each of Gardner's
intelligences could operate "via a different set of neural mechanisms" (1999, p. 99). Equally
important, the evidence for the "what is it?" and "where is it?" processing pathways, for
Kahneman's two decision-making systems, and for adapted cognition modules suggests that
these cognitive brain specializations have evolved to address very specific problems in our
environment. Because Gardner claimed that the intelligences are innate potentialities related to a
general content area, MI theory lacks a rationale for the phylogenetic emergence of the
intelligences.[46]

The theory of multiple intelligences is sometimes cited as an example of pseudoscience because

it lacks empirical evidence or falsifiability,[47] though Gardner has argued otherwise.[48]

Use in education
Gardner defines an intelligence as "bio-psychological potential to process information that can
be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a
culture."[49] According to Gardner, there are more ways to do this than just through logical and
linguistic intelligence. Gardner believes that the purpose of schooling "should be to develop
intelligences and to help people reach vocational and avocational goals that are appropriate to
their particular spectrum of intelligences. People who are helped to do so, [he] believe[s], feel
more engaged and competent and therefore more inclined to serve society in a constructive
way."[a]

Gardner contends that IQ tests focus mostly on logical and linguistic intelligence. Upon doing
well on these tests, the chances of attending a prestigious college or university increase, which in
turn creates contributing members of society.[50] While many students function well in this
environment, there are those who do not. Gardner's theory argues that students will be better
served by a broader vision of education, wherein teachers use different methodologies, exercises
and activities to reach all students, not just those who excel at linguistic and logical intelligence.
It challenges educators to find "ways that will work for this student learning this topic".[51]

James Traub's article in The New Republic notes that Gardner's system has not been accepted by
most academics in intelligence or teaching.[52] Gardner states that "while Multiple Intelligences
theory is consistent with much empirical evidence, it has not been subjected to strong
experimental tests ... Within the area of education, the applications of the theory are currently
being examined in many projects. Our hunches will have to be revised many times in light of
actual classroom experience."[53]

Jerome Bruner agreed with Gardner that the intelligences were "useful fictions," and went on to
state that "his approach is so far beyond the data-crunching of mental testers that it deserves to be
cheered."[54]

George Miller, a prominent cognitive psychologist, wrote in The New York Times Book Review
that Gardner's argument consisted of "hunch and opinion" and Charles Murray and Richard J.
Herrnstein in The Bell Curve (1994) called Gardner's theory "uniquely devoid of psychometric or
other quantitative evidence."[55]

In spite of its lack of general acceptance in the psychological community, Gardner's theory has
been adopted by many schools, where it is often conflated with learning styles,[56] and hundreds
of books have been written about its applications in education.[57] Some of the applications of
Gardner's theory have been described as "simplistic" and Gardner himself has said he is "uneasy"
with the way his theory has been used in schools.[58] Gardner has denied that multiple
intelligences are learning styles and agrees that the idea of learning styles is incoherent and
lacking in empirical evidence.[59] Gardner summarizes his approach with three recommendations
for educators: individualize the teaching style (to suit the most effective method for each
student), pluralize the teaching (teach important materials in multiple ways), and avoid the term
"styles" as being confusing.[60]
What are multiple intelligences and how do they affect
learning?
Over the past few decades, research in the field of learning has led to the discovery of the Theory
of Multiple Intelligences. In short, this theory states that each person has different ways of
learning and different intelligences they use in their daily lives.

While some can learn very well in a linguistically-based environment (reading and writing),
others are better taught through mathematical-logic based learning. Still others benefit most from
body-kinesthetic intelligence (learning by doing with the hands).

Each person possesses each intelligence to an extent, but there is always a primary, or more
dominant, intelligence.

The work on multiple intelligences began in the early 1980s with Howard Gardner, and the
research continues.

Howard Gardner of Harvard University originally identified seven distinct intelligences.

According to Gardner, this theory, which emerged from cognitive research, "documents the
extent to which students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember,
perform, and understand in different ways."

In greater detail, the theory proposes that "we are all able to know the world through language,
logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to
solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals and an understanding of
ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences and the ways in which
such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems
and progress in various domains." Hani Morgan (2014) supports Gardner's theory. Morgan's
research indicated that differentiated instruction benefits all students, but must be presented by
well-prepared, experience and knowledgeable teachers.

The 9 Multiple Intelligences

Gardner claims that all human beings have multiple intelligences. These multiple intelligences
can be nurtured and strengthened or ignored and weakened. His research from 1991 identified
seven intelligences; in the intervening time, he has come to believe there are a total of nine
intelligences:

 Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the

sounds, meanings and rhythms of words.
 Mathematical-Logical Intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly,
and the capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns.
 Musical Intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timbre.
 Visual-Spatial Intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize
accurately and abstractly.
 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: The ability to control one's body movements and to
handle objects skillfully.
 Interpersonal Intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the
moods, motivations and desires of others.
 Intrapersonal Intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner
feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes.
 Naturalist Intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other
objects in nature.
 Existential Intelligence: The sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about
human existence, such as the meaning of life, why we die and how we got here.

While all people possess some level of each intelligence, most will experience more dominant
intelligences which impact the way they learn and interact with the world around them.
Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles

Some may find it an impossible task to teach to all learning styles. However, teachers are using
multimedia, so it is becoming easier. As teachers begin to understand learning styles more
effectively, it is clear why multimedia is good for all learners and why a variety of media is more
effective. Multimedia inherently speaks to the different types of learning preferences that one
person has and has the potential to impart knowledge to a diverse class or group.

There are specific modes of multimedia and instruction techniques, which include the following:

 Visuals: Visual media help students acquire concrete concepts, such as object
identification, spatial relationship or motor skills.
 Printed words: While the printed word is the most common method of dispensing
information, some argue that audio is superior.
 Sound: Sound media offer a stimulus for sound recognition or recall. Audio narration is a
useful tool for students who struggle with reading.
 Motion: Motion depicts human performance so that learners can copy the movement.
This kinesthetic method can be essential for understanding some subject matter.
 Color: Choices on color display are required if it is essential to what is being learned
(such as, the sky is blue).
 Realia: Realia teaches cognitive and motor skills with objects. Realia can be used with
individuals or groups, depending on the situation. Realia may be used to present
information realistically, or with the way learners internalize information.
 Instructional Setting: Design must include what materials are being used, as well as the
environment in which it is to be taught. Printed materials should be individualized to
allow the learner to set the pace.
 Learner Characteristics: Teaching models must consider learner characteristics, as
media may be interpreted in various ways by different learners. Research has not
provided definitive methods in matching the media most suitable for types of learners.
 Reading ability: Pictures aid learning for poor readers who understand spoken words
rather than printed words; good readers can control the pace, and print allows for easier
review.
 Categories of Learning Outcomes: Categories ranged from three to eleven and most
include some or all of Gagne's (1977) learning categories: intellectual skills, motor skills,
verbal information, overall attitudes and use of cognitive strategies.
 Events of Instruction: Teachers have to choose the external events which support
internal learning with events of instruction. This occurs in the planning stage and before
selection of appropriate media.
 Performance: It is important for students to perform tasks that demonstrate learning and
retention. The elicited performances can be categorized by type: covert, overt, motor,
verbal, constructed and select. Media should be selected to correspond with the desired
outcome.

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom

Educators have positively responded to Gardner's theory. It has been embraced by a range of
educational theorists and, significantly, applied by teachers and policymakers to the problems of
schooling.

Many schools in North America have sought to structure curricula according to the intelligences
and to design classrooms—even whole schools—to reflect the understandings that Howard
Gardner develops.

All intelligences are needed to live life well. Teachers, therefore, need to attend to all
intelligences, not just the first two of verbal-linguistic or mathematical-logical intelligences,
which have historically taken precedence.
Multiple Intelligence Activities

One of the most significant results of the theory of multiple intelligences is how it has provided
eight different potential pathways to learning. If a teacher is having difficulty reaching a student
in the more traditional linguistic or logical ways of instruction, the theory of multiple
intelligences suggests several other ways in which the material might be presented to facilitate
effective learning:

 Words (linguistic intelligence).

 Numbers or logic (logical-mathematical intelligence).
 Pictures (spatial intelligence).
 Music (musical intelligence).
 Self-reflection (intrapersonal intelligence).
 A physical experience (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence).
 A social experience (interpersonal intelligence).
 An experience in the natural world (naturalist intelligence).

You don't have to teach or learn something in all eight ways. However, simply knowing the
possibilities available can enable you to decide which particular pathways interest you the most
or seem to be the most effective teaching or learning tools.

The theory of multiple intelligences is so intriguing because it expands our horizon of available
teaching and learning tools beyond the conventional linguistic and logical methods used in most
schools (e.g. lecture, textbooks, writing assignments, formulas, etc.).

Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons

Having an understanding of different teaching approaches from which we all can learn, as well
as a toolbox with a variety of ways to present content to students, is valuable for increasing the
accessibility of learning experiences for all students.

We want to continue to develop this toolbox, so it is especially important to gather ongoing

information about student strengths and challenges, as well as their developing interests and
dislikes. Providing different learning contexts for students and engaging a variety of their senses
is supported by current research. Studies done by Hamari et al (2016) suggest that engaging in
learning games has a positive effect on learning: ". . . educational video games may be an
effective means of posing learning challenges that are perceived as interesting and enjoyable,
resulting in engagement and immersion in the game-based learning task."

As our insatiable curiosity about the learning process persists and studies continue to evolve,
additional scientific research may emerge that further elaborates on multiple intelligences and
learning styles.

How do we benefit from understanding multiple intelligences?

When educators are given the freedom to move away from the traditional, visually-based
methods of teaching, they will have the opportunity to reach more students, more effectively. By
teaching to the dominant learning intelligences, teachers will find students to be more
productive, more receptive and more willing to engage in the learning process.

As so many educators have already embraced this theory, it is time for educational
administrators to take notice of new techniques that can be successful based on the research of
Howard Gardner and the other researchers who have followed.