Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
MAY 2008
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To my family, even though you guys might just be interested in the title of this
project but your support and faith pulled me through. Thank You!
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Many thanks to all my friends that help me understand what I’m doing,
guiding me and giving me tips, especially to Kak Nor and Faezah, thank you very
much for your contribution. Also to my advisor Prof. Dr. Tharek, thank you for
your ideas, patience and understanding.
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ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
1 GENERAL OVERVIEW 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Outline of a Smart Antenna 2
2 IMPLEMENTATION OF A SMART 6
ANTENNA SYSTEM
2.1 Execution technique of a Smart 6
Antenna System
2.2 Smart / Multi-antenna System 7
2.2.1 SISO 7
2.2.2 SIMO 9
8
2.2.3 MISO 10
2.2.4 MIMO 12
2.3 Classification of Smart Antennas 15
2.3.1 Beamforming 16
2.3.2 Diversity Combining 17
2.3.3 Space-time equalization 18
2.3.4 Multiple Input Multiple Output 19
2.4 Interaction of Smart antennas within a wireless system 21
2.5 Smart antenna APIs for software radios 23
2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of smart antennas 27
3 MULTIANTENNA ALGORITHMS 29
3.1 Usage of Algorithms 29
3.2 Building blocks for Multiantenna Algorithms 29
3.2.1 Common building blocks 30
3.2.2 Scalable building blocks 31
3.3 Smart antenna algorithms 32
3.4 Overview of LMS Adaptive FIR 34
3.5 Standard LMS Algorithm 35
3.6 Stability of the LMS Algorithm 38
5 CONCLUSION 49
5.1 Overall Conclusion 49
5.2 Future Work 50
REFERENCE 51
APPENDICES 53-73
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LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF APPENDICES
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL OVERVIEW
1.1 Introduction
Smart antennas have been around for about 40 years which were first used in
RADAR applications in the form of phased array. Research on application of smart
antennas has paved the way for their use in commercial wireless systems [1]. Smart
antennas are currently used in wireless communication systems to provide
interference reduction and enhance user capacity, data rates. Current applications
of the smart antennas are predominantly at the cellular base stations due to area and
processing power requirements.
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The antenna arrays have input or output as RF signals in the analog domain.
These signals are passed to/from the RF analog front end which usually consists of low
noise amplifiers, mixers and analog filters. In the receive mode, the RF signals are
converted to digital domain by analog to digital converters (ADCs) and in transmit
mode, the base band digital signals are converted to RF using digital to analog
converters (DACs). The down-conversion from RF to base band or up-conversion
from base band to RF can involve the use of IF signals. The base band signals received
from each antenna is then combined using the “smart” algorithms in a digital
processing section. Each antenna element hence has a RF chain going from the
antenna element to RF front end to digital conversion for receiver and vice-versa for
transmitter. The digital processing section can be implemented on a microprocessor
or a DSP or FPGA.
x1
Downconvert ADC W
x2
W
Downconvert ADC y
Σ Demodulator
RF Adaptive
Section Algorithm
Smart Antenna
Section
yt= w t x t (1.1)
The array output is then compared with some reference signal in the ‘Generate
Error Signal’ block to generate an error signal which is then adaptively minimized by
an adaptive algorithm. This adaptation process involves changing the weight vector
according to some minimization criteria. For example, for stochastic gradient based
Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm, the weight update equation has the following
form:
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where w(k), e(k) and x(k) are the weight vector, error signal and input signal vector at
the k-th instant and ‘*’ denotes complex conjugate operation. In most cases, the weight
vector is updated during some training sequence when some known or pilot symbols are
transmitted and at the end of the training sequence, the array output is fed to the
demodulator and subsequently to the upper layers of the system.
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CHAPTER 2
The wireless spectrum is limited and during the last decade it has become a
precious resource. Achieving the capacities needed for future wireless systems
without increasing the required spectrum will only be accomplished by the design and
implementation of advanced communications techniques such as multi-antenna systems.
These systems are realized by time-consuming and computationally complex
algorithms, requiring new digital hardware architectures to be developed. The
development of efficient hardware architectures for multi-antenna algorithms is the
focus of this thesis.
2.2.1 SISO
A better way is to only transmit in the direction of the receiver. In the same manner
it is more efficient to only listen in the direction of the transmitter and not in all
directions at the same time. This will increase energy efficiency and will also lead to a
reduction in interference between different transmitters and thereby increase the efficiency
in an interference limited system.
Another drawback with SISO systems is that they are vulnerable to multipath
effects. When the electromagnetic wavefront travels towards the receiver, its propagation
path can be obstructed by objects. In an outdoor environment this can for instance be
caused by objects such as hills, buildings, trees, cars, etc., while in an indoor scenario
the signal can be obstructed by doors, walls, people, furniture, etc. The wavefronts
will then be reflected and scattered by these objects, thus creating multiple paths to the
receiver (figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2 Scattered and reflected signals due to obstruction, causing multipath effects.
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2.2.2 SIMO
There are mainly two different categories of smart antenna systems [6]. Single
input - multiple output system (SIMO). In a SIMO system, one antenna is used at the
transmitter, and two or more antennas are used at the receiver as shown in Figure 2.3.
2.2.3 MISO
In this way the signals coming from the directions of the listening beams can
be combined at the receiver, thus increasing the signal-to-noise ratio and lowering the
bit error rate. The concept of using smart antennas to transmit and receive data more
intelligently has existed for many years. Simple smart antenna techniques, like the
switched beam technology, where the antenna systems form multiple fixed beams with
heightened sensitivity in particular directions, have been used in commercial applications
for some time [4]-[6]. These antenna systems detect signal strength, choose from one of
several predetermined, fixed beams, and switch from one beam to another as the mobile
device moves throughout the beam pattern.
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Smart antenna technology represents the most advanced approach to date taking
advantage of its ability to effectively locate and track various types of signals to
minimize interference and maximize signal reception [6].
Figure 2.5 A SIMO system where the multiple antennas at the receiver create beams
that listen in the directions of the multipaths.
Smart antenna technology can, with some modification, be integrated into all
major access methods such as frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time
division multiple access (TDMA), code division multiple access (CDMA), etc. and has
widespread applications in several different areas such as digital television (DTV),
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body area networks (BAN), personal area networks (PAN), wireless local area
networks (WLAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN), and mobile communications
[7],[8]. However, the technique requires sophisticated algorithms and computationally
heavy algorithms to operate in real-time.
Figure 2.6 Smart antenna techniques can be used in satellite transmission to cover
small hotspots, or in cellular systems to track individual mobiles.
2.2.4 MIMO
Figure 2.8 A MIMO system using beamforming to transmit the signal in specific
directions and creating beams to listen for signals coming from those directions.
Data transmitted from the multiple antenna elements will be mixed when traveling
throughout the propagation channel as shown by figure 2.10. Each individual antenna
element in the receiver will detect a combination of the transmitted data.
Figure 2.10 The transmitted datastream is mixed when traveling through the
channel.
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The received data must then be resolved by signal processing algorithms before
it can be combined into a single datastream again. In this way MIMO can exploit the
phenomena of multipath propagation to increase throughput, or reduce bit error rates,
rather than suffer from it [7].
MIMO will be incorporated into the new IEEE 802.1 1n standard for local-area
wireless networks, which will improve the coverage and data rate significantly. The
IEEE 802.1 1n standard is still being discussed, but data throughput is estimated to
reach a theoretical 540 Mbit/s. The data rate requirement at the physical layer may be
even higher, prompting for new high-speed hardware solutions. Although a few
manufacturers have released consumer products with so called pre-n hardware,
exploiting rudimentary diversity by using 2 to 4 antenna elements, the widespread
usage of MIMO will not be a reality before the standard is set. MIMO has also been
added to the latest draft version of Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.1 6e).
Based on the signal processing technique followed at the baseband output of the
antenna array smart antennas can be grouped into four basic types based on:
i) Beamforming
ii) Diversity combining
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2.3.1 Beamforming
antennas are used it becomes less likely that two or more antennas undergo deep fades
at the same time. This diversity in the received signal, for the same transmitted
information, is exploited by smart antenna processing schemes. Many simple
algorithms, such as maximal ratio combining, equal gain combining, and selection
diversity have been developed to take advantage of using antenna arrays to exploit
diversity reception in wireless systems. These algorithms weight the received signal
similar to beamforming but based on a different criterion used in the algorithm [4-5].
The preceding two techniques usually assume that the signal of interest is a
narrowband signal compared to the coherence bandwidth of the channel and is thus
subjected to flat fading across the bandwidth of the signal. Multipath fading in wireless
communication can also introduce frequency distortion to the received signal.
As the name suggests this scheme requires array processing at the transmitter and
receiver. There are two different types of MIMO schemes: one uses spatial
multiplexing to enhance data rate for a given bandwidth (thus, the spectral efficiency)
and the other uses space time coding using diversity combining techniques to combat
fading. In the multiplexing scheme, data is serial to parallel converted and
transmitted simultaneously over multiple antenna elements [6]. The receiver also uses
multiple antenna elements to receive the signal and applies a maximum likelihood (ML)
algorithm to retrieve the simultaneously transmitted symbols.
One key assumption in this case is that the propagation environment has to
provide rich scattering; in other words, the propagation channel has to include a large
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number of scattering objects that will generate independent fading at the antenna
elements. In the case of space-time coding, symbols to be transmitted are coded over
multiple antennas and symbol time durations in such a way that the receiver can
easily regenerate the transmitted signals by doing a linear processing on received signal.
The space-time codes rely on the orthogonality present in the coded symbols
for proper detection, and additionally they require the fading to be independent
between the antenna elements for best performance results. Figure 2.14 shows the set-
up of a MIMO system with nT and nR antennas at the transmitter and receiver
respectively.
A transceiver can have both transmit and receive chains using more than one
antenna element. Each antenna element has its own RF and IF parts. The beamforming
network shown here is mostly used in fixed beamforming which in a software radio
scenario can be adaptively controlled using software. The bank of ADCs and DACs
are used for digital conversions in the receive and transmit case respectively. Finally there
is a baseband domain where smart antenna algorithms are run in the digital or software
domain. The smart antenna algorithms can also be combined with other baseband signal
processing algorithms in certain scenarios. In such cases a smart antenna processing
cannot be considered separate from other baseband modules in a software radio. Data
processing in smart antenna is usually done in the baseband signal processing part.
Hence the inputs to this section come from the digital converters in the case of a receiver
and form outputs in the case of transmitter. The data after processing is passed to the
upper network layer via software control. It is the reverse in the case when data from the
network layer needs to be transmitted.
All the components shown in the block diagram have control signals which in a
software radio will be generated in software. This control is necessary for various
operations like feedback from network layer, generating control signals to perform array
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The Antenna Class that has been designed consists of both a simple passive
radiating element as well as an antenna array with possibly some dedicated intelligence.
UML profile of the Antenna Device created using Rational Rose Software is shown in
Figure 2.16:
A smart antenna API when designed will need to interact with the antenna API
which already has specifications to include the antenna requirements for a smart
antenna. Some of the important considerations that should be taken into account for
establishing a smart antenna API are discussed below. First a smart antenna subsystem can
operate either in transmit, receive or calibration mode in which case the number of inputs
and outputs can be varied according to number of antennas used. Next a smart
antenna needs to choose from different classes of operation as explained earlier.
Within these classes it can choose a combination of processing techniques which may
be based on the IP developed.
Based on the above classification of API primitives Table 2.1 [19] shows
and example of API primitives that need to be considered for beamforming SABS.
Other advantages as seen from various types of smart antennas studied in section
2 include robustness against multipath fading and noise which improves reliability of
received signal; reduced power consumption for handsets; low probability of
interception and detection; enhanced location estimates and enhanced range of
reception. Recent studies on use of smart antennas in mobile terminals have also shown
to improve network capacity in ad-hoc networks.
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One of the major existing disadvantages of smart antennas is in their design and
implementation in hardware. Multiple RF chains can increase the cost and make the
transceiver bulkier. Most of the baseband processing requires coherent signals. This
means that all the mixer LOs and ADC clocks need to be derived from same sources.
This can present significant design challenges. The phase characteristics of RF
components can change over time. These changes are relatively static and hence need
calibration procedures to account for phase differences. Most of the devices such as
mixers amplifiers and ADCS used are non-linear devices.
Using smart antennas can increase the number of such components used. This can
affect the performance of the array if not checked periodically. Further more since
antenna arrays use more than one source of signal the data bandwidth required for
digital processing increases linearly with number of antenna elements used. This can
limit data rates for different applications. Note that the technological challenges in
terms of hardware and processing load can be satisfactorily met by resorting to present-
day miniaturized RF components and faster and low power processors.
The accommodation of the antenna array itself within a small factor device,
however remains a challenge. Access points and base stations can easily host antenna
arrays of four or more elements but with existing microstrip or patch antenna
technology, up to three elements can be fitted in a handset form-factor. The
wrapping of the hand around a handheld device may diminish the performance of a
handheld smart antenna system.
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CHAPTER 3
MULTIANTENNA ALGORITHMS
It is important to point out that the antennas themselves are not “smart”, it is rather
the underlying antenna systems that have the intelligence in the form of advanced signal
processing algorithms. In order to be able to take full advantage of the multiantenna
techniques, discussed in the previous section, advanced and computationally heavy
communications algorithms must be used. There are myriads of different algorithms,
which are optimized and specialized for different multiantenna systems and for
different user scenarios. A brief discussion on smart antenna and MIMO methods are
given below.
For example, in the case of the Capon algorithm a matrix is to be inverted and in
the ESPRIT algorithm a SVD is done. Some of the matrix operations will be discussed
in detail in part II of the thesis which deals with the implementation of matrix operations
such as the QR-decomposition and matrix inversion.
Smart antennas, in their simplest form, linearly combines antenna signals into a
weight vector that is used to control the beam pattern. The weights can be determined in
a number of ways using different algorithms. These smart antenna algorithms can
crudely be divided into three classes of algorithms, spatial reference, temporal
reference, and blind algorithms [7]. The common features of the two first algorithm
classes are that they both form beam patterns and they are based on linear weighting
and addition of received signals at the antenna elements. The difference between the
two classes is in how they calculate the antenna weights. The third class of algorithms
uses neither of the features used by spatial and temporal reference algorithms. Instead
they exploit the statistical properties of the transmit signal.
In Spatial reference algorithms (SR) the antenna weights are chosen based on
knowledge of the array structure [6],[7]. These algorithms estimate the direction of
arrival (DOA) of both the desired and interfering signals. The DOAs can be determined
by applying different methods to the sampled data from the antenna array. The simplest
way of extracting the DOAs is to use spatial Fourier transform on the signal vector.
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This method is limited by its resolution (size of antenna array) and has
therefore limited usages. In cases where good resolution is necessary, so called high-
resolution methods could be used. High-resolution methods are limited only by the
modeling errors and noise and not by the size of the antenna array [6],[7] . Common
high-resolution algorithms include:
Temporal reference algorithms (TR) are based on prior knowledge of the time
structure of the received signals [6],[7]. Usually a training sequence is used as a
temporal reference. The receiver aims to adjust or choose antenna weights in a way so
that the deviation of the combined signal at the output and in the known training sequence
is minimized. The calculated weights are then used to form a beam pattern.
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The third class of algorithms is termed blind algorithms (BA) [6],[7]. These
algorithms are based on prior knowledge of the signal properties of the transmitted
signal. Depending on which statistical properties of the transmitted signal are exploited,
we are able to apply different algorithms to determine the signal matrix from the
received sample data.
The proposed LMS adaptive FIR filter consists of two basic processes. The first
is a filtering process that involves computing the output of the FIR filter, produced by a
set of tap inputs, and also generating an error estimate by comparing this output to a known
desired response. The second is an adaptive process involving the automatic adjustment
of the tap weights of the filter according to the error estimation computed in the first
process. These two processes combine to form a feedback loop around the LMS
algorithm described [8].
Interference Signal
nn(k)
The role of the equaliser is to resolve the distortion of the channel while minimising
the effect of additive noise at its output [9]. For an unknown channel 1/H, an equaliser with
the transfer function F = H produces an overall channel-equaliser transfer function of
F/H = 1. This implies that in the case of no interference being experienced, the output
from the equaliser, x(k), will be the original transmitted signal u(k). We can think of F
as being an equaliser of 1/H, or an estimator of H.
There are several assumptions that need to be made with regards to the system
being considered. Reference can be made to Figure 3.2 while reading the following
assumptions. We assume that the unknown channel 1/H is linear, time invariant and
able to be modelled as a discrete-time IIR filter with n taps.
H= h1,h2, hn-d (3.1)
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The LMS adaptive FIR filter (equaliser) has a tap delay line structure and a length of n.
F 1
( 0 = Lk, (3.2)
The input signal u(k), and interference signal nn(k) are assumed to be zero
mean, bounded and wide-sense stationary processes. They are also assumed to be
uncorrelated with each other over time.
In order to calculate the output r(k) from the unknown channel 1/H, the system
requires knowledge of the last n –1 values of r. That is, the vector
R(k) = [r(k-1), r(k-2), r(k-3), r(k-n-1)] (3.4)
The output signal then has the interference signal nn(k) added to it to produce
the received signal
y(k) = r(k) + nn(k) (3.6)
The received signal y(k) is then added to an array of the last n-1 received signals
to form the received signal vector
Y k
( ) = [y(k), A-4 y(k-2), y(k-n-111 (3.7)
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This vector is then input into the adaptive equaliser F to produce the estimate x(k) of
the transmitted signal
x(k) = F(k-1)Y T(k) (3.8)
the estimate x(k) is then compared to the original transmitted signal u(k) to provide an error
signal
e(k) = u(k) — x(k) (3.9)
Ideally, the error signal e(k) should be equal to the interference signal nn(k).
This would indicate that the LMS adaptive equaliser has successfully estimated H. It can
be shown that the tap weights of the equaliser F are functions of the sampling instant k.
This indicates that the tap weights of the adaptive equaliser are time dependent, since
they are continuously being adapted.
The LMS algorithm adjusts the tap weights, or coefficients of the FIR equaliser
in an attempt to minimise the mean squared error (MSE) e2 (k). However, the MSE
requires large amounts of memory, so the instantaneous error e(k) is used to estimate the
gradient of the MSE surface [8].
A crucial parameter affecting the stability and convergence rate of the LMS
algorithm is the value of the step-size parameter, 11. There is a trade-off between the
rate of convergence and stability of the LMS adaptive equaliser. A large p value results
in a faster convergence rate, but a reduction in the accuracy and stability of the
equaliser.
On the other hand, a small /I value gives greater accuracy and stability but a
slower convergence rate [10]. In [9], [11], the value of p is said to usually be chosen
within the range:
CHAPTER 4
In this case all adaptive array smart antenna simulations have a sum of 5000
input signals of the training sequence have signed values of 1 or -1 to simulate a
transmitter sending binary values. Although there are 5000 sampling instants, the results
only show up to 150 intervals due to the extremely high rate of convergence of the
system. The step-size parameter µ for the Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm is set to
0.008. to keep simulation as realistic as possible, especially for those simulations with
more than one multipath, each multipath experiences a different gain, which contains
both amplitude and phase components. It was found that the amplitude of the gain had
the most effect on the system, with the phase having little to no effect at all.
element is set to 100µs, and for those with a second transmitted signal, the second
propagation delay is set at 150µs.
Even though only four simulation results are being presented, there were many
other simulations that were used to progress to the final simulations. The gain and noise
terms were initially left out of the system to ensure that the simulations were achieving
the correct result in the ideal environment. Also, in order to reach a simulation of
signals with three multipaths, a simulation with two multipaths was first examined.
Such simulations have not been included to avoid repetition.
To ensure that the system worked correctly, the first simulation investigated was
the reception of one signal with the one path that indicates the direction of arrival (DOA)
at the base station at angle of 60°. A gain with amplitude of 0.5 was introduced to the
input signal as it was propagated to the antenna. Figure 4.1 illustrates that the received
signal error converges at approximately 54 sample intervals and reaches 0.01 after 43
intervals.
The mean received signal error after convergence lies approximately at 0.0006.
Figure 4.1 shows that the beam pattern of the system correctly steers the main beam
in the direction of 60 with beam strength of two. This is due to the signal experiencing a
gain of amplitude 0.5, which reduces the power of the signal by half. To counter this,
the beam adjusts its gain to the inverse of the signal power in order to receive a signal
similar to the original signal.
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Figure 4.1 Smart antenna simulation received signal error for 1 white signal with 1
DOA.
Figure 4.2 Smart antenna simulation beam pattern for 1 white signal with 1 DOA
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The next simulation is again for the transmission of one training sequence, but
this time with three multipaths that have directions of arrival of 60°, 30° and -20°. Each
multipath arrives at the antenna system with a difference of one sampling period 1/fc, so
we can denote the signals arriving at time instant t as u(t), u(t-1), and u(t-2).
Figure 4.3 Smart antenna simulation received signal error for 1 white signal with 3
DOAs.
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The received signal error plot shown in Figure 4.3 illustrates the effects of
having different gain terms. The smaller the gain amplitude, the longer it takes for the
antenna array to adapt and correctly estimate the transmitted signal.
The number of intervals for the received signal error of each multipath to
converge to 0.01 is 38, 22 and 9 respectively. The mean values are approximately
0.005, 0.0015 and 0.00034. The mean of the 1st multipath is approximately 10 times
more than the mean when only one path exists.
Figure 4.4 Smart antenna simulation beam pattern for 1 white signal with 3 DOAs
In Figure 4.4 it shows that the antenna systems beam pattern. It also demonstrates
its ability to steer separate beams in multiple directions and nulls in the directions of
interferers.
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Once again, the gain of each main beam is the inverse of the gain introduced to each
corresponding multipath component. To prove that the weights are able to place nulls in
the interference directions, the gain of DOA1 in the directions of DOA2 and DOA3 are
0.0133 and 0.0151 respectively.
This means that when receiving the 1st multipath signal, the other two multipath
signals are also received but with multiples of 0.0133 and 0.0151, which we can deem as
negligible. This is also the case for the reception of the other two multipaths.
4.4 Result for Two White Signals with One DOA Each
The simulation of transmitting two different signals with one DOA each is in
effect the same as sending one signal with two multipaths separated by at least one
sample period. This is because in both situations the two signals are uncorrelated with
each other.
The 1st signal is exposed to a gain with amplitude 0.5 and the 2nd signal 1.0.
Figure 4.5 once again shows that it takes longer for the system to converge when the
gain term is smaller. In this case two LMS equations are running simultaneously to
determine the weight vectors to produce the two beams in each desired direction.
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Figure 4.5 Smart antenna simulation received signal error for 2 white signals with 1
DOA each.
The beam pattern in Figure 4.6 shows the two beams from each set of weights is
able to correctly identify the DOAs of each signal as being 60° and –25°. The gain of the
1st set of weights in the direction of the 2nd signal is 0.0537 and the gain of the 2nd set of
weights in the direction of the 1st signal is 0.0105, demonstrating the smart antenna's
ability to distinguish between desired signals and interfering ones.
Figure 4.6 Smart antenna simulation beam pattern for 2 white signals with 1 DOA
each.
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4.5 Result for Two White Signals with Three DOAs Each
The final smart antenna simulation is the most complex and provided the most
unexpected results. In this simulation we transmit two training sequences, each with
three multipath components. However, the 2nd and 3rd multipath components of each signal
are both set to arrive at the antenna array one sample period behind the 1st multipath.
Essentially, this means that the 2nd and 3rd multipaths are arriving at the base station at the
same time but from different directions.
As can be seen from Figure 4.7, although there were three multipaths for each
signal in the system, only two sets of received signal errors are being displayed. That is,
only four unique weight vectors exist. This is because the weight vectors for the 2nd and 3rd
multipaths are exactly the same due to these signals arriving at the same time. This
means that for multipath components of the same signal that arrive at the same time, only
one weight vector is needed. Also, the mean received signal error of the 1st multipath of
the 1st signal is roughly the same as for one signal with three multipaths, lying at
approximately 0.003.
Figure 4.7 Smart antenna simulation received signal error for 2 white signals with 3
DOAs each.
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Figure 4.8 Smart antenna simulation beam pattern for 2 white signals with 3 DOAs
each.
After this finding, it was expected that the main beam would either be directed in
the direction of the closest multipath or the one with the greatest gain. However, the beam
pattern shown in Figure 4.8 displays the four different beam patterns but the patterns for
the 3rd multipath of both signals have two main lobes in the correct directions of the 2nd and
3rd multipaths. The gains of these beams are half what they would normally be and
swapped between the multipath components.
This was a major result, to prove the ability for weight vectors to steer multiple
beams in multiple directions. Where as before this, it was always under the impression,
that each set of weight vectors could only steer one beam in one specific direction.
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The smart antenna simulations confirmed that smart antenna systems have an ability
to distinguish between signals of interest and interferers by directing beams in the
directions of the desired signals and nulls in the directions of interferers. These
interferers can either be other transmitted signals from other mobile or multipath
components of the same signal. The major finding of the smart antenna simulations,
and perhaps the major finding of the whole thesis, is that adaptive array smart antenna
systems are able to deploy multiple main beams in multiple directions if multipaths of the
same desired signal arrive at the base station at the same time.
Given that we know that the antenna system can direct beams in the direction of
a desired signal and nulls in the direction of interferers, let us consider three multipaths of
one signal as in One White Signal with Three DOAs. The signal output from the 1st
antenna array weight vector is essentially u(t). Similarly, the outputs from the 2nd and 3rd
antenna array weight vectors are essentially u(t-1) and u(t-2). It is then applied time
delay filters of 27; and Ts, where Ts is the sample period, to the signals u(t) and u(t-1)
respectively. These signals can then be summed together constructively to increase the
received signal power, therefore increasing SNR and providing better performance, as
shown below:
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
This thesis has examined adaptive array smart antenna systems and the effects
that multipath components had on their performance. The results confirmed the great
interest in smart antenna systems as they proved that smart antenna systems could steer
beams for reception in the direction of desired incoming signals. Furthermore, they
can also place nulls in the direction of interfering signals.
It was also found that signals from multiple users might as well be multipath
components from the one signal arriving at different times. This is because both are
uncoil-elated with the desired transmitted signal.Both multipaths arriving at the smart
antenna at different times and at the same time were investigated. When investigating
multipaths arriving at the same time, it was found that only one set of weights is
needed no matter how many multipaths are arriving at the same time. The major
finding of the thesis was that a set of weights is not only able to steer a beam in a
desired direction, but also able to steer multiple beams in multiple desired directions.
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In theory, the inclusion of appropriate time delay filters at the output of the
smart antenna system would facilitate the constructive summation of the output signal,
therefore resulting in an increased signal power, meaning an increase in SNR and
therefore performance is achieved.
Once again, these results confirm why smart antennas have gained such popularity
and increased attention and that they will be the future of mobile communications.
The analysis of the adaptive array smart antenna system can be expanded in many
ways. The theory of the time delay filters at the output of the smart antenna system could be
investigated to prove that this can in fact be done. Only the reception of signals has
been investigated, which logically leads to an investigation of transmission and then
combining the two together.
Perhaps other future work may look at applying smart antennas into a CDMA
system. Particularly, incorporating certain types of receivers into the system may enhance
the system by receiving only the strongest multipaths instead of all the multipaths
arriving at the antenna.
65
REFERENCE
[2] Wong, K.K., Murch, R.D. & Letaief, K.B. 2001. Optimizing Time and Space
MIMO Antenna System for Frequency Selective Fading Channels. IEEE Journal
on Selected Areas in Communications, July, pp.1395-1406.
[5] Rosol, G. 1995. Base Station Antennas: Part 1, Part 2, Part 3. Microwaves &
RF, August, pp. 117-123, September, pp. 127-131, October, pp. 116-124.
[6] Brickhouse, R.A., and Rappaport, T.S. 1997. A Simulation Study of Urban In-
Building Frequency Reuse. IEEE Personal Communications Magazine,
February, pp. 19-23.
[7] Liberti, J. C. & Rappaport, T.S. 1999. Smart Antennas for Wireless
Communications: IS-95 and Third Generation CDMA Applications, Prentice Hall
Communications Engineering and Emerging Technology Series, NJ.
[10] Haykin, S. 1996. Adaptive Filter Theory, Third Edition, Prentice Hall Inc., pp.
365 — 405. How, L. 2001. Signed LMS Adaptive Filtering with
Detection. Undergraduate Thesis, School of Information Technology and
Electrical Engineering, University of Queensland, Brisbane.
66
[11] Homer, J., Mareels, I., Bitmead, R., Wahlberg, B., & Gustafsson, F. 1998.
LMS Estimation via Structural Detection. IEEE Transactions on Signal
Processing, Vol. 46, No. 10, pp. 2651-2663.
[12] Pattan, B. 2000. Robust Modulation methods and Smart Antennas in Wireless
Communications, Prentice Hall PTR, NJ.
[14] Widrow, B., Mantey, P. E., Griffiths, L. J., and Goode, B. B. 1967. Adaptive
Antenna Systems. Proc. of the IEEE, December.
[15] Monzingo, R. & Miller, T. 1980. Introduction to Adaptive Arrays, Wiley and
Sons, NY.
[16] Frost, 0. L., III. 1972. An Algorithm for Linearly Constrained Adaptive Array
Processing, Proc. of the IEEE, August.
[17] Jing Jiang, R. Michael Buehrer, and William H. Tranter, Antenna Diversity in
Multiuser Data Networks, IEEE Trans. Comm., vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 490-497,
Mar. 2004.
[18] Jeffrey H. Reed, Software Radio: A modern approach to radio engineering,
Prentice Hall Communications Engineering and Emerging technology series
2002.
[19] S. Choi and J. H. Reed, “Smart Antenna API,” a power point presentation
submitted to Technical Committee SDRF, June 15, 2004.
67
APPENDICES
Matlab simulation
for k = 1:N
U = Gain*[u(k),u(k),u(k),u(k),u(k),u(k),u(k),u(k)];
for m =1:n
expA = exp(-j*2*pi*fc*T1);
expB(m) = exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_DOA/lambda);
r(m) = U(m)*expA*expB(m);
y(m) = r(m)+nn(k,m);
end;
x(k) = y*F';
e(k) = u(k)-x(k);
F = F+mu*y*conj(e(k));
B(k) = e(k)*e(k)';
end;
figure(1);clf;
subplot(2,1,1);
semilogy(abs(B),'b');
hold on; hold off;
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
angle_min = -90*pi/180;
angle_max = 90*pi/180;
angle_incr = 1*i/180;
q=0;
F=conj(F);
for t = 1:n
G(t) = exp(j*angle2(q)*(t-1));
end;
beam = abs(F*G');
end;
angle_range=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max;
figure(2);clf;
polar(angle_range, beam,'b');
hold on; hold off;
view(90,-90);
zoom on;
70
for k=1:N
U1=Gain1*[u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k)];
U2=Gain2*[u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k)];
U3=Gain3*[u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k)];
for m=1:n
exp1A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*T1);
exp1B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin1/lambda);
exp2A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*T2);
exp2B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin2/lambda);
exp3A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*T3);
exp3B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin3/lambda);
r(1,m)=U1(m)*exp1A*exp1B(m)+U2(m)*exp2A*exp2B(m)+U3(m)*exp3A*exp3B(m)
;
y(1,m)=r(1,m)+nn(k,m);
72
r(2,m)=U2(m)*exp2A*exp2B(m)+U3(m)*exp3A*exp3B(m)+U1(m)*exp1A*exp1B(m)
;
y(2,m)=r(2,m)+nn(k,m);
r(3,m)=U3(m)*exp3A*exp3B(m)+U1(m)*exp1A*exp1B(m)+U2(m)*exp2A*exp2B(m)
;
y(3,m)=r(3,m)+nn(k,m);
end;
x(1,k)=y(1,:)*F(1,:)';
e(1,k)=u1(k)-x(1,k);
F(1,:)=F(1,:)+mu*y(1,:)*conj(e(1,k));
B(1,k)=e(1,k)*e(1,k)';
x(2,k)=y(2,:)*F(2,:)';
e(2,k)=u2(k)-x(2,k);
F(2,:)=F(2,:)+mu*y(2,:)*conj(e(2,k));
B(2,k)=e(2,k)*e(2,k)';
x(3,k)=y(3,:)*F(3,:)';
e(3,k)=u3(k)-x(3,k);
F(3,:)=F(3,:)+mu*y(3,:)*conj(e(3,k));
B(3,k)=e(3,k)*e(3,k)';
end;
figure(1);clf;
subplot(2,1,1);
semilogy(abs(B(1,:)),'b');
xlim([0,150]);
73
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold on;
semilogy(abs(B(2,:)),'r');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold on;
semilogy(abs(B(3,:)),'g');
hold off;
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
grid on; grid off;
title('1 WHITE SIGNAL USING 3DOA');
xlabel('Sample Interval');
ylabel('[U-X] ^2 Error');
legend('DOA1','DOA2','DOA3',4);
angle_min=-90*pi/180;
angle_max=90*pi/180;
angle_incr=1*pi/180;
q=0;
F(1,:)=conj(F(1,:));
F(2,:)=conj(F(2,:));
F(3,:)=conj(F(3,:));
for angle1=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max
q=q+1;
angle2(q)=2*pi*d*sin(angle1)/lambda;
for t=1:n
74
G(t)=exp(j*angle2(q)*(t-1));
end;
beam1(q)=abs(F(1,:)*G');
beam2(q)=abs(F(2,:)*G');
beam3(q)=abs(F(3,:)*G');
end;
angle_range=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max;
figure(2);clf;
polar(angle_range,beam1,'b');
hold on;
polar(angle_range,beam2,'r');
hold on;
polar(angle_range,beam3,'g');
hold off;
view(90,-90);
legend('DOA1','DOA2','DOA3',4);
zoom on;
75
%Able to simulate a Smart Antenna System receiving and distinguishing 2 white input
signals.
for k=1:N
U1=Gain1*[u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k)];
V1=Gain2*[v1(k),v1(k),v1(k),v1(k),v1(k),v1(k),v1(k),v1(k)];
for m=1:n
exp1A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*T1);
exp1B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin1/lambda);
exp2A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*T2);
exp2B=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin2/lambda);
r(1,m)=U1(m)*exp1A*exp1B(m)+V1(m)*exp2A*exp2B(m);
y(1,m)=r(1,m)+nn(k,m);
r(2,m)=V1(m)*exp2A*exp2B(m)+U1(m)*exp1A*exp1B(m);
y(2,m)=r(2,m)+nn(k,m);
end;
x(1,k)=y(1,:)*F(1,:)';
e(1,k)=u1(k)-x(1,k);
F(1,:)=F(1,:)+mu*y(1,:)*conj(e(1,k));
B(1,k)=e(1,k)*e(1,k)';
x(2,k)=y(2,:)*F(2,:)';
e(2,k)=v1(k)-x(2,k);
77
F(2,:)=F(2,:)+mu*y(2,:)*conj(e(2,k));
B(2,k)=e(2,k)*e(2,k)';
end;
figure(1);clf;
subplot(2,1,1);
semilogy(abs(B(1,:)),'b');
hold on;
xlim([0,100]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
semilogy(abs(B(2,:)),'r');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold off;
grid on; zoom on;
title('2 WHITE SIGNALS');
xlabel('Sample Interval');
ylabel('[U,V-X] ^2 Error');
legend('1st Sig','2nd Sig',4);
angle_min=-90*pi/180;
angle_max=90*pi/180;
angle_incr=1*pi/180;
q=0;
F(1,:)=conj(F(1,:));
F(2,:)=conj(F(2,:));
for angle1=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max
q=q+1;
angle2(q)=2*pi*d*sin(angle1)/lambda;
for t=1:n
78
G(t)=exp(j*angle2(q)*(t-1));
end;
beam1(q)=abs(F(1,:)*G');
beam2(q)=abs(F(2,:)*G');
end;
angle_range=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max;
figure(2);clf;
polar(angle_range,beam1,'b');
hold on;
polar(angle_range,beam2,'r');
hold off;
view(90,-90);
legend('1st Sig','2nd Sig',4);
zoom on;
79
for k=1:N
U1=Gainu1*[u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k)];
U2=Gainu2*[u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k)];
U3=Gainu3*[u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k)];
V1=Gainv1*[v1(K),v1(K),v1(K),v1(K),v1(K),v1(K),v1(K),v1(K)];
V2=Gainv2*[v2(K),v2(K),v2(K),v2(K),v2(K),v2(K),v2(K),v2(K)];
V3=Gainv3*[v3(K),v3(K),v3(K),v3(K),v3(K),v3(K),v3(K),v3(K)];
for m=1:n
expu1A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*Tu1);
expu1B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_u1/lambda);
expu2A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*Tu2);
expu2B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_u2/lambda);
expu3A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*Tu3);
expu3B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_u3/lambda);
expv1A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*Tv1);
expv1B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_v1/lambda);
82
expv2A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*Tv2);
expv2B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_v2/lambda);
expv3A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*Tv3);
expv3B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_v3/lambda);
ru(1,m)=U1(m)*expu1A*expu1B(m)+U2(m)*expu2A*expu2B(m)+U3(m)*expu3A*ex
pu3B(m)
+V1(m)*expv1A*expv1B(m)+V2(m)*expv2A*expv2B(m)+V3(m)*expv3A*expv3B(
m);
yu(1,m)=ru(1,m)+nn(k,m);
ru(2,m)=U2(m)*expu2A*expu2B(m)+U3(m)*expu3A*expu3B(m)+V1(m)*expv1A*ex
pv1B(m)
+V2(m)*expv2A*expv2B(m)+V3(m)*expv3A*expv3B(m)+U1(m)*expu1A*expu1B(
m);
yu(2,m)=ru(2,m)+nn(k,m);
ru(3,m)=U3(m)*expu3A*expu3B(m)+V1(m)*expv1A*expv1B(m)+V2(m)*expv2A*ex
pv2B(m)
+V3(m)*expv3A*expv3B(m)+U1(m)*expu1A*expu1B(m)+U2(m)*expu2A*expu2B(
m);
yu(3,m)=ru(3,m)+nn(k,m);
83
rv(1,m)=V1(m)*expv1A*expv1B(m)+V2(m)*expv2A*expv2B(m)+V3(m)*expv3A*ex
pv3B(m)
U1(m)*expu1A*expu1B(m)+U2(m)*expu2A*expu2B(m)+U3(m)*expu3A*expu3B(m)
;
yv(1,m)=rv(1,m)+nn(k,m);
rv(2,m)=V2(m)*expv2A*expv2B(m)+V3(m)*expv3A*expv3B(m)+U1(m)*expu1A*ex
pu1B(m)
+U2(m)*expu2A*expu2B(m)+U3(m)*expu3A*expu3B(m)+V1(m)*expv1A*expv1B(
m);
yv(2,m)=rv(2,m)+nn(k,m);
rv(3,m)=V3(m)*expv3A*expv3B(m)+U1(m)*expu1A*expu1B(m)+U2(m)*expu2A*ex
pu2B(m)
+U3(m)*expu3A*expu3B(m)+V1(m)*expv1A*expv1B(m)+V2(m)*expv2A*expv2B(
m);
yv(3,m)=rv(3,m)+nn(k,m);
end;
xu(1,k)=yu(1,:)*Fu(1,:)';
eu(1,k)=u1(k)-xu(1,k);
Fu(1,:)=Fu(1,:)+mu*yu(1,:)*conj(eu(1,k));
Bu(1,k)=eu(1,k)*eu(1,k)';
xu(2,k)=yu(2,:)*Fu(2,:)';
84
eu(2,k)=u2(k)-xu(2,k);
Fu(2,:)=Fu(2,:)+mu*yu(2,:)*conj(eu(2,k));
Bu(2,k)=eu(2,k)*eu(2,k)';
xu(3,k)=yu(3,:)*Fu(3,:)';
eu(3,k)=u3(k)-xu(3,k);
Fu(3,:)=Fu(3,:)+mu*yu(3,:)*conj(eu(3,k));
Bu(3,k)=eu(3,k)*eu(3,k)';
xv(1,k)=yv(1,:)*Fv(1,:)';
ev(1,k)=v1(k)-xv(1,k);
Fv(1,:)=Fv(1,:)+mu*yv(1,:)*conj(ev(1,k));
Bv(1,k)=ev(1,k)*ev(1,k)';
xv(2,k)=yv(2,:)*Fv(2,:)';
ev(2,k)=v2(k)-xv(2,k);
Fv(2,:)=Fv(2,:)+mu*yv(2,:)*conj(ev(2,k));
Bv(2,k)=ev(2,k)*ev(2,k)';
xv(3,k)=yv(3,:)*Fv(3,:)';
ev(3,k)=v3(k)-xv(3,k);
Fv(3,:)=Fv(3,:)+mu*yv(3,:)*conj(ev(3,k));
Bv(3,k)=ev(3,k)*ev(3,k)';
end;
figure(1);clf;
subplot(2,1,1);
semilogy(abs(Bu(1,:)),'b');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold on;
85
semilogy(abs(Bu(2,:)),'r');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold on;
semilogy(abs(Bu(3,:)),'g');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold off;
subplot(2,1,1);
semilogy(abs(Bv(1,:)),'m');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold on;
semilogy(abs(Bv(2,:)),'c');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold on;
semilogy(abs(Bv(3,:)),'k');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
86
hold off;
angle_min=-90*pi/180;
angle_max=90*pi/180;
angle_incr=1*pi/180;
q=0;
Fu(1,:)=conj(Fu(1,:));
Fu(2,:)=conj(Fu(2,:));
Fu(3,:)=conj(Fu(3,:));
Fv(1,:)=conj(Fv(1,:));
Fv(2,:)=conj(Fv(2,:));
Fv(3,:)=conj(Fv(3,:));
for angle1=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max
q=q+1;
angle2(q)=2*pi*d*sin(angle1)/lambda;
for t=1:n
G(t)=exp(j*angle2(q)*(t-1));
end;
beam1(q)=abs(F(1,:)*G');
beam2(q)=abs(F(2,:)*G');
beam3(q)=abs(F(3,:)*G');
end;
87
angle_range=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max;
figure(2);clf;
polar(angle_range,beam1,'b');
hold on;
polar(angle_range,beam2,'r');
hold on;
polar(angle_range,beam3,'g');
hold off;
view(90,-90);
legend('DOA1','DOA2','DOA3',4);
zoom on;