Fourier Series

EEE F311 Comm_Systems; I Semester 2016-17 1

Find the Fourier Coefficients:

∞
1. 𝑔 𝑡 =𝐼 𝑘=−∞ 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇0 )

2. A periodic train of pulses of amplitude A and

duration 𝜏 .

3. Suppose that in the waveform of (2) we reduce 𝜏

while adjusting A so that A𝜏 is a constant, say A𝜏 = I.
Show that, as 𝜏 → 0, the Fourier series for the pulse
train reduces to the series obtained in (1) above.

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 Fourier Transform

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(a) Rectangular pulse and (b) its Fourier spectrum.

𝑡 𝜔𝜏
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 ↔ 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐( )
𝜏 2

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Duality property of the Fourier transform.

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 The scaling property of the Fourier transform.

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 (a) Unit impulse and (b) its Fourier spectrum.

(a) Constant (dc) signal and (b) its Fourier spectrum.

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Fourier Transform of Periodic signals

(a) Cosine signal and (b) its Fourier spectrum.

(a) Impulse train and (b) its spectrum.

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 Auto Correlation

1 𝑇/2
ℛ(𝜏) = lim −𝑇/2 𝑔 𝑡 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝜏 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇

1 𝑇/2
ℛ(0) = lim −𝑇/2 𝑔 𝑡 𝑔 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇

= S, the average power of the signal.

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 Cross Correlation

1 𝑇/2
ℛ12 (𝜏) = lim −𝑇/2 𝑔1 𝑡 𝑔2 𝑡 + 𝜏 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇

Functions for which ℛ12 (𝜏) = 0 for all 𝜏 are

uncorrelated or noncoherent.

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 Convolution

+∞
𝑤 𝑡 = 𝑔1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔2 𝑡 = 𝑔
−∞ 1
𝜏 𝑔2 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏

See the video for example of Cross-correlation

and Convolution of two signals:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ma0YONjMZLI

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 Parseval’s Theorem

+∞ +∞

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑔(𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐺(𝑓) 2 𝑑𝑓
−∞ −∞

This allows us to determine the signal energy from either the time-domain
specification 𝑔(𝑡) or the frequency-domain specification 𝐺(𝑓) of the
same signal.

𝐺(𝑓) 2 is the Energy Spectral Density

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 Energy Spectral Density (ESD)

For energy signals,

The Energy spectral density is the Fourier Transform of

the Autocorrelation Function.

2
ℱ ℛ𝑔 𝜏 = 𝐺(𝜔)

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 Power Spectral Density (PSD)

The power spectral density is defined as

𝐺𝑇 (𝜔) 2
𝑆𝑔 𝜔 = lim
𝑇→∞ 𝑇

For a power signal, the PSD 𝑆𝑔 𝜔 is the Fourier

Transform of the Autocorrelation Function ℛ𝑔 (𝜏).

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 Remember the following two useful properties of Fourier
Transform

If 𝑔 𝑡 ⟺𝐺 𝑓 ,

Time-shifting property:

𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) ⇔ 𝐺(𝑓)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡0

Frequency-shifting property:

𝑔(𝑡)𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓0𝑡 ⇔ 𝐺(𝑓 − 𝑓0 )

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Signal transmission through a linear time-invariant system.

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 Distortion-less transmission.

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑘. 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑑
𝑥(𝑡) y(𝑡)
H(𝑓)

𝑌 𝑓 = 𝑘𝑋(𝑓)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡𝑑
LTI system

frequency response
for distortion-less
transmission.

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 (a) Ideal low-pass filter frequency response and (b) its impulse response.

Realisation of the above filter is physically impossible. Why ?

Approximate realization of an ideal low-pass filter

by truncating its impulse response.

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 Linear distortion Consider the case where 𝐻(𝑓) is
not equal to a constant.

Let,
𝐻 𝑓 = (1 + 𝑘 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑇)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡𝑑 for 𝑓 < 𝐵;
zero elsewhere.

If a signal 𝑔 𝑡 which is Band-limited to B Hz

is applied to a filter with the characteristic as
above, find the output y 𝑡 .

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 We can write
𝑓
𝐻 𝑓 =∏ . (1 + 𝑘 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑇)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡𝑑
2𝐵

Then,
𝑌 𝑓 =𝐺 𝑓 𝐻 𝑓
𝑓
= 𝐺(𝑓)∏ . (1 + 𝑘 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑇)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡𝑑
2𝐵

Since 𝑔 𝑡 is bandlimited to B,
𝑓
𝐺 𝑓 ∏ =𝐺 𝑓 .
2𝐵

Therefore,
𝑌 𝑓 = 𝐺 𝑓 . (1 + 𝑘 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑇)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡𝑑

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𝑌 𝑓 = 𝐺 𝑓 . (1 + 𝑘 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑇)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡𝑑 = 𝐺 𝑓 . 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡𝑑 + 𝐺 𝑓 𝑘 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑇. 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡𝑑

𝒌
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒈 𝒕 − 𝒕𝒅 + [𝒈 𝒕 − 𝒕𝒅 − 𝑻 + 𝒈 𝒕 − 𝒕𝒅 + 𝑻
𝟐

H(𝑓)

Note the ‘spreading’ or

‘dispersion’ of the pulse.

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See Example 3.15 of textbook for a case of nonlinear
channel.

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How do we find the Bandwidth, B of a given signal ?

There are several definitions of Bandwidth.

For example,
• Absolute Bandwidth
• -3 dB (or half-power) bandwidth
• Null-to-Null or Main Lobe Bandwidth
• …

We can define ‘Essential Bandwidth’ of a signal

depending on error tolerance in a particular application.
(say, select B such that bandwidth contains 95% of the signal energy)

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Estimate the essential bandwidth of the rectangular
pulse shown in the figure, where essential bandwidth
is to contain at least 90% of the pulse energy.

∞
Pulse energy, 𝐸𝑔 = −∞
𝑔2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑇

We need to find B such that,

𝐵
2
𝐸𝐵 = 𝐺(𝑓) 𝑑𝑓 ≥ 0.90 𝑇
−𝐵

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For the pulse,

𝐺 𝑓 = 𝑇 sinc(𝜋𝑓𝑇)

We see that the essential

1
bandwidth is Hz.
𝑇

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How do we find the Bandwidth of a power signal ?

Consider a random binary pulse train g(t) , as shown below. The two symbols
(0 and 1) are equally likely and occur randomly. The signal is not a
deterministic signal, and therefore cannot be described as a function of time.
It is therefore impossible to find its Fourier transform.

We know that the PSD is the Fourier Transform of the Autocorrelation

function.

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 1 𝑇/2 Note:
ℛ(𝜏) = lim −𝑇/2 𝑔 𝑡 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝑡 ℛ(−𝜏) = ℛ(𝜏)
𝑇→∞ 𝑇

Let there be N bits (pulses) during the interval T, so that T=NTb. Then,

𝑁𝑇𝑏 /2
1
ℛ(𝜏) = lim 𝑔 𝑡 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝑡
𝑁→∞ 𝑁𝑇𝑏
−𝑁𝑇𝑏 /2

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 𝑁𝑇𝑏 /2
1
ℛ(𝜏) = lim 𝑔 𝑡 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝑡
𝑁→∞ 𝑁𝑇𝑏
−𝑁𝑇𝑏 /2

Consider the case 𝜏 <

𝑇𝑏 1 𝑇𝑏
2 ℛ 𝜏 = lim [𝑁( − 𝜏)]
𝑁→∞ 𝑁𝑇𝑏 2
1 2𝜏
= (1 − )
2 𝑇𝑏

𝑇
For 𝜏 > 2𝑏 , the two overlapping pulses are equally likely to be of the
same polarity or of opposite polarity.
Then, ℛ(𝜏) = 0.

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Since ℛ(−𝜏) = ℛ(𝜏), the
autocorrelation function is:

The PSD is the FT of the autocorrelation function.

𝑇𝑏 2
𝜔𝑇𝑏
𝑆𝑔 𝜔 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 ( )
4 4

𝟐
Essential Bandwidth =
𝑻𝒃

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End of Chapter 1, 2, and 3.

See course website for more details on reference to textbook

sections and recommended chapter end problems.

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