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Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions
Course Module
Figure 1. Molecular models (Source:
http://schoolbag.info/chemistry/central/central.files/image204.jpg)
Units of Measurement
Properties of matter are mostly calculated by numbers, or quantitative. Units
of a quantity must be specified when a number represents a quantity that is
measured. Metric system are the units used in scientific measurements.
SI Units
In 1960, the International System of Units (SI) was agreed as the preferred
units in scientific measurements. Figure below shows the 7 SI base units.
Volume
Meter (m) is defined as the SI unit of length, while the SI-derived unit for
volume is the cubic meter (m3).
1 cm3 = ( 1 X 10-2 m)3 = 1 X 10-6 m3
1 dm3 = ( 1 X 10-1 m)3 = 1 X 10-3 m3
Liter (L) is a common unit of volume. 1 liter of volume is equal to 1000 milliliters (mL) or
1000 cm3:
1 L = 1000 mL
= 1000 cm3
= 1 dm3
Density
Equation is defined as:
Kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) is identified as the SI-derived unit for
density. However, for solids and liquids, more commonly used are grams
per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) and grams per milliliter (g/mL).
Due to low densities of gases, these are expressed in grams per liter (g/L).
1 g/cm3 = 1g/mL = 1000kg/m3
1g/L = 0.001 g/mL
Temperature Scales
Measurement of the degree of hotness or coldness of an object is referred to
as temperature.
There are 3 temperature scales that are being used:
degrees Celsius (°C) – defines freezing point of water as 0°C and
boiling point of water as 100°C
degrees Fahrenheit (°F) – defines normal freezing point of water as
32°F and boiling point of water as 212°F
Course Module
Kelvin (K) – SI base unit of temperature; absolute temperature scale.
Zero Kelvin (0 K), is the lowest temperature that can be attained
theoretically.
In defining significant figures, read the numbers from left to right, with the
start of count from the first nonzero digit.
When numbers end in zeros without decimal point, zeros are usually
considered as not significant. In these cases, exponential notation is used to
identify that zeros are not significant. For example, based on method of
measurement, 20,500 g can also be written as:
2.05 x 104 g – 3 significant figures
2.050 x 104 g – 4 significant figures
2.0500 x 104 g – 5 significant figures
Course Module
In rounding off numbers, consider the leftmost digit:
Preceding number will not be changed, if the leftmost digit removed is
less than 5
o Example: 2.349 round off to 2 significant figures = 2.3
Preceding number will increase by 1 if the leftmost digit removed is 5
or greater
o Examples: 8.635 round off to 3 significant figures = 8.64
5.773 round off to 2 significant figures = 5.8
Classifications of Matter
Matter is characterized by either:
Physical state – solid, liquid, gas; and
Composition – element, compound, or mixture
States of Matter
Matter comes in three states:
Solid – has fixed shape and volume
Liquid – has distinct volume and assumes the shape of its container
Gas – has no definite volume or shape, and fills its container
Properties of Matter
Matter is identified by either its physical property or chemical property.
Physical property – can be measured and observed without changing
the identity and composition of a substance, such as color, smell,
hardness, density, melting point and boiling point.
Chemical property – identifies the way a substance changes or reacts
to form other substances. Flammability, or the ability to burn a
General Chemistry
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Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions
Course Module
Figure 5. Molecular comparison of elements, compound, and mixture (Source:
http://www.mstworkbooks.co.za/natural-sciences/gr8/images/gr8mm01-gd-0052.png)
Every atom does not have net electrical charge, thus the number of electrons
and protons are equal in number.
Nucleus contains majority of the mass of an atom, since it would take 1836
electrons to equal the mass of 1 proton or 1 neutron.
Course Module
Figure 8. Molecular Structure of an Atom (Source: https://www.universetoday.com/wp
content/uploads/2010/02/c-atom_e1.gif)
Metals, which comprises majority of the elements, are located at the left side
and the middle of the table; on the other hand, non-metals can be found on
the upper right side.
A stepped line from boron (B) to astatine (At) separates metals from
nonmetals. Most of the elements that lie along this line possess metallic and
non-metallic properties, and are referred to as metalloids.
General Chemistry
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Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions
Mass number refers to the number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom; atomic number plus the number of neutrons; superscript located
in the upper left portion of the element symbol.
Mass number
Element symbol
Atomic number
The difference between the mass number and atomic number equals the
number of neutrons in an atom.
Atomic number always remains the same for any given element. For
example, all carbon atoms have atomic number of 6. This means, that all
carbon atoms have 6 protons or electrons.
Course Module
Meanwhile, mass number can change, thus a given element may have
different number of neutrons. For example, a 12C (carbon twelve, carbon -12)
identifies a carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons (i.e. 6+6 = 12), while
a 13C (carbon thirteen, carbon -13) contains 6 protons and 7 neutrons (i.e.
6+7 = 13), and 14C (carbon fourteen, carbon -14) contains 6 protons and 8
neutrons (i.e. 6+8 = 14).
Atoms of a given element with the same atomic numbers but different mass
numbers are referred to as isotopes. This means that there is same number
of protons, but different number of neutrons.
Chemical Formulas
Chemical formulas are utilized by chemists to define the composition of
molecules and ionic compounds. This also includes the ratio of the number of
atoms in a given compound.
For example, the molecular formula for glucose is C6H12O6, while the
empirical formula is CH2O. This was obtained by dividing each subscript by 6,
which is the smallest whole-number ratio.
For example, when Al3+ ions and O2- ions are combined, the ionic compound
that will be formed will be Al2O3.
Naming Compounds
Naming Ionic Compounds
Metal cations are written with the same name as the metal. For example, Na+
is named as sodium ion; Mg2+ is named as magnesium ion; Al3+ is named as
aluminum ion.
Cations which assume different charges, are written as with the name of the
metal followed a Roman numeral indicating the positive charge. For example,
Fe2+ is named as iron (II) ion; Fe3+ is named as iron (III) ion; Mn3+ is named
as manganese (III); Mn4+ is named as manganese (IV). Transition metals
(group 3B to group 2B in the periodic table of elements) are those metals
which produce cations with different charges.
Nonmetal cations are written with names ending in –ium. For example, NH4+
is named as ammonium ion; H3O+ is named as hydronium ion.
Course Module
The table below shows some common cations, where ions on the left side are
ions that only have 1 possible charge, while ions on the right side have more
than 1 possible charge.
Anions are written with the element name ending with –ide. For example, Br-
is named as bromide ion; O2- is named as oxide ion; N3- is named as nitride
ion; OH- is named as hydroxide ion; CN- is named as cyanide ion.
(NH4)+1 Cl-1
NH4Cl
Mn3+ O2-
Mn2O3
The name of the first element in the formula is written first. If more than 1
atom is present, prefixes are used. The prefix “mono-“ is omitted with the
first element. For example, PCl3 is named as phosphorus trichloride, instead
of monophosphorus trichloride.
Prefix Meaning
Mono- 1
Di- 2
Tri- 3
Tetra- 4
Penta- 5
Hexa- 6
Hepta- 7
Octa- 8
Nona- 9
Deca- 10
Following the first element, the second element is written with name ending
in –ide, and the prefixes above are used.
Examples:
CO carbon monoxide
SO3 sulfur trioxide
N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide
P4S10 tetraphosphorus decasulfide
Course Module
Naming of Acids
Substances which produce hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water, are
referred to as acids.
1. Anions with names end in “–ide” are named as acids by adding the prefix
“hydro-” and changing the ending to “–ic”, followed by the word “acid”.
Examples:
Cl- (chloride) HCl hydrochloric acid
Br- (bromide) HBr hydrobromic acid
Examples:
ClO4- (perchlorate) HClO4 perchloric acid
(PO4)3-(phosphate) H3PO4 phosphoric acid
ClO- (hypochlorite) HClO hypochlorous acid
Naming of Bases
Substances which produce hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water, are
referred to as bases.
Examples:
NaOH sodium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide
Al(OH)3 aluminum hydroxide
Glossary
accuracy: measure of how closely individual measurements are to the actual
value
anion: negatively charged ion
atoms: smallest building blocks of matter
cation: positively charged ion
chemical formula: expression used to define composition of molecules and
ionic compounds
compounds: Two or more elements combined together
electrostatic force: force which exists between particles with opposite
electrical charges
elements: basic unit of matter
ion: atom which contains net positive or negative charge
isotopes: atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers
mass: amount of matter in an object
General Chemistry
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Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions
Course Module
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