Dr.

Saralasrita Mohanty
National Inst. of Science Education and Research
(NISER), Bhubaneswar.

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Introduction about Physics Lab (P142)
Lab Etiquette
Straight line fitting
About experiments

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 Your P142 lab help-
help-lines
Lab instructors:
Dr.Joydeep Bhattacharjee
Dr.Chethan N gowdigere

Scientific Officer:
Dr.Saralasrita Mohanty

Laboratory Assistants:

Mr. Sakthivel V. A, Mr.Debasis Das

Teaching Associates:

Tapas Ranjan Senapati, Jagannath Santara, Abhishek Mondal, Shailja Sharma

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Physics is based on experimental observations and quantitative
measurements. The cornerstone of the scientific method holds that no
theory or model of nature is tenable unless the results it predicts are in
accord with experiment.

The laboratory provides a unique opportunity to validate physical theories

in a quantitative manner.

Laboratory experiments also demonstrate the limitations in the

application of physical theories to real physical situations.

It teaches the role that experimental uncertainty plays an important role

in physical measurements and introduces ways to minimize experimental
uncertainty.

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Laboratory physics trains you in the scientific methods of
conducting experiments.

It involves patience and diligence in conducting the experiments

and careful recording of all observations.

Developing good skills in writing laboratory reports gives you

practice for writing research papers later on.

Laboratory teaches you to think innovatively and imaginatively. It’s

a place where you work with your mind AND hands both and it
requires complete focus and planning on your part to complete the
experiment in time.

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If your lab is to start at 2:30 PM report to the lab at least 10 mins in
advance.
Keep your bags in proper place inside the lab and only bring your
handouts, and other tools that you need to work on your report.
Eating is not allowed in the lab.
Please submit the previous lab’s report. If you have not completed
the lab report, you are not permitted to do the next experiment.
Before you start the experiment, please make tables for data taking
and wait for instructor to come to your table. You may have to
answer a short quiz before you start taking data.
Raise your hands if you need to ask a question. Do not talk with
your colleagues. If instructor is busy with one student, do not
interrupt and wait for your turn for the instructor to come to you.

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Title Page: One page containing students name, ID
number, the name of the experiment
Objective of the experiment: purpose of the experiment
Theory: Summarize the equations and background
of the experiment
Apparatus: List all equipments used for the particular
experiment
Procedure: How the experiment was carried out
Calculations and Results: Use graphs and diagrams whenever they
are required. Present results in an
understandable tabular form
Error analysis: Calculate error and discuss the possible
sources of errors
Conclusion: Compare your results to the stated
objective
Data sheet: Attach the data sheet for the experiment
signed by the instructor

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Although your teacher and lab technician are around, you must be
responsible for your own and the equipment’s safety in the lab.
Treat the lab as you would treat your home. Many of the equipments are
very expensive, so handle them with care.
Follow these tips when doing an experiment :
◦ Does it involve heat? Metals are very good conductors of heat, so be careful when
handling heated metals.
◦ Does it involve voltage? Electric shock can be fatal to human body so be careful of
handling high voltages.
Currents approaching 100 mA are lethal .
A domestic power supply voltage (110 or 230 V), 50 or 60-Hz AC current
through the chest for a fraction of a second may induce ventricular
fibrillation (uncoordinated contraction of the cardiac muscle ) at currents
as low as 60 mA.
With DC, 300 to 500 mA is required
In general instruments which involve powering on/off should be handled
carefully. Do not turn on or off any switches unless you are sure of its
operation.

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Safety tips when doing an experiment (contd.):
Handle sharp objects carefully.
Handle glass beakers and other glassware carefully. Do not
move glass objects from your table unless necessary. If you
accidentally break any object report to teacher or lab staff
immediately so no one else injures her/himself.
If the experiment involves liquids, handle it carefully and try
not to spill anything on the table top.
If you are working with a heavy object, always work with a
partner in order to shift it or move it.

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Your data in tables can be visualized more powerfully using graphs.
A number of computer based programs are available where you can
graph your data on computers.
However, we shall be using graph paper in order to plot the data in
the lab in order to practice plotting the data.
Use of computers for later experiments are permitted if instructor
feels student has successfully demonstrated proper techniques of
graphing the data.

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Working graphs are done on fine grid graph paper.
The basic layout of graph with proper labeling is as given below :
1 unit on x – axis = 0.01 s

1 unit on y – axis = 0.01 cm Distance vs Time

Distance (cm)

Time (s)

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Horizontal axis - abscissa and the vertical axis - ordinate.
The graphs must have a title which clearly states the purpose of the graph.
Normally you plot the independent variable (the one over which you have
control) on the abscissa (horizontal), and the dependent variable (the one
you read) on the ordinate (vertical).
◦ If for example you measure the position of a falling ball at each of several chosen
times, you plot the position on the vertical and the time on the horizontal. In
speaking of a graph you say "I plotted vertical versus horizontal or ordinate versus
abscissa".
◦ If, for example, you are told to plot current versus voltage, voltage goes on the
horizontal and current goes on the vertical.
Axis Labels : Both axes should be labeled with the name of the quantity
being plotted and the units in brackets (parentheses).
Data Points : Data should be plotted as precisely as possible with a sharp
pencil. After plotting the data encircle the points with a circle. If you plot
more that one set on the same plot, for example temperature versus
pressure for different gases, use a triangle, or square to encircle the dots
for each different gas.
Graph Fitting (See Handout)

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Every measurement that you make has a limited accuracy
associated with it. This is called the measurement error.
For each quantity that you measure, if you just take one
measurement, it is limited by the L.C. of the instrument. You can
lower the uncertainty on a measurement by taking repeated
measurements.
Scale vs. Microscope – Lower Higher accuracy, keep a record of
the least count of all your measuring instruments, whether they
be scales, vernier calipers, stop watches etc.

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In your theory classes you will or must have learnt a number of laws
and equations. The lab will give you an opportunity to verify for
yourself that those are indeed true.
If you have diligence, patience and concentration, the laboratory will
become a fun, innovative and interesting place where you don’t just
“sit, listen, and think with your mind” but where you exercise both
your “minds and hands”.

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Fig :1(a) Scattered Data;
Fig :1(b) A polynomial fit oscillating beyond the
range of the data;
Fig :1(c) An approximate fit for data. 18
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• Electricity and magnetism (4)
• Optics (4)
Sound (1)
•Sound

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1. Conversion of Voltmeter to Ammeter and vice-
versa
2. Electromagnetic Damping
3. Tangent galvanometer
4. Magnetic field variation along the axis of a circular
coil and Helmholtz coil
5. Velocity of Sound
6. Determination of Resolving power of a telescope
7. Dispersive power of Prism
8. Study of Newton’s rings
9. Malu’s law

http://www.niser.ac.in/sps/teaching-laboratories

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 Laboratory Reports & Grading (II)

Tentative point split-ups

Laboratory reports -- 40%

Viva (daily) – 10%
One “Grand viva/quiz” would be there after the
mid-term – 20%
Final exam report – 30%

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 Marks Splitting on Report-
Report-40 Marks

Sections Marks
Aim and Apparatus 4

Theory 5

Diagram 3
Results and Calculations 15
Error Analysis/Straight 10
line fitting
Conclusions 3
Total 40
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Voltmeter: Measures voltage drop across resistance (R) by putting
it in parallel to the R

Ammeter: Measures current through resistance (R) by putting

it in series to the R

Where Rm internal resistance

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Internal resistance of voltmeter is much greater than ammeter

Voltmeter →→ ammeter

The internal resistance of voltmeter needs to be decreased

This is done by adding “shunt”, i.e. resistance parallel to the meter

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 Internal resistance of ammeter is much smaller than voltmeter

Ammeter →→ Voltmeter

The internal resistance of ammeter needs to be increased

This if done by adding a high resistance in series with the ammeter

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Compound Pendulum

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Electromagnetic induction and force: Emf is induced in a conductor when it
experiences a changing magnetic field or the conductor is placed in a changing
magnetic field.

Lenz’s law: An induced current has a direction such that the magnetic field
due to the current opposes the change in the magnetic flux that induces
the current.

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Magnetic field at P is

Where
I is the current flowing
through the coil
µ0 is the pemeability of
the free space
a is the radius of the coil
x is the distance
between O and P

Magnetic field at O is

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When radius of the coil is same as the separation
between the coils, the total magnetic field will be
very uniform over a large distance between the
coils. This set up is called “Helmholtz coils”.
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Resolving power of an optical instrument refers to its ability to distinguish
between two closely spaced objects.

Rayleigh’s criterion: Two sources or their diffraction patterns are resolved

when the principal maximum of one falls exactly on the first order minimum of
the other.
Distribution of light for
two closely spaced point
Diffraction pattern from sources
a single point source
Distinguishable

Distribution of light for

two closely spaced point Intensity distribution
sources for two point sources
resolved according to
Indistinguishable Rayleigh’s criterion

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Resolving power

Where,
D =distance of image to the objective
d = length of image
a = aperture of telescope
λ = wavelength
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Snell’s law

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A is prism angle
δm is angle of
deviation
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Monochromatic light is incident normally
on a combination of a plano-convex lens
L and a glass plate G

A part of each incident ray is reflected

from the lower surface of the lens and a
part, after refraction through the air film
between L and G, is reflected back from
the plate surface.

The reflected rays will interfere and

produce a system of alternate dark and
bright rings with the point of contact
between the lens and the plate as the
center.

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If Dm is diameter of the mth bright ring

Where R is the radius of curvature of

the lower surface of the lens L
λ is the wavelength

Similarly for the (m+n) the bright ring

Therefore,

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According to malus,
malus when completely plane polarized light is incident
on the analyzer, the intensity I of the light transmitted by the analyzer is
directly proportional to the square of the cosine of angle between the
transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer
A

EA φ
E0

EA=E0cosφ

A’

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