Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 47(3), 2011, pp.

511–522
# Wildlife Disease Association 2011

HEMATOLOGIC AND PLASMA BIOCHEMICAL REFERENCE

INTERVALS FOR MORELET’S CROCODILES (CROCODYLUS
MORELETII ) IN THE NORTHERN WETLANDS OF
CAMPECHE, MEXICO
Sergio E. Padilla,1,2,4 Manuel Weber,2,5 and Elliott R. Jacobson3
1
Centro de Estudios de Desarrollo Sustentable y Aprovechamiento de la Vida Silvestre, Universidad Autónoma de
Campeche, Av. Agustı́n Melgar s/n. CP 24039, Campeche, Campeche, México
2
Departamento de Ecologı́a Terrestre y Sistemática, División de Conservación de la Biodiversidad, Colegio de la
Frontera Sur-ECOSUR, Calle 10 No 264, Centro, Campeche, Campeche 24000, México
3
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville,
Florida 32610-0126, USA
4
Current address: School of Natural Resources and Environment, 103 Black Hall, PO Box 116455, University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
5
Corresponding author (email: mweber@ecosur.mx)

ABSTRACT: Health surveys and hematologic and plasma biochemical analyses were conducted in
52 free-ranging and 51 captive Morelet’s crocodiles (Crocodylus moreletii) in Campeche, Mexico,
March–September 2007. Blood samples from 92 crocodiles (45 free-ranging and 47 captive) were
collected for hematologic and plasma biochemical analyses. Average values of erythrocytes of free-
ranging crocodiles were 1,046,166 cells/ml, and total white cells were 1.033104 cells/ml. Captive
crocodiles had erythrocyte and leukocyte values of 1,100,416 cells/ml and 8.513103 cells/ml,
respectively. There were no significant differences in values of erythrocytes or in hematocrit
between free-ranging and captive crocodiles, or between sexes, or among size classes. Counts of
leukocytes in free-ranging crocodiles were significantly higher than in captive individuals. The
mean values of plasma analytes were 69.55 mg/l (glucose), 250.14 mg/l (cholesterol), 3.04 mg/l (uric
acid), 2.70 mg/l (creatinine), and 20.20 IU/l (alanine aminotransferase). There were significant
differences in cholesterol between free-ranging and captive crocodiles and between sexes.
Key words: Biochemistry, Campeche, crocodiles, Crocodylus moreletii, hematology.

INTRODUCTION de la Federación, 2001). The Convention

Blood analysis is a relatively noninvasive
method that can provide important clinical
information about health and physiologic
condition of animals (Stein, 1996). To
interpret blood analysis results, it is
essential to obtain reference values for
the species being studied (Köhler, 2006).
Given their rich diversity, including many
threatened species, there are relatively
few studies of reference values of free-
ranging animals (Deem et al., 2001;
Walton, 2001).
Morelet’s crocodile (Crocodylus morele-
tii) is one of three crocodilian species that
inhabit Mexico. Individuals are 3–3.5 m in
length (Platt and Thorbjarnarson, 2000)
and are found mainly in the drainage basin
of the Gulf of Mexico, the Yucatan
Peninsula, Guatemala, and Belize. Croco-
dylus moreletii is in a special protection
category under Mexican law (Diario Oficial
on International Trade of Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
lists this species in appendix II, for the
populations of Belize and Mexico (CITES,
2010), and since 2000, the International
Union of the Conservation of Nature
includes Morelet’s crocodile on the red list
as a low-risk species (i.e., Conservation
Dependent). We provide baseline informa-
tion on health status of Morelet’s croco-
diles, including reference intervals for
selected hematologic and plasma biochem-
ical values of free-ranging and captive
Morelet’s crocodiles in the northern coastal
wetlands of Campeche, Mexico.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample sites
Free-ranging crocodiles were captured in
the coastal wetlands of northern Campeche in
March–September 2007. This ecosystem in-

511
512 JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE DISEASES, VOL. 47, NO. 3, JULY 2011

FIGURE 1. Northern wetlands of Los Petenes Biosphere Reserve (RBLP) in Campeche, Mexico. Inset
represents the Yucatan Peninsula with the four sampling areas in the RBLP where crocodiles (Crocodylus
moreletii) were captured and sampled. Inset within the inset is the country of Mexico. Black points indicate
sampling points for crocodiles.

cludes forest islands locally known in the
Mayan language as ‘‘petenes.’’ A unique
feature of these forest islands is year-round
availability of fresh water from springs. Aver-
age elevation is ,10 m and slope is ,0.5%
(National Commission for Protected Natural
Areas [CONANP], 2006). In 1999, the Mex-
ican government established the Biosphere
Reserve ‘‘Los Petenes’’ (RBLP), with an area
of 282,857 ha (20u519350, 19u499000N and
90u459150, 90u209 000W; Fig. 1). We captured
crocodiles in three sites: 1) Hampolol, a
freshwater stream with emerging aquatic
vegetation; 2) Isla Arena, a brackish water
stream running parallel to a paved road
surrounded by red mangroves (Rhizophora
mangle); and 3) Petenes RBLP, two sampling
sites (Jaina and Bocas) with brackish water and
red mangroves as the dominant vegetation.
Captive crocodiles were sampled at Centro de
Estudios Tecnológicos del Mar No 2 (CET-
MAR), a technologic high school located in the
city of Campeche. The CETMAR holds a
captive crocodile population of approximately
300 individuals, from hatchlings to reproduc-
tive adults. The smallest crocodiles (size class
I, see below) live in indoor facilities with
artificial light. Larger animals live in outdoor
enclosures with natural light and temperature.
They are fed once a week, primarily on locally
available fresh fish.
Capture and handling of crocodiles
We captured and manually restrained free-
ranging and captive Morelet’s crocodiles from
April to August 2007. Methods for observation
and capture of crocodiles followed Woodward
and Marion (1978). Crocodiles were collected
at night by using a spotlight and headlamps;
capture was achieved using aluminum poles
with a stainless steel cable for crocodiles
.80 cm and manually for those ,80 cm. Sex
was determined by digital palpation of genital
organs in the cloacae (Ziegler and Olbort,
2007). Crocodile size classes were I, 0–50 cm;
 PADILLA ET AL.—HEMATOLOGY AND BLOOD CHEMISTRY OF C. MORELETII IN MEXICO
II, 51–100 cm; III, 101–150 cm; and IV,
.150 cm (Platt and Thorbjarnarson, 2000).
Blood sample collection and laboratory analysis
Immediately after capture, blood was taken
most frequently from the caudal vein rather
than the supravertebral vein to avoid hemodi-
lution with cerebrospinal fluid (Strik et al.,
2007) by using sterile syringes (5, 3, and 1 ml)
and needles (22 or 23 gauge). The amount of
blood extracted did not exceed 10% of the
crocodile’s estimated blood volume and
ranged from 0.25 ml to prepare blood films
to 6–9 ml for blood and plasma analytes. Blood
was aliquoted in 3-ml VacutainerH tubes
(Beckton Dickinson, Toluca, Mexico) contain-
ing either lithium heparin or sodium heparin
(Campbell, 1996; Köhler, 2006; Strik et al.,
2007). The decision to use lithium or sodium
heparin was based on a previously published
study (Padilla et al., 2009). Blood samples
were placed on ice in an insulated container,
transported to the laboratory, and analyzed
within 8 hr of collection. Blood without
anticoagulant was used to prepare blood films
following the method of Strik et al. (2007); the
blood film was dried at room temperature,
fixed with methanol, and stained with Wright-
Giemsa solution.
Biochemical analyses were performed at the
Animal Pathology Laboratory (LACEPAC,
Highway Campeche-Chiná, Campeche, Mex-
ico), and hematologic analyses were done in
the laboratory of the Center of Ecology,
Fisheries and Oceanography of the Gulf of
Mexico, Autonomous University of Campeche,
Agustı́n Melgar Avenue, Campeche, Mexico.
Because capture was done at night, the
processing of samples soon after capture
required the use of two laboratories. Both
certified laboratories had standardized proto-
cols.
Hematology
The evaluation of red blood cells (RBCs)
included packed cell volume (PCV; percent-
age) and total RBC counts (cells per microli-
ter). The microhematocrite method was used
to obtain PCV (Campbell, 1996; Strik et al.,
2007); RBCs were determined using a Thoma
pipette, extracting blood exactly to the 0.5
mark, adding Hayem solution to the 101 mark,
and diluting to 1:200 (Benjamin, 1984).
Counting was done by hemocytometer and
the total number of erythrocytes (cells per
microliter) was calculated multiplying by
10,000. White blood cell (WBC) estimates
were determined from blood smears (Strik et
al., 2007) by using the equation no. cells/ml 5
513
(average no. of leukocytes in 10 fields) 3
(power of the objective)2. A differential
count, based on 100 leukocytes, also was per-
formed from the blood smear (Frye, 1991).
Plasma biochemistry
Values of glucose (grams per liter), choles-
terol (grams per liter), uric acid (milligrams
per liter), creatinine (milligrams per liter), and
alanine-aminotransferase (ALT; IU per liter)
were assessed using plasma (Jacobson, 2005).
Tests were performed using a Wiener Metro-
lab 1600 (Wiener Laboratories, Rosario, Ar-
gentina) according to the manufacturer’s
protocols: Enzymatic Glycemia AA kit for
glucose, Enzymatic Colestat AA for cholester-
ol, Enzymatic Uricostat AA for uric acid,
Kinetic Creatinine AA for creatinine, and
GTP (ALT) UV AA for the determination of
ALT in plasma.
Statistical analysis
All variables were tested for normality
(Kolmogorov-Smirnov) and homogeneity of
variances (Levene test), for each data set
(i.e., between sites, between sexes, and be-
tween size classes). When normality was
rejected (P,0.05), Mann-Whitney U-tests
were used to test differences between free-
ranging and captive crocodiles. Results for
free-ranging crocodiles were compared among
sampling sites; however, due to small sample
sizes in some cohorts, free-ranging sites were
pooled for some analyses. We used a t-test for
independent samples to test differences be-
tween sexes and one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) for differences among size classes
(Kennedy and Neville, 1982). We used a
Mann-Whitney U-test to compare total leuko-
cytes (captive vs. free-ranging crocodiles), one-
way ANOVA to compare WBCs between free-
ranging sampling sites, and a t-test to compare
WBCs between sexes. All plasma biochemistry
variables were normally distributed and were
analyzed with parametric statistics. Clinically
ill crocodiles were removed from the data set
for reference value analysis, which modified
the sample size in each type of analysis. To
determine whether the sample size was
appropriate for some selected values and to
assess the statistical error, a post hoc statistical
power test (12b) was applied (Thomas et al.,
1997) using GPower statistical software ver-
sion 3.0.9 (Faul, 2008). All other statistical
analyses were done using SPSS version 13
(SPSS, Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA). For all
tests, P,0.05 was considered statistically
significant.
514 JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE DISEASES, VOL. 47, NO. 3, JULY 2011
TABLE 1. Numbers, sexes, and size classes for Morelet’s crocodiles (Crocodylus moreletii) captured in each
of four sampling sites in Campeche, Mexico (March–September 2007). Size classes are as follows: I, 0–50 cm;
II, 51–100 cm; III, 101–150 cm; and IV, .150 cm.
Sex
Site n Female Male
Hampolol 18 5 10
Isla Arena 13 5 6
Petenes 21 7 13
Captive CETMARa 51 21 14
Total 103 38 43
a
Centro de Estudios Tecnológicos del Mar.
RESULTS
The study group consisted of 103
crocodiles, of which 51 were captive from
CETMAR and 52 were free-ranging
(Table 1). Of these, 92 blood samples (45
samples of free-ranging and 47 samples of
captive crocodiles) were analyzed for RBC
counts, PCV, and blood biochemical
analyses. The average values and confi-
dence intervals are shown in Table 2.
Hematologic values
There were no statistically significant
differences in 1) RBC counts (U5313,
P50.062) or PCV (U5328.5, P50.07)
between captive and free-ranging croco-
diles; 2) RBC counts (t50.659, df550,
P50.098) or PCV (t50.474, df550,
P50.07) between sexes; or 3) RBC counts
(F50.935, df53, P50.08) or PCV
(F52.76, df53, P50.07) between size
classes. The P value was slightly .0.05
for PCV between size classes, suggesting a
difference (t53,10; df522; P,0.01) in
PCV between class I (hatchling) and class
IV (adult; Fig. 2a, b). However, the small
number of samples in class I (n53)
precluded adequate statistical analysis.
The total WBC count was higher in
free-ranging than in captive crocodiles
(U5418, P,0.001; Fig. 2c, d). Lympho-
cyte counts were greater in the captive
population (P,0.05) and monocyte, het-
erophil, and azurophil counts were greater
in the free-ranging population (P,0.05).
Size class
Unknown I II III IV
3 7 7 1 3
2 7 2 3 1
1 4 5 7 5
16 8 12 16 15
22 26 26 27 24
Eosinophil (U51,045, P.0.05) and baso-
phil counts (U581.5, P.0.05) were not
statistically different between free-ranging
and captive populations.
There were no significant differences in
total WBC counts among the free-ranging
sampling sites, but there were significant
differences (F54.959, df52, P,0.05) in
lymphocytes among sites. Free-ranging
crocodiles from Hampolol had lower
lymphocyte counts than Isla Arena and
Petenes (Tukey test, P,0.05; Fig. 2e).
Significant differences in leukocytes
between sexes were observed (t522.80,
df571, P,0.01). For captive crocodiles,
males had significantly more leukocytes
than females (t523.039 df529, P,0.01;
Fig. 2d). However, there were no signifi-
cant differences between sexes for free-
ranging crocodiles (t520.812, df540,
P.0.05). There were no significant differ-
ences for white blood cells among size
classes.
Plasma biochemistry
Free-ranging crocodiles had greater
uric acid values than captive crocodiles
(P,0.05) and cholesterol was higher in
captive than in free-ranging animals
(P,0.05). For other tests, there were no
statistically significant differences. Fe-
males had a greater mean cholesterol
value than males (t52.23, df559,
P,0.05). There were no significant differ-
ences in biochemical parameters among
size classes.
TABLE 2. Mean (range) hematologic and plasma biochemistry values for Morelet’s crocodiles (Crocodylus moreletii) sampled in Campeche, Mexico (March–
September 2007).

Free-ranging and captive

Parametera (n592) Free-ranging (n545) Captive (n547) Males (n540) Females (n536)

Erythrocytes/ml 1,070,277 1,046,166 1,100,416 1,048,448 1,097,826

(998,445–1,142,109) (928,943–1,163,389) (1,022,979–1,177,853) (953,929–1,142,966) (971,522–1,224,129)
PCV (%) 24.57 (23.44–25.70) 24.63 (22.79–26.47) 24.50 (23.25–25.74) 24.55 (22.83–26.26) 25.08 (23.62–26.55)
Leukocytes/ml 9,099 (8,776–9,421) 9,927 (9,429–10,425) 8,306 (8,035–8,577) 9,716 (9,217–10,215) 8,749 (8,269–9,229)
Lymphocytes/ml 4,130 (3,960–4,301) 4,330 (4,062–4,598) 3,939 (3,730–4,148) 4,312 (4,056–4,569) 4,103 (3,825–4,382)
Monocytes/ml 180 (142–218) 280 (221–339) 84 (54–114) 242 (172–311) 132 (85–180)
Heterophils/ml 2,610 (2,441–2,780) 2,962 (2,684–3,240) 2,274 (2,122–2,425) 2,755 (2,475–3,035) 2,535 (2,255–2,815)
Eosinphils/ml 268 (229–306) 268 (210–325) 268 (214–322) 286 (228–343) 279 (216–342)
Basophils/ml 1,694 (1,579–1,809) 1,809 (1,626–1,922) 1,584 (1,443–1,726) 1,799 (1,592–2,006) 1,576 (1,430–1,722)
Azurophils/ml 208 (170–247) 265 (198–333) 154 (118–189) 243 (166–321) 195 (150–240)
Glucose (mg/dl) 69.55 (64.25–74.85) 77.77 (67.42–88.12) 64.35 (58.93–69.76) 71.53 (63.15–79.91) 69.20 (61.22–77.18)
Uric acid (mg/dl) 3.04 (2.37–3.72) 4.48 (3.13–5.84) 1.95 (1.51–2.33) 3.00 (1.98–4.01) 3.20 (2.12–4.28)
Cholesterol (mg/dl) 250.14 (227.14–273.13) 228.77 (196.66–260.88) 283.06 (249.66–316.46) 236.46 (204.37–268.56) 284.32 (249.46–319.19)
Creatinine (mg/dl) 2.7 (2.43–2.97) 2.76 (2.22–3.30) 2.74 (2.44–3.04) 2.82 (2.40–3.25) 2.66 (2.26–3.07)
ALT (IU/l) 20.2 (16.68–23.72) 20.26 (15.08–25.44) 17.83 (13.12–22.53) 18.44 (13.90–22.97) 19.53 (14.10–24.97)
a
PCV 5 packed cell volume; ALT 5 alanine-aminotransferase.
PADILLA ET AL.—HEMATOLOGY AND BLOOD CHEMISTRY OF C. MORELETII IN MEXICO
515
516 JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE DISEASES, VOL. 47, NO. 3, JULY 2011

FIGURE 2. Comparison of means for erythrocyte counts (a) and packed cell volume (PCV; b) among size
classes; leukocyte counts between captive and free-ranging populations (c); (d) leukocyte counts between
sexes for captive crocodiles (d); and lymphocyte counts among sampling sites for free-ranging populations (e)
of Morelet’s crocodiles (Crocodylus moreletii) in the northern wetlands of Campeche, Mexico (March–
September 2007). Bars are SEs. Size classes and sample sizes are as follows: I, 0–50 cm (n53); II, 51–100 cm
(n58); III, 101–150 cm (n522); and IV, .150 cm (n521).

DISCUSSION reported previously (Sigler, 1990; Mora-

Our hematologic results were compara-
ble to those reported for other species of
crocodilians and to two similar studies of
captive Morelet’s crocodiles (Sigler, 1990;
Mora-Rivera, 2003; Table 3). The eryth-
rocyte counts we report are similar to
reference values for other species and
were similar to those reported for captive
Morelet’s crocodiles (Mora-Rivera, 2003).
The PCV presented a similar trend as
Rivera, 2003). Leukocyte mean values also
were similar to observed values for other
species of crocodilians, but they were
higher than those reported for Morelet’s
crocodiles by Mora-Rivera (2003). This
could be due to conditions of captivity,
season of sampling, and sample size (n517
in the study of Mora-Rivera [2003]; n552
free-ranging crocodiles and n551 captive
crocodiles in this study). We consider that
sample size used in this study was
TABLE 3. Reference hematologic values for some species of crocodilians compared with values for Morelet’s crocodiles (Crocodylus moreletii) measured in this
study. Modified from Strik et al. (2007).

Parameter Alligator mississippiensisa,b Crocodylus palustris adultc Crocodylus porosusd C. moreletiie C. moreletii (this study)

Erythrocytes/ml 384,000; 1,049,000 800,000 600,000–1,200,000 0.99 (31012/l) 1,070,277 (998,445–1,142,109)

(618,000–1,480,000) (640,000–990,000)
Hemoglobin (g/dl) N/Af 8.64 (6,600–10,100) 4.7–12.2 9.77
Packed cell volume (%) 27 (20–35) 25.4 (19–30) 17–41 27.69 24.57 (23.44–25.70)
Leukocytes/ml 6,400 6,970 (4,400–15,600) 6,400–25,700 4.72 (3109/l) 9,099 (8,776–9,421)
Heterophils/ml N/A 4,450 (2,240–6,700) 800–7,400 2,610 (2,441–2,780)
Heterophils (%) 54.7 N/A N/A 28.62
Lymphocytes/ml N/A 1,830 (790–3,100) 4,500–21,600 4,130 (3,960–4,301)
Lymphocytes (%) 23.9 N/A N/A 45.75
Monocytes/ml N/A 120 (0–300) 0–1,200 180 (142–218)
Monocytes (%) 0.7 N/A N/A 2.09
Eosinophils/ml N/A 560 (140–1,020) 0–700 268 (229–306)
Eosinophils (%) 10.4 N/A N/A 2.93
Basophils/ml N/A 0 0–400 1,694 (1,579–1,809)
Basophils (%) 12.7 N/A N/A 18.33
Azurophils/ml 208 (170–247)
Azurophils (%) 2.28
a
Mateo et al. (1984).
b
Frye (1991).
c
Stacy and Whitaker (2000).
d
Dessauer (1970).
e
Mora-Rivera (2003).
f
N/A 5 not available.
PADILLA ET AL.—HEMATOLOGY AND BLOOD CHEMISTRY OF C. MORELETII IN MEXICO
517
518 JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE DISEASES, VOL. 47, NO. 3, JULY 2011
appropriate. The statistical power test for
leukocytes is 12b50.79, which is near the
threshold suggested by Thomas (1997).
For biochemical cholesterol analysis, a
statistical power of 12b50.85 also sug-
gests an appropriate sample size.
The significant difference in PCV be-
tween crocodiles in size classes I and IV is
not conclusive, due to the small sample
size of the class I cohort. Dividing a large
sample into subclasses for reference in-
tervals depends on having significant
differences between cohorts (Walton,
2001). Because we found no significant
differences in PCV among size classes,
except for class I, we believe all obtained
values represent reference values for the
Morelet’s crocodile.
Frye (1991) reported that normal values
of PCV in healthy reptiles range from 20%
to 35%. In our study, five crocodiles were
below this level (four free-ranging animals
[three of Hampolol and one of Petenes]
and one captive). One captive crocodile, a
2.9-m, very old male with evidence of
chronic disease (severely cachectic, with
multiple wounds, and dehydrated) was not
included in the data set to establish
reference values.
Leukocyte values were similar to those
reported for other species of crocodilians.
Our values were greater than those
reported for Alligator mississippiensis
and Crocodylus palustris (all adults) and
were similar to those reported for Croco-
dylus porosus (Table 3). The heterophil
counts were greater in C. palustris than in
C. moreletii. Basophil counts were greater
in this study than those reported in other
species of crocodiles (Table 3). Basophils
are reduced during hibernation and in-
crease with activity (Saint Girons, 1970). It
is possible that we sampled many animals
soon after activity, resulting in the larger
number of basophils.
The counts of total WBCs were signif-
icantly higher in free-ranging crocodiles.
Lymphocytes are the predominant WBCs
in reptiles (ca. 80%; Troiano et al., 1997;
Alleman et al., 1999), and lymphocyte
counts in females tend to be higher than
those in males (Duguy, 1970; Sypek and
Borysenko, 1988). In our study, there
were no significant differences between
sexes for free-ranging crocodiles. In cap-
tive crocodiles, total leukocyte counts
(including lymphocyte counts) were high-
er in males than in females. However, the
number of samples from females (n517)
was greater than those from males (n513),
which could have influenced these find-
ings The power test for lymphocytes
between sexes suggested that a sample
size .60 crocodiles per sex would have
been necessary for a statistically reliable
conclusion. In contrast to our results
showing similar lymphocyte counts among
size classes (except for size class I), Stacy
and Whitaker (2000) reported higher
lymphocyte counts in juvenile C. palustris
than in adults.
The most common WBCs observed in
Morelet’s crocodiles were lymphocytes,
heterophils, and basophils. This agrees
with Frye (1991) who indicated that
lymphocytes can be close to 80%, heter-
ophils between 30% and 45%, and baso-
phils approximately 40% of the leukogram
of a reptile. In our study, only the diseased
2.9-m male captive crocodile had an
elevated number of leukocytes (14,880
cells/ml), high percentage of basophiles,
and reactive lymphocytes, which may
indicate severe antigen stimulation (Strik
et al., 2007).
Plasma biochemical values for some
crocodilian species are shown in Table 4.
In our study, glucose values were inter-
mediate to those reported for A. missis-
sippiensis and Crocodylus niloticus and
higher than those reported by Sigler
(1990) for C. moreletii. Uric acid values
were lower than C. niloticus and higher
than A. mississippiensis. However, they
were lower than those reported by Sigler
(1990) who reported C. moreletii and
Crocodylus acutus data together. Our
cholesterol values in C. moreletii were
higher than those reported for A. mis-
sissippiensis; creatinine values were high-
 PADILLA ET AL.—HEMATOLOGY AND BLOOD CHEMISTRY OF C. MORELETII IN MEXICO 519

TABLE 4. Reference values for some parameters of plasma biochemistry of crocodilians compared with
values for Morelet’s crocodiles (Crocodylus moreletii) measured in this study. Modified from
Huchzermeyer (2003).

Alligator Crocodylus Crocodylus

Parameter mississippiensisa niloticusb porosusc C. moreletiid C. moreletii (this study)

Glucose
mg/dl 92 81.6 52.95 69.55 (64.25–74.85)
mmol/dl 4.5–12.1
Uric acid
mg/dl 3.03 4.1 8.17 3.04 (2.37–3.72)
mmol/dl 167–988
Urea (mg/dl) 3.8
Bilirubin (mg/dl) 0.16
Cholesterol
mg/dl 120.8 250.14 (227.14–273.13)
mmol/dl 1.1–7.2
Creatinine
mg/dl 1.06 2.7 (2.43–2.97)
mmol/dl 20–51
ALTe (IU/l) 46.05 11–51 20.2 (16.68–23.72)
a
Barnett et al. (1998).
b
Foggin (1987).
c
Millan et al. (1997).
d
Sigler (1990).
e
ALT 5 alanine-aminotransferase.

er than those reported in captive Morelet’s of nutritional and environmental condi-

crocodiles, and ALT values were interme-
diate to those for two other species.
Differences in plasma biochemistry
among species of crocodiles and among
Morelet’s populations (Table 4) might be
a result of field and laboratory methods
used in different studies. For example, the
venipuncture site is important in croco-
diles because if blood is extracted from the
postoccipital region, hemodilution may be
occur (Strik et al., 2007). The type of
anticoagulant may affect coagulation time
and concentrations of some plasma values
(Campbell, 1996), although we did not
find any significant effect on the blood
biochemistry comparing two heparin anti-
coagulants (Padilla et al., 2010). Further-
more, handling of blood samples is
important; they should be processed
within 5–6 hr of collection (Jacobson,
2005).
Glucose values differ in reptiles because
tions. Glucose in most reptile species
ranges from 60 mg/dl to 100 mg/dl
(Campbell, 1996). In our study, free-
ranging C. moreletii showed broad varia-
tion in values. However, our results on
glucose are not considered hypoglycemic
or hyperglycemic values (.200 mg/dl).
Two crocodiles from Petenes had the
highest glucose values (.100 mg/dl). High
levels of glucose are found in individuals
after feeding (Khöler, 2006), and it is
likely that crocodiles with high glucose
values had fed before capture and blood
collection. We observed one free-ranging
individual feeding on a large fish before
being caught. The lowest values of glucose
were found in free-ranging crocodiles,
possibly as a result of capture and
handling stress (Köhler, 2006); captive
individuals might be more adaptable to
human handling. A slight variability was
observed in samples from captive croco-
520 JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE DISEASES, VOL. 47, NO. 3, JULY 2011
diles, and all glucose values were within
ranges reported by Campbell (1996).
Cholesterol values were higher in cap-
tive than in free-ranging crocodiles. Sim-
ilar results were found in captive tuátuara
(Sphenodon punctactus; Cartland et al.,
1994). For our captive Morelet’s croco-
diles, the diet, feeding frequency, general
lack of physical activity, social interactions,
and homogeneous habitat were very dif-
ferent from those of free-ranging croco-
diles. Some of the largest captive croco-
diles we sampled were considered obese.
Some of the difference in cholesterol
values between free-ranging and captive
crocodiles in our study also might be
explained by the significantly higher cho-
lesterol in females than males.
Uric acid is the main excretory nitroge-
nous waste product in urine and feces of
reptiles, with 80–90% of nitrogen excreted
as uric acid. The values of uric acid in most
reptiles range from 0 mg/dl to 10 mg/dl,
and values .15 mg/dl are considered high
(Frye, 1991; Campbell, 1996). Average uric
acid values found in our study are within
ranges reported by Barnett et al. (1998) for
A. mississippiensis and Millan et al. (1997)
for C. porosus. High uric acid values were
found in free-ranging crocodiles, but they
did not exceed 15 mg/dl. As with glucose,
this might be related to diet, feeding before
capture, and time between blood sample
extraction and processing. High values of
uric acid tend to occur 1 day after an
individual has eaten (Campbell, 1996).
Creatinine values obtained in our study
for C. moreletii were higher than normal
values for reptiles. However, creatinine is
not considered important for assessing
renal diseases in reptiles (Campbell,
1996). There were no significant differ-
ences between free-ranging and captive
crocodiles, or between sexes or among size
classes, suggesting creatinine is not an
important health indicator for crocodiles.
The normal values of ALT in reptiles
are usually ,20 IU/l. The activity of this
enzyme is not related to functioning of
specific organs (Campbell, 1996), but it
might be associated in some cases with
liver disease. The values in C. moreletii
were lower than those reported for C.
palustris (Stacy and Whitaker, 2000).
Our study provides reference values
based on a large sample size of C.
moreletii for erythrocytes, PCV, leuko-
cytes and leukocyte differentiation, glu-
cose, cholesterol, uric acid, creatinine, and
ALT. These values were close to those
reported for other species of crocodilians.
It is important to consider the source of
animals (captive or free-ranging) and sex
ratio when interpreting these values. We
suggest increasing the number of param-
eters as well as analyzing other factors
such as season, climatic conditions, and
perhaps a quantitative habitat evaluation
to establish reliable relationships between
these parameters and the crocodile’s
environment. The effect of human activ-
ities on the health of Morelet’s crocodile
should be included in future studies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We received support from CONACyT, El
Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR),
Laboratorio Central de Patologı́a Animal
(LACEPAC), the Comisión Nacional de Áreas
Naturales Protegidas (CONANP-RB Los Pe-
tenes), and the CETMAR, Campeche, Mexi-
co. We thank Ernesto Perera, Mauricio
González, Claudia Monzón, and Javier Gómez
for field assistance; Ramón Zetina for the map
of the sample site; and Nicole Strik for
providing training on reptile blood cells at
University of Florida.
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