Cambridge ENDORSED BY International AS and A Level [3 CAMBRIDGE ysics Second EditionENDORSED BY CAMBRIDGE International Examinations Cambridge International AS and A Level ATC) Mike Crundell and Geoff Goodwin ¢y HODDER ? EDUCATION AN HACHETTE Uk COMPANY‘Questions from Cambuldge imernational AS and A Level Physics papets are reproduced by permission of Cambridge International Examinations ‘cambridge intemaional Examinations heats no responsibity for the example answers t0 ‘questions taken from its past question papers which are contained in this publication, Hachette UK's polcy isto se papets that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and sade From wood grown in sustainable forests. The logaing and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental rgulauons of the country of origin. ‘Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ld, 130 Bilton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX4 4SB, Telephone: (4s) 01235 827720. Fax: 4a) 01235 400454. Lines are open 9100-500, Monday to Saturday, wath 24-hour message answering service, Visit our Website at Ww:hoddereducation.com emu First published in 2014 by. Hodder Hducaticn, a Hachette UK company, £38 Euston Road London NW1 38H Impression number $43.21 Year 2018 2017 2016 2015 2016 All sighs reserved. Apart from any use petmited under UE copyright law, no par of dis publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form orby aay means, electronic or ‘mechsnical, induding photocopying and reconding, or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in weiting from the publisher oF under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, Further details of such lcences (for reprographic roproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limbed, Saffron House, (6-10 Kinby Street, London ECIN BTS. Cover photo by © Uladzimni¢ Rakunowich-Ftolia. com, Illustrations by Integra Software Services and Charon ‘Tec Ud. ‘ypesee In TTC Garamond Sid Light 9/11 by Integra Sofware Sorvioes Pvt Lid, Pondicherry, Indi Printed in Raly A catalogue record for this ite Is avallable from the British Library ISBN 978 1471 80921 7Contents Acknowledgements... Introduction. Syllabus structure relating to book topics ESI} Topic 1 Physical quantities and units ae SENSE SRST 1 4.1 Physical quantities 2 1.2. Si quantities and base units. 2 4.3. Scalars and vectors 7 Topic 2. Measurement techniques 15 24 Measurements 5 2.2. Errors and uncertainties wt nents settee seesensernasesen BT Topic 3 Kinematics ........ anna aan anit) 3.1 Speed, displacement, velocity and acceleration 40 Topic 4 Dynamics 55 4.1. Relationships involving force and mass. 55 4.2 Weight 58 43 inciple of conservation of momentum 6 ic 5 Forces, density and pressure n 5.1 Types of force. n 5.2 Moment of a force n 5.3 Equilibrium of forces B Side "Desist ail FOSSURE sascarcecveczccescsccswasesusooviccestaat ances Gocco Ramee a 76 Topic 6 Work, energy, power. 80 6.2 Work....... 80 GA Energy eserene 83 6.3 Kinetic energy... 85 6.4 Power 89 Topic 9 Deformation of solids 94 41 & 9.2 Force and deformation 94 Topic 14 Waves ....... 101 14.1 Wave motion.. ve 101 14.2 Graphical representation of waves 102 14,3 The determination of the frequency of sound using a calibrated c.r.0. 107 14.4 Doppler effect 108 44.5 The electromagnetic spectrum 109Contents Topic 15 Superposition..... cessasennasenes 14 15.3 Interference 14 15.1 Stationary waves 119 14.3 Measuring the speed of sound using stationary waves. Ra 15.2 & 15.4 Diffraction 126 136 es se cnernnes seen 136 17.2 Electric field strength 1239 Topic 19 Current of electricity 145 19.1 Charge and current 145 19.2 Potential difference 148 99.3 Resistance occ se cneinnes ee eeesrnnensanes 149 Topie 20 D.C. citeUits eens alii alii os 20.1 Electrical circuits 156 20.2 Kirchhoff's first and second laws 159 20.3 Potential dividers and potentiometers. 162 Topic 26 Particle physics... 168 26.1 Atomic structure and radioactivity 168 26.2 Fundamental particles 178 Topic 7 Motion in a circle sone Asa SOEEAEBAS CT PRAT . seroma eres 184 7A__ Radian measure and angular displacement 184 7.2. Centripetal acceleration and centripetal forC€ .......secsssessssnserseeee oo neti ooo 185, Topic 8 Gravitational fields . at at acess 8.41 Gravitational field 191 8.2 & 8.3 Gravitational field strength 192 8.4 Gravitational potential and gravitational potential energy. 198 Topic 10 Ideal gases ...... aa ea a aa RD 10.1 & 10.3 Equation of state of an ideal gas... a ae seve 202 10.2 A microscopic model of a gas. 205 Topic 11 Temperature a 11.1 Temperature = = = a 11.2 Temperature scales nance ener crave sel 11.3 Thermometers. 215 Topic 12 Thermal properties of materials. 20 12.1 Solids, liquids and gases, and thermal (heat) energy a 12.2 Internal energy a a a 25 Topic 13 Oscillations 230 13.1 Oscillations. 230 43.2 Energy changes in simple harmonic motion. 25 13.3 Free and damped oscillations 237 |Contents Topic 14 Ultrasound.......... coe we sesssaneneesnee BAT 14.6 The generation and use of ultrasound.. 247 Topic 16 Communication 255 16.1 Communication channels a mrt an 255 16.2 Modulation _ ert aw 257 16.3 Analogue and digital signals. 262 16.4 Relative merits of channels of communication sesssensnsnensnnentnnnsanenenseneesae 265 16.5 Signal attenuation fe we coer 268 Topic 17 Electric fields 2 17.3 Point charges ert te 24 2A Electric field strength due toa point charge ert aw 2716 175 Electric potential energy and electric potential 216 Topic 18 Capacitance.......... si es cacrcet Nia Be 281 48.1 Capacitors and capacitance 281 18.2 Energy stored in a capacitor 285 Topics 19 & 20 Electronic sensors. 292 19.4 Sensing devices... 292 20.3 The use of potential dividers 295 Topic 21 Electronics 298 21.1 The ideal operational amplifier (op-amp).. oe 298 21.2 Operational amplifier circuits. casas a casas caraasce ED 21.3 Output devices... : as : as ee Topic 22 Magnetic fields ait 22.1 Concept of a magnetic field an 22.2 Force on a current-carrying conductor... od 22.3 Force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field oo 318 22.4 Magnetic fields due to currents... caravan a casas careers aE 22.5 The use of (nuclear) magnetic resonance imaging : as est 2B Topic 23 Electromagnetic induction 332 23.1 Magnetic flux and electromagnetic induction .......0.cs:esseiniesssenensanesnntssnentsninnivaieevaseess 332 Topic 24 Alternating currents. 2341 24.1 Characteristics of alternating currents. eee 34 24.2 Transformers... ce . ce . eee MB 24.3 Transmission of electrical energy 344 24.4 Rectification 345 Topic 25 Quantum physics ...... 21350 25.1 & 25.2 Photoelectric emission of electrons and energy of a photon. 350 355 25.3 Wave-particle duality. . 356 25.4 Energy levels in atoms and line spectra ‘25.5 Band theory 360 ‘25.6 The production and use of X-rays 363Contents Topic 26 Nuclear physics. 26.3 Mass defect and nuclear binding energy 26.4 The spontaneous and random nature of radioactive decay AAS Level Answers to Now it’s your turn and Examination style questions. A Level Answers to Now it's your turn and Examination style questions Index ... vee etintenietennenenen Student's CD contents Interactive tests Revision checklists Examination structure Planning revision Examination technique Glossary of command words Calculation of uncertainty in a result Significant figures and decimal places Proportionality and linearity Straight-line graphs 376 376 381 388 394 399)Acknowledgements ‘The publishers would ike (o thank the following for permission (o use copyright materlal Photo credits: p.2 11 © Royal Observatory Edinburgh/SPL; p.2 é© Juice Images / Alamy; p.2 b/ © Odua Images — Fotolia.com: p.2 be © age fotostock/Robert Harding; p.2 br © EK aviation / Alay, p.3 © Allred Pasleka/SPL; p.6 bI © kyslynskyy — Fotolia.com; p.6 a © Cory Ford / Alam; p.7 © PCN/Corbis; pl © Thierry GRUN - Aero / Alamy; p.16 © Science Photo Library; p.A7 © Leslie Garland Picture Library / Alamy, p.A8 © ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGRAPHY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, p.21 #! © MARTYN F CHILLMAID/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p.21 61 © foodfolio / Alamy; p.21 bc © MICHAEL DALTON/FUNDAMENTAL PHOTOS/ SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p.21 © ALEX BARTEL/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY: p.23 © Martyn Chillmalds p.24 1/ © synthetic Alan King / Alamy, p.24 Pf© busnelli ~ Fotolia.com, p.27 © SSPI. via Getty Images; p.28 4 © ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGR APHY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p.28 ir © sciencephotos / Alamy; p.28 br © Noel Toone / Photographersbirect, com; p.29 © ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGRAPHY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p.31 © ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGRAPHY/ SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p45 © Martyn Chillmald; p46 © The Art Archive / Alumy, p.46 (© frenta ~ Fotolla.com; p49 © AFP/Geity Images; p.50 © John Doornkamp / Design Pies; p.56 © Bill Sanderson/SPL; p.57 © ChinaFowoPress via Getty Images; P.60 0 Dreamframer / Alamy, p.63 © EDWARD KINSMANACIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY: p.64 © Kimberly Reinick ~ Fotolia, com: p.73 © Stefan Sollfors / Alamy; p.80 © AFP/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p.81 © Jurand — Fotolia.com; p.82 © (all) Alex Barte/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p.83 1 © Chrysler Group LLC: p.83 6 © Andrew Lambert Photography/SCIENCE PHOTO. 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OF PHYSICS, IMPERIAL COLLEGE/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY: p.359 1 © PHYSICS DEPT, IMPERIAL COLLEGE/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p.359 } © Mike Guidry (b-d), Mike Guidry, University of ‘Tennessee; p_363 © GUSTOIMAGES/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p.366 © SOVEREIGN, ISM/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p.367 © SOVEREIGN, ISM/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p.369 J}© MAURO FERMARIELLO/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY: p.369 r@) ZEPHYR/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p.379 © European Space Agency/SPL Acknowledgement Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity vie 8 8 8 8 Introduction This book Is @ new edition of International AS arut 4 Level Physics that has been revised and amended to be compatible with the Physics Syllabus 9702 of Cambridge International Examinations, published In 2014 for first examination In 2016, ‘The book has been fully endorsed by Cambridge Tntemational Examinations and {s listed as an endorsed textbook for students studying this syllabus. New matertal has been included, where necessary, so that the book prov'kles comprehensive cover of the subject content, The content of the book has been fe-ordered so that students sudying AS physics will find that paz cf the syllabus as being separate from the second part ofthe A Level course. In a few places, the content of the book goes slightly beyond the syllabus requirements, elther to provide some background information oF to arrive ata satisfactory termination of a tople: All the assessment objectives that are identified in the syllabus ate covered in the book. The learning outcomes, as specified in the syllabus, ae listed in each topic of the book using the same worcing as in the syllabus so that students may klentify easily the section of the syllabus that Is being covered. The content of each topic Is identified by earning outcome, not necessary presented, ‘in sequenttal numerical order, bat according 10 the most sensible onler for learning, For example, in AS Level Topic 6, learning outcome 6.2 (Work) comes before 6.1 (Energy). The chart opposite shows how topics are arranged in the book and how this relates ‘0 syllabus coverage. A new feature of the syllabus is Key concepts, These are te essential Ideas, theories, principles or mental tools that help learners {fo develop a deep understanding of their subject, and| make links between different topics, An icon indicates where each Key concept is covered ‘Models of physical systems Physics is the sclence that seeks to understand the behaviour of the Universe. The development of models of physical systems Is central (0 pliysis. Models simplify, explain and predict how physical systems behave. ‘Testing predictions against evidence Physical models are usually based on prior observations, and thelr predictions are tested to check that they are consistent with the behaviour of the seal work. This testing requires evidence, often obtained from experiments. ‘Mathematics as a language and problem-solving tool “Mathematics is integral to physics, as it is the language that is used to express physical principles and models, Its also a tool to analyse theoretical models, solve quantitalive problems and produce predictions. Matter, energy and waves “Everything in the Universe comprises matter andor energy. Waves are a key mechanism for the transfer of energy and are essential to many modern applications of physi. Forces and fields “The way that matter and energy interact is through forces and fields. The behaviour of the Universe Is govemed by fundamental fogces that act over different length scales and magnitudes. These include the gravitational force andl the electromagnetic force ey points, definitions and equations are highlighted in coloured panels, There is a summary of the important features that have been covered afer each section of tople, ‘Throughout each topic, Worked examples are provided so that students may familiarise themselves with the subject matter. The Worked examples are followed by questions of similar difficulty, listed uader the Note i's Jour turn hwadings. In adition, there are questions which luave a brodler context and are ofthe examination style as regards ‘wording and level of difficulty, Answers to both types of question are provided at the back of the book, ‘This book has been watten specifically for the Cambridge syllabus. However, is coverage of subject matter and style of questions ‘make it suitable for students who are studying towards physics qualifications of other awarding bodies, Mike Crundell Geof Goodwin July 2014 vitSyllabus structure relating to book topics 1. Physical quantities and units | 1. Physical quantities and units 2. Measurement techniques 2. Measurement techniques 3.Kinemati 3. Kneratics A. Dynamics A. Dynamics 5. Forces, density and pressure | 5. Forces, density and pressure 6. Work, eneigy, power 6. Work, energy, power 7 Mation ina crc 7 Maton nacre 8 Gravitational fields ‘8 Gravitational flelds '9, Deformation of sole 9. Deformation of ods 10 ideal gases 10. ideal gases Vi Temperature Vi Temperature 12, Thermal proper of materials 12 Thermal properties of materials 13, Oscllations 13. Osclations 14, Waves 14, Waves 14, Uitasound cows 14.1, 142, 143,144 | covers 14.6 and 145 15, Superposition 15. Superposition abso covers 14.36 16. Communication 16. Communication 17, Elecrc fields 17, Elec fields 17, Electric fields covers 121 and 172 covers 173, 174.and 125 18. Capactance 18. Capactance 19. Curent of elactricity 19, Current of electricity 19.8 20 Electronic sensors couers 19.1, 192 and 193 __| covers 19.4 200 creults 200. crcts 198 20 Flecronic sesors covers 20.1, 20.2 and 20.32, | covers 203.6 d 21, Electronics 21. Electronics 22, Magnetic folds 22. Magnetic fells 73. Flectromagnetic induction 23, Flectromagnetic induction 2, Alternating currents 24 Altemating currents 25. Quantum physies| 25, Quantum physics 26 Particle and nudear physics | 26, Particle and nuclear physes | 26. Particle and nuclear physkes covers 26.0 and 26.2 covers 26.3 and 26.4This page intentionally left blankAS Level 1 Physical quantities and units By the end of this topic, you will be able to: a 12 (@ understand that all physical quantities consist of a + micro @”) ‘numerical magnitude and a unit + milli én (b) make reasonable estimates of physteal quantities + cent © included in the syllabus + deci) (@) recall the following SI base quantities and their * kilo Go units: mass (kg), length (m), time (6), current (A), + mega (M) ‘Temperature (K), amount of substance (mol) + gigi (D) express derived units as products or quotients of + tera) the SI base units and use the named units listed (©) understand and use the conventions for labelling in the syllabus as appropriate ‘graph axes and table columns © use SI base units to check the homogeneity of 1.3. @) distinguish scalar and vector quantities and give physical equations ‘examples of each, @ use the following prefixes and their symbols 10 (D) add and subtract coplanar vectors indicate decimal submultiples or multiples of both (©) represent a vector as two perpendicular ‘base and derived units: ‘components + pico ©) ‘Note: amount of substance (moD is only used in the A level + nano a) ‘course but is included here for completeness. Starting points ‘ Accurate measurement is very important in the development of physics «Physicists begin by observing, measuring and collecting data. «These data are analysed to discover whether they fit into a pattern «If there is a pattern and this pattem can be used to explain other events, it becomes, a theory «The pracessis known as the scientific method (see Figure 1.1) ‘OBSERVE and MEASURE \ RECORD == DEVELOP THEORY L MODIFY THEORY TEST REJECT { ‘ACCEPT Figure 1.1 Block diagram to ilstrate the scenic methodBED Physical quantities and units 1.1 Physical quantities Figure 1.2 Brahe ( ) measured tlevations of stars; these days a lites used for measuring angular elevation A physical quantity is 2 feature of something which can be measured, for example, Jength, weight, or time offal, Every physical quantity has a numerical value and a unit If someone say they have a waist’ measurement oF 50, they could be very slim or very fat depending on whether the measurement is in centimetres or inches! Take care — Its ‘ital t0 give the unit of measurement whenever a quantity is measured or watten down. Large and small quantiles are usually expressed In sclentific notation, Le. asa shmple ‘number muliplied by a power of ten, For example, 0,000 34 would be written as 34 10 and 154000000 as 154 x 108. There is far less chance of making a mistake ‘with the number of zeros! Figure 1.3 The elephant is large in comparison wil but small compared with the jumbo | he boy 1.2 SI quantities and base units In very much the same way that languages have developed In various parts ofthe ‘world, many different systems of measurement have evolved. Just as kinguages can be translated from one to another, units of measurement can also be converted herween systems. Although some conversion factors are easy to remember, some are very lfficult 1s muct better to have just one system of units. Forts reason, scientists around the world use the Syst@me International (S1) which is based on the metric syscem of measurement.Figure 1.47 bemeasured in klograms, pounds, c rains, 10cm 200m 5 cm Figure 1.5 This box has 2 mass ofthis jewel could 1.2 SI quantities and base units fa quantity ts 10 be measured accurately, the unit in which i is measured must be defined as precisely as possible. SIs founded on seven fundamental or base units ‘The ase quantities ancl the units with Which they are measured are listed im Table 1.1. For completeness, the candela has heen included, but this unit wall not be used in the AVAS course. The mole will only be used in the A Level course Table 1.1 The tities and units mass iogam [kg legth matte ™ time second 5 fectrc current ampere (amp) [ A thermodynamic temperature | Kelvin K amount of substance mole ol Turninous intensity candela [ed ach quantity Nas just one unit and this unit can have multiples and sub-multiples to cater for larger or smaller values, The unit is given a prefix to cenore the multiple for sub-multiple (see Table 1.2). For example, one thousandth of a metre is known as a sllllmetre (mm) and 1.0 mullimetre equals 10 * 10° metres (am), Table 1.2 The more commonly used prefixes ‘tera T 10% siga 6 w maga M 108) io k 12 dec d 10" cent c 107 rl 10 ico u 10-8 nano. A 10° pico P 0 Beware when converting units for areas and volumes! Imm = 103m Squaring both sides mum? 10-6 and mm? = C0983 = 10-%m+ Note also that 104m and Lem} = (1e~2)$m$ = 104m ‘The box in Figure 15 has a volume of 1,0 108em® or 1.0 10mm or 1.0 x 10-1 A distance of thirty mettes should he wairten as 30m and not 50ms or 30m s, The letters is never included in 2 unit for the plural. fa space is left between two letters, the letters denote different units. So, 30m s would mean thirty metre seconds and 30m means 30 milliseconds,BED Physical quantities and units 0.26 om ——+1 Figure 1.6 Atom af gals Calculate the number of micrograms in 1.0 militar. 10g9= 1.0% 10mg and 199 50, 10% 10mg 0x 10 micrograms (Hg) Ox 1059 0x 1081.0 « 109) = 10x 108g and 1.0mg Now it's your urn Calculate the area, in cm?, of the top of a table with sides of 1.2m and 0.9m. 2 Detain the ruin of able mets in one cube Kom 3 Write down, using scientific notation, the values of the folowing quantities: (@) 68pF, (b) 32uC, (9 sow. 4 How many electric fies, each rated at 2.5kW, can be powered from a generator providing 2,0MW of electric power? 5. Anatom of gold, Figure 1.6, has a ciameter of 0.26nm and the chameter of its nucleus is5.6 x 10-!pm. Calculate the ratio ofthe diameter of the atom to that ofthe nuceus. = Derived units All quantities, apart from the base quantities, can be expressed in terms of derived. units. Derived units consist ofsome combination of the base units. The base units may be ‘multiplied together or divided by one another, but never added or subtracted. See Table 1.3 for examples of derived units, Some quantities have a named unit, For ‘example, the unit of force fs the newton, symbol N, but the newton can be expressed sn terms of base units. Quantities which do not have a named unit are expressed in terms of other units, For example, specific latent heat (Topic 12) is measured In joules per kilogram (J kg"), Table 1.3 Some examples of derived units which may be used in the AZAS course frequency hertz 2) [5 velocity mst ms acceleration ms me Yorce newton (S) | kg ms ‘energy joule) | kgm? 5 power watt w) [ames electric charge coulomb) [As potential difference |voltivy | kgm?s2A7 lectical resistance [ohm(G) | kg mes A? speciicheat capacity [kg 7 | mes ‘What are the base units of speed? Speed i dened 2s UBM an so the uti Division by a unit is shown using a negative index, that is, The base units of speed are ms"1,2 Si quantities and base units Now it’s your turn Use the information in Tables 1.1 and 1.3 to determine the base units of the following quantities Checking equations 1115 possible 0 work ux the toa number of oranges in two bags fone bag contains four and the other five (he answer is nines. This exercise would, of course, be nonsense sf one bag contained three oranges and the other four mangoes. In the sime way, for any equation to make sense, each term involved in the equation must have the same base Units A term in an equation isa. group of numbers and symbols, and each ofthese terms (oe groups) added 10, o¢ subtracted from, cther terms. For example, n the equation veusar the terms are ou, and at, In any equation wore each tor has the same base units, the equation i said to be homogeneous or ‘balancod In the example above, each term has the base units m s-\ TF the equation ts no® homogeneous, then itis incorrect andl 1s not valid, When an equation 4s known 10 be homogeneous, then the halancing of base units provides a means of finding the units of an unknown quantity. Use base units to show that the fellowing equation is homogeneous, work done = gain in kinetic energy + gain in gravitational potential eneray ‘The torms in the equation are work, (gain in) kinetic energy, and (gain in) gravitational potential anergy. work done force x distance moved and so the base units are kg m sx m kinetic energy = $x mass x (specs)? Since any pure number such as has noni, the base units are kg x (m =} potential nergy = mass x gravitational fed svength 2 x distance gm? 52 keg mi? 52 The base units are ke x m 52x m= kg m?s-2 Conclusion: All terms have the same base units and the equation is homogeneous. Now it’s your turn 8 Use base units to check whether the folowing equations are balanced (2) pressure = depth x density x aravitational ald strongth (}) anoray = mass x (speed of light? 9 Thethermal energy neaded to malta sold of mass m wthout any change of ‘temperature is given by the equation =m here Lisa constant. Find the base unis of Z 10 Determine the base units of the following quantities: (2) energy (= force x distance (b) specific haat capacty. {thermal eneray change = mass x specific heat capacity x temperature change) ‘11 Show that the left-hand side of the equation pressure +x densty x (speed)? = constant shomogenaous and find the base units of the constant on the righthand side,BED Physical quantities and units Figure 1.8 The ratio ofthe mass c tumpback whale tothe mass ofthe mouse ‘about 104 That s minute compared to {he rato of the mass of a galany to the mass cof anucous (10°) Table 1.4 Some values of dstance stance from earth toedge | 1.4 x 107° of observable Universe ‘ameter ofa galaxy aie ‘stance from earth tothe Sun | 15x 107 stance from Londan to Paris [35 105 length ofa car 4 Glametar ofa hair Sat lamatar ofan atom 3x08 diameter of a nudeus 6x08 6 Conventions for symbols and units ‘You may have noticed that when symbols and units are printed, they appear In dlfferent styles of type. The symbol for a physical quantity Is printed in ttaiic (sloping) {ype, whereas is unit is in toman cuprighd type. For example, velocity #5 ali, but {tS unit m s+! oman, OF course, you Will not be able to make this distinction in handwriting AL AAS level and beyond, there Is a special convention for labelling coluans of «ata in tables and graph axes. The symbol is printed Mrs Gn alle), separated by a forward slash (ihe printing teem is sols) from the unit (in roman). Then the data {s presented in a column, of along an axis, as pure numbers. This s illustrated in Figure 17, which shows a table of data and the resulting graph forthe velocity v ofa particle at various times ws omst] 60 o | = | ye 1.0 40 § 20 20 | ss 10 2 n for labeling tables and graoh: Figure 1.7 The If you remember that a physleal quantity contains a pure number and a unit, the reason for this style of presentation becomes clear. By dividing a physical quantity such as time (@ number and a unit) by the appropriate unit, you are let with a pure number 14s then algebraically correct for the data in tables, and along graph axes, 9 appear as ure numbers. ‘You may also see examples in which the symbol for the phiysical quaniity Is followed Dy the slash, and chen by a power of 10, and then the uni, for example #/1048, This ‘means that the column of data has been divided by 100, a save repeating lots of zeros in the table. IF You see a table or graph labelled //10?s and the figures 1, 2,3 ia the table column or along the graph axl, this means that the experimental data was obvained at values of of 16015, 2005, 300s, “Try to get out of the habit of heading table columns and graphs in ways such as ‘rin 8, 16) of even of recording each reading in the table as 10 5, 205, 30.8 Order of magnitude of quantities 11s often useful be able to estimate the size, oF order of magnitude, of a quantity Stncily speaking, the orter of magnitude is the powver of ten to which the mumher is raised, The ability to estimate is particularly important in a subject like physics where ‘quantiles have such widely different values. A short distance for an astrophysicist isa light-year bout 95 x 10m) whereas a fone distance for a nuclear physicist ts 6x 107m (the approximate diameter of a nucleus)! Table 14 gives some values of distance which may be met in the A/AS Physics course. ‘The ability to estimate orders of magnitude Is valuable when planning and carrying ‘out experiments or when suggesting theories. Having an idea of the expected result provides a useful check that a silly ertor has not been made. This is also true When using a calculator. For example, the acceleration of free fall atthe Earth's surface is about 10m s#. Ifa value of 9800m s+ Is calculated, then this is obviously wrong and a simple error in the power of ten is likely to be the cause, Similarly, a calculation in. ‘Which the cost of boiling a Kettle of water is found to be several dollars, rather than a few cents, may indicate that the energy has heen measured in wat-houss mther than, llowatt-hoursFigure 1.9 Although the athlete uns 10&n inthe race, his final astance from? point may well be zero! ating 1.3 Scalars and vectors ‘tis worthwhile te remember the sizes of some common objects so tat comparisons can be made. For example, ajar of peanut butter has a mass of about 500g and a carton of orange juice has a volume of 1000 crm (tite). Now it’s your turn 12 Estimate the following quantities: (0) the mass of an orange, {(b) the mass of an adult human, (©) the height of a room ina house, (d) the diarneter ofa pencil, (0) the volume of a small ban, (f) the volume of a human head, (g) the speed of a jumbo jet, (h) the temperature of the human body 1.3 Scalars and vectors All physical quantites have a magnitude andl s unit, For some quantities, magnitude and units do not give us enough information fo desentbe Fully the quantity. For example, if we afe given the time for which a car travels at a certain speed, then we ‘can calculate the distance travelled. However, we cannot find out how far the cars from its starting point unless we are told the direction of travel, In tis case, the speed ‘and direction must be specified, ‘A quantity which can be described fully by giving its magnitude is known asa sealar quantity. A vector quantity has magnitude and direction, Some examples of scalar and vector quantities are given in ‘Table 15, Table 1.5 Some scalars and vectors mass v velght v speed v velocity v ‘acceleration v force v pressure v temperature | Note: It may seem that electric current should be treated as a vector quantity. We give ccurtent a direction when we deal with, for example, the motor effect (See Tope 22) and when we predict the direction of the magnet field due to current-carrying coils and wires. However, electric current does not follow the laws of vector addition and should be treated as a scalar quant. ‘Aig wheel’ at a theme park has a diameter of 14m and people on the ride complete one revolution in 24s. Calculate: (a) the distance a rider moves in 3.0 minutes, () the distance of the rider from the starting position, ExaBED Physical quantities and units (0) In 3.0 minutes, herder completes 3.0% 60 _ 75 revolutions distance travelled = 7.5 x circumference of wheel 5x2nx70 =330m (b) 7.5 revolutions are completed. Rider is ¥4 revolution from the starting point. The rider is atthe opposite end of a diameter of the big wheel. So, the distance from starting position = 14m. Now it’s your turn 13. State whether the following quantities are scalars or vectors (0) time of departure of a train, (b) gravitational field strength, (0) density of a quid 14 State whether the following quantities are scalars or vectors: (@) movement of the hands of a dock, (b) frequency of vibration, (6 flow of water in a pipe. 45 Speed and velocity have the same units, Explain why speed isa scalar quantity whereas, velocity is vector quantity 16 student states that a bag of sugar has a weight of 1ON and that this weight isa vector quantity, Discuss whether the students correct when stating that weight isa vector Sd Vector representation ‘When you hit tennis bull, you have to judge the direction you want i to move In, well as how hard to hit it, The force you exert is therefore a vector quantity and be represented by a number alone, One way to represent a vector is by means of an arrow. The difection of the arrow is the difection of the vector quantity. The length of the arrow, drawn to scale, represents its magnitucle. This is lustrated in Figure 1.10 Seale: 1 unit represents 5 ms~? pe s a) velocity 15 ms“, due east b)valocity 10 ms~?, dus south Figure 1.10 Represemation of av stor quantity Addition of vectors ‘The addition of two scalar quantities which have the same unit Is no problem. The ‘quantities are added using the nonmal rules of addition, For example, a beaker of vohime 250em* and a bucket of volume 9.0 litres have a total volume of 9250cm*. Adding together two vectors is more difficult because they have direction as well as ‘magnitude. Ifthe two vectors are in the same direction, then they can simply be added togetlter. Two objects of weight SON and 40N have a combined weight of 90N because Doth weights actin the same direction (vertically downward, Figure 111 shows the effect of adding fwo forces of magnudes 30'N and 20N which act along the same line in the same direction or in opposite directions. The angle between the forces is ‘0° when they actin the same direction and 180° when they are In opposite directions, Forall tier angles between the directions of the forees, the combined effect, oF resultant, is some value hetween 10N and SON,Hh Figure 1.12 Vector tangles Aoxm nt azkmn- fe V Figure 1.13 Figure 114 1.3 Scalars and vectors 20m son => — zn 208 + 20N son | | = { 20N — 1 10N 20N = 20N Figure 41 Vector aon Tn cases where the two vectors do not actin the Sime or opposite directions, the resultant i found by means of a vector triangle. Each one of the two vectors Vand Vpis represented in magnitude and direction by the skde of 2 triangle. Note that both ‘vectors must be in either 2 clockwise or an anticlockwise direction (see Figure 1.12), The combined effec, or resultant 2 Is given In magnitude and direction by the third side of the triangle, Tis important to remember that, iF ¥, and ¥, are drawn clockwise, then #48 anticlockwise; if Vy and Vz are anticlockwise, x 1s clockwise. ‘The resultant may be found by means of a scale diagram. Alternatively, having drawn a sketch of the vector tangle, the problem may be solved using trigonometry Gee the Maths Note on page 11), Ashipis travelling cue north with a spoed of 12km hr? rolatwo to the water. There is a currentin the water flowing at 4.0km hr" in an easterly direction, Determine the velocity of ‘the ship by: (a) scale drawing, (b) calaulation (0) By scale drawing (Figure 1.13) Scale: 1 cm represents 2km h-? resultant & The veloaty is 6.3% 2 = 12.6 km h-t in a deection 18° east of north (©) By calculation Referring to the diagram (Figure 1.14) and using Pythagores’ theorem, Bia 122 4 d= 160 R= VIG = 126 ae tena =f =0.33 an 18a The velocity of the ship is 12.6km ht in a diraction 18.4° east of north. Now it’s your turn 17. Explain how an arrow may be used ta represent a vector quantity. 118 Two forces are of magnitude 450N and 240N respectvaly. Determine: (a) the maximurn magnitude of the resultant force, () the minimum magnitude of the resultant force, () the resutant force when the forces act atright angles to each other. Use a vector diagram and then chack your result by calevation,igure 1.15 ‘BON Figure 1.6 ON 19 A boat canbe rowed ata speed of 20m tin stil water A river flows at a constant speed of 1 Sk", Uses scale diagram to determine the argle to the bank at which ‘the boat must be rowed in erder thatthe boat travalsdrectlyacress the river. 20 Two forces act at a point P as shown in Figure 1.15, Draw a vector diagram, to scale, ta ‘determine the resultant force. Check your work by calculation. 21 Aswimmer who can swim in stil water ata speed of km fis swimming ina tver ‘Tho river flows at a speed of 3km hl. Calculate the speed of the swimmar relative to the var bank when she swims: (2) downstream, (b) upstream. 22 Draw to scale a vector triangle to determine te resultant of the two forces shown in Figure 1.16. Check your answer by calculating the resultant 5 The use of a vector tangle for finding the resultant of two vectors can be demonstrated by means ofa simple lahoratory experiment. A weight fs attached to each end ofa flexible thread and the thread is then suspended aver two pulleys, as shown in Figure 117-4 tid weight i attached toa point P near the Cente ofthe thread. The string moves aver the pulleys and then comes fo rest. The positions of the threads are marked on a plece of paper held on a board Behind the theese This 4s easy todo flight from a small lamp is shone atthe board. Having noted the izes W and WW; of the weights on the ends of the thread, a vector langle can then be drawn oon the paper, as shown in Figure 1.18, The resultant of W; and W; ls found to be equal ‘in magnitude but opposte in direction fo the weight WF, This were not so, there ‘would be a resultant force at P and the thread and weights woul move, The use of 2 vector trangle Is justified. The thee forces W, Ws and W, ae in equlrivm. The condition for the vector dlagram of these forces to represent the equllbrum situation 1s {hat the three vectors shoukl form a closed triangle. Figure 1.17 Apparatus to chack the use of a vector tangle