Lesson 2

Operating Principles Of Scrubbers

Goal
To introduce you to the operating principles of wet and dry scrubbers that enhance the collection
of air pollutants.

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to do the following:

1. Name three scrubbing process variables that affect particle collection in a wet scrubber

2. Describe the two most important mechanisms for collecting particles in a wet scrubber

3. List three conditions that will enhance the absorption process for either wet or dry scrubbers

4. Define pressure drop and explain its importance in the scrubbing process

5. Define liquid-to-gas ratio (L/G) ratio and explain its importance in the scrubbing process

Introduction
Depending on the design, scrubbers can collect particles, gases, both particles and gases, or
acid gases. This lesson discusses the basic principles on which scrubber designs are based.
As discussed in Lesson 1, wet scrubbers remove particles by capturing them in liquid droplets
and they remove gases by dissolving or absorbing them into liquid. In this lesson, you will
learn which set of conditions enhances particle collection and which set promotes gas
collection. Some conditions enhance the collection of both types of pollutants.

Wet scrubbers remove particles from gas streams by capturing the particles in liquid droplets
or in sheets of scrubbing liquid (usually water) and then separating the droplets from the gas
stream. Several process variables affect particle capture; they include particle size, the size of
liquid droplets, and the relative velocity of the particle and the liquid droplets, with particle
size being the most important parameter. In general, larger particles are easier to collect than
smaller ones. The key to effective particle capture in a wet scrubber is creating a mist of tiny
droplets that act as collection targets: usually, the smaller the droplet and the more densely
the droplets are packed, the better the ability to capture smaller-sized particles. Particle
capture generally improves with higher energy systems because energy is required to produce

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the mist of tiny droplets. Also, a high relative velocity between particles and liquid droplets
(the particles are moving fast compared to the liquid droplets) promotes particle collection.

For gaseous pollutant collection, the pollutant must be soluble in the chosen scrubbing liquid.
In addition, the system must be designed to provide good mixing between the gas and liquid
phases, and enough time (residence time) for the gaseous pollutants to dissolve.

Other important considerations for both particulate and gaseous pollutant collection are the
amount of liquid injected into the scrubber per given volume of gas flow (referred to as the
liquid-to-gas ratio) and the removal of any entrained liquid droplets. The liquid-to-gas ratio
is important to provide sufficient liquid for effective pollutant removal. Also, the system
must be designed to remove entrained mists, or droplets, from the cleaned exhaust gas stream
before it leaves the stack. If not removed, the "captured" pollutants could be emitted from the
stack.

A dry sorbent injector (DSI) removes acid gases by causing direct contact between the
alkaline sorbent and the acid gases. The acid gases are adsorbed onto the solid sorbent
particle and the alkaline material reacts with the acid gases to form solid salts. In these
simple systems, the degree to which the alkaline material can be brought into intimate contact
with the acid gases is the key in obtaining effective removal. Also, the surface area of the
sorbent and reactivity with acid gases are primary parameters that control collection.

An enhancement of the DSI is the spray dryer absorber (SDA). In the SDA, the alkaline
sorbent is mixed with water and injected into a reaction vessel. The water cools and
humidifies the gas stream, increasing the efficiency of the reaction. Also, mechanical
atomization of the slurry is provided to produce very fine alkaline droplets to increase contact
between the acid gases and sorbent material. In this process the acid gases are absorbed into
the liquid droplet where they react with sorbent.

Particle Collection
Wet scrubbers capture relatively small dust particles with large liquid droplets. In most wet
scrubbing systems, droplets produced are generally larger than 50 micrometers (in the 150 to
500 micrometer range). As a point of reference, human hair ranges in diameter from 50 to
100 micrometers. The size distribution of particles to be collected is source specific. For
example, particles produced by mechanical means (crush or grind) tend to be large (above 10
micrometers); whereas, particles produced from combustion or a chemical reaction will have
a substantial portion of small (i.e. less than 5 micrometers) and submicrometer-sized particles.
The most critical sized particles are those in the 0.1 to 0.5 micrometer range because they are
the most difficult for wet scrubbers to collect.

Droplets are produced by several methods:

1. Injecting liquid at high pressure through specially designed nozzles

2. Aspirating the particle-laden gas stream through a liquid pool

3. Submerging a whirling rotor in a liquid pool.

These droplets collect particles by using one or more of several collection mechanisms. These
mechanisms⎯impaction, direct interception, diffusion, electrostatic attraction, condensation,

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centrifugal force, and gravity⎯are explained in Table 2-1. However, impaction and
diffusion are the two primary ones.

Table 2-1. Particle collection mechanisms for wet scrubbing systems

Mechanism Explanation
Impaction Particles too large to follow gas streamlines around a droplet
collide with it.
Diffusion Very tiny particles move randomly, colliding with droplets because
they are confined in a limited space.
Direct interception An extension of the impaction mechanism. The center of a particle
follows the streamlines around the droplet, but a collision occurs
if the distance between the particle and droplet is less than the
radius of the particle.
Electrostatic attraction Particles and droplets become oppositely charged and attract
each other.
Condensation When hot gas cools rapidly, particles in the gas stream can act as
condensation nuclei and, as a result, become larger.
Centrifugal force The shape or curvature of a collector causes the gas stream to
rotate in a spiral motion, throwing larger particles toward the wall.
Gravity Large particles moving slowly enough will fall from the gas stream
and be collected.

Impaction
In a wet scrubbing system, dust particles will tend to follow the streamlines of the
exhaust stream. However, when liquid droplets are introduced into the exhaust stream,
particles cannot always follow these streamlines as they diverge around the droplet
(Figure 2-1). The particle's mass causes it to break away from the streamlines and impact
or hit the droplet.

Figure 2-1. Impaction

Impaction increases as the diameter of the particle increases and as the relative velocity
between the particle and droplets increases. As particles get larger they are less likely to

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follow the gas streamlines around droplets. Also, as particles move faster relative to the
liquid droplet, there is a greater chance that the particle will hit a droplet. Impaction is
the predominant collection mechanism for scrubbers having gas stream velocities greater
than 0.3 m/s (1 ft/sec) (Perry 1973). Most scrubbers do operate with gas stream velocities
well above 0.3 m/s. Therefore, at these velocities, particles having diameters greater than
1.0 μm are collected by this mechanism.

Impaction also increases as the size of the liquid droplet decreases because the presence
of more droplets within the vessel increases the likelihood that particles will impact on
the droplets.

Diffusion
Very small particles (less than 0.1 μm in diameter) experience random movement in an
exhaust stream. These particles are so tiny that they are bumped by gas molecules as
they move in the exhaust stream. This bumping, or bombardment, causes them to first
move one way and then another in a random manner, or to diffuse, through the gas. This
irregular motion can cause the particles to collide with a droplet and be collected (Figure
2-2). Because of this, diffusion is the primary collection mechanism in wet scrubbers for
particles smaller than 0.1 μm.

Figure 2-2. Diffusion

The rate of diffusion depends on the following:

1. The relative velocity between the particle and droplet

2. The particle diameter

3. The liquid-droplet diameter.

For both impaction and diffusion, collection efficiency increases with an increase in
relative velocity (liquid- or gas-pressure input) and a decrease in liquid-droplet size.

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However, collection by diffusion increases as particle size decreases. This mechanism

enables certain scrubbers to effectively remove the very tiny particles (less than 0.1 μm).
In the particle size range of approximately 0.1 to 1.0 μm, neither of these two collection
mechanisms (impaction or diffusion) dominates. This relationship is illustrated in Figure
2-3.

Figure 2-3. Hypothetical curve illustrating relationship between

particle size and collection efficiency for typical wet
scrubber

Other Collection Mechanisms

In recent years, some scrubber manufacturers have utilized other collection mechanisms
such as electrostatic attraction and condensation to enhance particle collection without
increasing power consumption. In electrostatic attraction, particles are captured by first
inducing a charge on them. Then, the charged particles are either attracted to each other,
forming larger, easier-to-collect particles, or they are collected on a surface.
Condensation of water vapor on particles promotes collection by adding mass to the
particles. Other mechanisms such as gravity, centrifugal force, and direct interception
slightly affect particle collection.

To test your knowledge of the preceding section, answer the questions in Part 1 of the
Review Exercise.

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Gas Collection
The process of dissolving gaseous pollutants in a liquid is referred to as absorption.
Absorption is a mass-transfer operation. Mass transfer refers to the process of transferring a
component from one phase or stream to another. Mass transfer can be compared to heat
transfer in that both occur because a system is trying to reach equilibrium conditions. For
example, in heat transfer, if a hot slab of metal is placed on top of a cold slab, heat energy
will transfer from the hot slab to the cold slab until both reach the same temperature
(equilibrium). In absorption, mass instead of heat is transferred as a result of a concentration
difference, rather than a heat-energy difference. Absorption continues as long as a
concentration differential exists between the liquid and the gas from which the contaminant is
being removed.

To remove a gaseous pollutant by absorption, the exhaust stream must pass through (be in
contact with) a liquid. Figure 2-4 illustrates the three steps involved in absorption. In the first
step, the gaseous pollutant diffuses from the bulk area of the gas phase to the gas-liquid
interface. In the second step, the gas moves (transfers) across the interface to the liquid phase.
This step occurs extremely rapidly once the gas molecules (pollutant) arrive at the interface
area. In the third step, the gas diffuses into the bulk area of the liquid, thus making room for
additional gas molecules to be absorbed. The rate of absorption (mass transfer of the pollutant
from the gas phase to the liquid phase) depends on the diffusion rates of the pollutant in the
gas phase (first step) and in the liquid phase (third step).

Figure 2-4. Absorption

To enhance gas diffusion and therefore absorption, scrubber designs should do the following:

1. Provide a large interfacial contact area between the gas and liquid phases (i.e. numerous,
tiny liquid droplets)

2. Provide good mixing of the gas and liquid phases (turbulence)

3. Allow sufficient residence, or contact, time between the gas and liquid phases

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Two of these three gas-collection mechanisms, large contact area and good mixing, are also
important for particle collection. The third factor, sufficient residence time, works in direct
opposition to efficient particle collection. To increase residence time, the relative velocity of
the gas and liquid streams must be reduced. Therefore, achieving a high removal efficiency
for both gaseous and particulate pollutants is extremely difficult unless the gaseous pollutant
is very soluble in the liquid.

Solubility is a very important factor affecting the amount of a pollutant that can be absorbed.
Solubility governs the amount of liquid required (liquid-to-gas ratio) and the necessary
contact time. More soluble gases require less liquid. Also, more soluble gases will be
absorbed faster. Solubility is a function of both the temperature and, to a lesser extent, the
pressure of the system. As temperature increases, the amount of gas that can be absorbed by a
liquid decreases. From the ideal gas law: as temperature increases, the volume of a gas also
increases; therefore, at a higher temperature, gas volume increases and less gas is absorbed.
For this reason, some absorption systems use inlet quench sprays to cool the incoming
exhaust stream, thereby increasing absorption efficiency. Pressure affects the solubility of a
gas in the opposite manner. When the pressure of a system is increased, the amount of gas
absorbed generally increases.

Acid Gas Removal Mechanisms

In dry scrubbing systems, the mechanism of acid gas removal involves both the adsorption
and absorption processes. Adsorption occurs when the acid gas molecules adhere to the
surface of the solid sorbent. Absorption occurs when the acid gases dissolve in the liquid
droplets. In either case, the acid gases eventually react with the alkaline sorbent to form a
salt.

For dry injection systems, adsorption is the primary reaction mechanism. The acid gases are
brought into contact with the solid sorbent, adsorbed onto the surface and then react to form a
solid salt. In a spray dryer, both absorption and adsorption occur. Acid gases are absorbed
into the tiny liquid droplets where they react with the dissolved alkaline material. Adsorption
occurs when the liquid is evaporated and the acid gases adsorb onto the solid sorbents that are
present.

The alkaline sorbent materials used in dry scrubbing systems are chosen because of their
ability to react with or neutralize the acid gases. The materials, either calcium- or sodium-
based, are tiny, porous solids that have the ability to adsorb the acid gas material.

Both adsorption and absorption are mass transfer processes that involve gas diffusion to
provide effective acid gas removal in dry scrubbing systems. Therefore, similar operating
conditions enhance both processes; and as discussed in the previous section they are as
follows:
• Large contact areas for reactions to occur The porous surface area of the solid sorbent
and/or the tiny liquid droplets provide these
reaction sites.
• Good gas to solid/liquid mixing The acid gases must be brought into intimate
contact with the alkaline sorbent or liquid
droplets for reaction to occur.
• Sufficient reaction time Either a reaction chamber or residence time
in the ductwork needs to be provided.

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Temperature also affects both the adsorption and absorption processes: the cooler the flue
gas, the more effective both processes become. Therefore, higher removal efficiencies can be
achieved by reducing the flue gas temperature.

To test your knowledge of the preceding section, answer the questions in Part 2 of the Review
Exercise.

Pressure Drop
The pressure drop across a scrubbing system, and more importantly across individual
components, is an important parameter in evaluating wet scrubber operation⎯especially for
particle removal. Pressure drop is a measurement of the resistance to flow as the flue gas
passes from one point to another point. The resistance to flow is caused by both friction and
turbulence.

In describing air flow through a system, a number of pressure terms are used. The three most
important are: static pressure, velocity pressure, and total pressure. Air flowing in a pipe is
acted on by static pressure and velocity, which when added together give total pressure.
Static pressure acts in all directions and is measured at right angles to the direction of air
flow to avoid influence from air velocity. Velocity pressure is the pressure created by air
moving at a specific velocity. Total pressure is the sum of the static and velocity pressures.
The pressure drop across a device is simply the arithmetic difference between the static
pressures (measured at right angles to the flow) at the inlet and outlet of the device (See
Figure 2-5). Lesson 8 describes measurement of pressure in more detail.

Figure 2-5. Measuring pressure drop across a venturi scrubber

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Pressure drop is an important indicator of wet scrubber performance because for most wet
scrubbers, particulate collection increases as the power input (or pressure drop) increases.
Therefore, by supplying more power (i.e. creating a higher pressure drop) particle collection
can be enhanced. (This theory is discussed in Lesson 10.) Also, as the pressure drop
increases, the cost to operate the system increases because more fan or liquid pumping power
is required.

As stated previously, pressure losses from air flowing in a pipe are due to friction and
turbulence. Friction losses are caused by the air rubbing or abrading against the sides of the
duct, scrubber or internal components. Obviously, the more internal components or
obstructions there are, the higher the potential friction losses will be. Turbulent losses are
caused when the air flow is disturbed. For example, changes in direction and/or reduction in
size of the duct or scrubber are main causes of turbulence.

Liquid-To-Gas Ratio
An important parameter in wet scrubbing systems is the rate of liquid flow. It is common in
wet scrubber terminology to express the liquid flow as a function of the gas flow rate that is
being treated. This is commonly called the liquid-to-gas ratio and uses the units of gallons
per 1000 acfm. Expressing the amount of liquid used as a ratio enables systems of different
sizes to be readily compared.

For particulate removal, the liquid-to-gas ratio is a function of the mechanical design of the
system; while for gas absorption the liquid-to-gas ratio gives an indication of the difficulty of
removing a pollutant. Most wet scrubbers used for particulate control operate with liquid-to-
gas ratios in the 4 to 20 gallons per 1000 acfm range. Dependent on scrubber design, a
minimum volume of liquid is required to "wet" the scrubber internals and create sufficient
collection targets. After a certain optimum point, adding excess liquid to a particulate wet
scrubber does not help increase efficiency and in fact, could be counter productive by causing
excessive pressure loss. Liquid-to-gas ratios for gas absorption are often higher; in the 20 to
40 gallons per 1000 acfm range.

Table 2-2 presents a listing of the types of wet scrubbers that have been used in flue gas
desulfurization systems on utility boilers. The table illustrates a number of points about the
choice of wet scrubbers used for gas absorption. For example, because flue gas
desulfurization systems must deal with heavy particulate loadings, open, simple designs (such
as venturi, spray chamber and moving bed) are used.

Also, the liquid-to-gas ratio for the absorption process is higher than for particulate removal
and gas velocities are kept low to enhance the absorption process.

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Table 2-2. Scrubbing systems used on utility boilers

L/G, gpm/1000 acfm

No. of Gas flow ΔP Gas

modules Type of Presaturator per in. H2O velocity
Plant name per unit module /scrubber Absorber module, fps
acfm

Pleasants 1 and 2 4 Venturi/tray 14-17 35 600,000 6 10.4

tower

Four Corners 1, 2, 2 Venturi 25 - 407,000 12 NR

and 3 (1 & 2)

515,000
(3)

R. D. Green 1 and 2 Spray tower NR1 45 500,000 3 9.2

2

Conesville 5 and 2 Moving bed 0.55 57 500,000 6 10

6

Coal Creek 1 and 4 Spray tower - 60 685,000 4.5 10.6

2

Elrama Station 5 Venturi - 40 550,000 11 NR

Phillips Station 5 Venturi - 40 547,000 16 40

Hawthorn 3 and 4 2 Marble bed 26 - 250,000 12 10

Green River 1 Venturi/moving 34 34 288,000 7/4 14

Station bed

Cane Run 4 2 Venturi/moving NR 60 368,000 4 11.5

bed

Mill Creek 3 4 Venturi/moving 5 60 400,000 11 10

bed

Paddy's Run 6 2 Marble bed - 16.5 175,000 11.5 9

Clay Boswell 4 4 Venturi/spray 20 50 640,000 20 12

tower

Milton R. Young 2 2 Spray tower - 80 859,000 8 9

Colstrip 1 and 2 3 Venturi/spray 15 18 426,000 17/1 200/8.7

tower

Bruce Mansfield 1 6 Venturi/venturi 23 20 558,000 18/6 200/100

and 2

Bruce Mansfield 3 5 Horizontal 0.7 88 992,000 2.8 22

spray
chamber

Hunter 1 and 2 4 Spray tower - 70 330,000 5-6 9.6

Huntington 1 4 Spray tower - 70 330,000 5-6 9.6

1. NR - Not reported
Source: EPRI 1983.

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Dry injection systems do not use liquid; therefore, this term is meaningless in describing their
operation. In a spray dryer absorber, the amount of liquid injected is dependent on the
saturation temperature of the flue gas. Spray dryer absorbers inject water to reduce the flue
gas temperature to above the saturation level. Again, lower temperatures promote better acid
gas removal efficiencies; however, gases exiting a spray dryer must be maintained above the
dew point to protect downstream equipment including the particulate control device. The exit
temperature dictates the amount of water injected; while the acid gas levels determine the
level of alkaline reagent injected. Therefore, in a spray dryer absorber the important
parameter that indicates operating acid gas removal efficiencies is the stoichiometric ratio of
alkaline sorbent injected to acid gases removed. This ratio is determined on a molar basis.
For example, a stoichiometric ratio of 1.0 would indicate that 1 mole of sorbent was used to
neutralize 1 mole of acid gases. Dry scrubbing systems operate with stoichiometric ratios
ranging from 1.5 to 4.0.

To test your knowledge of the preceding section, answer the questions in Part 3 of the Review
Exercise.

Summary
Wet scrubbers have been used for many years to remove particles from a gas stream. The
primary collection mechanisms that affect particle capture in a wet scrubber are impaction
and diffusion. Both impaction and diffusion effects increase as the size of the liquid droplets
in the scrubber decreases. Impaction can also be enhanced by increasing the velocity of the
particles compared to the velocity of the liquid collection droplets. Therefore, as liquid
droplets become smaller and relative velocities between particles and liquid droplets increase,
particle collection will improve. In addition, the particle size distribution is important
because wet scrubbers can have difficulty collecting particles in the 0.1 to 0.5 μm range.

For wet scrubbers that remove gaseous pollutants, absorption is dependent on the solubility of
the gas in the liquid. This solubility relationship will determine the type and amount of
scrubbing liquid utilized. Once this is set, the keys to obtaining good removal efficiency are:

• Provide a large contact area between the gas and liquid

• Provide good mixing

• Allow adequate residence or contact time between gas and liquid

In dry scrubbing systems the mechanism of acid gas removal involves both adsorption and
absorption. Adsorption occurs when the acid gases are adsorbed (adhere) to the surface of
the solid alkaline material. Absorption occurs in the semi-dry systems when the acid gases
absorb into the liquid droplets. Both adsorption and absorption are mass transfer processes
that are enhanced by the criteria discussed above for wet scrubber gas absorption.

Pressure drop is an important parameter, especially for wet particulate scrubbers. Pressure
drop is a measurement of the resistance to flow as the flue gas passes from one point to the
next. For most particulate wet scrubbers, as the power input increases (i.e. increase in
pressure drop) the collection efficiency increases. However, as the pressure drop increases,
the cost to operate the system also increases.

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Another important parameter in wet scrubbing systems is the liquid-to-gas ratio, expressed in
terms of gallons per 1000 acfm. For particulate collection, the liquid-to-gas ratio is a function
of the amount of liquid needed to thoroughly "wet" the scrubber. After a certain optimum
point, adding more liquid does not enhance particulate removal. For gaseous removal, more
liquid is required than for particulate collection. For absorption, the amount of liquid
depends on the degree of difficulty in removing the pollutant of concern. In the next several
lessons, the operation of specific scrubber designs will be covered.

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