T

\.
JU:-lE ISiS. t Jt:SE 18i8. 301

, few momon.ts,
the expression
dng efforts pnt
pmnu, on this ON FURTHER APPLIOATIONS OF THE
the labours of FLOW OI!' SOLIDS.
t-
10 snme cause
ro it will be
Dy M. HENnI TnESCA,
:ion not only PnESIDD.'"T OF 'rue SOCIETI:S DES I:~iGE~IEURS OIVILS, PoAnIS.
nan at a timo
['permanently , ,
Istitution. The o.uthor has been requested by tho Institution of Mechanical
• Engineers to communicato p, second paper on tho results of his'
I experiments on tho Flow of Solids; on which subject ho read his
first pnpcr on the 5th Juno 1867•. Owing to th6 prcssure of other
auld desiro to affairs, he has not been able to bestow upon theso researches all the
'as especially. attention which they merit; but hopes to be able to respond totho
no time when present request by pointing out certain useful conclusions, which
y it of certain follow from those n.1t'cn.dy deduced from tho first experiments.
I A .' connection cnn now bo established with greater certainty
'ero necesslll'y 1
bctw~on the elementary fnets of the subject and our general'
./
~condly, busy '\ >,

commodities. 1\
knowleage of tho strength of materials; alid moro particularly
.t had opened between these facts nnd the different phases which m;o ha.bitually
<
lId be glad of i recognised in the phenomena of compression or of extension. This
{
. connection, in somo degreo theoretical, hl1S enabled the o.u~horto
carry out his new investigations under entirely different cU'cumst:mces,
en somewhat and from their character of genernlity to supply fresh evidence in
,qliged to lift their favour.
::mtlet for the
tho menns of ,j For nIl bodies two distinct periods aro recognised: tho period of
"

coming, and perfect elasticity, which corresponds to variations of length proportional

. to do their ,to tho forces applied; and the period of imperfect eIa.sticity, dm·iJ?g
which on tho contrary tho ch:mges of dimensions increaso moro
rapidly' than tho forces producing thorn. If tIle second phase of
deformation bo alone considcr~d, it is easily understood that it tonds
, , towards an ultimate condition in which a given forco, sufficiently
grant, would continue to produco deformation, so to say, without
~imit-ns may be observed in tho process of dra.wing lea.d-wiro. This ,I
i

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::.~. 802 '."
. F!'OW OF SOLIDS, JU~E 1878.
.~.
., "
.. .~. .
p::tl,tieul3.r·c~ndition, in'which tl}(:~ deformation is indefinitely augmented
. under It~~' dV,cl'o.ti,on of n. sufficiently grent fOl'ce, co~st[tutes in fact
• I . tho ,gc~m~hical <.lefinition,of (l, third period, ,,'hich has bcmi designated
by~t~lC !-\ut1lOr as tho period of fluidity, and to which tho greater' part
of his' expc!iments 011 tho flow of solids hnvo reference. "
, The p~l:iod of, fluiaity. is more exten<le(l for pla~iic substances; it
,i,s ~~ccss~iily morc l'estricted and will even clisllppenr altogether in
;'. " ,tl~o cnse 0'£ S9mo vitreous or brittlo subshmces. But it is perfectly
developed ancl extremely extended in the case of' oll\Ys nnd of the
,. ", ...
ro~t ~n.lleable metals.
In his ptipor of 1867 tho author considareil the deformations· of
these substances by flow under certain given conditions: su/?h as the
flow of It eylindrico.l block through 0. concentric orifice or through 0.
lutcro.l orifice, one of the most novel portions of his researches; nlso
pla.te-rolling, forging, and punching. It was there demonstrated that
in theso different mechanical nctions tho pres~uro' was gradually
transmitted. from ono zono to another; with some loss between ench,"
in nbsoiutely tho samo ~n.nner as in tho flow of liquids, n.nd with a
regularity not less remnrkable, but following n. much more rapid law
of' diminution. .
The pressuro ma.y be very considerable at certain points, whilst it
may be nothing or nlmostnothing at others; and tho study of the
various modes in which forces may Obe transmitted'constitutes in
fn~t fl, new branch of investigation; to which M. de Saint-Vonl1nt ·has
given tho namo of plnstieo-(lynamics. It is chiefly in tho oparations .
of punching metals that tho modo of transmission of th~ pressures
has been I'endcred manifest; whilst the processes of forging have
on their part n.fforded the means of establishing the correlation
between theso molcculo:r phenomena, and the, developmont of heat
which is their direct consequence.
With respect to the forma.tion of jets of solid matter simiia.r. to
liquid jots, ono moro exporimont only will bo referred t~, of .recent
d(l,~c, by which the resemblance is oompleted and bccoIUes absolutely
illusive. Two· ho.1f discs of le::td, forming the halves of a oylinder
four inches in" diameter,' as shown in PJato 35, Fig. 1, were placed in
juxtaposition in the comprossing press, so as to forIll. a. whole disc.
Under the pressure of tho ra.m thoy resolved themselves into· a

-~-
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Jmm~8i8•.
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I
.ll;itclyaugmented . ·r
Dnstitutes in fact I obtained previously, but formed in reality of two semi-cylindrical
s bcc~ designated
1 'tho greater pn1't
I jets in perfect contact. Their two faces in contact show in outlino
.co. ,f
/
:ic substnnc~s; it
lOar altogether in
ut it is perfectly
clays and of the
e deforma.tions of
cions: sUl;h as tho 1 for tho author by the kindness of lUr. Drn.mwell, enabled him to verify
:ifico or through 0. [ the samo effects, still better developed, by the phenomeno. of tho
s researches; also
~eDlonstrated that
.ro· was gmd~lllly
DSS between each,·
.iquids, amI with R
h moro rapid bw
n points, whilst it
tho stuc1y of tho
.ted 'constitutes in
Saint-Vennnt has
in tho operations
n of tho pressures
s of forging havo
Ig tho correlll.tion
7e10pmcnt of heat.
matter simiIur to
'orred to, of ,recent
bccomes absolutely
ll.lves of a cylinder
~. 1, wero placed in
rorm a wholo disc.
themselves into· a
' ..
Ju:m 18iS. FLOW OF BOLIDS. 803
cylindrical jet, identicai in app.caranco with thoso which l~nd been
tho successivo movement of tho different layers, and reproduce tho
exact representatio~, in a· solid stato, of a sheet of liquid in motion•
Puncllin[f.-Regardec1 ns a question of kinematics, tho punching
of· very different kinds of substa.nccs-suell as wax, clay, nnd plastio
metals-supplied to thQ former paper in~tnnces of absqlutely identical
deformn.tions. Shortly after this, somo nuts which had been
mamifnctnrcd in England by punching hot, amI which were procured
,
I
drawing of tho fibres, so well manife5t~d in the specimen exhibited,
I Plnte 85, Fig. 2. The two pnnches, which not in opposite directions,
cntor tho block of metal from- opposito sides; and the piece left
betwcen them becom~s thinner o.~d thinner by the flow which takes
place from the contro· towards the cireumferonce; until nt Inst, when
the two punchos arc moved ~ the samo direction, the piece between
I
them, reduced to a minimum thickness, is shorn off and discharged
I
i
outside.
The phenomena which fnke place in this metra, softened by heat,
I are such as would take pIa co in a liquid; and tl101 lea(l us to expect
II that the deformations observed in punching lead should be produced
f)imilnrly in nnnlogous operations on the hardest metals.
The nuthor 11a(1 already shown the same infl~xion and curving of
~ the fibres in tho punching of discs of c<;lld iron, at tho works of MM.
I Cni! & Co.; nnd also the s!!.mo phenomena. in tho burrs which wero
punchctl out; but he had not been able, on Recount of the in~ufficiency
of his apparatus, to obtain, with iron, as much reduction of tho lleight
. of the burr, a.s was obtainca in his experiments with moro plastio
substa~ces. The section of ono of these burrs, Fig. 8, taken in 8
vertical plane through the aris, leaves no doubt as to tho natqre
of the deformations producetl.
In n spccinl memoir pl'csented to tho Academy of Sciences on
81st December 1869, tho author endeavoured-from considerations
IlIi.-.. _ •
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'. . ,' .
.:.. ,
804: • ".FLOW OF SOLIDS. Jmm I8iS.

of symmotry; and. o~ b:lsis. of", an ~nlnrgemcnt of tho block

.i.ho
In~nchca, thr'oug119utihQ w~ol~.of .w-lmt may bo 'called the .zone of
fluidity, immelliiitcly un'dc~ tho. punc}l-to cstabli~h a genernl' formula,
for tho mensure of tho' reductio~ of height which ought to take placo
in the burr, ta1.ing inta account the odginal height of the block, its
<linmetcr, n;rl:~ the .lliameter of tho p'!1nch. The height L was given
. 1
liy the formula..::.=.: :::
L = Rl(i+lOg~)
.
in whiCh R nnd ~1 .represent respectively the In.dius· of the block,
supposed. to bo cy,lindrical, and. the radius of the punch.
I. . 1Vhen tho punch penetrates tho block, it forces the material to

escapo laterally, until tho moment when the pieco immedintely

beneath the punch presents less resistance to s11cnring t~ll.n tho
l'csistanco' offered to tho' eonti~ul1nce of this lateral flow•. This
argument suffices to show that 0.11 burr~ punched out of blocks of the
same diameter nndby the same punch s110uld bo of the samo height.
Dy 3. supplementary series of experiments it was cstablished that for
all blocks of (l,ifferent materials, subjected to the same tron-tmont, tho
results worc Eiubstn-ntially the Ei~me, nnd corrospon<led. exactly to tl:J.o
dimensions given by tho above formula.
At that tim.-e however tho author had not bccl;l nblo to experiment
with blooks of .iron sufficiently thick to nfford suoh n rango of
ovidence in regard to tho reduction of height of the burr ns had been
obtained with other materials; nnd. it is only quite rec~ntly that the
results of experiments on punehi1;1g mlldo in Amorion. have nppeared,
aud have in n. remurlm.blo manner confi:rmeiL a posteriori tho results of
his previous investigations.-·
Several ~pecimons of tuese J?unchings (~ee Plate 35, Figs. 4, 5, G).t
very skilfully oxecuted by Messrs. Hoopes nn4 Townsend, had been'
forwarded. to the author from the Philadelphia Exhibition; bu~ tho
hoight of tho burrs· was found to be a littlo grcn.tor thnn that ghren
by tho formula. Tho fact was that- the blocks which were sent had
been pInned after tho punching, to dress their fnees; when some of
the Ol·jginnl unpInned blocks arrived, thoy sll.nsfl.lctorily confirmed. tho
a.lgebraio formula.

2-._2

----........ _...... _-
 1
T
." J'Cl\E 1878. fI, JIDiE 1878. FLOW OF SOLIDS. 305
I
j: Tho reduction of Ji~jgbt in tho burr aee~ed nt .first incompre-
ut of the block
L1led the zone of I hensible; nnd it can only be explained by tbe, flow of a. portion. of the
" general formula material into the substance of the ,block. It is further'to bo remo.rked
Lght to tako plneo f that tho lower fnce of the burr is oonvex, uml the upper' face is
of tho block, its concave; with respect to the lntter, the punch only crushes the'materiol
ight L was given at the edge, whilst the middlo.of tMs faeo, notwithstanding the forced .-
passago tllrough the block, retains the original tool-marks.
The formula is deduced, as has been seen, from certain hypotheses
:1 on the mode in which Pl'cssures are t~ansmitted; and though only
ius of, the block, a pa.rtieular cnsa of more gonoral formuhu cited in the author's
l. paper on punching, it retained somewhat of nn empirical character.
lch.
s the mo.tcrio.1 to
I Thnnks to the researches of M. Doussinesq, in his theoretical e~~(1,y
on tho equilibrium of pulverulent masses compared with that of solid
ieeo immcclintely t mnsses, ~t now tnli:Cs its plnce as a rational formula, nnd may therefore
llearing tp-an tho
ternl flow. This
I• bo accepted with eomplete confidence.
~ of 1;Jlocks of the
I In one specimen only of 0.11 those which have been preserved by
. the samo height. i ]lIcssrs. Hoo~es and Townsend, the pressuro exerted by tho flow of
stablished that for , tho metal has burst tho bloclc punched, Fig. 7, Plate 35; nnd a
r
mo treatment, the i
I
oloso examination of tho bottom of the cnvity, formed by the punch
lied exaotly to tl1e in consequence 'of tllO modo in which the pressure· was transmitted,
reveals ~U the fentures thnt would have· been produced by tho
Lble to experiment . explosion of 0. projectile at thnt plnce.
such a rnIigo of A fow more examples of punched blocks o.ro added; Figs. 8
burr ns had been and 0, showing with equal distinctness the contorUons produced in
I rec!3ntly tho.t the
\
I
the linos of junction by the passage of the punch.
ml.hll.vo appeared, t' It wou1<1 be unpardonable if on this occasion no mention wero to
riOi'£ the results of r bo made of- the remarkablo experiments on iron compressed when
I cold, the results of whieh havo alrea.dy been presented at the Vienna
l 35, Figs. 4, 5, 6), I
!
Exhibition, nnd which have, until ~OW, been received only with doubt,
and oven with incredulity. .
ownson<l, had been '
xhibition; but the Cltn the quality of hon rea.lly be impl'oved by ~old-compressioll?
:3r than tho.t given Thero is no longer room for doubt on this point, in view o"r the
hich were sent' had I recent rese~rchos of Professor Thurston, nnd tbe numCl'OUS specimens
~es; when some of [I which aro to ba found in tho collection of Messrs. Hoopes nnd
orily confirmed tho jj Townsond, with the Il.etual particulars of tho forces undel' tho action
of which they wero ruptured.

., "j,

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306 FLOW OF ,Ba LIDS. JU}iE 18;8.

, Speaking now ~nly of tlie' ~~pcrimonts upon nuts punched cold)

Professor Thnrston's, t.ll.b1e.s~·indicnte 'R ~o~sidert\1?I~ augmentation
of resistanco rclntivcli to nuts of tho' :;lama ,dimensions, made Qf tho
samo iron" and p;m,ch~d' '. ~Qt: The, ,triil.ls wero mado, either by'
n.pplying to tho', rod.wlii~h carried tho nut pressuro sufficient to strip
the thread, or by introducing iiito the unsc~owed nut a conical mandril
.sufficiently lon4ed to'spht the nut. . Th~ augm~ntation of resistanco .
duo to cold:-ptl~ching may be taken at an o.v~rage. of 25 por cent.; nnd
this result' can only bo oxplained by supposing that thero is ~omo'
mo'dification' in: the moleculal' condition of the .~~rrounding iron,
which has been subjected to compression by tho flow into it of tho
mctnl driven back by tho punch•
.,

Forging.-If it be neoessary to justiry tho expre,ssion "flo\·... of

I
sollds" in tho case of forgin'gs, it is only needful to invito inspection
I I of tho specimens exhibited of ,rail sco.lings, found' on the Eastel'll
TIllilWfi.y nenr Epernny, Figs. 10 and 11, ;Flat-a 35. Each blow is hero
Been to be in somc sort represented by the ~orro.ation of 0. wavo; and
drawing-out has taken place in this fashion, by the formation of
successive scales, for a length of several decimetres. Deformations
pr~dueed 'by forging only '~iffer from this mod~ of displncement of
the molecules in this, that they arc produced for a definito purposo,
ancl nt a temperature at which tllO metal becomes comparntivqly soft.
The object of the author's former rel:nn.rks on tbe forging of iron
was to show tho t.endency to parallelisn;'- of all tho fibres which
are produced by the drawing-out under the.hammer, and, which
~ro separated each from tho neighbouring fibres ~y a cementing
substanco, derived from tho'unexpelled cinder, which fills up all tho
void spnces between the fibres. This substance is frequently of a
... : '
vitreous nature, very ric~ in oxide of iron; and when it is not burned
'. , off or pulveri~ed at tho surfnco- of tho' piece during the £Qrging, it
follows alltho varieties of form to which the piece is shll.pcd in its
several parts. It ht!-s beensllown by the nuthor however that the
deformation may bo only superficial when tho' action of tho hammer
is mild; whilst the influence of a more powerful blow, such ns is
obtained in largo ma.nufacturing operations, is ,necessarily felt to tho
core.
I"~
r

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 JU:lm 1£;78•. ·
T FLOW 011' SOLIDS.
lids puncho.d cold,
[l.Qle augmentation
,I
sions, made Qf the
made, either by
o sufficient to strip
It 110 conical mandril
ation of resistanco
,~
I
f
f 25 per cont.; nnd
tbat there is ~omo'
surrounding iron,
.fl~w into it of the
xpression "flow of
to i~vito inspection
nd . on the Eustern
Each blow is hero
;ion of (l, wave; nnd
., the formation of
tres. Deformations
of displacement of
l\ definite purpose,
(}omparntivqly soft.
the forging of iron
.l the fibres whicll
hammer, and' whieh
~cs by n. cementing
,Moh fills up 0.11 tho
J is frequently of .n.
hen it is not burned
ring the fQrging, it
cco is sho.ped in its
r howel'er that the.
:tion of tho hammer
'ul blow, such as is
ecessarily felt to the
__ ~= ""'''''rs;"....-_._...::--~
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.
307
. .
An oblong pieco of iron may thus DO co~pllred to ':l hnni:· of
parallel tbreads, which will inte!lock with en,ch othel' wIlCn it is
nttempted to draw them out length'Yiso, but which will soparnto in .
a much less rcgular mnD?er nnd somewhat at haplll\znrd when they,.
aro compressed in the opposite direction, at t110 risk of throWing •
'into conf1,lsion the' regularity pf tho. origiJial arrangement, nnd
forming knots and voids w11ich must evidently weaken tho power of
resistanco which would be possessed by· the pieco under other
-conditions.
This effect is. weIl exemplified by the specimen exhibited of an
iron railing bar, Fig. 12, Plate 36, in the formation of whioh' a.
rectangular bar is transformed,' in respect of its transverse section,
into a. succession of rectangles nnd circlcs at regular intervals: In
the circular parts the fibres no longer retain tho parallelism which
is visible in the straight portions; and this result would ccrtllinlybo
opon to criticism, wero it not thnt the ccntral part of the enla.rgements
was intended to be afterwards bored out.
TIlo interposition of these friable silieatcs betweon the fibres
.which llre more properly metallic ought to be seriously taken into
consi~oration in this en-se as in many others. At present (I, fow of
the most characteristio facts only will be noticed.
From the fact th[l,t iron wh'Q of good quality is capable of
supporting, before giving way, londs much greater than or£1inary .
. iron, a manufacturer of best scrap iron .tried to work it from
'piles exclusively composed of wire. A -longitudinal sectron, Fig. 13,
. Plate 86, of bars manufactured in this manner, h::Ll'ing boen oxidised,
shows the preservation of tho thread-liko structure much moro clearly
than any of tho specimens of merchant bar iron. The author has
.!
also n. specimen taken from an old railing at the Conservatoire,
which broke spontaneously in its placo, Fig. 14. Having l\ greater
11l'opOl'tion of theso silicates .in its' composition, which had been
imperfectly expelled in tllO process of forging, this specimon presents
ah exactly similar appearance. I.,
On the contrary, when tho best Swedish hon is subjected to tho
samo treatment, Fig. 15, it gives but tho faintest indications of \
,-..,,1.
__=-
~","",,- ---~
,~
 .. "t

308 FLOW OF SOLIDS. Jmm 1878.

longitmlinal ~triro, which 'sometimcsco.n only be l)l'o'duceu by tal;ing

special pains with that object. '. • .
The irons which, hava been tiHi most completely freed from
silicates aro tho bost; but t40 expulsion of tho oxidcs formed uuring
I'cheating on :tho sur~alfo of tho bars composing, tho piles is 1I:1so of
gren.t importance. "
The colol.!-red. appcamnccs tbn.~ may bo dovoloped on well-
polished sections, either by a deposit of copper,' or 'by the nction of',
.all acid, or bettor still by tho nction of bichloride of mercury, show
• clet4'iy tho ~rrnngemoDt, of tho .fibres ; ,enabling, us to trace, tbrough
nIl ~ho d.?formntioris '()~ n pieco, the molecular displnceincnts .which',
.,but for that demonstrntion, would remain undetormined. Tho
trentmQnt by a vefy wenk solution of hydrochlorio ncid, first employed
in the Netherlands by M. do Ruth, is so cffectivo, that by inking tho
1
I
surfaco, indented at tho Pluts of least resistl1:nco by tho action of
I" tho acid, proofs mn.y be taken, in which tho'dirccti.on of tho fibres
is perfeet~y distinguis).lUble. By the employment of chloride of
I, mercury however tho fibres aro much moro clearly and del~cately
uefined.
Without reverting to tho oxamples given iI!- his first papor, the
author ,.. .i11 now montion a fow' other. mustmti~ns of tho most
ordinary effects resulting f~om tho fibrous constitution of the metal.
,Fig. ~6, Plnte 87, is a sketch of n section of rail from tho Northern
Railway of Fmnee, o.ftor oxidisation. It shows clearly tho changes
, of form un.dergono by the different pieces maldng up tho pile out
of wllieh tllO rail was rolled. A section of this pilo is given in
Fig. 17, tho upper part being of ho:r(lor, lmd tho lower of softer iron.
On the basis of the evidenco supplied by tho oxidisation of polishetl
sections of iron, M. LoCho.telier* sought to ~,?pnrllto tha siliceous
matter which envelopes nnd cements together tho fibres of tho metal.
This he succeeded in accomplishing by exposing tho iron, at a red.
heat, to n, .current of chlorine. The iron is volatilised by this
process, nnd leaves (\ skeleton as the residue, hn.ving tho form of the
i
!
I
original pieco, composed of. extremely fino filnments, and resembling,
j
'I

i: I 11< Comples rcndus do l'Arud€mie des Sciences, tome 82, p.1057.

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''!'
JID>E 1878.
'l'oeluccd by tnking
letely freeel from
eles form eel during
10 piles is nlso of
veloped on well-
r 'by tllO nction of ~
of mercury, show
, to trace, tbrough
[lIncements .which,
lleterminec1• The
.ciel, first employod.
thnt by inking tho
by tho nction of
ctipn of tho fibres
nt of chlorido of
1'1y and del.icntely
.lis first p(l.por~ the
;ions of the most
;ion of tllO metnI.
from the Nortbern
-lenrIy t1,lechauges
Ig up the pile out
is pile is given in
)wor of softer iron.
,clislttion of polished.
mrnto th() si1iceo~
fibres of the motal.
,. tho iron, o.t [l, .red.
volatilised by this
ing the form of t~o
,ts, and resembling,
ne -82, p. 105;.
-~~---~---- ------------~-_--...~--"",
or
- -------
.(
~
I JU);E IB78. FLOW OF SOLIDS. 309
I.
moro tlmn anything elso, tho residue' left' by l),' match which quietly
f burns away without infla~ing, supposing that the ash is preve~ted from
being pulverised. This siiiccous ca.rcase scarcely amounts in weigllt
to a hundreclth part of that of' tho metal j but it was unquestionably
associated with a certain proportion of iron, which has completely
I' disappearecl in tho courso of the operation.
I These silicates, lis stntecl, aro friablo when cold; and it appears
thnt, with the object of diminishing the weal' of bell.rings, the journals
of shafts aro sometimes hanimerecl, in order to pulverise this interposed
foreign matter, and clear it away entirely from the rubbing surface.
Iron by its constitution lends itself much botter to drawing out
than to setting up. The differenco fa well exemplified in the caso of
n wagon axlo which Ims been bent whilo cold. A longitnelinal
section along tho centre lino, Fig. 18t Plato 38, brings 'out with the
utmost clearness the fine ribbon-like appearanco; and it is seen that
tho lines have continnod very exactly concentric. On tho convex.
sido it might bo believed. thoy had been drawn 'with compasses;,
whilst on tho concavo sid.9 .on the ~ontrary they aro broken and
confused; on the same sido thero are obsorvable two fraetures by
I compression, whilst the extcdor or convex surface remains entire.
I TIero the texture wouldJ have been altered to a still greater extent, if
I .the iron had b~en heated 'for tho operation, ""hen tho metal would
to
'\ hlwo been brought a con'sistency liko:.that Of putty.
I The transverse deformations arc mueh better shown in tho beU<ling
1 of 11. squaro a~e, 4 inches squnro, tho surfaco of which lHt.d previously
beon marked with a series of dotted lines by a centre-punch, at
I intervals of 0'4 inch. Tho convex: side, Fig. 19, Plnte 37, has been
I e::dendcc1 so much that its wiclth has been reduced from 4 to 3-2
iuches ; and. the COnCfl."fe sido hns on tho contrary been spread out to a
width of 5i inches, iu proportion as it has beeu shortened. in length:
The simultaneousness of' theso two clefofmntions in length Rml wiclth
is very distinctly seen in this instnnco, ~nd thoy llro the mora
pronounced ns the ClU'Vl1.turO is increased. nut it is specially
imllortnnt to noto in this exn.mplo that tho :fissures which' havo
been produced are situated in tbe compressed portion, whilst tho
2D
,J
I
i
, -~-~-
 ::, .
,
,I :" .- -. ".
,:
r( "
~ :
,

FLOW OF SOUPS. JL~E 18i8.

:310
I
I' '
'1/
1"j :portion prinoipally subjected to extcnsion has con,Hnued porfectly
; 1
: I
~ I~ " 'sound. .
i I: For the purpose of testing tho sounclncss of the welds in i'nils,
Id,I,: they nre frcquently subjc~ted ,to ll. sories of torsional' Btresses in
two O})posito cli;rcotions, whioh usually l'csUlt in giving riso to
ill
,j I, longitudinul fissures ,of' grcn.ter or loss length, in tho lin~s of
,j separation of tho component bn.rs in tllO pile from which t~e rail
. was rolled. Dut by applying ,the snmo treatment to n shaft
I,!
tm'llesl out of' ll. square bill' of good. iron, much moro conclusivo
i
i res~Its 0.1'0' obtained. 13y, the o.pplicntion of excessive torsional shess,
,: tho fibres aro forced Into rclief upon the s.urfnce, Fig. 20, Plato 37,
I . nnd tho iron shaft nbsolutely assumes the apponranco of n rope, in
whioh all tha outsido strands ,,;ould be ~xposcd to view. Dut the
.~ structuro of tho intorior of the shnft is still moro remaJ:knblc.
:
If a longituc1inal seotion
., bo taken nlong the centre line, Fig. 21,
! it is easy to disclose by oxidisation sinuous lines which corrcsp011(l
. "
:'
"
;'
to tho oxternal helices, and of which tho equation is given exactly by
I;
on1cu1ation, assuming that the nnglo of torsion is constunt for, nU
points of the shaft. If' such a piece were ra.ised to n welding heat 0.11(1
"
,forged anow, it cnn scarcely ba (loubtcd .that an iron of exceptionnlly
jl; "
JI i
'j
groat l"osisting power would be produced, possessing in som.o degree
the best properties.of mctnllio cables. -
The ribbon-liko structuro is never better manifested than in
: iron 111ate8, in which it might' ofteD: servo to ro\''e301 tho mode of
, \1 manufacture. 111 iron tubes, for, exnmple, which nrc mnnufo.cturcd
I" 1

;1
" I mostly in Englnml and in Fl'llnco, tho regularity of the, lines is such
1:1 thnt it is only interl'Upted at the weld; as shown in Figs. 22 and '23,
PInto 39; nnd a menna is thus afforded of Ilscertaining whether tho
':1 joint has .bocn butt-welded or lllp':'wcldcd.
Tho samo 'manufacture demonstl'll.tes nlso the inconveniences which
Dlay ntteJld upsetting. or ·comprcssio.D. . In the section of a nllt fo.r
iron tubes, Fig. 24, Plato 37, it is made evident' by ·the 'mo'do. of
striation that tho hexagonal· shapo has been produced by drawing out
.., from a section which was ol'iginally circular both outsido and inside.
The 1n.ycrsnro separated at somo points 'towtlrds tho angles, where
I' it was llecessary that tho ~cction should be enlarged by squeezing or
compression.

Suoolied bv The British Librar'\l- "The world's knowledae"

 JL""SE i8i8.
)ntinued perfectly
. tho welds in rails,
zsional stresses 'in
in giving' riso to
J
in the lines of
:lm which thc rnil
tment to n. shaft
1 mOIo conclusivo
ivc torsional stress,
,J Fifl'.
0
20, Plato 37,
ranee of 0. rope, in
to view. But tho 1 Mr. HnswolI, have employed tho same process, particularly the
mora remarkable.
ntro line, Fig. 21,
El which cOl'Xespond
is given exactly by
is constant for nU
I n. welding hent and
ron of cxceptionally"
sing in somp degree"
ma~ifestcd thun in
rovcal tho mode of
h nro mrqlUfrlCturcd I mode of punching with a spiral punch, which, being fnced with [l,
of the, lines is such \ helicoidal surfaco instead of the usual fiat cnd, manifestly tends to
1 in Figs. 22 and '23,
-taining whether the
I
! Heat (let'eloped in F01'{/in(J.-The study geometrically of tho
inconveniences whieh
section of n. nut for
ent' by ,tho 'modo of
luceil by <hawing out
uoutside nnd inside.
Is tho angles, where
:ged by squeezing or
Jtr.iE 1878. FLOW OF SOLIDS, 311
The object to be kept in view in th'o various methodf! of forging
should be, nccor(Ung to tho foregoing (liscussion, to disposo the fibres
in tho dil'cction which bost accords with the 11S0 to which tho piece
, is to b~ npplied. Mr. Haswcll, dircetol' of the workshops of ,tho
Southern Railway at Vienna, luts nttained this object by stn.niping -in
(Ues piles which havo been suitably prepared. Tho CI.1l.thor hns had
oxidised soveral of the pieces mRnufact,ured by this process for
railway work; in, which it is clearly manifest tha.t, though
hero and thero the .silicntesoccupy too much spaeo and aro not
diffused rcgultU'iy enough, the fibres o.ro nevertholess arranged in the
most fll.voumblo direction in all l)nrfs of the section, ns in Fig.
25, Pln.to 41. Several othor iron works, following,the example of
Niedm'broDn works, ds in Fig. 26, Pln.to 4.0. Dut no doubt iron mora
thoroughly hn.mmered shquld be employe<1, in ordcr to dcrivo from
this method of manufacture nIl the n<1v3.ntngcs which it promises.
Tho defects of tho system nre further well exhibited in the
section of n key, Fig. 27, Plnte 39, forgc~ by tho stamping process
from a bar of iron (loubled twico ove~ on itself.
I:n all operatio~s' t9 which iron is to be subjected, it is thus
...
important that the pal'ticulnr form of its structure should bo considered.
Tho excellent iron plates of-Derry, which may bQ easily opened. out
because their different layers nro not sufficiently susceptiblo of being
welded together, could not, for instancc, ba subjected to tho American
tca1', at the cdges of the hole, the different parts of the snme layer.
deformations produced by forging, considcxed under tho simplest
. conclitions, has led in another direction to results which, though
they nre not translated into definite figures, aro nevertheless of somo
interest, whc~her having regard to tho deformations thcmselves,
:
or to the calorific phonomena by which they are accompanied. I
':
When a squaro bill' of iron is compressed between two horizontal I
jaws, equal and opposite to each other, it is cl'ushed and exiIal'ged;
2 D 2
_______
......
.~'<Y
 FLOW OF SOLIDS. JlT.S'& 18i8•
312 •
and the experiments already made on· tho crushing of metal discs
afford grounds for believing thnt e~ch vortical fibre of molecules is
c1eflected into 1\ sinuous form, "ll.nnlogo.us to ·the forms reprcsented in
Fig. 28, Plnt-o 39, and. produccc} by tho crushing of 1\ cylindrical
block· consisting of a circular disc surrounded. by a concen!ric ring.
When a prism i~ thus partially crushed, the flow of the material
under tho tool shows itself in the form of a surface of revolution,
of which the directrix is a loga.rithmic cUl:ve given by the equation
. H"
x;:: b log h+y

It is unnecessary however to enter hero into the theoretical

investigation of this point; it will suffice to mention the result, in
- order to bo ablo to apply it where necessary in tho course of the
discussion.
In a special c:s:.ample of·deformation, obtained on a bar of lend by
a singlo blow of a hammer, tho displacements produced very much
resemble thoso which have already been illu.strated.
If each of tho four sides of the rcctnngular bar be divided by
strnigbt lines into squares of one "centimetre or 0-40 inch wido, the
alterations of those dividing lines ropresented in Fig. 29, Platl~ 40,
will show 0.11 tho changes which take plo,co on ono of the sides." A
small widening of 0-12 i~ch is' produced on the upper faco aud. thE?
ull(ler faco of the prism; but this may be neglected at first. Towards
tl10 middlo of the, depressed portion, ;Fig. 29, the intermediate
horizontal lines present their c?nvc:s:.~ty in contrary directions towards
the middle horizontnl lino; and the two vcrticals next to the
middlo vertictll havo on tho contro.ry their maximum' separation
from ench other o.t tho" level of tho centre. Thotwo opposite .-
faecs of tbo' squeezcl', or ~f tho ha1l1Dler. nnd. .anvil, which 0-1'0
tr~ly rectangular., and 1-2 fuch wide, produce respectively two
()ylUmotrico.l (lcpressions; but it is the four squares at'tho c:s:.tremities
of the diagonals which manifest the most eomplicate(l aistodiol1s.
In proportion to the depression produced, the subjacent mattcr ,is
c:s:.pellcd both' transversely and longitudinally; but tho longitudinal
displacement is tltnt which it is most important totnko into
consideration with respect to the elo:ngation to be produced; llnd it

'--,-:-:,..----~ ...-
'" ---- ----

SlJnnli!=!d bv Th4=! Rriti~h I ibrarv - "Th4=! wClrld'~ knnwl4=!do!=!"

 1.
lI

1 ,

JIJ"SE 1878~
J'U:SE 18i8. FLOW OF SOLIDS. 318
. ~.
;,
,
g of metal discs
Cl of molecules is-
1 is the only displacement w1Iic~ can take place, when tho pieco is
forged in a sw-age or die. Tho. elongation in tho' interior of the
ns represented in I compressed portion boing gradual, tho depressed edge thereby'
rE;lsuHing upon the upper and under faces ~f the prism necessarily
: of a cylindricn.l
I 'presents an inclined surface, as SllOwn in Fig. 29, Plate 40. It would
I
a'concen~ric ring.
If of. the material I theoretically assume a logar!thmic curve, which at the top would I
!lice of 'revolution, unite nearly at right angles with the originl1l surface that hits bcon '
oy the equation displaced longitudinally, and at the bottom, of tho depression vdth 11
I'
the depressed portion of the same origina.l surfaco. The contour j':
()f tho original face of the square is thus brought into a fm'm
) the thcoretico.1
analogous to that of the letter Z, supposing the inclined limb of the I·
1

letter had been bent ovel' in tho opposite direction. The three li
tion the result. in I'
other sides, elongated or shortcned,and curved, constitute the locality !
the courso of tho
of tho greatest ,deformations; and it is this to which tho whole 'J
I
attention should be directed. The original lines, in their resulting I
a bar of lend by
)ll
deformations, are ropresented with absolute exactness in the drawing, 1
I,
wduced VCl'y much ( i
Fig. 29, Plate 4.0. "
or Wo have thus soen what takes' place under the o.ction of the
bar bo divided by
}4.0 inch wide, tho I nrst blow of the hammer. The second blow should ovorlap the first
hlow, when it is required to reduce tho height throughout the wholo
, Fig. 29, Platl;l 40,
no of the sides.' A
I· ,length of the bar; and an idea may be formed of the new deformations
and tho re-straighte~ings which then tako place, by examining
up"per face and th<?
, Fig. 30, Plate 40, in which the dividing lines of the original equltres
1 at first. Towards
, the intermedinto , are reproduced from actual experiment, as thus modified by three or
four successive blows, given ono after the other. In spite of
r directions towards
~ticll.ls next to tho I· the caro which was taken, tho deformations arc not suffioiently
U1.ximum ' separation , symmetrical; but they aro charact.eristio enough to leave no doubt as
to the distribution of the molecular actions to whieh every part
Tho 'two opposite - I of the mass has been subjected.
i 'anvil, which ato
The forged bar presents both extended portions and compressed
:0 respectively two
portions; imd, the result of tho forging would evidently be th6 be,st
'es nt'tho extremities
possible) if tho yertieal lines, successively deformed in two opposite
(plicated (listortions.
directioDS, resumed a rectilinear arrangement after ea.eh passage
subjacent maHer is
of tho work under tho hammer. Thc forging wou,ld then consist
but tho longitudinal
of a methodical series of effects producing deformation, followed
>rtant to take into
iinmccliatcly by effects producing corresponding l'c-straightenings.
be produced; nnd it

--
'j
'/

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,
I,
;
814 FLOW OF SOLIDS. J rom 18i8.
i.
:,t Such effects becomo still moro complex when the bar to be forged
.1 is not sustained' between Interal guides, by which, 1.1.11 tra.nsTerse
!i'l extension' is preventel1. It is evident that now deformations will then
h
: ! bo presented transversely, which -nill modify those thnt have just
, '
I!
I' bcon analysed; nncl nttention should be dirccted moro pnrticularly
Ii
! to the Ecmicireulnr protubcranccs which' nre distributed along tho
whole length of the l,iceo, in dircct correspondence with each blow of
, '

tho hamm,er. These nipJ.lles form n kind of network produced by

rli tho forging, Fig. ~l, describing on the ,Intel'al ,surfaces of the pieco
i] ;

,,
',. ' a series of lozonges with curved sides, tho boundaries of which aro
: :
the half circles nlready mentioned.
These undulations of tho surface, whieh are of no importanco in tho
mere gcometdenl operation of forging, novCl·theless deserve notice, as
thoy indicate'the zones of ma:dmum sliding, which nre 0.150 tho zones
of the maximum development of heat; amI 'tho author has beon
'enabled, by their inclicntions, to connect tho phenomena of forging
witli thoso of thermoclynamics. It hns long been "knm\"n that hent
is devolopccl by the fOl'ging of a metnl; o.nd in. somo opc;ntions'
connected with thodl'awing down of steel under 0. hammer; pieces of
steol, subjected to blows 1·ll.piclly dclivCl'od, nro oven raised to a dark-
!
I
red heat. This result does not qrdinarily tako plaeo, excopt in
working thin strips; nnd'it will be shown that, in ,,"ol'king thieker
pieces, tho preciso situntionof tho greatest ,development of hent cnn
be recognised. .
In. -"" forging oporntion which tho author had to conduct on a
largo scalo upon nn o.lloy of iridium with plntinum, a phenomenon
occurrecl incidentally which engrossed his wholo attention, bearing
intimately as it did on tho ~deformo.tion of solid bodies: Hc mny

!.
"
be permitted to refer to it, though tho resulting experiments nro
not yet completed; nnd it will bo n. soureo of great satisfaction to ,
him 'to mako known tho first res,nUs of theso experitnents t-o an
assembly of English 'engineers bcforonny publication of them,
l
:/
11
I
C

C
elsewhere. o
On the 8th June 1874' tIlO, anthor simply announced the main

I faet to the Acaclemy of Sciences, thn£ when. the bar of pltltinum, at Cl

I I the moment of f,?rging, had justcoolod d<?wn to n. temperature below si

js
I

--------;....,....,,....--.........---------..

Supplied bv The British Librarv - "The world's knowledae"

 T,
Jl.~E 1878. f JUXE
bar to ba forgcu
h all transverso
nations will then
I
(
:e that huvo just
noro particulnrly
I the tw<? diagonals of the' dopl'esse(l part; ancl so grent 'Was this.
ibutcu nlong the
;vith cnch blow of
l reheating that the oleta! 'Was along these lines fuliy restored to n. r~(1
ork produce(l by
l\.CCS of the pieco
des of 'vhieh nre
imporfuneo in th~ ·1
deserve notice, ns
~ro also the zones
author has been
;menu of forging
I shiftc(1 umlor tho lUlmmcr so as to be grn(luet.lly llmwn down for a
"knol'r"D. tho.t heat
,. somo operations
lammer; pieces of
I raised to a dnrk-
plnco, except in
1 working thicker
lment of heat can
to conduct on B
lm, a phenomenon
attention, bearing
bodies: He may
~ experiments arc.
ant st\tisfnction to ,
experiments to an
llication of them
lounced the main
nr of plnHnuro, at
.empemturo below
18iS. FLOW OF SOLIDS. 815·
that of reu hent, it happenc(l several times that tho blow of the
steam-hammer, which at the same time made et. locnl depression in
the bar uncI lengthene(l it, also reheated it in tha direction of two
lines incline(l to eaeh other, forming on the si<1es of tho piece
lIeat, an(l the form· of the Inminous zones could bo, clearly
c1istingnishecl. Theso lines of increasec1 hcat evon romaincc1
luminous for somo seconds, nml pr050nto(1 the appearanco of the two
limbs of the letter X. Uncler cortnin conditions as many as six
of theso figures of X, IU'odnceel successively, could be counted
simultaneously, fQIlowing ono unothel' nceording as ,tho pieco was
certain part of its length.
As to tho ?rigin of theso 'luminous traces thero could bo no
doubt. They were tho lines of grentest slic1ing, um1 also therefore
,the zones of greatest development of heat - a perfectly definito
manifestation of tho principles of thel·mo(lylmmics. That the fnct
had .not been obser,ed before was eviele~tly owing to this, that the
conditions necessary for its ri:w.nifcstati.on ha.cl not been combined at
tho snme moment un(ler such favourablo circnmstances. hidised
platinum requires for its deformation n. large quantity of work to
be expended upon it. Thc surface takes no scalo, amI is almost j
translncid 'When the metal is brought 'up to a red heat. The metal
is but nn indiffe~cnt conductor of heat, and its specific h~t is low.
All these aro conditions fl1,voumblo for remlering tho phenomena I
I
visible in the forging of this metal, ",,:hilst it had rcmainc(1 unobscrvecl
with nIl others. I
I
!
\ Although this explanation 'Was whl10t was to bo expected, tIle author I
-I
I nevertheless proceedccl to justify it by experiments of n. more direct
char~etcr, of which somo' nccount will now bo ~iven; theso
J
constitute the chief novolty, nn(1 it mny bo ndded tho chief point
of interest, in this communication.
If a bar of metal fit the ordinary temperature, after having beon
conted'with 'WllX or tallow on its two lateral faces, bo subjected to et.
single blow of l], steam-hammer, tho wax melts wher!? tho depression j'
I
is llroducec1, and it is founel that the mcIte(l wax assnmes in certain ,
I
Supplied by The British Library - "The world's knowledge"
 816 FLOW OF SOLIDS. Je.:m 18i8.

cases tho form of the letter X, as was observed in tho cnso of tho
platinum bl:\r. In ottIer cases the limbs of the'oro;s 0.1'0 ifbr vec1,
prosonting their convexities towo.r(1s each other. 'l:ho heat has then
boon moro wielely disseminated, nml tho wax melted over the whole
i'
i of tho interval between tho curves.
"I
The prism which 1ms this melted outlino for base, amI for hcigltt
tho wielth of the bar, represents n ccrta~n 'Volumo and n certain
weight; and i,f it ·bo nssu~ed .. thnt tho wholo of it has been raised
ij
to the temperaturo of tho melted wax, tllis el~vation of temperature
l'e11re80nts a certn~n quantity of
heat, or, in the ratio of tho
mechanical equivalent, 0. certain quantity of intemal work which
::i';'i'" is directly exhibited by tl~e experiment. In comparing this work
:\'
with the work dono by tho fall of tho hammer, n coefficient of
il'
!I efficiency is obtained which amounts to not less than 70 per cent.
!; This value is not to be taken as final; it depends upon the
conductivity of the metal, upon tho rigidity of the apparatus, and
upon tho clearness of outlino of the melted surface. Dut what tho
author is desirous to impress upon the nieeting is tlw,t there is here [),
11 return to tho original methods of Mr. J aula, nnn th(\t tho o.utho1"s I
1.1 investigations of tho flow of solids already briug him back to
!! !
1: :
;I certain established therIDoil.ynnmio pl'inciples.
,l'
I
Tho following 0.1'0 the numerical datn' for some of theso
I: oxpcrimcntst together with the illustrativQ figures (Figs. 82-35,
" PInto 4~). In these the area of melted wax is that included between
I: tho two strong dotted lines AA o.nd DB in Figs. 82 to 34, o.n(l
between the four dottc(l lines AA tlDll BB in Fig. 85.
.:
No_ of Fig. in Hate 41... ••• ••• 32 33 84: S5 1
l\Ietal experimented upon ••• ••• ]ron Iron Iron Copper
Form of imprcs;;ion, Reclnnglllnr or} Rect. • Rect. Curv. Rect. ,I
Cur~cd . ••• ••• ••• ...•
Area ()f WllX meltc<l ••• ••• sq. 10. 0'22 0'23 o 3-1 0'27 f
Thicknoss offorging . ..• ..~ inch 0'08 0'9S 0'98 0'78 t
Yolnmco[ correspunding-prism, cub. in. 0'22 0-23 0'3-1 0-21"
s
II~1triiit~ l~~g(F~~. in. .}lliSitl~Junits 0'59:14 0~0188 0'0003 0-52;3
-475- t

I· .i,
Equi'o'ulcnt work, tnldng\ ft..l1J::. 400 000 4.08 Il
1 hcnt·unit=7i2 ft.-lbs"
" ,

! Actunl \Tork in fuU of hammer, ft.-Ibs. 570 G51 796 43.1: t:

I .!
P
I, l'crccntagc of efficiency, lll'r cent. '19-6
I 73'1 I 87''1
I 94'2
I

" ..-" -- .;-.' --'.-. - '" ,

Supplied by The British Library - "The world's knowledge"

 ,.
, l
Jl:~F: 18i8. I, JL~E I8iS, FLOW OF SOUDS, 317 • J

tho cnso of the

ro~s n1'O ~:ir\'cd,
I Thus in tho last exporiniont, tnking ns melted tho 0.1'00. of wax
includcd between tho hamlller and the crosses, n calculated useful
10 heat hlls then
lover tho whole
[ effect of 94 per cent. is obtnined.

I Slampin{J.-Tho object of S'Ilo.ges or dies is to guida the relative

0, nnd. for height I <1ispll\cenients in 'given directions, in order to pass in tho simplest
Cl nnd. ll· certo.in
has been raised
l possiblo way from the primitive form, supplied direct by the maker,
to tho final form whicl! is desired to be attained. Frolll this point

I
n of telllpernturo of viow, tho die is a kind of channel designed to facilitate tlio flow
;ho mtio of tho of tho material, und to guido it in tho most suitable direction or
rnal work which directions. . When Q, square bar of iron is drawn down undel' tho
1nrincr this work halllmer without 3. dic1 cach blow causes enlargement transversely as
. 0
, II coefficient of I well as elongation; and .this useless enlargement is advantageously
:hll.n 70 por cent. ( provented by tllO prcsenco of the sides of tho channel in the
3pemls upon the swage or die. If it be well to have recourse to the dio in simply
10 l1ppnrn.tus, and
Cl. But what tho
lat thero is here 0.
I
I
drawing down n. bar, llluch moro is it indispensablo when tho
variation of form is more complex. The simple idea of flow
supplies mat.crial for forminge. rational judgment with reglml
that the author's, to the s'l:1ccessivo shapes that o.ro best to ba given to the. dies
.ug hini back to
II for the intermediate stages of the operation; and also with regard
to tho forms for the sections of rolls, these being really nothing else
SOlllO of these than CirCUl111' dies, by menns of which iron is drnwn out in t110
cs (Figs. 3.2-35, I rolling mill.
included between r That o.U these phenolllenn. arc genuine instances of flow, of which
;6. 32 to 34, amI ~ in most cases the circumstances cnn bo deterlllined beforehand, will ,I
!
5. i bo shown by QXpotilllents which will now be described.
The most chamcteristic of tllCSO experiments is perhaps tho
3:1 35 following. Having cOlllpletcly eft'nced the relief on tho reverse side
I
Iron Copper
nect. of a pieco' of money, place this plain fnce on a sheet of lend, amI
COn".
o 34: 0'21 flatten tho second fnce in tho stamping press. Tho wholo relief of
0'98 0'78 this se~ond faco will be produced on the fnco which had been
O'3! 0~21'
smoothed; llnd the design of this relief will even be imprinted on
S 0'0003 0'5273
tho lead. The explana.tion is that each vertical thread or fibre of

u:L 408 molecules, being scpnratcly compressed in the direction of its length by
_ 7lJG 431 the blow, flows with greater facility into the lead than into the other
llartsoftho pieco stmck. The raised parts, as roproduced on tho

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 318 FLOW OF SOLtDS. JUXE I8iS.

...:"'-
.:
smoothed face, arc less no doubt than in ,tho originnl l'clicf~ whilst
tho moro delicate features arc partially 'o~litomto(l; but the goneral
effect is reproduccd, nnd it is apparent that tho flow has taken plncG
.; I

in the direction of tho depth,' which is' also the direction of least
resistance.
On. tho reverse ~f tho sheet of lcnd, which has necessarily been
i reduced in thickness to make room 'for tho imprint of the coin, tho
II ~ngo will.be found··repeated on a largor sc.. .l.1o and moro confusec1;
jl
:, I but H may still bo distinguishecl by n peculiar tint, which indicates l\
,: I
well-definccl geometrical transformation, tho 1e3.(1 having flowed in
n horizontal clireetion, us the only wny of escape left open for it
when its surface was depresscd. This enlnrgement of tho imago
,takes llIn.ce in the proportion of 22 to 13, whe~ the pInto of len(l
• 1r
IS l'ID. th'lC k-.
An cnti1'01y different effect is produced when a mednl is struck.
The blank pieco hl\ving been placed in the matrix, thc pol'tions which
nre not ~o be xnisc(l in relief by the notion of the press become
reduced in thickness, for the benefit of the neighbouring portions,
which aro mised; the metal literally floiVing~ in ~'a(1ial directions,
from each of the hollows to tho reliefs by whioh they nro surrounded.
If tho medal hn.s only one fn.cc engr.o.ved, this mode of displnccment
of tho molecules is readily" rendol'eel manifest by buildi~g up the
complete medal' by the superposition of several blm~ks of equal.
thickness; the displacement then shows itself by successive imprints
on each face, the finnI. relief being more or less obliterated.
It is so truly It flow of metal which fakes plnce under theso
conditions,that if the bottom of tho die be pierced at tho centre,
then, tho material which comes from tho edges of the blank exerting
a pressuro from tho circumference towards tho centro, the central
pOl,tion of tho.blnnk is driven towards the orifice, whero it forms a
very regularly shaped boss, Fig, 36, Plnte 42; thus o.dmitting of tho
transformation of It relief executed on. a plane, into a similnr I'clie!
on a surfa.cowhich hns becomovery .coneavo or vel'y.convox, according
as tho design pel'tains to the upper or the lower fnce of the blank.
To an analogous Co.uso tho presenco of scars sometimes observcd
on moc1o.ls highly reliovcd is ovidently·to be attributed; thoso scars

...-.... qeI'_:.

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 •
I
JUXE 1878. JUXE 1878. FLO\V OF SOLIDS. 319

l relief, whilst boing produced simply by tho junction, dm'ing tho later strokes,
but tho goneral of the cages of tho bossos which have bC!-1n formecl by ·tho clU'lier
lns takQn plncc strokes.
,i
'cc~ion of lenst When tho mcanl is rolievccl on both fLlces, if it bo mado up of
severnl blanks superposed, it is interesting to remark how at each I'

of the faces tho images of the two external surfaces appear, moro or I~
lCcessarily beon ;'

of the coin, the
moro confuso(l;
hich indicntes a
aying flowcd in
:eft open ror it
,t of tbe imago
;0 1)lnto of Imul
rocc1n.l is struck.
lportions which
o press become
OUl'ing portions,
adial directions,
. aro surrounded.
) of displacement
buildi~g up tho
>lnI!-ks of equal
~ccssive implints
:rntcc1.
laco under these .
ld at tho centre,
le blmik exerting
ptrc, tho central .
whero it forms n
n.dmitting of tho
I fl, simillU' relie£'
convex, according
'ace of tho blank.
lletiroes observed
uted j these scars
less obliterntecl by ovel'1apping oach othel'~ and mingling in a singular
manner.
Rules cannot yet be prccisely formulntccl fOl' the best sho.pes to be
.given to the grooves in dies 01' rolls; put it may be .l1Cccpted th::Lt
thoy should be arranged in such n manner ns to utilise ns far as possible
the natuml tendency of the metal to flow in the dircction of the pressures
tl.l'lpIicd to it. It has been seen tho.t, 'when n bn.l~ is to bo dro.wn out,
it will bo best to prevent its spreading laterally, nnd to facilitato tho
longitudinal flow: the die or swago· shouJd therefore bo carefully
gauged, and either short 01' clso opened out in the direction of the
length. . It hns been scen also that in stamping a disc it may bo
useful to tako advantago of tho pr~ss~ll'e producec1 by driving tho
mutel'ial towQ.rds tho centre. Each modo of nction has thus its own
modo or deforml.ltio~, of which it is necessa.ry to l.ilOW how to take
account. The following is a yery remarkable instnnco: :i! a disc of
leud 4 in, diameter and -l in. thick be pressecl in tho stn.mping
machine over n. central circle of 2~ in. diameter, the thinning of this
central portion can only bo effected by the flow of the material
outwards; and this flow. will be exactly symmetrical, when tho
centering is perfect. 'l'ho exterior border is developed in tho form
of n tulip, Fig. 37, Pln~e 42. By such mcnns, without tho
employment of 0. mo.tri:s:, ge9metrical forms of fl, perfectly definite
character mn.Y bo producecl, which it might be useful in some cases
to obtain in this way.
This geI!.emllU'l'l\ugement of material hncl long sinco been observed
by :MM. Piobcrt and Marin, in the course of their exporiments on
~rn.wing out blocks of clay. Around tho orifico of cntry the clay
was thrown out' in .tho form of acanthus leaves. And tho .samo
conformations may now be observed in. t10 ragged edges thrown out
where a projectile penetra.tes ·the surfttce of n.n armour-plate. Tho

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 \
820 FLOW OF SOLIDS. Jt:::n: 18,8•
•
meta} displaced by the P:r'ojcctile' ~s driven' forward in flakos mora or
less involved .anel dislocated, which have nevertheless a s~riking
,, , rcsemblo.nco to the formations previously noticed.
'.:: The gc~metrical conait/ions of tho development of the plato of
lead into n tulip slmpo may be very'simply explained. The border of
the pInto, which endeavours to retain unaltored its (liamoter and its
tMeleness, cont.inuos ~o be attached to thc central portion, the gradua.l
crushing of which throws out rings successively thinner nnd thinner.
Thoso rings havo therefore nt each instant a given thickness, nn(l
by their succession thoy necessarily form a surface of revolution,
tho sha.pe of which cl:\n be nccumtely calculo.ted, on the
hypothesis, which is perfectly justifiable, that the volume is constant.
The ,conditions of this. development may be modified by the •
employment of casings of various forms; but attention will be
confined. to the insto.nce of a concentric casing so disposed. as to
proTent any incl'eMe of diameter.
Eight discs of }el1(l It ih. in diameter having been placed in
l\ cylinder, Fig. 38, PInto 42, a .mm of only 1'20 in. in diametor is

brought to bear upon tho pile formed by theso plates. Since tho
material can only escape from the compressivc nction by the nnnular
space left between tho ram" and tlm cylinder, it. ultimately a.ssumes
tho form of n sort of tumbler, of which the llcight extends along tho
l'am oven much boyond tlio height of the enclosing cylinder. Tho
cylindric.'!.! wo.ll of tIle tumbler, 0'15 in.. ~thick, would hn.vo beon
more regular if but one disc of lend or of tin had. been employed,
Fig. 39. But the modo in whieh the layers o.ro distributed throughout
tho thie1.-ness of tIIO tumbler is in itsolf a useful subject for
consideration. Tho uppermost pInto has been developed, almost in
ono piece, up to the rim of tho tumbler; but remains connected to
n continuation below, which becomes gradually thinner until it
r
renohes the foot of the tumbler. Tho other plates aro also developed
,I pnhl.llel to tho :first, each of thom being in contact with the sides of
tho cylinder for a length wllich may be calculated. in tho same vmy
as in the case of the plates of tho concentric jets formerly referred to.
It is tho samo modo of deformation, applied in the present case to
an annular jet; and the comploto analogy between the formulro

Suoolied bv The British Librarv - "The world's knowledae"


Jc:m 18i&.
. in fla.kes more or
thelcss a striking
ut of the pInto of
cd. Tho border of
:8 diameter und its
~orHon, tho gradnal .
lIinner nnd thinner.
Lven thiclmess, nnd
-faco of revolution,
11culatcd, on tho
volumo is constant.
modified by the' •
attention will be
~ so disposed as to
ing been placed in
I in. in diameter is
~ plates. Since tho
~tion by tho annular
. ultimately assumes
1t e::dends along tho
,ing cylindc:r. Tho
r, would have been
had been employed,
.stributcd throughout
useful subjeot for
developed, nlmost in
cmains connected to
lly thinner until it
:lS are also doveloped
Let with the sides of
led in tho same way
, formerly referred to.
L the present case to
lotween tho formulro
" .• ~ 01";
-.
Ju:n: 18i8. FLOW OF SOLIDS. 321
appertn.ining to the two ca.ses is not one of th9 lenst remarkable fnets
in these transformations.
This method hns for soveral years been adopted in industrinl
operations, under conditions of accuracy which aro truly astonishing,.
as shown by the specimen exhibited of a verticil amI cylindrical jet
of sheet tin, 12 iil. high, Fig. 4.0, Plate 42, perfectly smooth llnd of
uniform thickness. 'In the finest specimens of that sizo, the ends of
tho tube, which are pared after having been struck, do not show
any. irreguln.rity exceeding T\th' inch in height, even though tho
enclosing cylinder has been omitted for tho wholo height. Tho
material driven out in ~ho form of a. ring, the thickness of which
is everywhere mensure(l by tho difference between t~c radius of tho
, mm or punch and that of tho matrix, tends naturally to form a thin I
cylinder, tho several elemcnts of which slido with equal facility upon
the perfectly polishea surfaco of tho punch. I !
A thousand examples of similar surprises may'be found in i
. iniIustrinl processes; but this instance, amongst them all,'definitively
sanctions the expression by which the author believes he is authorised
I
to designate the results of his researches. The (C flow" of solids is
• now recognised in scienco; much moro will it bo llcccpte<1 by engineers,
r ,
who are every day witnesses of the processes which arc based upon
it, ns tho true expression of the best ascertained fncts.
Planing.-Of tho vnrious operntions which have beon described
above, that of punching is the only ono which hns had for its object 1"
the dividing of a. solid body, aml forming two entirely'separato pads
-tho ,burr and tho punched bloclt'. Tho block is nugmented by
the driving back into it of n. portion of tho mnterinl constituting the
cylinder which would h3.VO boen simply pushed out in front of tllQ
llUDch, supposing that this cylinder coul£l ho.vo slipped out without
giving rise to necessory phenomena. The burr is reduced by the samo ,
amount. Sheo.ring does not really take place until the moment when ,
, .
I1 the burr, in' consequence of tho la.tenl.1 flow, has been reduced to I,
t
h
I
its final height; nnd it has boe~ proved that from this moment the
i·
l'esistnnce opposed to the shearing is truly proportionnl to the'o.rea of ':
tho surfnce sheared. Tho coefficient of resistnnce applicablo to this
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 322 FLOW OF SOLIDS. JUSE 18i8.

caso of SOpo.l'ation i;:; no other than the coefficient of resistanco for l

i
shearing, or, wilnt 1101'0 a~ounts to .tho samo thing, tho coefficient of I t1
resistauce to lateral flow: so that wc aro now in possessjon of n. reliable I Cl

,
I formultt, applicable equnllito tho circular shearing effected by the
nction of .tho puuch, and to the rectilincll.1' shearing performed by the •
,
I
81

cL
.I shear blado or by the cutter. b
In the latter Cllses onc of tho p~rts of the piece slides upon the tl
other part, producing on each sido of the surfaco of separation It OJ

drawing out . o f the successive layers, which bend over along .tho to
shpared sur~ll.CO in th~ shreds, liko tho similar lnyers drawn out by gl
the punch. The separation renlIy takes pl~ce only nt the moment g(
when these shreds hayo -rcnchcd thcir extreme limit of tonuity. SU
This characteristic of the separated surfaces is mot with again in o\'
planing, although the principal circumstances are hero entirely pc
different: not loss l'Cmarkable however. Tho principal diffcrenco 1'0

consists in this, that tho chief flow of the material fakes plnco no su
10nge1' into tllO solid mass ns in punching, but into the cutting 'Which th:
is being <1ctached by the tool, nnel which, as it hero forms the exterior bu
portion, opposes the least resistance to the flow. If the cutting be to
compared with tho spaco which it occupied in the 'block beforo prl
separation, it is easily obsorveel that it has nt onco been considcmbly
shortened, amI that its thickness has been consequently nugmented in rUl
tho inverso ratio of tho shortening. val
This leading fact ·in pInning is well exemplified in tho turning thi
exhibited in Fig. 41, Plato 43, from the wheel-tyre of a locomotive, ste,
oomprising a cutting from one of the rivets. The rivct i~ hero par
represented by an ellipticnl section of 1'1 in. bi 0'4 ·in.;: showing bot
that tho reduced length produced by tho pInning was in the mUo Fit
. of 4: to 11, or 86 per cent. This coefficient of reduction' is yet un(
much grenter than it is in many other circumstances; for the thinnest 'can
cuttings it is occasionally as Iow as 10 per cent. be
In another specimen exhibited, of a cutting planed off transversely tak,
from a double-headed rnil, Fig. 42, the heighthns'not been altered, dotE
'i but the width has been reduced nearly in tho s~e proportion as in
I the preceding example. up
I
whi,

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JUXE 18i8.
mt of l'csistanco for
og, tllO coefficient of
)ssess.ion of n roliable
ring effected by tha
og performed by tha
iceo slides' upon tho
fuce of separation n.
ond over along. the
layers drawn ont by
only at the moment
lit oftenuity.
if! met with ngain in
I ate hero entirely
principal difference
crinl takes plnco .no
.to tho cutting which
ro forms the cxterior
• If the cutting be
i process of pIo.ning.
in the block beforo I
:l0 'been considerably
,u{liltly augmented in
I variable aspect, according to the ductility of the metn.! nnd the
lified in tho turning
rro of a locomotive,
Tho rivet is here
by 0·4 in.;' showing
og was in the ratio
I partly covering ono another, and. of whieh the inclination is still
of reduction is yet
.ces; for the thinnest
I can show bettor than. thoir general inclination the sli<1ing that mo.y
o.ned off transversely
as .not been altered,
.roo proportion as in
Supplied by The British Library - "The world's knowledge"
.l
Ju:m 1878. FLOW OF SOLIDS.' 323
Another chnmctcristio of the cuttings pl'oduco(l by pInning is that
tho surfaco of tho cutting which rises from contact with tho
cutting-tool is always smooth and is dovelopab~egeometrically. This
surface is in fnct moulded upon tho tool during the process of
d~formation, ana slides upon it in such fl, manner as to roll itself up
in the form of a cone or of a cylinder. It is at this moment especially
tho.t the pInsticity of the metal is brought into pIny; nnd if the
original form of the cutting should interpose too serious obstacles
to this development, it toafS or cracks in the <lil'cation of tho
generating lines of contact, in such 0. manner fiS still to fulfil tho
geometrical condition just mentioned. of its being 0. dcvelopable
surfo.co. It is well to avoid such rents as much as possible, for,
ovidently they cnnnot bo produced without the eApendituro of additional
power: as occurs pnrticulo.rly where it is required to take a singlo
. roughing cut of great breadth off a curved surface. An eAnmplo of
such fissures in the dovelopment of tho cutting is shown on about' n
third of the width of another cutting from a tyre~ Fig. 48, PInto 43 ;
but ~ho cr:l,{lks on tho opposite' edge arc moro truly to be attributed
. to ll. greater I'eduction of length in tho thinner cdge dm'ing tho
Tho outer £'l.00 of the cuttings, furthest from the tool; is always
rugged nnd wrinkled with fissures or transverse fUrl'oWS of very
thickness of the cutt~ng. In tho thickest cuttings, both iron nnd
steo1 present on this out-cr surfaco a multitude of inclined l,idges
better defined where completo separation has beon' produced. In
Fig. 44, PInto 48, these scales havo been drawn just as they appear
umler the microscope, on a. cutti~g of Bessemor steel. Nothing
be produced in planing, in consequence. of the compr~ssion wllich
takes placo in front of the tool befo~'o tho cutting is completely
detached from tho block.
Under mos~ circumstances the cutting when long enough winds
up into a helicoidal' form, as soon in tho cuttinorr, I!'jrr.
0 45' PInto 43,
.which is the same whoso rugged face has just been shown in Fig. 44.
 -·n··
,

:I
..

324 FLOW OF SOLIDS. Jv~a: 18i8.

..
"
.\ Tho inc~ination of tho spirals depends upon thl1.t of tho cutting
edge of the tool, and their· diameter upon the thickness of tho cutting j \
.,i.
tho <linmcter diminishing with tho coefficient of roduction previously
I'oforred to. It is thus thut, in turning in the lathe a pieco which is
I
I
.j
'I

~,
yery slightly eccentric, tho resnlt is n number of parts of which. tlll>
diameters arc nltcrnniely grcllter and less, Fig. 46, Plato 4.4. Tho
c1cmonstmtioh afforded by this single specimen appears quite complet~.
I
r
Without· seeling further tq draw conclnsions from the ' study I
of f1heso defor1lllltions with rospect to tho best form of tools for each I
of them, it folloy;s clearly from .what has a1rendy beon stn.tod that
t~e work re.quhed for any cutting action whatever is expended in
friction nnd in d~formation of the mntorial· by compression. 'l'he
r , 1

work of friction should incronso ,\yith the number of cnts; and, as tho
. !! shortening is greater for the finor cuts, the moleculur work expended
<
shou1<1 also bo greater. It follows thereforo that it. is most
I· ndvantageous to ta.ke deep cuts; but this mode of working of cOlirso
·1 l
demnnds more· powerful tools nnd better "foundations. It is in this
R
direction tha.ttho most recent progress in tho construction of this
3
kin(l of tools has been effected. 11

it g
I .Tho differont modes of cutting, rectilinear or circular, aro applicablo-
!' chiefly to £I.o.t surfaces and to cylindrical surfhces. Flat surfaces 301'0
9

cut either in tho planing machino or in the Inthe1 nnd under most P
iJ
circumstances tho two kinds· of cuttings aro almost identical in
g;
app·cnro.nco, resembling a oylinder !ormed of spirals more or less
oloso, sometimes even in jm:taposition; for· this result howoyor it is
di
necessary that·tho two edges of the cutting should llO.vO undergono
<1i
the same amount of reduction, that is thnt' they should bo of th~
01
sftmo tlliclmess, otherwise the spirals become conical. Some of thoso
it
effecfs which npp0:ll' the most char~cteristic will now be described. '
101
The cutting obtained in morticing by means of a straight tool,
Plate 4.8, Fig. 47, is nbsolutoly cylindric~.. When .the tool ~uts out in
cy
this manner a rectangular. groove, with respect to which it occupies a
be
s;ymmetricll.l position, tho mo.terial is driven back without o.ny lateral
on
<loviation. If the cutting is of groat thickQ.ess, it is triangular, Plate 4.4,
of
Fig. 4.8, aml its smooth SUrfIlCO· is formed' by the combination of tho
of

.'

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 eSC& & £
. 1 ..
'-..- a

·1
JeXE 1878. i JUXE IBiS.
i, FLOW OF SOLIDS.
325
hat of tho cutting
threo fl1.ces at which tho separation to.kes place, while the direction
:ness of the eutting ; \
in whieh crumpling takes pll1.ce is just tho .sume as in nIl Ql'dinary
~oduetion previously
the ~ pieco which i~
II cuttings. The trianguiar form is the result of tho compression being
greatoOr towards the centro lino of the cutting. To aid in forming
. parts of which .tho
nn opinion on this point, two blocks were placed side by side,
46, Plate 44. The
which were planed at the same time in n single cut along the lino of
Icnrs quite completo;
junction, P~nte 4.4, Fig. 49. Two distinct horns were formed, which
o.s from tho -study .
parted symmetrically from ono .another: el1eh half-cutting following
zm of tools for each
the law of shortening by which it was bound to assumo a form eoncn.ve
ly been stn.ted that
. towards the .side held back by its nttachment to the block. This
)ver is expended in
experiment ho.ving been made with lead, a .sot of parallel am]
compression. 'l'ho
equidistant lines that had becIi drawn upon tho block heforo planing
of cuts; nnd, ns the
mbr work expended
could be traced on the cutting (seo Fig. 49), and afforded the means ,
of measuring exactly tho average percentage of reduction, and at tho
;) that it. is most i : I;"
samet imo showed the mode of contortion of the transverse lines-
,f working of C01:irso
ions. It is in this
I which nssumo successively the same inclinations as they overlie ono
another at intervals, tho percentage of reduction varying from 10 b
construction of this I
30 per cent.

.
I Tho cuttings from n lathe, when produced from an imnular
I groove by means of n straight tool, assumed oxactly the same forms;
'c~lar, aro app~cablo'"
as shown by the specimen, Plato 44, Fig. 50, of Lt cutting from a
:. Flat sUrfaces [Lro
l)fwking-ring groovo in Lt piston .' This is 'Seen to have formed itself
:he, and .under most
into n continuous ribbon, rolled up spirally as on a bobbin, with tho
ahnost identicnl in
greatest regulnnty'nnd to Lt great length, without a rent.
pirals mora or less ,.
When tho turning is ~ono in a spiral direction, tho slImll lateral
result howover it is
<lisp1acement of the pieeo is not large enough to give tho ribbon a
uld have undergono
c1ifferent character frem that obtained in straight pInning, for such
ly should bo of the
ordinary cuses as th~ turning of Lt shaft to a uniform diameter; anel
ical. Some of thol$e
lOW be described. .
3 of So straight tool,
I it is then easy, with good metal, to produco cuttings of grent.
length.
;,
"

Dut, when it is required to turn tho cnd ftico of tho shaft or of nuy
1 the tool cuts out in
\ cylinder whatever, tho cutting follows n. speoial course. If tho tool
)·which.it occupies a !
~ without any Internl
bo l'ather broad in proportion to tho diameter of the rings or cirelos
on whieh it is acting, the difference of diametor between tho two cdges
d
,
trin.ngu1ar, Plato 44,
of tho cutting makes itself felt; nnd the cutting thon ass~mes tho form.
I combination of the
of a helicoidal surfaeo, with inclined generating lines, of which tQO
2 E

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 ri
11
82G FLOW OF SOLIDS. ,
.. Ju:m IBiS.
"1
,.
, ,,
I'
.! ~
dircctriccs aro t\iO helices of tha snme pitch hl1:t of different diameters,
P 'P1ilte 45, Fig. 51. This universal geom~tricnl character is further
.i: . I1 manifested in special wll:Ys, nccor<ling to tho width of the ribbon find

·1
il tbe interior diameter of the ring. Thus .real screws or funnels nrD
obtained, encased mio within another, if the cutting cdgo of the tool
i
I bo mdinl, Fig. 52.' Successivo spirals ovor~np onc o.nother when the
!I elirecHon of tho cuttit.g cdgo is 0. little inclined. . The inner helix. is
I· II I rep1D.eed by n straight edge, Fig. 53, when the tool cnts right to
i; the contrc of the face that is being tmned.
Ii Notwithstanding these differences of detail, tho snmo l'ulos prevail
';j
t
:1 in overy cutting': 0. greater or loss reduction o~ shortening, according
i!
.1 to 'tho depth of tho cut; a less reduction .of length nt the thicker
'I
I! c{lge of' the cutting; 0. amooth surfnco of separution, which always
I,j i:
forms 0. elevc1opablo sm~ace; 0. l'Uggcd reverse surface, wrinldecl as
..li though waves of metal had been successivoly projected there; in
Ij
I' I
i
short, nll tho circumstances of p. trnnsverse flow of the material.
Setting llsic10 all Eccondary circumstances, the cutting is [\l~ays to be
. l'egnrdcd as the transformation of tho Frism of metnl from which it
is produccd, by increase of thickness nnd correspond"ing climinution
.;
of length•.
,I; .: The author has endetl.vO'll.rc<l to represent, in Fi'g. 54, PInto 44,
tho triangular cutting 0 \vhich 'Would bo fOl'mcel by planing from
the edge of n block of, matnl . B 0. squaro prism A, by means
of 0. tool ]) having two symmetricnl cutting cdges, and of which
tho fla.t front is itself .plnced symmetrically. The coefficient of
reduction by compression of the metnl in .the cutting has here been
assumed to be 0,3. In accordnnco With thoforcgoing observations anel
with the nctunl fncts,' it will be seen ~ow the prism. which is on tho
point of being separntcel from the block swells up by compression,
I c::lmmencing at 0. certain zono of flnidi,ty, of limited length" in .
.,,. m1.vance of tho tool; anel llow, when this. compression has nrrived
i geometrically attho maDm~m which can be Bustamed. . by the
I material, the.' cutting is eletachea from tho mnss, nna is then subjected
i
to tho nction of the fnee of thotool, upon which it slides, nna by -
wlUch it is rorcedto .assumo its ultimate form. Considerable RS theso
!I I moaificationsnrc, they (1.1'0 nbsolutely in ,conformity with tho fncts.
"
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Ju~m 18iS.
rI
different diameters,
harnctel' is further
of tho ribbon nnd.
I
,I
rows or funnols nro
:lg cdgo of tho tool
,0 another when the
,Tho inner helix. is
I
(
t
tool cuts right to
, '
o samo rules preynil
lortening, nccording
ngth o.t tho thickcr
ation, which nlwn.ys
surface, wrinkled fiS
projected thero; in
l'W' of tho material.
tting is nl'\\7n.ys to be
metnl fi'om which it
;ponc1ing diminution
l Fig. 54, P.lnto 44:,
edby pl(miJi~ from
prism A, by menns
edges, and of which
The cooffieient of
mttin,g hnshere been
:oing observations nnd
Drism which is on tho
s up by compression,
f limited length, in_
lpression has arrived
De imstained 'by the
nnd is then subjected
bieh it slides, und by -
Considerable ns the.so
.nnity with the facts.
.
JUXE IBiS. FLOW OF SOLIDS. 827"
I
They have been produced by the fiuthor, on lead as well as on tho~
harc1 meta.ls, uncleI' con(litions exactly proportionnl to thoso which
Rro ropresentccl in Fig. 54: nnd by tho mo(lel exhibited.
The finest specimen tho nuthor hns soen of this trirmgular-
transformation of the cuttings is from a morticing machine, Plato 45,
Fig. 55. It is not less than "1\ inch thick, f!.nd the rolling up of the
metnl could only bo effected with tllO accompa.niment of deep fissures
in the lntern.l edges.. The upper edge, on tho contrary, is much
moro minutely' serrated. Ono of the lateral faces is folded along its
whole length, showing how tho material hus been compre~scd; Wllilst
J
1 tho other fnco, with its oblique fissures, shows ,still better the sliding
1
.by means of which tho backward fiOiV is procluced. Another smallel'·
cutting, Fig. 56, presents exactly the so.mo characteristics.
- . It is tho author's opinion tho.t, for the construction of the best-
fOI'm of tools, and for. determiniDg the most suitable depth of eut,_
. tho minute eXll.minntion of the" cuttings is of tho greatest importl1ncc ; ,r
mid that by the same menns the surest evidence mftY bo obta.ined I
with respect to the qualities and the homogeneity of the metnl.
Time (loes not permit of morc than R pn.ssing referenco to certain
defol'mntions which call to mind, with a surprising degree of
\ exactness, the constitution of certain rocl~s with their dislocations. A
.I fow experiments of this kind were maclo- by the author in conjunction
l with M. Daubr6c, from which the l~tter gentleman has very recently
fil'rhed at an explanation of a number of geological phenomenn.
i Thosoinvestigations wouM no doubt possess somo interest for tho
,
members; but, the author was desirous chiefly to by beforo tuem
such of his results n!Ol.iipply -to tho various kinds of mcclmnical
work, inasmuch ns these follow directly upon the substanco of his
former communication in 1867. -
The idol!. of the :flow of solids is, of nll the modes of rcgnrding
their aeformation, tho ono which giv-os us the sl.u'cs~ information on
all tho phenomena. of molecular mechanics, ns well ns on tho inter'llnl
structuro of tho substances upon which tho various industrial ·f
operations arc performed.
2 E 2
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328 FLOW OF SOLIDS. Jmm 18i8.

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The PRESIDEliT said ho would not o.t tlUl.t moment ask the members
"
H to givo their thanks to M. Tresca for his paper. Who.t would shiko
,:I
I: them,nU, especially thoso 'who had heard tho paper of 1867, was tho
enormous development which the subject had received in M. Trescn's
hands. 'l'hey appeared now to havo arrived at something like

,
mechanical analysis, corresponding' to chemical analysis;" nnd ' ho
, supposed that wiry soon government inspectors woulcJ. bo sufficiently
learned to I1ttempt:M. Tresca.'s system, o.nd,'instead of adopting force
as tho means of testing materials, would, by such a system, judgo
how weldings had taken place, and what was the quality of tI10 metal; ,
and in fact, would have a. complete laboratory whero 0.11 such
experiments could b~ tried. They would now be glad to hcar the
remarks of any members or visitors; nnd he hoped that the French
engineers who might be present would nlso join in the discussion,
wherever they found opportunity fOl' doing so. Professor Blakc hacl
given tho Eiubject his consideration in l;t.merica, nnd perhnps he
wouid favour them with his observations.
'j,
i Professor W. P. BLAKE (Newhaven, Connecticut) said it "WOoS with
I
I: considerable diffidence that he rose to spank upon the, subject befol'C
I' I! the Institution of Mecha~ical Engineers; but he estcemed it a great.
I
'I, pr,ivilego to Imve been present on such nn occasion, and to 111:1.'\"e
listen~d to so remarkable 0. communicntion. Oertainly:M. Tresca hnc1
J: :;
~ done great service to "physics generally; nnd he had carried his
rosearches, which hOod been commenced bofore the Exhibition of 1867,
to somo '\"cry rema.rkable results, to which the Pl"esidcnt had so well
alluded. But the point which hud Btrucl;: him most, amI on whicl1 he
'\tas best IJropnrecl to speak, was tho geological nspcct of the question,
i: "Which had long been IDatter for consideration on the other side of tIle
At1o.ntic. Oertainphenomena had there presented themselves which
were extremely puzzling. He would mel'oly, refe~ to cortail~
conglottterlltes formed of nonrly homogeneous pebbles-say of,qllllrt'z.
For example at Newport in Rhode Island, upon the shores of the
;, Atlllntic, tl!cro woos ~oDglomcrato that hOod been water-worn, or cut
li nwll.Y by tho action of tuo waves, and it was found that tho pebbles
I', washed out were in the form of elongnted ellipsoids, so regular and so .

l I

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JIr.'E 1878.
JC~E 1878. FLOW OF SOLIDS. 829

geon:etr~cnlly unif~rm that they long ago suggested to some persons

lt ask tho membel's
tho Idea that they had been pullee1 out lengthwise. That idea hael
What 'Would strilm
been rejected at scvel'3l meetings of the Americ:m Association for the
er of 1867, was the
admncement of Scienco. It had however been followeclllp by the 13to
"Ved in M. Trescn.'s
Professor HitcLcock, who insisted tho.t those pebbles had.been elongated
a.t sometbing like
nnolysis ;' nnd . ho ) by stretching. Ho (Professor Blakc) had bean ono of the first to ridiculo
such n proposition. But afterwn.rds, -in tho Ro~ky :n{Ollntains,
'oul~ ba sufficiently
ho Lael eneoUlitcrcc1 another conglomerato formeel of homogeneous 1
.d of ad.opting forco '1
~uartz pebbles,. whicp. had not only been elongated, but ho.t!
lch a system, judge
1ll some instances been compressed, so that ono pebble 'wns
lalHy of tho metnl ;
r where nU such
squeezed into nnd ,,,as partly insido another; aud again, somo
JO glad to hear tho
?f tho pebbles had been broken transversely and re-cemented
shomng in some instances two or th1'CO frncturei, which had
cd thnt the French :1
been mnqo cleanly across, an<l rc-cemented as 'firmly as before.
in the discussion, I
I
'Without' wearying the members with other examples, ho would i
1'0£eS50r Blo.l{o had. I
merely stato tho conclu~ions at which he had arrived: namoly that I
L, nnd perhaps ho ·1
.such pebbles had been elongated and. flnttenet1" anc1 that tho
llllysiognomy (so to speak) of some of tho mountains was duo t~ the 1;:
I,

. elongation which tho rocks had thus undergone. That was shown "
It) said it was with
not only by the included pebbles, but by tho peculiar structuro of tho
the. subject beforo
rocks. Thero' wera vast regions,' in California. for example, :whero
esteemed it a great.
the'rocks were sharp ellipsoidal points stamlin 0rr 'up thrOlll',h tho soil·"
~nsion, and to lw:\"o • 0

and when they wero examined it was found that every grain of sand
dnly M. Trcscn. 11:1.<1
amI every pebblo was nn elongated nnd :flattened' ellipsoid. There
10 had. C(m:icd his
hnd beon ~ot only elongation in such cascs but compression also.
Exhibition of 1867,
Thoso were some of the conclusions at which various scientific men lmd
esident had so well
nrri"Ved; but h~ wns boun~ to say that such ideas wero not commonly
st, and. on ,~hich he
accepted, nnd thnt they had beon a good.deal ridiculed.
,ect of tho question,
He might bo permitted to refer to imother matter illustrating the
he other side of tIle
lthemselres which
snmo subj~~t. :M. Tresan. hac1 suggeste(l in llis paper tllnt in the I
.:
cnse of vitreous substances those peculiar phcnomen!L 'Were not so
., refer to certain
. visible. Let ico bo taken as nn example. He had been -surprised,
1.>1es-so.y of quartz.
at n recent meeting of the Geological Society in London, to hear tho
1 the shores of the
subject of tho flow of ice discussed upon the old idea that there mnst
L water-worn, or eut
be frncture Bntl regelation. It had boen shown by Hungcrford, in
id thnt tho pebbles
the United. States, that fr::tOture was not necessary to tho flow of ice.
Is, so regular Ilml so '

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'I"~
i: 330 FLOW OF BOLIDS. J{'~E.18i8.

I1
" i

1
If a block' of ico were encased. in a woonon monIt1, ana kept at 11
temperaturo fl.l.rbelow that of melting, it might be compressed and I
:l': 1I caused to fl.ow through an' aporturo without !Lny fmaturo. It was
I
iI-'l
:1 possible 'to PlOaUeO results similar to thoso shown ~ri M. Trescn.'s

I:
experiments, in ono of tho mosL vitreous materials with which they.
woro 'fl\miliar-solid' water. Tho facts to which ho had reforred I
i'
I!
naturally lecl to tho cO!1sidoro.tion of tho question whother men of
scienco ought not to refrain from limiting thoir inoas of th6 flow of I
:
,
solids to the pll.l.lleable metals merely, sueh as lead or iron, and rather
to inclJldo in them every substanco that oxisted. Thoy ought in fact
I
II
,
I '
I I

i, t to consider all solids as mobilo under certain conditions. It was a.

,i:'l
1I very interesting physical question, and he .was very glad to havo
:'.. ,i listened t~ M. Tresca's paper nnd to havo beon permitted to speak.
; i.
.'\
;.'1
~. i
upon it.

I: ,,1 Mr. I. LOWTHIAN' BELL desired to ro-echo tlIe woras of

I,
!I :',I oongro.tulll.tion uttered by tho President ns to the general chnro.ctcr
:1 1: !
I'
'! i'l
! ::
of the paper.' It was ono of tho many illustrations of the
; i!
1·1
':
indebtedness of practical to abstmct science; becauso, although tho
1 inst3.nces of the flow of solids had been brought beforo the memhers
\1,: i'; in tho space of nn .hour, it was almost impossible to measure and form
n correct appreciation of tho amount of patience nnd diligence involved
in tho prosecution of M. Trcsca's investigations. Ho would not pretend
for n. moment to criticiso the mcchanical portions of the paper. In his
opinion it WOU1c11'CqUirO some months' stuay to fit any man to do it
effectually, nnd insueh l\ way as to justify him in occupying the
attention of tho members. As llaving howover some experienco in •
j the ~~emistry of metals, ho might bo permitted to' refer to what
seemed upon the face of the paper (though probahly.it was not so
1,1 intende<l) to ba an opinion that tho nbsonco of longitudinnl striro
might bo accepted as R necessary indication of tho quality of the
, I
I iron. Ho :was induced to refor to the subject because the nuthor had
i •
j j .sto.ted in his paper ~ho.t " when tho bost Swedish iron is sulljected to
;,1
\ tho snme treatment" (which had. been proviously doscl'ibcd) "it gives
I" but the faintest indications of longitudinal striro, which sometimes
~an only be produced by taking special pa.ins with that object." Now
! '
! :
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Jt~E.18i8. lu:m 18i8. FLOW OF SOLIDS• 331

Id, nnd kopt at 0. 110 apprehended thnt tho absence of those longitudinal striro wns not
I compressed and .1 due to any peculiar quality in Swedish iron, but to the mode of its
fracturo. It was manufacture. '1'he best Swedish iron, as was well known to iron
n in :M. Trescll.'s
wit11 which thoy. I manufa.cturers, was invariably produco<l by ,.. .ho.t was formerly
designated as the process of cc sinking" in 0. ehll.rcon.l fire. The pig iron
ho ha<l referred I was melted in p, Lancashire hcnrth, wns decarburised by tho blast, nnd
, whether. men of I then sank down to the bottom of tho fire as malleable iron. Of course,
ellS of tho :flow of I as n:'ight be expected, tho physicl.l.l COll{litions of iron so manufactured
Ir iron, and rather
~hoy ought in fnet
I• necessarily diffcred entirely from those where the samo mass or
iron was drawn out in bars, which were then cut, and piled one on tho
tlitions. It wns 0. top of the othor for rc-rolling.
cry g1n.d to havo M. Trosc3. had mentioned thll.t M. Lc Chatolicl', by treating iron
,ermitted to speak with a stream of chlorine, had produced' a residuo or skeleton, equal
to about 1 per cent. of tho toto.1 weight of the iron. It was quite
cleai' thnt, if such a l'esiduc llll.d been left by that treatment, it
.0 tlIo wordE!, of conId not possibly have been a siliceous skeleton: it would mther
general chnrncter bo some siiica, necompnnied by a great quantity of somo oxido
lStrations of the of iro,:! not liable to be llffectc.d by an atmosphero of heated
:l.USC, although tho chlorine; all{l he was inducc(l to arrive at that conclusion from the
,foro the members fact that no iron of modcmto quality contnined a quantity of silicon
I, mensure and form whioh, when oxidiscd, conId give anything like 1 per cent. of silica. '.

diligence in"Vo~"Vcd In fact the. nnnlysis of very ordiuary qualities of iron, or at least of
I would n~t pretend sOme not very extraordinary qualities, exhibited the presence of
tho paper; 'In his something like 99~. per cent. of pure iron, lenving only ! per cent.
any man to do it for silicon, phosphorus, nnd other impurities found assoeiatcd with
in occupying tho the metal in its better form.
ome e::qlerienee in • With respect to tllO 'statement of M. Trcsco. in reference to .tha
l to' refer to what manufacture of iron from. wiro piles, thero was necessarily in that
Inbly.it woos not s~ I
I
case n very extended surface of iron oxposed to the oxidising influence
longitudilllll striro i of tho furnaco; nnd eonsoquently, as might be expocted, tlInt extent of
the qUll.lity of the \ surfaco all being oxidised, thero was llo greater quantity of oxide of
,usc tho author hnd I, iron interpolated amongst tho fibres of tho iron than thero would ba
!
iron is sul,jceted to I in the case of n. solid har under tho s~me circumstances.
lescribcd) "it gi"Vcs
), which sometimes Mr. R. PRICE WILLtA:llS said thJl.t, hn.ving hnd the privilege of
that object." Now hearing the former paper, and havi!lg, during the cloven years

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332 FLOW OF SOLIDS. J C:;E 18711.

11 that had elapsed, had the opportunity of practically following out

:1,.
the new theory of tho eminent o.uthor in regard to the flow of aolids I
"
I,
as set forth in tho.t paper with the modesty which 'Was tho attribute of
all true genius, ho would observo that in the present sequel to that I
"

papor the 'subject had been' presented to them in nn almost entirely I

now aspect. In the pl'evi01!s 'paper M. Tresca had treated the effect of I
I(
the flow of solids f as bearing upon the a.ction of hammering and rolling;
while in the paper just read tho same beautiful theory wns strikingly
'exemplified in the Mtion of planing and shearing. Ho ventured to
1
think that, now that tho principle of th~ Flow of Solids was
; . J
l'ccognisc(l in sciencoJ the truths deduced by M. Tresca's exhaustive ]
:1 t
proces~ of reasoning would he looked upon in tho profession in the t
light of axioms.
. As an oxcuse for trespassing on such an occasion
. on i
the time of the members, he might observe that he had himself seen
c
occasion to apply tho principle explained in M. Tresea's form()r t
paper; and had he then haf! the advo.ntageJ which he now possessed, i.
.,, of being able to follow out the author's further investigations, he could 0
. I
sce at once how, in his humble efforts, he might have carried out that ()
principle more completely. :Some years ago, just after the introduction
Jl
of steel railsJ'it had occurred to him tl1at the form of railwayerossing :,
usually adopted was in many respects very imperfect and insecure, tl
owing to the break it occasioned in tho continuity of the rnil. Tho h
Cl
(liagram of an ordinary crossing (Phto 47, Fig. 62) would illustrato .tl

. 'I
iI;I Ms meaning.. ,It had 0.1so occurred to him thit by chnnneling out a
path through tho main.,.line rail the continuity might be preserved;
h
·w
,,
and ho hud dcsignc(l a crossing with that view, which had to n. n(
~
,:
! slight extent been Ildopted (Fig. 63); but ho wce.s bound to state w
:! that it had not bcen .generally accepted by engineers, whom he had Il
aI ways found rea.dy to mlopt any improvements, simply from tho w
circumstance that it required a. special form of steel rail. After aI
pondering over M. Tresca's theory, it had occurred to him that, with co
the lleautiful material they now possessed in steel, tho furthor . :w:
application of t?-o principle of the flow of solids would e~ablc him th
by tho displacement of material to preserve tho continuity of the ra.il, it
amI at the same time to mn.intll.in the original ~ection. He had pl'>
applied to Mr. Twcddcll on tho subjcct, and they had managedJ with . th~

.- _..... , ._-_._--:----.~----­
: ,,---
...... "

... - ..... - ............ _...... _--_ ..

 Jt::m 18;8.
LIly following out
, the flow of solids
ms tho attributo of
ent sequel to that
I(
:m nlmost entiroly
~rentcd the effect of
aeriug Rnd.rolling;
lf
lory was strikingly l verified M. Tresca's· benutiful theory, it was not as completo in
. He ventured to
I'
)w of Solids was
I tho first instance as he could .haVQ desired. Strangely enough,
rresca.'s exhaustive
o profession in tho
I,I
nch nn occasion on
I
I had himself seen
I I
:. Tresea's formc;ll'
ho noW' possessed,
;tigations, he could
ve c:uried out that
~er the introduction
of railway crossing
:fect nnd insecure,
'f of tho r~il. Tho
) would illustrate.
'.channeling· out a
ghtbo preserved;
, which lHld to a
'(lS bound' to state
cers, whom ho had
simply from tha
: steel rail. Mtei
~ to him that, wit.h
steel, tho furthor .
would enable him
.tinuity
, of tho rail,
section. He had
!lad managed, , with
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Jl~E 1678. FLOW OF SOLIDS. 833
tho aid of Messrs. Fielding nnd PlaWs hydraulic machinery at
Glouc~l?ter, to curry out a series of experiments with hydrn.ulic
pressure, which to his great <lelight hnd resulted in tho object
desU:ed. .A.t the same time he ought to stato tbat tho hyc1raulic
pressure which he hael at his disposal wns not sufficiently powerful
to make tho requirecl displacement nIl at oneo; it ho.d to be dono
in R series of steps; Rnd therefore, although tho result hnd entirely
'Mr. Platt, who had carried out the experiments, hlld neyer read
M. Trescn.'s paper, nnd did not beliovo altogether in the theory of
the flow of solids: henco, before the crucial test was to bo applied
\
'I
j
in tho caso oj t;ho steol rails, he decided to try nn oxperimc:p.t on his I
own account with a ba~ of lead, very justly concluding that if the
theory of the flow of solids was eorr9ct it ought certainly to apply II
in this case; and ho found that the result fully confirmed the truth 1
.. I
of the theory. Tho dift'Qrcnt sections of th~ steol rail as operatcel
on (PInto 4.7, Figs. 64 nnd 65) would show how the displncement took
place.
llohnd only a remark or two ~o mnko in regard to hnmmel'ing,
that process being frequently nl1ude~ to in M. Tresca's pap9r. Ono-
conclusion ho had come to from his study of M. Trcsca's beautiful
theory was that ~1I that was dono by tho process of hammering could
be dono as. well, if not better, by squeezing. He. wished to ask
whether tho dev~lopl;llent of hel.\t described by M•. Trosca was or was
not observed with tho use of' great pressure instead of blows-
whether, in oth~'r-~r;oids, sudden impact hml nnything to do "ith it.
In compn~ing the lifo of different steel rails -ho had been much struclc
with the great variation in the amount of wear which was o.bscrvnble;
Bnd it .occurred to him, having had some littlo experience in the
cold-rolling of wire, and noticing what was statcdin tho paper,
.~hcther, if. steel rails wero subjected to tho process of cold-rolling,
their enduraneo might not be much increased. He merely threw
. it out with all diffidenco as a suggestion to tho eminent nuthorities
present. Having observed the fa.ct that steel rails, notwithstanding
their incrcaSCcl!lOWer of enduring tho cnormOl1S traffic to whidl they
._--------' .0
 334 FLOW OF SOLIDS. JUSE 18i8.

wore frequently subjected, woro out extremely rapidly-nnd having

also obscrvcc1 in soma cases that tho steel rnils which showed 0.
I
,:
harder, nnd closor Dature woro much longer than the softer
l:. descriptions of steel-it occurred to him thnt he might direct
":
~
attention to the question of subjecting steol rails tOll. process
unalogous to th~t of wire-drawing, with a view to incrcuse their
power of enduranco.

Mr. A. P AGET said thut, after tho expressions of diffidence by

, i former spenkers, he might be considered fiS over-rash in addressing
I i ,
.1,1
.
: I, I the meeting. He rose however not to' givo inforooll.tion, but to ask
", I for it. He had recently heard the ~heory advanced thnt iron wns
,'" l always' crystalline, and never truly fibrous. Dut M. Tre5ca in his
,:'j paper had described iron US being like a hnnk of cotton with the
",; threads intorla~ed. Coming from such an RuthOl'ityas 111. Tresca,
,;1 this appoared at first sight to subvert entirely the purely crysta1li~o
theory of iron. It had hO\ycver occurred to him that tho idea of
iron fiS a hank (if fibres, and as 0. el'ystnllinc body, might after nIl
bo brought into harmony;' and ho should liko to ask M. Tresc~
whether in his experiments he had arrived at nny conclusion thnt
would enable practical rnlo-o£-thumb engincers to come into Rccord
with men, ~f science. When they found that n piecc of iron tore
asunder liko a, hunk of cotton, they could not resist tho evidenco .of
their, oyes t11o.t it was fil;rous. But was it possible that each of. thoso
\\, fibres might be n longitmlillnl arrangement of crystals? If so, that
would reconcile the two theories, which wero commonly regarded as
entirely opposed to each other. .
He might mention what 110.(1 first brought to his youthful mind
many years ago tho nucleus of the ideo. of the' flow of solids: namely
,I seeing 0. lump of piwh, with nU its augles Rnd with every appc'lLrnnce
!. I
, I ofbeingvitreons, slowly, without assuming)~ plastic condition .or at
..
I
any time lllsi~g it~ perfect brittleness, graduully take the form of 0.
flattened drop. That· experiment, ho t1lOtlght, would bling hom~ to
&11 minds the idea of the flow of sqlids in the most ensy and perfect
manner. It was rather easier and quicker than following out tho
flow of a glacier; still it was the same action, and he was not

-.~

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JU~E 18i8.
l.pidly-and having
.Is which showed a
. than tho softer
t he might direct
rails to a process
r to increase their
of diffidence by
illS
,rnsh in addressing
rmution, but to nsk
need. that iron waS
t M. Trescl), in his
of cotton with the
10l'ity as M. Trcsca,
10 purely crystalliIio
im that the idea of
ody, might after n11
I to ask M. Tresc~
anyconclnsion that
to como into a~cord
a piece of iron .t~re
sisttho evidence of
.0 that each of. thoso
'ystn1s? It so, that
mmonly regarded, as i,
) his youthful mind II
IV of solids: nn.me~y
/I
; on the inertia. of the material. 1\Inny of tho members of the Institution
th every appel-trance
~stlc condition or at
r tako tIlO form of a
iould bring hom~ to
lost easy and perfect
n following out the
,n, and. ho was not
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I
I .
Jtnm 18i8. FLOW OF SOLIDS. 835
at all astonished. to find. that PI'ofessor Blako was amazed. to bellI' tho
floW' of a glaoier .cliseussed on the principle of fracturo nn4 regelution
only; he hnd thought thnt such nn idea coultl not now be entertaine(l
by anybocly.
Dr. J. HOl'xINSON said he thought M. Tresca's paper was
not·only exceedingly instructh"o, but nlso vcry suggestive. Like the
Inst speaker he felt more d.isposecl to ask questions than, oven if he
could, to give information. Ho should be glad. if:ill. Tresca would
I
ilifOl'm thom whether ho had made any experiments to ascerta.in
I
'I
how fnr tho phenomena. of tho flow of solids woro depcndent on I
I
tho ti~e dul'ing which tho flow took place. For instance tho effect
ofa projectile on an iron pInto wns very different from the effect
of an ~qual amount of work dono upon the plate gradun,lly. In
I
the caso of tho projectilo, when tho blow WaS delivered. very rapidly,
\
thore would simply bo a block punched out from it;. but when
tho plato .was SupP9rted in soma way, and the snme amount of
wor]c was done upon it by a punch similar to the proj~etilo but
applied gradun.lIy, the plato would probably bo .bulged, and finally
shoW' quite a diffcl'cnt deformation from the flrst. That of eourso
was eo consequence of the inertia of tho parts of the plate in. the
neighboUl'hood where the blow was delivere<l. But t.ha.t was not tho
exact point "on which ho desired to ask a question. If·R forging
.:
was mndo with blows of R light hammcr moving with great velocity, I
the result was different from a forging made by blows of Cl. heavy .I,
hammer doing tho same amount of work but moving with less
velocity•. Perhaps M. Tresca would eXI)lain wher9in the difforenee
lay. For his own pnrt ho did not think that it eonlel dopend entirely
he thought might be able to throw some light on this subject. Tako
the case of testing a wiro to bre~kllgo. It was wclllmown that, if wiro
wero broken by a tensile stress, it drew out at tllO point of fmcturo to
a smaller (liamcter than it· ha(l beforo it wns broken. How fill' did
that depend on tlio l'ate o.t which the stress was applied? If it wore
applied suddenly in the form of a. tensilo. blow, was the wire dl'aVr'1l
out as much? He supposod it 'wns not; but how much less wos it
drawn out than when tho pressure was Rpplied exceedingly gracluully?
 I,

!:

;I
1I {I 336 FLOW OV SOLlDS~ JU~E 1878.
41
.!
,; ; Jlli·.Pll.gct had called nttenti?n to the flow of such substances fiS
; !
i pitch, and 'Professor' Blake bad I'eforred to tho flow of ico, He (lid
I
! I
not think that tho flow of pitch or ice was precisely tho same kind of'
.:
I pl1Cnomcnoll as tho flow in the cnse o£ pnnching metals. In tllO flow
i
of pitch or ico thero was renlly llr flow of llr vory viscous fluid; in the
cl1se of wrought-iron, or substances of that kind, when thoy 'Wore
Imnched, thero -was the flow of llr solid body. .In tl10 caso of pitch,
llOwovor small the forco applied to it-oven the force of its own weight
nIono, or cven n portion of that weight-it slowly and gradually
changed its form, and would chango it to any amount. In tho caso. of~'
; ,
iron, if a small forco wero applied to it, ho,,,ovcr long it waB applied,
h no sensiblo permanent, change of fo~m was effected; but when tho
foreo reached. a certain definite amonnt a. change took plneo 'Vory
.:~.
, '
rn.pid1y. On that point ho desired to havo some J;Ilo~o light.
, Experiments might easily be trio(l to show the difference between a
.1 '
very viscous fluid nnd a. solid body. In tho case of Il. piece of sea.ling-
·t wax supported in Cl. horizontnl position at its two ends, if it were loft
,I in thllt position for a. fow minutes only no change of form was
I
!' perceived; but if loft for a week it would give way to n. considerable
oxt-ent, and 'Would be seon to be bent.
Then thero WitS another point in connection with the -distinction
between viscous solids and viscous fluids, and with the flow of solids,
in the case whero tho f~rce applied was exceedingly small. -His
menning might be best illustrated by nsimpIe experiment that
cou.1u'bo tried'with IL fibro of glass, or wire, or india-rubber•. If for
examplo IL fibro of glass were twisted for n time and then released, it
diel not return at onco to its unstrainecl position, hut would remain
twisteu in tho direction in which the torsion WIlS applied. As timo
ll[l.sscd after tho stress had been rclcnscd, tho .outstanding strain
grmlually ~ecrcnsed, and after a. sufficient time the fibre, returned to
its original position•. Again, suppose a glass fibre were kept twisted
for one hour in one direction, and then kept c'lulllly twisted for ten
minntes in the opposite direction, it 'Would bo found that when it was
released it returned nenrly to its position of no strain, but tha.t there I:
was still Il. small outstanding twist in tho direct~on of the stress bat
npplio<1. Thn.t twist became zero, passed through zoro, Rnd would
n.ppearin tho direction' of tho first applied stress, which had been
,
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 Ju:m 18i8.
,f such substances n5
flo\v orice. He di<l
ly tho snmo kind of
neblB. In tho flow
iiscous fluid; in tho
I solid which suffered deformation' undor very smnIl stresses. This
ld, ",ben they were :1
,
:,
:n tho. cnsa of pitch,
rceofits own weight
lowlynnd grndunlly
mnt. .In tho cllsoof~\
l . _Mr. l. LOWTDIAN BELL said that, with regnrd to the question of
. long it was appliccl,
:cted; but when tho
19O •took placo very
I some J:lloro light.
differenco between a
of R picco of sealing-
) ends,ir it were left
:hango of form wa.s
my to a considerablo
with the distinction
:h thoflow of solids,
cclingly small. "His
lploexperim:ent that
india-rubber. , If for
and then released, it
1, but would remain
lSllpplicd. As timo
)j)utsbnding str~in
the· fibro ,returned to
Iro were kept t"isted
,uo.llytwisted for ton
uncI thnt when it was
strain, but that there
ton of tho stress last
Ighzcro, and would
:ess, which had been
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JUSE 18i8. FLOW OF SOLIDS. 337
npplicJ. for a longer time thnn tho second; would nttnin a mn:s::imtim,
then decroase, nnd finally bccomo zero. The subject of the tempornry
floW' of solids ho.d beon investigo.ted - by Boltzmann and others;
BoItzmann pointed out tha.t a viscous fluid might bo compared to a
deformation was tho outsto.nding e:ffect of which he had been speaking,
and tho fl'iction of fluids might thus be included under thc snmo
theory as tho viscosity of solic1s,
the crystalline structure of iron, he believed ho ha(l himself expressed
what to Mr. Paget appeal'cd to ba lJ. somewhat hcterodo:s:: opinion; :md
he would therefore ask the President's permission to explain his
:meaning. Ho was quite sure that tho meeting) after hco.ring of t110
power possessed by po.rti?les of solid matter to 'move among
themsolves, could not doubt that such part.icles of matter in a state of
greater comparative mobility would also possess the power of moving
among themselves. Ho appreh~nded that that was precisely 'What took
place when a bar of iron was hcated; the molecules of matter had tllCl'O
tho power of moving among themselves, nnd tho result of that motion
was tho determination of the crystalline ~orm of various kinds of matter.
In his opinion, when a bar was left t~ cool after-coming from tho mill,
tho matter arranged itself in a crysialline form; which no doubt, on
the face of it, might .~ppenr to be inconsistcnt~ith tho fact that when
iron was broken in tho ordinary way, by boing nicked on ono side amI
bont over, it was fibrous and not crystalline. Hc would first sa.y that
tho more impure, the material, or tho more compound in chnro.ctor, the
moro easily was it in genernl nft"cctcd by heat; thus they wero
prepared, in consequence of that law, to expect that the lcss puro tlie
iron was, tha more ·mobile must be its particles among themselves;
and it was invariably found that impure and therefore bad iron wns
composed of much larger crystoJs than the purer and be~tor kinds of
iron. Those crysto.ls in the impure iron might ba so .largo ::md so
wanting in ductility that no attempt to produce n fibrous fracture was
possiblc:, from the simple circumstanco that tho planes of the different
crystals separated from each' other, rnther thllon permit nny approach
,I ,),
f j
.I \
/ J
~I,..--.-_
 ;
I
I
r 888 FLOW OF SOLI .. JIJ~E 1878.
I
1 to ductility j but when (l. good bar of iro~ w~s treated in tho same way,
i
iI the crystals beinO' sJ]lo.ller aml mOJ;e l·ogu1u.l', worenll drnwn out in tho
I '0 - r
j.,
direction of the fmcture. In thnt way, 110 apprehonded, was procluced
,
tho fracture known as fibrous fracturo; and. ho was led to that
" conclusion from the. fact thnt if they took.R bar of iron, whicll when
I broken in tho way just described was quite fibrous, llnd nicked it nll
round nnd broke it with a sharp blow, it gave a perfectly crysta.llino
;
fmcture; ho therefore infe,rrcd. that the erystallino condition ,,"as tho
normal condition of such Rbar.
With regard to the o~scrvntion_ of Mr. Price Willinms, ho might
remark that when he WnB in the United States ho saw tho opemtion
i'
I. of cold.-rolling; nnd~ Il.S nn iron m:mufacturer, ho was nnxious to
ascertain whether nn iron rail might not. be - so treated as to
approach in quli.lity to llo rail of steel. Accordingly somo rails were
prepared from a solid bloom of iron mndo in the Danks furnace; they.
I
I,
woro rolled from tho bloom in tho ordillluy 'Wo.y, and then wore
I
1
I subjected. to a process of cold.-rolling and compression to an extent
1
I' which drew out (l, 24-ft. l'llil into 1.\ length of 24 ft. 6 in. The rails
I' wero tried, but the result was unsatisfactory. They had on the
North Eastern Hailwl\Y a curve, -yiz. that approaching tho High Level
Bridgo nt Nowcnstle, of which tho radius was about 300 feet, nnel
which was considered 1.\ crucial test for rails. In recent yenrs thero
had. been no iron rail which when placecl on that curvo had not
shown distinct signs of giving way within twelve or fourteen dnys;
jl but they had. had steel rails thero which had. lasted almost ns many
years ns tho bost iron rails had. lasted days. He mentioned this to
show· that tho idea which had struck Mr. Price WilIjams hRd not
escnped notieG; but unfortunately it was onc from which, so fnr as iron
.wa.s concerned, tht:y -had derived. no benofit.

M. TnEsoA, in replying to the various remarks which had boon

made upon the subject of. tho paper, said that, in referenco to tho
observations of· Professor B1akf?' he believed. the flow of solids was
ono of the most important questions to be considered np the present
timo in connection
"
with geology; nnd although. he Icould ·not himself·
tr~(\t it from tho samo point of view ns his friend. M. Da,ubl'ee, ho

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J['XE 18i8.
d in tho snmo way,
11 drnwn out in tho
lded, wns produced
() was led. to that
. iron;whicll when
, and nicked it nU
3rfectly crystallino
condition was tho '-
iVillinms, ho might
I saw the operation
10 was anxious to
so heated as to
:1y some mils wero
mks furnace; they
Ly, .and then .wero
ssion to an extent
:t. 6 in. The roils
They had on the
rig the High Level
lout 300 feet, and
recent years' thero
hat curvo had' not
or foUrteen £1o.ys;
d almost as many
mentio.ned this to
Will~ams had not
Thich, sofaI' as iron
rn which hn.d been
n roforenco to tho
flow of solids was
)red. n~ the present
,coulcl not himself,
o.d M. Do.ubl'ee, he
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\
\
JUXE 1878. 339
hopec1 to be able nevertheless t give spmo satisfnction in this respect
to Professor Blnkc." In the mll. ufnct~ro of earthenwaro drain-pipes
tho clay had to pass through n. c"rcu1a.r mould, within which it was
compellecl to flow ,in n given direction; and, the clay not being'
homogeneous, the difference of colo~r in the various layers after
burning in the kiln showea the laminatecl structuxo impressed upon
tho mnterial of the pipes. The snme result was observed at tho
Commentry collieries, whero the sehists, becoming variously coloured
by afire in tho mine, showed ribbon·like layers, alternntely red,
yellow, amI black, indica.ting very clearly the plllited texture common
to tho whole mntcrinl, Tho most interesting and characteristic'
~ .
oxperimeni that could be mado upon this point was by tnking 'a mass
ofc1ny, and mixing in it as intimately as possible n. quantity of small
flakes or scales of mica, so that thes~ should be thoroughly distributed
. throughout tho mass and in all directions. If tho mass were then
subjected to pressuro in any direction, say vertically, it 'Was found.
that the least amount of compression was sufficient to cause all the
mica flakes to arrange themselves horizontally, for the very simplo
reason that the solid material· had to flow out horizontally in all
directions; consequently, the mic~ flnkes being of small size, tho
smallest. hor~zontal displacement caused them nIl to arrango themselves
in the samo direction, and the mass of clay was ~hus converted
into a mass of micaceous schist, which could then be subjected to
burning in a kiln.
In the course. of somo l'ccent experiments mado at the I'cquest of
M. Danbree upon blocks of solid mn.torial, he hncl reproduced the
well-known phenomenon of Faults, which in geological formations
were met with most fl'equontly in t~o directions at right angles to
each other, l1Jld whieh were capable of ea.sy explanation from a.
consiclerntion of the properties of tho material and tho mechanical
conditions attending tho phenomena of sliding. Thus, if a block of
solid material A in the skotch, Fig. 58, Plate 46, wero subjected to
pressuxc between the two equal and opposito suxfaces B n., which
however c~uld alter their positions so as to becomo slightly out
of line, the upper portion of tho block would begin to slide upon the
lower along the suxface of an inclined fissure 0, 80S soon as eyer the
l,
j.
i·
i
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r
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34.0 FLOW OF SOLIDS. \. JUSE 1878.

force of compression was sufficicnt to overcome tho friction nmong

the molecules of the mllss. At the flame time' along t~e l?ourso of t110
:fissuro small 'transverse striro showed themsclves, at right anglcs te:
I
"
tho lirie of tllO fissura itself. The sliding of the two portions of tho
material upon encll ot~ler thus reproduced tho faults observed on a
large scalo in geologicll.l formntions.
Tho formntion of glaciers Imd been nlluded to by Professor Dlllko
as properly dependent upon the flow of solids; and in the glaciers of
the Alps ho ~ltd in" reality found moro than ono cnso of closo
cOFrospomlence with his first m:p~riments on the subject. Ico
was n plastio material, which it was known could bo moulded'in
all ~dnds of ways. Thus if a block composed of four Equaro
pllltes of ice, placed ono above another, woro subjected to prcssuro
in '(I, .closely fitting box, having fI, smllllllpcrture in tho bottom,
a jet of ico would bo formed issuing throughtho aperture,
as shown in Fig. 57, Plato 4G, in which tho successivo plates
aro indicated by the' numbers 1,. 2, 3, 4. In consequenco of tho
pressure on these several plates; which were not frozen together into
ono mass, rifts wero found nlong tho lines of division, as at D D,
which wero of exactly tllO samo nature ns tho great central erovnsses
whicll occurred in g1:tciers. Moreover, on issuing from tho orifico
through which it WIlS forced, the ice in tho jet, being then relieved from
the severe pressure to which it had previously been subjected,
underwent in consequence of its plastio nature (I, sort of opening out
or expn.nsion, which gnve rise to transverse fissures in tho mass,
precisely represcntingtho bternl' crovnsses met with in glaciers.
Theso phenomena he considered wero nmoDg the que~tiori~ which"
might be investigated upon. the basis of tho flow of solids. Thero
: seemed to him moreover to bo no ground for surprise at the
deformations thus produced j in a glncier 300 ., it: thick, for instance,.
..

the pressure towards the bottom must be 'Vory consid~n'nble, nnd the
ico in that.region would casily bo brough't' into that stato of plasticity.
which hlld been the subject of his own researches.
Plasticity indeed he considered WIlS. purely n l'olative term;
and if it ,'tero possiblo to encloso a vitreous mnterilll' within n
more malleablo substance, ,excrting considerablo pressure upon it

~-----------------""':.I""="'-~--".-.--."!"
.. - -.... :;-.---'--~--
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 JU:liE 18i8. JU~E 18i8. FLOW OF SOLIDS.. 341

tho friction nmong in every direction, he thought thnt, glnss,' for instnncc, might
Ig t~o /?ourso of tho, without breaking sustain in tlle course of time great modifications of
nt rigllt angles to form. In his opinion vitreous and brittle substances werc only so,
two .portions of tho I'cIa-tively to tIle medium in which they were placed. Glass was .
mUS obsorved on:1 brittle at atmosphel'ic pressure; but uuder 0. pressure of a hundred
atmospheres there was nothing to show that there might not' bo
by Professor Blako l'OlRtivo movement among its particles, which might cause it to be no
d. in tho glncicrs of longer brittle in any sense, so long as it was supported on all sides.
ono caso of closo Simila.rly other substances might Imve entirely d.ifferent physicnl
tho . subject. Ico l)ropcl'ties~ if they 'were transported. into another medium nnd
lId. bo moulded.· in thero subjected to pressure sufficient to modify their shape.
,
~d of fOUf EquIne Hc agreed with :Mr. Bell that tho lines which WCl'e brought out by I

bjectcd to pressure oxidation in the various sections ofiron exhibited wel'O not to be refened i
rein the bottom, exclusively to the presence .of silica. This was fully demonstrated
19h • tho ll.pCl'turc, by tho specimen sho","11 of iron made from 0. pile built up of ,,-irci5; ;~
successivo plates for it contained only a small proportion of silica, and yet presented
~onscqucneo of tho marked linos~· showing that very slightly silicntc(l oxides of iron
'rOzen together into could, quite ns well as tho silicates themselves, cnter into tho'
, '

,vis.ion, as at DD, composition' of the pile, Md. give rise to phenomena of the same
It ccntral crevasses naturo in the finished .iron. ' Iron might the~efo.ro be considered.
nnc from the orifico,
impuro when it c~ntained 11 certain quantity of either oxide' or
, then relieved from silicate.
yiboen subjectell, In regard to the question whether cold hammering or cold rolling
;ort of opening out might bo attended with any advantage in the improvement of the
;ures in tho mass, quality of iron, he thought nny' defccts in such a process could bo n.
i with in glaciers. matter of- degree only. Iron could undoubtedly be irnpro,,"e(l by
loque~tion~ ,wbich ccrtain treatment when cold, but this treatment must not be carried
v of solids. Thero too fnr, otherwise the properties of tho iron would be changed; this I
>rsurprise at the appeared. from the e:s:periments made at Hoboken, which however :,
fo~ the most p(l,rt extended only to tho surface of tho· piecos I
thick, for instancD! , I
,I

,nsid9rab1c, and. the operated upon. The change pl'oauced in iron by cold rolling 01' cold . I;
,

,t'stato of plasticity, hammoring depended upon the' special conditions of the operation;
in hammering, the nction upon the metal might bo ,,"cry different, j,
according to the weight of the hammcl', ns was illustmte(l by trials ho ",
'n relative term;
material .within n had m~do in hnnimoring cylindrical blocks of lena, mado -up of 0.
I pressure upon it
number of concentric shells, ns shown in Figs. 59 to 61, Plato 46~
2 F

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 . ;.

OF SOLIDS . JUXE 18i8.

3-12 FLOW

'With light blows of tho hammer, the aotion was confinecl..to tl10 surfaco
of the block, which alone became elongated, the outside byoI' most,

I
I,
amI tllO i~ner laycrs less and less, as shown in Fig. 61, whilQ tho solid
coro was alterccl least of all, its length being hnrc1iycbnnged at all;
hence light blows prod~ccd only surfaco displacement, and therefore
modified tho texturo' of tho mqtnl at' ~ho surface only. Ori' tho
I
contrary, with hell.vy blows 01' high velocity, giving 0. force capable of
,I penetrating fo the contro of tho mnss, each blow dcformc<l anel
! !"~ olongllte<1 tho metn.l' throughout tho whole of its thickness, ns in Fig.
59.. Just as steel' Bp-ould not in his' opinion be substituted for iron
"

undel' all circumstances, so too ho thought tho cold forging of iron

8hou1<1 not be carried so far as to modify the I:ll0tnl to too groat ll. depth.
'I'

On this point 1-0fOl'Onco ,might ba made to the works of Profcssol'

Thurston, which indioa~cd the limits beyond which thoro was fear of
the iron boing dctol'ioInted.
Upon the subject of the fibrous or crysto.llino structure of iron, ho
would venture to oxpress his own opinion in the following form. Tho
atructure of wrought iron was generally fibrous; it was only when
tho iron had not been made uncler suitable conditions that it appeared
gmnulnr or crystalline in its frflCtured section. But, if it was possible
I , by forging to transform crystalline into fibrous iron, he did not think
it was correct to say, 0.8 was often stated, that after being in use fOl' ll.
1 certain lcngth of time the fibrous h'on might pass intp' tho stato of
I
I
'
crystallino iron; at any rate, if in certain cases fibrous iron had boen
I obser,ed to havc become crystallinc, he believcd no sufficient distinction
had been drnwn between the granular appearance resulting from such
. n cllango in the hon Ilndthitt which resultc(lfrom theirorihavingbeen
originally in the crystnllisccl sto.to. The grn.nulnr appearnnco was, ho
bolicvecl, susc~ptible of explanntion, ",ithout having recourso to tho
ideo. of the iron becoming crystallised while cold. In illustration of
his view he woulcldl'n.\V o.ttontion to 0. specimen exhibited' of a
wrought-iron shaft, which had broken o.£tel" being in uso for 0.
considerablo length of time; o.lthough ol'iginally fibrous iron of
excollout quality, it appeared to havo been transformed throughout
tho whole of tho fractured section into crystallino iron' with lingo
',facets. In his opinion these wero facots produced by sliding. Tho

ibrarv - "The world's knowledge"

 •,
.I
I
JIDfE 18i8.
ineo...to tb 0 surface
utsWo In.yel' most,
61, while tbo solid \ Umler ono of these torsional strains it might be imagine{l tlmt some
iy changed lltfl,ll ;
lOnt, nno. therefore I ono of the fibres was (lisplnced relativ ely to tho adjacent fibro;
o only. Ori' the 'I
i
. [l, forco capable of
low doformccl and
tickness, !lS in Fig~
JLstituted for iron
Ld forging of iron
to too grent l.l depth.
i""ol'ks of Profossor
:h thero was fear of
truotU1'O of iron, he
.uowing form. Tho
it was only when
)Us thl1t it appeared
;t; if it'was possible
>D, ho did not think
,1' being in usc fO,r a
ss'int!)' tho stato of
;)1'OU8 iron had been
I Steel thnt had boen subjected to compression' presented a character
sufficient distinction
l'osulting from such
tho ir~ri hu.ving beon
appearanco was, he
ing rccourso to tho
I11
• In illustr ation of
nencx hibite d' of a
Icin"
1::1
in usc for a
11y fibl'bUS iron of
.sformed throughout
.ino iron' with largo
eo' by slidiug. The
Supplied by The British Library - "
FLOW OF SOLIDS. 34.3
shaft.hnd not been strong enough to preven t its 'having to underg
o
torsion', to It dangerous extent in opposito directions altornntely.
slight ,rubbing of the ono agains t the other woul{1 be produced, which
a
would be followe(l by a series of further successivo rubbin gs; thatso
, tho apparent granulo.r surface wns l'cally only the obliteration pf the
fibres that had been cI'ushed in these successive rubbin gs; nnd the
.fiat places thus caused must therefore not be confoundcc1 'with the
crystallisation 'occurring in burnt iron or in iron of some' specia i
l I
kinds. No amount of work put into wrought iron while col{1 could in "
his opinion modify its structu re to 'such an extent as wns often
supposed. .
'The information given by Mr. Prico WiIlia.ms was of t~o greatest
interest, nnd he owed him his sincore thanks 'for having thus verifie
d
some of the results previously annouuced by ;himself. Tho piece of
rail brough t by him,h o had had oxidised in the same wa.y as tho rest
of tho wrought.iron specimens emibi ted; and it was interesting to
not~ how clearly it coul(1 be seen to be steel and not iron,· inasmu
ch
a.s no Ifnes wero brough t out by the oxidation, such as there
would
be in nn iron rail corresponding to tho origin n.llaye rs of the pile.
altogether peculi ar; tllO minute cavities in 'the .~rigin!l.l ingot wero
closed up under the hammer, but without their walls being weldec1
togeth er; consequently when a seotion of tho steel was o:ridiscd aftcl'
hammering, a mu~titude of tiny streaks woro brough t to light, whieh
wero all that was 10ft of the cavities 'that had existed in tho metal
before hammering. The nrrangement ·of these short streaks showe
how the molecules hu{l been displaced, and how the rail hncl passed
d
from its original into its final shape. . '! I
I
In l'eforonoo to the qucstion of Dr. Hopldnson, thoro was no doubt
that time was ono of the most impor tant elements in all the change
iI;I
s
of form proclucod in solid substances; and that tho snmo res'ttlts were
not ob.tained when nn operation was performed rn!lidly, as when 11: -.
slowly. Tho same ,wns proved, .bY" what might bo termod moral .i\
: I
evidence) in the fact that to produco a ohange of form a certain amoun I'
t. ., i,
2 .Ii' 2 I'
I'
i
" I
: I
I
,
. I
, I
i '-
 FLOW OF SOLIDS. JUSE 18i8.
844

of work must be c:!pendod; and that this work was dono under
I; entire ly different circumstances, RCcor~ing as it WIlS performed slowly
!, i,
I

or quickly.
"l j
Mr. Price Williams had enquired whether tho development of
;1 llC~t observed in forging under the bammer, as described
in the paper,
11
I, w~rk were done
:1 would occur to exaotly the samo extent if the same
:1 by s9,ueezing. There could. be no doubt that that would. be the cllse,
,I :'!
I !i in so far ns the hoat developed rOPfosente(l the work expended; but
; j
1
if tbe operation was performed. slowly, the het1.t developed was
I immediately dissipa.ted and. was no longer perceptible. Being lost
as aoon as _developed, its connection with the phenomena of
,I
f
"
i!
deformation was no longer the same under the press aa under, the
"

,4,ammer; and ho was consequently not prepared. to admit that

a
deformation occupying a. considera.ble length of time for its production
" . would necessarily be identical with one produced by a sudden blow,
In
. althou gh tho SRme amount of work was expended'in both cases.
l
this' way m::my different results might be a.rrived at, even specia
deformations such as those of the ragged tulip-l ike edges presented
by the hole of an armour plate which had been pierced by a shot;
thoso, in spito of their general resemblanco, were far from attaining
the regula rity of the tulip-sho.ped je~ formed by the slow compression
of a diso of lead.
In fine, inaU operations intended. to bring a. mass from one shapo
into another, it was requisito tha.t the necessary meehnnical work C
should boproporly e:x:pencled, tnking complete acconnt oftho resistr.mces J
of friction and. of the modo in which the pressures were trnnsmitted
throughout thomass; so that the action might take effeet at nU the points
where defom ation was desired. The different kinds of tools met with
l
insue h variety in ·ongineering shops had. each of them somo specia
I11' •::

I ~
specia l
·! shape, which urique stiona bly bore a direct reference to the
i
Dl1turO of tho work to bo dono; ono hammol', for instance, wna mado
.i
1
with a smaller faco. than another. Thoti mowo uld come when all
·I these shBpl}s would bo recognised as not bei;ng due to fancy; and their
oxplana.tion would be found. in tho special conditions necessary to be
complied with for the purposes they ,,"ero intended to fulfil.
·I
:I
I
I
I
:

., .: ----'
.-
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The British Library - "The world's knowledge"

 11

,I';
i'

JU~E 1878: JU:li'E 1878. FLOW OF SOLIDS.

345
~ was done under Tho PBESIDENT proposed a vote of thanks to M. Trcsca for his
s performed slowly valuable and interesting paper, which was pnssed by' acclamation.

ho development of
;eribed in the paper,
no w~rk wero done
~ would. bo the cnse,
rork expended; but
ea.t developed. was
ptible. Deing lost
the phenomena. of
press as under, tho
}d to admit that a The Meeting wo.s then adjourned to the following day.
0.0 for its production
d. by 0. sudden bIo,!,
d'in both,roses. In
red. at, eve~ special
.iko cdges presented
pierced by 0. sllOt;
'0 far from attaining
•
I' ,.
he slow compression 11

mass from ono shapo

1 iI
.i i
,ry mcehani~al work The Adjourned Meeting of the Institution wag held at the ,I
"
lUnt of the resistallces Oonservntoire des Arts ot M6ticl's, on WecInesday, 12th June, 1878; i I
J OIIN lloBI.NSON, Esq.,' Prosident, in tho Chair. :, I
trOS wero trausmitted ,; I
"

,effect (l,t 0.11 the points ;,

The following papor was read :_

[nds of tools met with
)f them some specjnl
:lrence to tho special
Ir instanco, was mado
wouid como when nIl "
;
110 to fnney; and their i:
.itions necessary to be
led to fulfil.

J
... _ ••• I

..

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