Module 11.1 - B1 - Rev 00 PDF

Module 11 – AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 11.1 – THEORY OF FLIGHT
MODULE 11
SUB MODULE 11.1
THEORY OF FLIGHT
Rev. 00 11.1
Oct 2006 For Training Purposes Only
Table of contents Page Table of contents Page
11.1.1 Aeoroplane Aerodynamics and Flight Controls Slots and Slats ............................................................................ 34
Introduction…………………………………………………………….. 4 Operation of High Lift Devices .................................................... 38
Control of an AIRPLANE……………………………………………... 6 Spoilers ....................................................................................... 40
Fixed airfoils…………………………………………………………… 8 Trim Tabs.................................................................................... 42
Horizontal Stabilizers .................................................................... 8 Fixed Trim Tabs .......................................................................... 42
Vertical Fins .................................................................................. 8 Servo Tabs.................................................................................. 44
Canard aircraft ............................................................................ 10 Balance Tabs .............................................................................. 44
movable flight controls 12 Spring Tabs................................................................................. 44
Primary flight controls ................................................................. 12 Unconventional Controls ............................................................. 46
Ailerons....................................................................................... 12 Control Surface Balancing .......................................................... 48
Adverse yaw ............................................................................... 14 Aerodynamic Balancing .............................................................. 48
aileron reversal ........................................................................... 16 Static Balance of Control Surfaces.............................................. 54
Rudders ...................................................................................... 18 Conditions Leading to a Stall ...................................................... 56
Elevators..................................................................................... 20 Stall Warning............................................................................... 56
Secondary Flight Controls (Airflow Control Devices) .................. 24 Wing Tip Stall .............................................................................. 58
High Lift Devices………………………………………………. 28 Effect of Wing Design on Stall..................................................... 60
Flaps........................................................................................... 28 Laminar Flow Control .................................................................. 62
Leading-Edge Flaps.................................................................... 32
Rev. 00 i
11.1
Forward-Swept Wing .................................................................. 66 Critical mach number .................................................................. 98

Flying Wing ................................................................................. 68 Compressibility mach number ..................................................... 98
Shockwave development in transonic flight .............................. 100
11.1.2 High Speed Aerodynamics Force divergence ...................................................................... 102
Introduction……………………………………………………………72 Wave or pressure drag.............................................................. 102
Nature of compressibility ............................................................ 72 The shock stall .......................................................................... 104
Air pressure ................................................................................ 72 Tuck under ................................................................................ 106
Speed of sound........................................................................... 74 Mach trim .................................................................................. 108
Variation of speed of sound ........................................................ 76 Compressibility buffet................................................................ 108
Mach number.............................................................................. 76 Sonic boom ............................................................................... 110
High speed regimes.................................................................... 78 Transonic and supersonic configurations.................................. 112
Supersonic flow inside a closed tube.......................................... 80 Vortex generators...................................................................... 114
Typical supersonic flow patterns................................................. 82 Airfoil sections ........................................................................... 116
Oblique shock w ave................................................................... 86 Bi-convex aerofoil...................................................................... 120
Normal shock wave .................................................................... 86 Supercritical wing ...................................................................... 120
Normal shock wave .................................................................... 88 Sweepback ............................................................................... 122
Expansion w ave......................................................................... 90 Effect of aspect ratio ................................................................. 132
Sections in supersonic flow ........................................................ 92 Supersonic wing shapes - plan form ......................................... 134
Rev. 00 ii
11.1
Control surfaces........................................................................ 138 Lateral, rolling, and vertical axes control ................................... 172
Aeroelastic effects .................................................................... 140 Control system .......................................................................... 172
Aileron reversal......................................................................... 142 Collective pitch system.............................................................. 174
Flutter ....................................................................................... 144 Cyclic control system ................................................................ 176
Divergence ............................................................................... 146 Take-off and climb..................................................................... 178
Area rule ................................................................................... 148 Ground effect ............................................................................ 178
Configurations summary........................................................... 150 Tail rotor translating tendency ................................................... 180
Supersonic engine inlets........................................................... 152 Fuselage heading...................................................................... 182
Ram jet ..................................................................................... 156 Translational lift ......................................................................... 184
Aerodynamic heating ................................................................ 158 Gyroscopic precession.............................................................. 186
Helicopters 160 Auto-rotation ............................................................................. 188
General..................................................................................... 160
Rotor system............................................................................. 164
Axis system .............................................................................. 166
Rotor disc area ......................................................................... 168
Tip path plane ........................................................................... 168
Thrust ....................................................................................... 168
Lift ........................................................................................... 170
Rev. 00 iii
11.1
“The training notes and diagrams are

compiled by SriLankan Technical Training
and although comprehensive in detail, they
are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up
to date as possible, and amendments to the
training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued”.
Rev. 00 1
11.1
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Rev. 00 2
11.1
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 11.1.1 – AEOROPLANE AEORODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS
MODULE 11
SUB MODULE 11.1.1
AEOROPLANE AEORODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS
Rev. 00 3
11.1
The primary control surfaces are used to "steer" the airplane in

INTRODUCTION flight to make it go where the pilot wishes it to go and to cause it
to execute certain maneuvers. The secondary control surfaces
An airplane is equipped with certain fixed and movable surfaces, are used to change the lift and drag characteristics of the aircraft
or airfoils, which provide for stability and control during flight. or to assist the primary controls.
These are illustrated in Figures a and b. Each of the named
airfoils is designed to perform a specific function in the flight of Large turbine aircraft, gliders, and some other types of aircraft
the airplane. are equipped with lift-control devices called spoilers (see Figure
b), which may be used as or assist the primary roll control.
FIXED AIRFOILS
The fixed airfoils are the wings, the horizontal stabilizer, and the
vertical stabilizer (fin). The function of the wings has been
previously discussed. The tail section of the airplane, including
the stabilizers, elevators, and rudder, is commonly called the
empennage.
MOVABLE CONTROL SURFACES
Movable flight control surfaces are divided into two categories;
- Primary flight controls
- Secondary flight controls
The primary control surfaces of an airplane include the ailerons,
elevators, and rudder.
The secondary control surfaces include flaps; trim tabs, spoilers,
and slats. The principles of the operation of flaps and spoilers
are discussed later in this module.
Rev. 00 4
11.1
Fig b
Fig a
Rev. 00 5
11.1
CONTROL OF AN AIRPLANE
Whether an airplane is stable or unstable, it is necessary for the
pilot to be able to control it, so that he can maneuver it into any Forwards and sideways movement of the control column can be
desired position. carried out simultaneously, causing both the nose and the left
wing to be depressed.
- Longitudinal control is provided by the elevators, i.e. airfoils
hinged behind the tail plane. In many modern airplanes the control column can only move in a
fore-and-aft direction, Lateral control being provided by a wheel
- Lateral control is provided by the ailerons, i.e. airfoils hinged similar to the steering wheel of a motorcar mounted on the
at the rear of the airfoils near each wing tip. control column; an anti-clockwise rotation of the wheel will cause
- Directional control is provided by the rudder, i.e. a vertical the left wing to drop.
airfoil hinged to the trailing edge of vertical stabilizer. As an alternative to the wheel there may be some form of
The system of control is the same in each case, i.e. if the control "spectacles," or handle-bars," i.e. a horizontal bar fitted to the top
surface is moved it will, in effect, alter the angle of attack and the of the control column, a hand grip at each end so that it can be
camber of the complete surface to which it is hinged, and tilted to right or left; this is a variation of the wheel system, the
therefore change the force upon it (see Fig). principle being exactly the same.
The control surfaces are connected to controls in the pilot's On some modern airplanes a joystick mounted by the side of the
cockpit. The elevators and ailerons are both moved by a single crew seats has replaced the control column but the response of
column on a universal joint (or by a wheel or handle-bars) and the surfaces to stick movements remain the same.
the rudder by two rudder pedals. In the case of the rudder, if the right foot is pressed forward the
The control is instinctive, i.e. a forward movement of the control rear of the rudder will be moved to the right (called "right rudder")
column depresses the elevators, increases the lift on the tail, and and the airplane turns to the right. .
so causes the nose of the airplane to drop. In each instance it will be noticed that the control surfaces are
If the control column is moved to the left, the right aileron will placed as far as possible away from the center of gravity so as to
depress and right wing will rise at the same time the left aileron provide sufficient leverage to alter the position of the aircraft.
will raise and left wing will lower causing the airplane to bank left.
Rev. 00 6
11.1
Generation of aerodynamic force
Rev. 00 7
11.1
FIXED AIRFOILS VERTICAL FINS

The vertical stabilizer for an airplane is the fixed airfoil section
HORIZONTAL STABILIZERS forward of the rudder and is used to provide directional stability
As has been discussed, the horizontal stabilizer is used to (yaw) for the aircraft, as has been previously discussed. This unit
provide longitudinal pitch stability and is usually attached to the is commonly called the fin.
aft portion of the fuselage. It may be located either above or A problem encountered on single-engine airplanes where the
below the vertical stabilizer or at some midpoint of the stabilizer. propeller is at the front of the aircraft is that as the propeller turns
Conventional tails (horizontal stabilizers) are placed aft of the clockwise, a rotating flow of air is moved rearward (see Figure
wing and set at a slight negative angle with respect to the wing b), striking the left side of the fin and rudder, which results in a
chord line. This configuration gives a downward lift force on the left-yawing moment.
tail, as shown in Figure a.
To counteract this effect, many airplanes have the leading edge
The down-lift force is dependent on the size of stabilizer and the of the vertical fin offset slightly to the left, thereby allowing the
distance aft that it is placed from the C.G.. The horizontal slipstream to pass evenly around it.
stabilizer may be designed as a fixed surface attached to the tail
or as a movable surface used to trim the aircraft or provide pitch
control.
Rev. 00 8
11.1
Fig a
Fig b
Rev. 00 9
11.1
CANARD AIRCRAFT This is achieved by having the center of gravity well ahead of the
aft wing. The aft wing pitching moment also adds to the
The earliest powered aircraft, such as the Wright Flyer (see
foreplane load.
Figure a), had horizontal surfaces located ahead of the wings.
This configuration, also on the Beech Starship (Figure b), which In a well-designed canard, the forward wing must always stall at
has two lifting surfaces, with the forward airfoil being called a a lower angle of attack than the aft wing. If the aft wing were to
canard, is an appealing way to assist in carrying some of the stall first, the aircraft would pitch up, deepening the stall. With
airplane weight to reduce drag and increase cruising speed. the canard stalling at a lower angle, the aircraft could be flown
with the canard alternately stalling and unstalling, the nose
Conventional airplane designs that have tail surfaces located
bobbing up and down gently in a porpoising mode. The CG
behind the wing use the horizontal tail to balance the wing
location in a canard-equipped aircraft is very critical, with the
pitching moment. This means a down load on the tail, as
requirement being that the CG always be located between the
previously discussed, and requires an increase in the lift
canard and the main wing.
coefficient to support the added wing load. Since wing drag
increases with wing lift, a climb-and-cruise penalty is paid for the
stability offered by an aft-Iocated horizontal tail.
With the horizontal stabilizer being mounted forward, a nose-up
balancing moment is provided by an upward-Iifting force on the
canard. The canard airplane has no stabilizing down loads
because the canard, being mounted forward, shares the lifting
loads with the wing. This lift adds to the wings' lift and results in
a higher LID ratio for the airplane.
The canard design, with both surfaces providing lift, makes the
aircraft somewhat unstable. This instability is referred to as
relaxed static stability. The forward wing (canard) lifts a greater
share of the total weight per square foot of wing area (i.e., it has
a heavier wing loading) than the aft wing.
Rev. 00 10
11.1
Fig. a
Fig. b
Rev. 00 11
11.1
MOVABLE FLIGHT CONTROLS

The ailerons are moved by means of a control wheel or stick in
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS the cockpit. If a pilot wants to roll the airplane to the right, he or
AILERONS she turns the wheel or stick to the right. After the desired degree
of bank is obtained, the wheel is returned to neutral to stop the
The ailerons are the primary flight control surfaces used to roll. During normal turns of an airplane, the movement of the
provide lateral (roll) control of the aircraft; that is; they control ailerons is coordinated with movements of the rudder and
aircraft movement about the longitudinal axis. They are usually elevators to provide a banked horizontal turn without "slip' or
mounted on the trailing edge of the wing near the tip, as was "skid."
shown in Figure. They are rigged so that when one is moving
upward on one wing, the other is moving downward on the - A slip, or sideslip, is a movement of an airplane partially
opposite wing. This movement changes the camber of the sideways. In a turn, the slip is downward and inward toward
respective wings, with the down-ward-moving aileron increasing the turn.
the camber and lift, and the upward-moving aileron decreasing - A skid in a turn is a movement of the airplane sideways and
the camber and lift. outward from the turn.
Since the ailerons are located outboard of the roll axis, this
change in camber will result in a rolling motion. This action is
illustrated in Figure.
Large turbine aircraft often employ two sets of ailerons, one set
being approximately midwing or immediately outboard of the
inboard flaps, and the other set being in the conventional
location near the wingtips, as is shown in Figure b. The outboard
ailerons become active whenever the flaps are extended beyond
a fixed setting (at low speeds). As the flaps are retracted, the
outboard aileron control system is "locked out" and flairs with the
basic wing shape. Thus, during cruise flight at comparatively
high speeds, only the inboard ailerons are used for control. The
outboard ailerons are active during landings and other slow-flight
operations. This is primarily to reduce wing-bending moments.
Rev. 00 12
11.1
Fig. a
Fig. b
Rev. 00 13
11.1
ADVERSE YAW OTHER WAYS OF OVERCOMING ADVERSE YAW ARE;

Aileron control in an airplane is complicated somewhat by an “Frise," or other specially shaped ailerons (Fig b). This is a
effect called adverse yaw. An aileron that moves down at the patented device, the idea being so to shape the aileron that
trailing edge of a wing creates considerably more drag than the when it is moved downwards the complete top surface of the
aileron on the opposite wing that moves upward the same main plane and the aileron will have a smooth, uninterrupted
amount. Also due to the induced turn the downgoing wing will contour causing very little drag, but when it is moved upwards
have a lesser speed than that of the upgoing wing increasing the the aileron, which is of the balanced variety, will project below
drag on the upgoing wing. Therefore, if the ailerons were rigged the bottom surface of the main plane and cause excessive drag.
to move the same distance in response to the movement of the
This method has the great advantage of being simple, and it
cockpit control, the drag of the downward moving aileron would
undoubtedly serves to decrease the adverse yawing effect of the
cause the airplane to turn toward the side on which the
ailerons, and therefore it is often used.
downward-moving aileron is located.
Spoiler control (Fig c). Spoilers are long narrow plates fitted on
Thus, a pilot wishing to make a left turn would move the control
the upper or lower surfaces of a wing, or both, sometimes near
to the left, causing the right aileron to move downward, but the
to the leading edge, sometimes in front of the ailerons. In the
drag caused by the aileron would cause the airplane to turn to
ordinary way they lie flush with the surface, or even inside it, and
the right, except for strong rudder control.
have no effect on the performance of the aerofoil, but they can
To overcome adverse yaw, the ailerons of an airplane are rigged be connected to the aileron controls in such a way that when an
for differential movement. The differential control causes the up- aileron is moved up beyond a certain angle the spoiler is raised
moving aileron to move a greater distance than the down-moving at right angles to the airflow, or comes up through a slit, causing
aileron. The amount of differential is sufficient to balance the turbulence, decrease in lift and increase in drag. This, means
drag between the ailerons, thus eliminating the yaw effect. that the wing on which the aileron goes down gets more lift, and
very little extra drag, while on the other wing the lift is 'spoilt" and
the drag greatly increased. Thus we have a large rolling effect in
the right direction combined with a yawing effect, also in the right
direction.
Rev. 00 14
11.1
Fig. c
Fig. a
Fig. b
Rev. 00 15
11.1
This is what we aimed at, and there is the further advantage that AILERON REVERSAL
the mechanical operation of the spoiler is easy, since the forces
Refer figure on page 15
acting upon it are small. This method of control feels strange to
the pilot who is unaccustomed to it because the loss of lift If we want to increase lift on one wing in order to roll the aircraft
caused by the spoiler will result in a decided drop of that wing, we deflect the aileron down on the wing we want raised. But as
which may be alarming when near the ground. But any such the wing C.G.is ahead of the aileron and the wing is flexible the
strangeness can soon be overcome and the pilot begins to forces created on the aileron will have a negative moment
realize the advantages of maintaining good lateral control, up to around the C.G. of the wing The wing will twist and will result in a
and beyond the normal stalling angle. The improvement in reduction of angle of attack for the wing.
maneuverability is particularly noticeable when the airplane
If ∆L2 is greater than ∆L1 there is a net reduction in lift rather
approaches its ceiling. But, whatever its merits, the spoiler took a
than an increase and the aircraft will roll in the opposite direction
long time to become popular as a means of control, though it
than intended. This is known as aileron reversal.
was, and is, used extensively as an air brake.
To prevent this from happening the following methods could be
It is rather curious that we have been describing the use of
used
spoilers as an aid to lateral control at low speeds; and this
indeed was their original purpose, but in many types of modem - By placing ailerons inboard
aircraft it is at high speed that the aileron control by itself is too
- Reducing the aerodynamic loading on the aileron by using
slow in action and spoilers are used differentially being linked to
spoiler for lateral control
the ailerons to improve the control. They may even be rendered
inoperative at low speeds, and especially for maneuvering near
the ground and for landing, because they are too sensitive.
The correct rigging of the ailerons is of primary importance. After
an airplane has been overhauled and during pre-flight
inspections, the direction of aileron movement with respect to
control-stick movement must be carefully noted.
If the wheel is moved to the right, the right aileron must move up
and the left aileron must move down. Reverse movement of the
control should then cause a reverse of the position of the
ailerons.
Rev. 00 16
11.1
∆L1 – increase in lift due to increased camber

of the wing
∆L2 reduction in lift due to reduced angle
of attack (∝) due to twisting of the wing
Rev. 00 17
11.1
RUDDERS
The rudder is a vertical control surface that is usually hinged to Too much of a bank without sufficient rudder in a turn will cause
the tail post aft of the vertical stabilizer and designed to apply slipping; that is, the airplane will slide down toward the inside of
yawing moments to the airplane, that is, to make it turn to the the turn. It is therefore necessary that the proper amount of
right or the left about the vertical axis. rudder and aileron be applied when entering a turn in order to
produce what is termed a coordinated turn. Usually, after the
The movement of the rudder is controlled by pedals operated by
airplane is placed in a turn, the rudder pressure is almost
the feet of the pilot. The pedals are interconnected so that when
neutralized to hold the turn. Likewise, it is necessary to reduce
one is pressed the other one moves in the opposite direction.
the amount of aileron used to place the airplane in the turn.
When the right pedal is pressed, the rudder swings to the right,
thus bringing an increase of dynamic air pressure on its right Another factor to note concerning turns is that the steeper the
side. This increased pressure causes the tail of the airplane to turn, the more the elevator will have to be used. Thus a properly
swing to the left and the nose to turn to the right. The operation executed turn requires the use of all three of the primary
of a rudder is shown in Figure. controls.
Although it appears that the rudder causes the airplane to turn, it Rudder is also used for correcting asymmetry caused by engine
must be pointed out that the rudder itself cannot cause the failure of a multi engined aircraft and for control (steering) of
airplane to make a good turn. Newton's first law of motion states aircraft on ground at high speeds. For these reasons rudder is
that a moving body tends to continue moving in a straight line made large and placed at the tail so that it has a large moment
unless some outside force changes its direction. When rudder is arm.
applied to an airplane in flight, the airplane will turn, but it will
But because of its size and placement, at high speeds a little
continue to travel in the same direction as before unless a
movement of the rudder will cause the aircraft to yaw
correcting force is applied.
dangerously. Therefore as the speed of the aircraft increases the
Thus, with rudder only, the airplane will turn sideways and skid. rudder travel needs to be limited. This is achieved by
In order to prevent this skid in a turn, the ailerons are used to progressively mechanically limiting rudder travel when aircraft
bank the airplane. In a car, a banked turn is much easier to speed is increased beyond a certain speed sometimes pedal
negotiate at comparatively high speeds than a flat turn. It is the travel too may get limited. Some manufacturers even go to the
same with an airplane. To prevent skidding in a turn, the airplane extent of limiting the rate of deflection of rudder with increasing
must be banked. aircraft speed.
Rev. 00 18
11.1
Rev. 00 19
11.1
ELEVATORS
The elevators are the control surfaces, which govern the A special type of elevator that combines the functions of the
movement of the aircraft around the lateral axis (pitch). elevator and the horizontal stabilizer is called a stabilator. A
stabilator is an all-moving tail that works by changing the angle
They are normally attached to hinges on the rear spar of the
of attack of the stabilator and thereby changing the amount of
horizontal stabilizer. When the control column or stick in the
downward lift that is generated by the tail. When this type of
airplane is pulled back, the elevators are raised. The force of the
control airfoil is installed on an airplane, there is no fixed
relative wind on the elevator surfaces tends to press the tail
horizontal stabilizer. The stabilator is an airfoil that responds to
down, thus causing the nose to pitch up and the angle of attack
the normal elevator control and serves as an elevator as well as
of the wings to increase. The reverse action takes place when
a stabilizer. A stabilator is illustrated in Figure b.
the control column or stick is pushed forward. The action of the
elevators is illustrated in Figure a In sweptback wings when fuel is consumed by the engines the
aircraft C.G. shifts greatly within the limits. Hence there is a need
During flight of an airplane the operation of the elevators is quite
to trim the aircraft by use of the elevators to prevent the aircraft
critical, especially at low speeds. When power is off and the
pitching about. By deflecting elevators trim drag is increased and
airplane is gliding, the position of the elevators will determine
elevator authority is reduced. Instead of deflecting elevators if
whether the airplane dives, glides at the correct angle, or stalls.
the horizontal stabilizer itself could be moved to trim the aircraft
Remember that an airplane will not necessarily climb when the
we can reduce trim drag and retain full authority of the elevators.
control is pulled back. It is the power developed by the engine
Variable incidence stabilizers (Trimmable horizontal stabilizers)
that determines the rate of climb of an airplane rather than the
does just that.
position of the elevators. If the elevators are held in a fixed
position, the throttle alone can be used to make the airplane It has now become so popular that some aircraft use this surface
climb, dive, or maintain level flight. for long-term control of the aircraft about the lateral axes due to
the advantages mentioned.
The position of the elevator is important, however, to establish
the most efficient rate of climb and a good gliding angle when
power is off. It is also most essential for proper control when
"breaking the glide" and holding the airplane in landing position.
Rev. 00 20
11.1
Fig. a Fig. b
Rev. 00 21
11.1
T-TAILS
The T -tail arrangement positions the stabilizer and elevator at
the top of the vertical fin. A T -tail is illustrated in Figure. The use
of a T -tail configuration not only makes the fin and rudder more
effective because of the end-plate action of the stabilizer location
which act similar to the addition of an end plate on a wingtip, as
was discussed in module 8.2, but it also positions the horizontal
tail above wing turbulence. A T -tail structure will be somewhat
heavier than a conventional tail arrangement due to combined
horizontal tail-and-fin bending loads which must be carried by
the fin and the fuselage.
With this type of arrangement there is a disadvantage of deep
stall since the tail plane is shielded by the main planes at large
angles of attack. But has the advantage of keeping clear of the
hot jets and prop wash of wing mounted engines.
There are many shapes and sizes of airplanes, most of which
are similar in appearance. In its traditional form, the airplane is
marked by an arrangement of clearly distinguishable parts. The
traditional design of the fuselage supported by wing lift,
stabilized by the tail surfaces, and propelled by the engine in the
nose has worked well over the years. However, many variations
of the standard design appear to work equally well.
Rev. 00 22
11.1
A T – tail aircraft
Rev. 00 23
11.1
SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROLS (AIRFLOW CONTROL The principal effect of the extension of flaps is to increase the
DEVICES) CLmax and reduce the angle of attack for any given lift
coefficient. The increase in CLmax afforded by flap deflection
You have seen that the way in which the air flows across a wing
reduces the stall speed in a certain proportion, the effect
has a direct result on the lift that is produced. Items such as
described by the equation:
camber, aspect ratio, and laminar flow are all important in the
generation of lift. The ability to vary these characteristics results C Lm
in an aircraft that has more desirable aerodynamic Vsf = Vs
characteristics over a wider operating range. C Lmf
There are many different types of devices that can either Where,
increase or decrease lift, such as flaps, slots, slats, and spoilers.
Vsf= stall speed with flaps down
There are also devices that affect the airflow as it passes over
the wing, such as wing fences and vortex generators. Vs. = stall speed without flaps
EFFECT OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES CLm = maximum lift coefficient of the clean configuration
The primary purpose of high lift devices flaps, slots, slats, etc.is CLmf = maximum lift coefficient with flaps down
to increase the CLmax of the airplane and reduce the stall speed.
For example, assume the airplane described by the lift curves of
The take off and landing speeds are consequently reduced. The
figure 1.15 has a stall speed of 100 knots at the landing, weight
effect of a typical high lift device is shown by the airplane lift
in the clean configuration. If the flaps are lowered the reduced
curves of figure 1.15 and is summarized here:
stall speed is reduced to:
Configuration CLmax α for CLmax
1.5
Clean 1.5 200 V = 100X
2
Flaps down 2.0 18.50
= 86.5 knots
Thus, with the higher lift coefficient available, less dynamic
pressure is required to provide the necessary lift. Because of the
stated variation of stall speed with CLmax, large changes in CLmax
are necessary to produce significant changes in stall speed.
Rev. 00 24
11.1
Rev. 00 25
11.1
This effect is illustrated by the graph in figure and certain typical

values are shown below:
Percent increase in CLmax ………….2 10 50 100 300
Percent reduction in stall speed… 1 5 18 29 50
The contribution of the high lift devices must be considerable to
cause large reduction in stall speed. The "most elaborate
combination of flaps, slots, slats, and boundary layer control
throughout the span of the wing would be required to increase
CLmax by 300 percent.
A typical single engine Jet fighter with a" thin swept wing obtains
a 20 percent increase in CLmax by full flap deflection. Thin airfoil
sections with sweepback impose distinct limitations on the
effectiveness of flaps and the 20 percent increase in CLmax by
flaps is a typical-if not high-value for such a configuration"
At normal flying speeds, when flaps are fully retracted, that is,
when they are all the way up, they have no effect on the lift
characteristics of the wing. On the other hand, when they are
lowered for landing, there is increased lift for similar angles of
attack of the basic airfoil, and the maximum lift coefficient is
greatly increased, often as much as 10%, with the exact amount
of increase depending upon the type of flap installed.
The curves of Figure illustrate the lift characteristics of a wing
with and without flaps. With the increase of lift comes a decrease
in landing speed; there is also an increase of drag when the flap
is down, however, and this requires a steeper glide to maintain
the approach speed. The increase of drag also acts as a brake
when the airplane is rolling to a stop on the landing strip.
Rev. 00 26
11.1
Rev. 00 27
11.1
HIGH LIFT DEVICES The split flap shown in figure consist of plate deflected from the
lower surface of the section and produces a slightly greater
FLAPS change in CLmax than the plain flap. However, a much larger
change in drag results from the great turbulent wake produced
There are many different types of high lift devices used to by this type flap.
increase the maximum lift co-efficient for low speed flight. The
high lift devices applied to the trailing edge of a section consist of The greater drag may not be such a disadvantage when it is
a flap. realized that it may be advantageous to accomplish steeper
landing approaches over obstacles or require higher power from
NASA defines a wing flap as a hinged, pivoted, or sliding airfoil, the engine during approach (to minimize engine acceleration
usually near the trailing edge of the wing. It is designed to time for waveoff).
increase the lift, drag, or both when deflected and is used
principally for landing, although large airplanes use partial flap The slotted flap is similar to the plain flap but the gap between
deflection for takeoff. Most flaps are usually 15 to 25% of the the main section and flap leading edge is given specific
airfoil's chord. The deflection of a flap produces the effect of contours. High-energy air from the lower surface is ducted to the
adding a large amount of camber well aft on the chord. The more flap upper surface. The high-energy air from the slot accelerates
camber that the airfoil has results in a greater pressure the upper surface boundary layer and delays airflow separation
differential and the creation of more lift. This makes it possible to some higher lift coefficient. The slotted flap can cause much
for the airplane to have a steeper angle of descent for the greater increases in CLmax than the plain or split flap and section
landing without increasing the airspeed. Flaps are normally drags are much lower.
installed on the inboard section of the wing trailing edge. The Fowler flap arrangement is similar to the slotted flap. The
The principal types of flaps are shown applied to a basic section difference is that the deflected flap segment is moved aft along a
of airfoil. The effect of a 30° deflection of a 25 percent chord flap set of tracks, which increases the chord and affects an increase
is shown on the lift and drag curves of figure a. in wing area. The Fowler flap is characterized by large increases
in CLmax with minimum changes in drag.
The plain flap shown in figure is a simple hinged portion of the
trailing edge. The effect of the camber added well aft on the
chord causes a significant increase in CLmax. In addition, the zero
lift angle changes to a more negative value and the drag
increases greatly.
Rev. 00 28
11.1
Different types of flaps used on aircraft
Rev. 00 29
11.1
As shown in Figure a, when the fowler flap opens, the small moments that must be controlled with the horizontal tail.
airfoil slides downward and backward on tracks until it reaches Unfortunately, the flap types producing the greatest increases in
the position desired, thus providing a wing with a variable CLmax usually cause the greatest twisting moments. The Fowler
coefficient of lift and a variable area. flap causes the greatest change in twisting moment while the
split flap causes the least. This factor-along with mechanical
With the Fowler flap, the wing area can be increased, causing
complexity of the installation-may complicate the choice of a flap
large increases in lift with minimum increases in drag, the exact
configuration.
amount of increase of each depending upon the angle to which
the flap is lowered. The Fowler flap is one of the designs, which The effectiveness of flaps on a wing configuration depends on
are particularly well adapted for use at takeoff as well as landing. many different factors. One important factor is the amount of the
wing area affected by the flaps. Since a certain amount of the
A variation, and improvement, to the basic Fowler and slotted
span is reserved for ailerons, the actual wing maximum lift
flaps is the slotted Fowler flap. When such flaps are initially
properties will be less than that of the flapped two-dimensional
extended, they move aft on their track. Once past a certain point
section. If the basic wing has a low thickness, any type of flap
on the track, further aft movement is accompanied by a
will be less effective than on a wing of greater thickness.
downward deflection, which opens up one or more slots.
Sweepback of the wing can cause an additional significant
A triple-slotted Fowler flap is shown in Figure b. reduction in the effectiveness of flaps.
The slotted fowler flap can provide much greater increases in lift .
than the plain or split flap, and corresponding drag changes are
much lower. This type of flap requires the installation of a rather
complicated structure. The slotted Fowler flap is usually used on
the trailing edge of most turbine transport category aircraft.
One additional factor requiring consideration in a comparison of
flap types is the aerodynamic twisting moments caused by the
flap. Positive camber produces a nose down twisting moment-
especially great when large camber is used well aft on the chord
(an obvious implication is that flaps are not practical on a flying
wing or tailless airplane).
The deflection of a flap causes large nose down moments, which
create important twisting loads on the structure and pitching
Rev. 00 30
11.1
Fig a
Fig. b
Rev. 00 31
11.1
LEADING-EDGE FLAPS
While flaps are generally located on the trailing edge of a wing,
they can also be placed on the leading edge. Leading edge flaps
are normally used only on large transport-category aircraft that
need large amounts of additional lift for landing.
A leading-edge flap is a high-Iift device, which reduces the
severity of the pressure peak above the wing at high angles of
attack. This enables the wing to operate at higher angles of
attack than would be possible without the flap.
One method for providing a wing flap is to design the wing with a
leading edge that can be drooped, as shown in the top drawing
of Figure a. Another method for providing a leading-edge flap is
to design an extendable surface known as the Krueger flap that
ordinarily fits smoothly into the lower part of the leading edge.
When the flap is required, the surface extends forward and
downward, as shown in the second drawing of Figure b.
Rev. 00 32
11.1
Fig. a
Fig. b
Rev. 00 33
11.1
SLOTS AND SLATS The airfoil is shown in a stalling position because the burbling of
the air reaches almost the leading edge of the wing. The
Another device that is used on the leading edge of a wing is a
automatic slot has disadvantages as well as advantages. The
slot. A slot is also a high-Iift device because it improves lift. It is a
number of moving parts and the weight of the wing are
nozzle-shaped passage through a wing designed to improve the
increased. The slots must be installed properly and operate
airflow conditions at high angles of attack and slow speeds. As
equally well on both wings or they are useless. If a slot on one
the angle of attack of the wing increases, air from the high-
wing opens before the slot on the opposite wing does so,
pressure region below the wing flows to the low-pressure area
disastrous results could occur. I.e. differential lift on the wings
above the wing, as shown in the bottom drawing of Figure a.
could cause the aircraft to roll which if it happens at takeoff or
This flow of air postpones the breakdown of streamline flow that
landing could result in loss of aircraft.
accompanies an increase in the angle of attack. A slot is
normally placed very near the leading edge. Slots are illustrated The usual location of slots is such that they are subjected to ice
in Figures a. and b. formation, and in spite of any anti-icing or deicing equipment,
they may fail to function. If any of these factors causes a lack of
There are two general types of slots: the fixed and the automatic.
balance, lateral control may be impaired. For these reasons, a
When the fixed type is used, the airflow depends on the angle of
device is usually provided for locking slots in a closed position if
attack. The disadvantage of a fixed slot is that it adds excessive
they do not function properly.
drag at low angles of attack. The automatic slot is formed by
having a leading-edge airfoil that will separate from the main Figure b illustrates the effect of a slot on the lift coefficient.
leading edge to form a slot. This auxiliary airfoil is commonly Notice that at angles where the slot is opened, the lift is greater
referred to as a slat. and the maximum CL occurs at a much higher angle of attack.
This indicates that an airplane with a slotted wing has a lower
The automatic slot is nested into the leading edge of the wing
stalling speed than one without slots, other things being equal.
while the wing is at low angles of attack but is free to move
forward a definite distance from the leading edge at high angles A slat is a movable auxiliary airfoil attached to the leading edge
of attack. of the wing which, when closed, falls within the original contour
of the wing and which, when opened, forms a slot.
This forms a slot through which a portion of the airstream flows
and is deflected along the upper surface of the wing, thus
maintaining a streamline flow around the wing. Figure a shows
the effect of the airstream diverted by a slot and the advantage
gained by its use. The top picture shows the airfoil with its slot
closed at a high angle of attack.
Rev. 00 34
11.1
Fig. a
Fig. b
Rev. 00 35
11.1
Slots and slats can produce significant increases in CL but the

increased angle of attack for maximum lift can be a
disadvantage. If slots were the only high lift device on the wing,
the high take off and landing angles of attack may complicate the
design of the landing gear. For this reason slots or slats are
usually used in conjunction with flaps since the flaps provide
reduction in the maximum lift angle of attack.
Figure illustrates the effect of having a combination of sIots and
flaps. With this arrangement, it is possible to have a much lower
landing speed, better control of the flight path, and at least a
partial elimination of the nose heaviness that may result from the
use of flaps alone. It should be understood that Figure is based
upon a particular set of conditions and does not illustrate the
effect produced by various airfoils and combinations of different
flaps and slots. Other types of flaps and combinations with slots
will produce values differing from those shown in this figure.
Rev. 00 36
11.1
Rev. 00 37
11.1
OPERATION OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES This feature is especially true of the airplane equipped with
slotted or Fowler flaps. Large flap deflections past 300 to 35° do
The management of the high lift devices on an airplane is an
not create the same rate of change of CLmax but do cause greater
important factor in flying operations. The devices which are
changes in CD.
actuated automatically-such as automatic slats and slots are
usually of little concern and cause little complication since A fact true of most airplanes is that the first 5O percent of flap
relatively small changes in drag and pitching moments take deflection causes more than half of the total change in CL and
place. However, the flaps must be properly managed by the pilot the last 5O percent of flap deflection causes more than half of
to take advantage of the capability. When the flaps are lowered the total change in CD.
for landing essentially the same items must be considered.
Extending the flaps will cause these changes to take place:
- Lowering the flaps requires retrimming to balance the nose
down moment change.
- The increase in drag requires a higher power setting to
maintain airspeed and altitude.
- The angle of attack required to produce the same lift
coefficient is less, e.g., flap extension tends to cause the
airplane to "balloon."
An additional factor, which must be considered when rapidly
accelerating after takeoff, or when lowering the flaps for landing,
is the limit airspeed for flap extension. Excessive airspeeds in
the flap down configuration may cause structural damage.
In many aircraft the effect of intermediate flap deflection is of
primary importance in certain critical operating conditions. Small
initial deflections of the flap cause noticeable changes in CLmax
without large changes in drag coefficient.
Rev. 00 38
11.1
STUDENT NOTES
Rev. 00 39
11.1
SPOILERS Flight spoilers are used in flight to reduce the amount of lift that
the wing is generating to allow controlled descents without
While flaps, slats, and slots are devices that are designed to
gaining excessive air speed. Depending on the aircraft design,
greatly increase the lift that an airfoil creates, it is sometimes
the spoilers may be used as the aircraft's primary roll control or
desirable to quickly and effectively decrease the lift on an airfoil.
to assist primary control in roll. Instead of using ailerons, as
A device designed to reduce the lift on a wing is called a spoiler. explained earlier, an outboard spoiler on the wing can be
The spoiler is the opposite of a high-Iift device and derives its deflected into the airstream to destroy lift and induce the aircraft
name from the fact that its purpose is to "spoil" the lift of the to roll.
wing. Spoilers are located on the upper surface of wings and are
The principal reason for using spoilers for roll control is that it
one of two basic configurations.
frees the entire trailing edge of the wing for flap use. Longer flap
The more common configuration on jet transports, shown in spans mean more of the wings camber can be changed and
Figure a, has a flat-panel spoiler laying flush with the surface of higher lift coefficients can be obtained.
the wing and hinged at the forward edge. When the spoilers are
Ground spoilers are only used when the aircraft is on the ground
deployed, the surface rises up and reduces the lift.
and are employed along with the flight spoilers to greatly reduce
The other configuration, shown in Figure b, is common among the wing's lift upon landing which reduces chances of aircraft
sailplanes and has the spoiler located inside the wing structure. bouncing. They also increase the aerodynamic drag of the
When the spoiler is deployed, it rises vertically from the wing and aircraft after landing to aid in slowing the aircraft.
spoils the lift.
The spoilers are used as
- Flight spoilers
- Ground spoilers
Rev. 00 40
11.1
Fig. b
Fig. a
Rev. 00 41
11.1
TRIM TABS CONTROLLABLE TRIM TABS

The term trim tab describes small secondary flight-control A controllable trim tab is illustrated in Figure c. Controllable
surfaces set into the trailing edges of the primary control tabs are adjusted by means of control wheels, knobs, or cranks
surfaces. Tabs are used to reduce the workload required to hold in the cockpit, and an indicator is supplied to denote the position
the aircraft in some constant attitude by "loading" the control of the tab.
surface to a neutral or trimmed-center position. Figure a
Controllable trim tabs are found on most aircraft with at least the
demonstrates the tab action. Tabs can be fixed or variable, and
elevator tab being controlled. These tabs may be operated
the variable tabs can be designed to operate in several different
mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically.
manners.
When the trim-control system is activated, the trim tab is
FIXED TRIM TABS
deflected in the direction opposite to the desired movement of
A fixed trim tab, such as is shown in Figure b, is normally a piece the control surface. When the trim tab is deflected into the
of sheet metal attached to the trailing edge of a control surface. airstream, the air tries to push the tab back flush with the control
This fixed tab is adjusted on the ground by bending it in the surface. Since the control mechanism prevents the tab from
appropriate direction to eliminate flight control forces for a being pushed back flush, the control surface will be moved.
specific flight condition. The fixed tab is normally adjusted for
zero-control forces in cruise flight.
Adjustment of the tab is a trial-and-error process where the
aircraft must be flown and the trim tab adjusted based on the
pilot's report. The aircraft must then be flown again to see if
further adjustment is necessary. Fixed tabs, normally found on
light aircraft, are used to adjust rudders and ailerons.
Rev. 00 42
11.1
Fig. a Fig. c
Fig. b
Rev. 00 43
11.1
SERVO TABS
The servo tabs, sometimes referred to as the flight tabs, are
used primarily on the large main control surfaces. A servo tab is
one that is directly operated by the primary controls of the
airplane. In response to movement of the cockpit control, only
the servo tab moves. The force of the airflow on the servo tab
then moves the primary control surface. The servo tab,
illustrated in Figure a, is used to reduce the effort required to
move the controls on a large airplane.
BALANCE TABS
A balance tab is linked to the airplane in such a manner that a
movement of the main control surface will give an opposite
movement to the tab. Thus, the balance tab will assist in moving
the main control surface. Balance tabs are particularly useful in
reducing the effort required to move the control surfaces of a
large airplane. A balance tab is illustrated in Figure b.
SPRING TABS
The spring tabs, like some servo tabs, are usually found on large
aircraft that require considerable force to move a control surface.
The purpose of the spring tab is to provide a boost, thereby
aiding in the movement of a control surface. On the spring tab,
illustrated in Figure c, the control horn is connected to the control
surface by springs.
Rev. 00 44
11.1
Servo tab
Balance tab
Sprig tab
Rev. 00 45
11.1
UNCONVENTIONAL CONTROLS airplane about the vertical axis. The turning action of the
ruddervators is also illustrated in Figure.
RUDDERVATOR
ELEVON
Some airplanes have been designed with special types of control
surfaces that do not fit into the descriptions of the conventional Another somewhat unconventional control is the elevon.
controls. One such control is the ruddervator.
Elevons are combination elevators and ailerons used on the
The ruddervator is used on airplanes with a V-tail, and the outer tips of some delta wings. When used as elevators, they
surfaces serve both as rudders and as elevators. A V -tail has a both move in the same direction; when used as ailerons, they
slight drag reduction due to the reduction of interference drag, move in opposite directions. Elevons are especially needed for
since there is one less intersection than on a conventional tail. all-wing airplanes, or "flying wings."
However, since the total surface area must be the same as on a
FLAPERONS
conventional tail, there is no reduction in skin-friction drag. A
disadvantage of the V -tail is that the heavier tail structure Ailerons that are rigged to serve as ailerons or flaps are called
necessary to support combined horizontal and vertical surface flaperons. When employed as flaps, flaperons on opposite wings
loading along with a somewhat heavier control system make the move either upward or downward together.
V -tail generally as heavy as the conventional design it would When employed as ailerons, the flaperons move in opposite directions.
replace. The other disadvantage to a V -tail is that it is The use of flaperons allows the wings to vary in camber or curvature. By
susceptible to roll tendencies, and the stability characteristics are varying the wings' camber, the pilot gives the aircraft better performance
somewhat less desirable, particularly in rough air. capabilities over a wider operating range. The use of ailerons that can
With a ruddervator, when a pilot wants to increase the angle of be drooped to change a wing's camber and, in effect, function as
attack, he or she pulls back the control column or stick and both flaperons is becoming popular on transport category aircraft. This
ruddervators move upward and inward, as shown in Figure allows the entire trailing edge to be equipped with flaps to vary the
When the wheel is pushed forward, the ruddervators move camber.
downward and outward, as illustrated.
If a pilot wants to yaw an airplane with ruddervators and the right
rudder is applied, the right ruddervator moves downward and
outward while the left ruddervator moves upward and inward.
These movements are in response to the movement of the
rudder pedals and provide the forces necessary to rotate the
Rev. 00 46
11.1
Pitch and Yaw control

using Ruddervators
Rev. 00 47
11.1
CONTROL SURFACE BALANCING The simple horn type balance employs a concentrated balance
area located ahead of the hinge line. The balance area may
Although, in general, the force which the pilot has to exert in
extend completely to the leading edge or part to the leading
order to move the controls are small, the continuous movement
(shielded).
required in bumpy weather becomes tiring during long flights,
especially when the control surfaces are large and the speeds Overhang (aerodynamic) balance can be achieved by the
fairly high. For this reason controls are often balanced in two provision of a hinge line aft of the control surface leading edge.
ways. The resulting overhang of surface area ahead of the line will
provide a degree of balance.
- Aerodynamic balancing,
The hinge is set back so that the air striking the surface in front
- And mass (static) balancing
of the hinge causes a pressure, which tends to make the control
move over still farther; this partially balances the effect of the air,
AERODYNAMIC BALANCING which strikes the rear portion. This is effective but is must not be
overdone; over-balancing is dangerous since it may remove all
Dynamic or aerodynamic balance is accomplished by designing feel of the control from the pilot. It must be remembered that
the control airfoil such that aerodynamic forces during flight will when the control surface is set at a small angle, the centre of
tend to balance moments forward of the hinge line with moments pressure on the surface is well forward of the centre of the area,
aft of the hinge line. This is accomplished by placing the hinge and if at any angle the centre of pressure is in front of the hinge
line substantially aft of the leading edge of the control surface it will tend to take the control out of the pilot’s hands. Usually not
and by extending a portion of the leading edge surface a more than one-fifth of the surface may be in front of the hinge.
considerable distance forward of hinge line. This reduces the
force required to keep the surface deflected.
Some types of aerodynamics balance are.
- Horn balance
- Overhang balance
Rev. 00 48
11.1
Rev. 00 49
11.1
Figs a show two practical applications of this type of balance; in

each some part of the surface is in front of the hinge, and each
has its advantages.
Fig b shows the servo type of balance, which differs in principle
since the pilot in this case only moves the small extra surface (in
the opposite direction to normal), and, owing to the leverage, the
force on the small surface helps to move the main control in the
required direction. It is, in effect, a system of gearing.
Perhaps the chief interest in the servo system of balance is that
it was the forerunner of the balancing tabs and trimming tabs,
which have largely displaced the older systems. The
development of these control tabs was very rapid and formed an
interesting little bit of available history.
It was a small step to the next stage of development – a strip of
flexible metal attached to the trailing edge of the control surface.
This could be bent upwards or downwards as required and was
most effective in correcting flying faults without alternation of
rigging.
So far, the deflection of the air was only in one direction and so
we obtained a bias on the controls rather than a balancing
system. The next step gave us both balance and bias; the strip
of metal becomes a tab, i.e. an actual flap hinged to the control
surface. This tab was connected by a link being adjustable on
the ground. When the main control surface moved in one
direction, the tab moved in the other and thus experienced a
force, which tended to help the main surface to move – hence
the balance. By adjusting the link, the tab could be set to give an
initial force in one direction or the other – hence the bias.
Rev. 00 50
11.1
Fig. b
Fig. a
Rev. 00 51
11.1
INTERNAL BALANCE OR BALANCE PANELS.

The cavity between the wing and the control surface is divided in
to two chambers by the balance panel.
When the control surface is deflected up.
The Upper chamber pressure increases; the lower chamber
pressure decreases thus causing the balance panel to go down.
As the balance panel is fixed to the leading edge of the control
surface this causes the control surface to deflect further up.
Reference figure pg 61
Rev. 00 52
11.1
Aerodynamic balance panels
Rev. 00 53
11.1
STATIC BALANCE OF CONTROL SURFACES When the mainplane or structure vibrates the control surface
should vibrate to counteract that vibration. This happens when
Aircraft control surfaces will function properly on an airplane only
C.G. of the control surface is forward of the hinge line.
if they are properly balanced. Static balance is accomplished by
installing weights forward of the hinge line of the control. Usually, Perhaps it should be emphasized that the mass is not simply a
static balance requires that the sum of the weights forward of the weight for the purpose of balancing the control surface statically,
hinge line is approximately equal to the weight aft of the hinge e.g. to keep the aileron floating when the control mechanism is
line. The methods for checking the balance and adjusting the not connected; it may have this effect, but its real purpose is to
weights are provided in the manufacturer’s maintenance manual. alter the moments of inertia of the surface, and thus alter the
period of vibration and the liability to flutter. It may help to make
Control surfaces are often balanced in quite a different sense. A
this clear if we realize that mass balance is just as effective on a
mass (usually a lump of; lead) is fitted in front of the hinge in
rudder, where the weight is not involved, as on an elevator or
such a way as to prevent the “flutter,” which is liable to occur at
aileron.
very high speeds. This flutter is a vibration, which is caused by
the combined effects of the changes in pressure distribution over
the surface as the angel of attack is altered, and the elastic
forces set up by the distortion of the structure itself. All structures
are distorted when loads are applied.
If the structure is elastic, as all good structures must be, it will
tend to spring back as soon as the load is removed, or changes
its point of application. In short, a distorted structure is like a
spring that has been wound up and is ready to spring back.
An Aeroplane wing or fuselage can be distorted in two ways, by
bending and by twisting, and distortion can result in an
independent vibration. Like all vibrations, this flutter is liable to
become dangerous if the two effects add up. The flutter may
affect the control surfaces such as an aileron, or the main
planes, or both. The whole problem is very complicated, but we
do know of two features, which help to prevent it-a rigid structure
and mass balance of the control surfaces.
Rev. 00 54
11.1
Rev. 00 55
11.1
CONDITIONS LEADING TO A STALL STALL WARNING

In module 8.2 it was pointed out that a stall occurs when the The experienced pilot can usually sense when a stall is about to
angle of attack becomes so great that the laminar airflow happen because of the "feel" of the airplane controls and the
separates from the surface of an airfoil, leaving an area of reactions of the airplane. Often the airplane will start to shake or
burbling that destroys the low-pressure area normally existing at buffet because of the flow separation on the wing and the
the upper surface of a wing in flight. Figure a illustrates this turbulent air buffeting the tail surfaces. The controls become
condition, which also represents the maximum coefficient of lift. "sloppy" and do not have the solid feel of normal flight.
When an airplane is in flight, there are a number of flight Most airplanes are equipped with stall-warning devices. Typical
conditions that may lead to a stall. First, if an airplane is pulled of such devices is a small vane mounted near the leading edge
up sharply until its forward speed diminishes to a point where lift of the wing and arranged so that it will actuate a switch when it
is less than gravity, the airplane will begin to lose altitude. The rises as a result of an excessive angle of attack. The switch
angle of attack increases, and when it reaches the stalling value causes a warning horn to sound when the angle of attack
(about 20°), the wing stalls and the airplane stops flying. If the approaches maximum, usually about 5 to 10kn above stalling
stall is balanced on both sides of the airplane, it will pitch forward speed.
and may soon regain flying speed.
STALL PATTERNS
Stalls may also occur at high speeds. Stalls occurring under
The desirable stall pattern of any wing is a stall, which begins on
these conditions are called high-speed stalls, and they occur
the root section first.
when an airplane is pulled up so abruptly that the angle of attack
exceeds the stall angle. This type of stall is not often The ailerons which remain effective in this case would have
encountered because under ordinary conditions it is not been lost if the tip stalled first. The stall warning from the buffet
necessary to pull an airplane up sharply enough to cause a stall. on the empennage and aft portion of the fuselage is favorable.
Also, the loss of downwash behind the wing creates a nose
Stalls are more likely to occur during turns than in level flight.
down pitching moment, which acts to reduce the angle of attack,
This is because greater lift is required to maintain level flight in a
supporting the stall recovery.
turn.
Such a stall pattern, though desired, may be difficult to obtain
with certain wing configurations. The types of stall patterns
inherent with various planforms are illustrated in figure b.
Rev. 00 56
11.1
Fig. a
Fig. b
Rev. 00 57
11.1
WING TIP STALL WING FENCES AND LEADING EDGE NOTCHES

Figure a shows the stall pattern of a tapered swept wing. On Ideally, air would always flow chordwise over a wing; however,
such wings, there is a tendency to develop a strong spanwise as has been discussed, air will tend to flow spanwise toward the
flow of the boundary layer toward the tip when the wing is at high tip. Spanwise flow is particularly a problem on swept wings
lift coefficients. This spanwise flow produces a relatively low
Wing notch as illustrated in figure b can be incorporated near
energy and thick boundary layer, which can easily separate,
wing tips to prevent tip stall. The turbulence created by it hinders
near the tip.
the spanwise movement of the boundary layer towards the tip.
If an actual wing were allowed to stall in this fashion, the stall
The spanwise flow of air may be partially controlled by the use of
would be accompanied by aileron buffet and wing drop. There
a wing (flow) fence, such as is illustrated in Figure c.
would be no buffet at the empennage or the aft fuselage, no
strong nose down moment (there maybe even a nose up A wing fence is a stationary vane, projecting from the upper
movement), and very little if any aileron effectiveness. surface of an airfoil, which is used to prevent the spanwise flow
of air. Flow fences are often located in alignment with trailing-
In order to prevent such undesirable happenings the wing must
edge control surfaces, such as ailerons, to improve the
be tailored to achieve a favored stall pattern. This is achieved by
chordwise flow and thereby the effectiveness of the control
using the following
surfaces.
- Washout
- Wing fences
- Aerodynamic forces
WASHOUT
The wing may be given a geometric twist termed washout to
decrease the local angle of attack at the tip. In addition, the
airfoil section may be varied throughout the span such that
sections with greater thickness and camber are located in the
areas of highest local lift coefficients. The higher Cl max of such
sections can then develop higher lifts without the danger of stall.
Rev. 00 58
11.1
Fig. b
Fig. a Fig. c
Rev. 00 59
11.1
EFFECT OF WING DESIGN ON STALL

A desirable stall pattern can be accomplished by
- Designing the wing with a twist so that the tip has a lower
angle of incidence (washout) and, therefore, a lower angle of
attack when the root of the wing approaches the critical
angle of attack (see Figure a)
- Designing slots near the leading edge of the wing tip to allow
air to flow smoothly over that part of the wing at higher
angles of attack, therefore stalling the root of the wing first
(see Figure b);
- And attaching stall strips on the leading edge near the wing
root (see Figure c).
The stall strip is a triangular strip mounted on the leading edge of
the wing at the inboard end. At high angles of attack where
stalling would be likely to occur, the strip causes the inboard
portion of the wing to stall before the outer portion. This enables
the pilot to maintain control of the aircraft with the ailerons, and
the airplane does not "fall off' on one wing.
Rev. 00 60
11.1
Fig. a
Fig. c
Fig. b
Rev. 00 61
11.1
LAMINAR FLOW CONTROL engine compressor. The typical installation of a high pressure
BLC system would be the augmentation of a deflected flap.
Today's civil transports typically cruise at about 500 mph (800
Since any boundary layer control tends to increase the angle of
km/h). One problem of traveling at such a speed occurs in the
attack for maximum lift, it is important to combine the boundary
boundary layer, a. thin sheet of flowing air that moves along the
layer control with flaps since the flap deflection tends to reduce
surfaces of the wing, fuselage, and tail of an airplane.
the angle of attack for maximum lift.
As discussed in earlier, at low speeds this layer follows the
aircraft contours and is smooth, a condition referred to as
laminar. At high speeds, the boundary layer changes from
laminar to turbulent, creating friction and drag that waste fuel
and also leading to flow separation. This is illustrated in Figure a.
Many experiments have been carried out in an effort to control
the boundary layer and increase laminar flow.
The laminar flow control system calls for removing the turbulent
boundary layer by suction, thus maintaining laminar flow, as is
shown in Figure b. Basically, this system includes a suction
surface through which a portion of the boundary-layer air is
taken into the airplane, a system for metering the level and
distribution of the ingested flow, a ducting system for collecting
the flow, and pumping units which provide sufficient compression
to discharge the suction flow at a velocity at least as high as the
airplane velocity. The effect of this system is to keep the
boundary layer thin and permit laminar flow to continue.
Another method of boundary layer control is accomplished by
injecting a high-speed jet of air into the boundary layer. This
method produces essentially the same results as the suction
method and is the more practical installation. The suction type
BLC requires the installation of a separate pump while the
"blown" BLC system can utilize the high-pressure source of a jet
Rev. 00 62
11.1
Fig. a Fig. b
Rev. 00 63
11.1
VORTEX GENERATORS
Even though most turbine transport-category aircraft do not fly at The tip vortices cause air to flow upward and inward in circular
the speed of sound (Mach 1), there are certain areas on the paths around the ends of the airfoil, as is shown in Figure b The
airplane where the airflow velocity will be greater than Mach 1. vortices generated have the effect of drawing high-energy air
This is particularly true at the upper surface of parts of the wing from outside the boundary layer into the slower-moving air close
where, because of the curvature of the wing, the air velocity to the skin. This will increase the energy of the boundary layer.
must increase substantially above the airspeed of the airplane. The strength of the vortices is proportional to the lift developed
by the generators.
This is illustrated in Figure a, which shows an airfoil profile
moving through the air at high subsonic speed. A short distance To operate effectively, the generators are mounted forward of
back from the leading edge of the wing and above the top the point where separation begins.
surface, the air reaches supersonic speed. At the rear part of the
Drag reduction achieved by the addition of vortex generators can
supersonic area where the airflow returns to subsonic speed, a
be seen in the drag-rise curve. Since the generators effectively
shockwave is formed, (will be discussed in the next chapter). To
reduce the shock-induced drag associated with the sharp rise in
the rear of this shock wave the air is very turbulent, and this area
the curve at speeds approaching Mach 1.0, the curve is pushed
of the wing is, in effect, partially stalled. This, of course, causes a
to the right, as shown in Figure c. The addition of the vortex
substantial increase in drag, which increases as airspeed
generators actually increases overall drag very slightly at lower
increases.
speeds. However, the gains at cruise speeds more than balance
In order to reduce the drag caused by supersonic flow over out the losses at lower speeds. Since the airplane spends most
portions of the wing, small airfoils called vortex generators are of its flight time at cruise speeds, the net gain is significant.
installed vertically into the airstream. Although commonly used
on the upper inboard surfaces of a cambered wing, vortex
generators may be installed anywhere that airflow separation
creates a problem, including on tail surfaces and in engine ducts.
Because of the low aspect ratio of the vortex generators, they
develop strong tip vortices.
Rev. 00 64
11.1
Fig. a
Fig. b
Fig. c
Rev. 00 65
11.1
FORWARD-SWEPT WING
Another concept in aircraft design is that of the forward swept Forward-swept wings present a serious structural problem with
wing, as illustrated in Figure a Forward-swept wings achieve the the wingtips tending to flex upward as lift is increased. Only with
same result as aft-swept wings in achieving higher critical Mach the recent use of composite materials that are capable of
numbers; however, forward swept wings do not suffer the absorbing this flexing tendency is forward-swept wing design
problems with spanwise flow and the resulting wingtip stall possible.
characteristics. The 30° forward swept wing of the X-29 provides
drag reductions of up to 20% in the transonic maneuvering
range, giving it performance equivalent to an aircraft with a more
powerful engine. As illustrated in Figure b, air moving over the
forward-swept wing tends to flow inward rather than outward,
allowing the wing tips to remain unstalled at high angles of attack
and therefore easier to control in extreme maneuvers. Forward-
swept wings provide less drag, more lift, better maneuverability,
and more efficient cruise speed.
These improvements in performance are gained at the expense
of reduced lateral and longitudinal stability.
To control an aircraft designed with relaxed stability, the flight-
control system must provide an artificial stability. This is
accomplished with a digital fly-by-wire flight-control system. A fly-
by-wire system enables the control surfaces of an airplane to be
operated electronically through a computer system. The pilot
moves the aircraft's stick, sending a command to the flight-
control computer. The computer calculates the control surface
movements necessary and sends a command to the actuator to
move the control surfaces.
Rev. 00 66
11.1
Fig. a Fig. b
Rev. 00 67
11.1
FLYING WING
A concept that has been tried several times but with only limited
success until recently is the flying-wing design; which is shown in
Figure. On a conventional aircraft the fuselage is used to carry
passengers and cargo. For the most part, fuselages create no
lift, but add greatly to the production of drag. Therefore, if the
need for fuselages could be eliminated, the L/D ratio of the
aircraft could be greatly increased.
This is the concept of the flying-wing design, which eliminates
the fuselage. Significant performance improvement can be
achieved with this design. There are, however, serious stability
and control problems that must be overcome. Pitch stability is
one of the most serious problems since there is no horizontal
stabilizer to overcome the positive pitching moment of the wing.
Stabilizing the wing pitching moment can be achieved by
sweeping the wing aft and twisting the wingtips to a negative
angle so that they will apply a negative lifting force. Directional
stability is also a problem since the effectiveness of a vertical fin
is directly proportional to the distance that it is located aft of the
CG.
Since there is no fuselage located aft on which to locate the
vertical fin or rudder, the surface area of these controls must be
dramatically increased. Although stability on the flying-wing
design is relaxed, the recent advent of computerized artificial
stability systems makes the flying wing a viable concept.
Rev. 00 68
11.1
B2 Stealth Bomber – Flying wing
Rev. 00 69
11.1
STUDENT NOTES
Rev. 00 70
11.1
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 11.1.2 – HIGH SPEED AERODYNAMICS
MODULE 11
SUB MODULE 11.1.2
HIGH SPEED AERODYNAMICS
Rev. 00 71
11.1
enables one to understand certain peculiarities in aircraft

INTRODUCTION behavior.
AIR PRESSURE
Developments in aircraft and power plants have produced high
performance airplanes with capabilities for very high-speed flight. At standard sea-level temperature, individual molecules of air
The study of aerodynamics at these very high flight speeds has are in constant motion in random directions at a speed of about
many significant differences from the study of classical low 1,700 ft.p.s. (1,000 knots). Air pressure is thus the total effect of
speed aerodynamics. Therefore, it is quite necessary that the the impact of air molecules on any surface exposed to their
aircraft technician be familiar with the nature of high-speed movements. The speed of the molecules depends on their
airflow and the characteristics of high performance airplane temperature, the higher the temperature the greater the speed.
configurations. Thus a small balloon, which is warmed, expands as the
molecular speed rises with temperature and so increases the
NATURE OF COMPRESSIBILITY pressure.
At low flight speeds the study of aerodynamics is greatly
simplified by the fact that air may experience relatively small
changes in pressure with only negligible changes in density. This
airflow is termed incompressible since the air may undergo
changes in pressure without apparent changes in density. Such
a condition of airflow is analogous to the flow of water, hydraulic
fluid, or any other incompressible fluid.
However, at high flight speeds the pressure changes that take
place are quite large and significant changes in air density occur.
The study of airflow at high speeds must account for these
changes in air density and must consider that the air is
compressible and that there will be 'Compressibility effects."
The compressible nature of air makes itself evident in a number
of ways, which have a marked effect on aircraft in flight.
Knowledge of the fundamental changes in the airflow brought
about the compressibility of air and their effects on the aircraft
Rev. 00 72
11.1
Rev. 00 73
11.1
SPEED OF SOUND The ears interpret this higher frequency as a higher pitched note,
which drops to a lower note after the object passes. This is the
A factor of great importance in the study of high-speed airflow is
well-known Doppler effect, which is evident whenever a low-
the speed of sound.
flying aircraft approaches rapidly and passes overhead.
The speed of sound is the rate at which small pressure
Thus, as the flight speed nears the speed of sound a
disturbances propagate through the air and this propagation
compression wave will form at the leading edge and all changes
speed is solely a function of air temperature.
in velocity and pressure will take place quite sharply and
As an object moves through the air mass, velocity and pressure suddenly. The airflow ahead of the object is not influenced until
changes occur which create pressure disturbances in the airflow the air particles are suddenly forced out of the way by the
surrounding the object and these pressure disturbances are concentrated pressure wave set up by the object. Evidence of
propagated through the air at the speed of sound. this phenomenon is seen in the typical supersonic flow pattern of
If the object is traveling at low speed the pressure disturbances figure b.
are propagated ahead of the object and the airflow immediately If the object is travelling at some speed above the speed of
ahead of the object is influenced by the pressure field on the sound the airflow ahead of the object will not be influenced by
object. Infact, these pressure disturbances are transmitted in all the pressure field on the object since pressure disturbances
directions and extend indefinitely in all directions. cannot propagate ahead of the object.
Evidence of this "pressure warning’, is seen in the typical The analogy of surface waves on the water may help clarify
subsonic flow pattern of figure a where there is upwash and flow these phenomena. Since a surface wave is simply the
direction change well ahead of the leading edge. propagation of a pressure disturbance, a ship moving at a speed
A stationary object, which vibrates at a certain frequency, is the much less than the wave speed will not form a "bow wave." As
source of a continuous series of pulses of compressed air. the ship’s speed nears, the wave propagation speed the bow
These small disturbances, corresponding to the ripples produced wave will form and become stronger as speed is increased
when a stone is dropped into water, move out as expanding beyond the wave speed.
spheres traveling at the speed of sound.
If the source of disturbance starts moving it closes up on the
pressure waves ahead of it. Thus observer standing ahead of
the object would receive more sound waves per second (a
higher frequency) than one standing behind.
Rev. 00 74
11.1
Fig. a
At subsonic speeds, the pressure waves that travel
ahead serve in effect to warn the air ahead of the
approach of an object, enabling individual particles Fig. b
of air to adjust their position in readiness for the
passage of the object. This effect is clearly In supersonic flight, air particles ahead of the mach cone
illustrated by streamlines about a wing at subsonic have no warning of the approach of the object until they are
speed; at some distance ahead of this wing the violently deflected from their state of equilibrium. This violent
airflow is already changing direction with respect to displacement of air leads to a considerable increase in drag; it
the free stream velocity. is considered in greater detail in subsequent paragraphs.
Rev. 00 75
11.1
MACH NUMBER VARIATION OF THE SPEED OF SOUND

At this point it should become apparent that all compressibility The main factor determining the speed of sound is the ambient
effects depend upon the relationship of airspeed to the speed of temperature. Other factors such as density have an effect but
sound. are so related to temperature that it alone need be considered.
It is therefore necessary to compare the T.A.S. of an aircraft to The actual relationship is that the speed of sound is proportional
the speed of sound at the height, i.e. temperature, at which the to the square root of the absolute temperature.
aircraft is flying. This comparison is expressed by the Mach
number (M), and it is the ratio of the true airspeed to the local Given speed X X NewTemp.(abs.)
= New Speed of sound
speed of sound. of sound GivenTemp(abs)
V
M = Where, E.g.
a At 150 C, Speed of Sound is 760 m.p.h.
M = Mach number To find Speed of Sound at - 400 C
V = true airspeed
273 − 40 233
a = local speed of sound, knots 760 x = 760 x = 684 m.p.h
273 + 15 288
E.g. Given Mach .8 and knowing that for the conditions
prevailing, the speed of sound is 760 m.p.h CONCLUSION
Mach .8 = 760 x .8 = 610 m.p.h a = a0 θ

Not much simplification there, you will say. One term has just a0 = speed of sound at standard sea level conditions, 661knots
been exchanged for another. However, under different
conditions, the speed of sound may be only 660 m.p.h and then: θ = temperature ratio
Mach .8 = 660 x .8 = 530 m.p.h θ = T/T0 where,
Obviously then, Mach .8 may mean infinite number of different T = absolute temperature at altitude
speeds depending on conditions, but with regard to T0 = absolute standard temperature
compressibility, Mach No. Provides a reference without worrying
about the actual speed concerned.
Rev. 00 76
11.1
ALTITUDE TEMPERATURE SPEED OF SOUND

0 0
Ft F C Knots
Sea Level 59.0 15.0 661.7
5,000 41.2 5.1 650.3
10,000 23.3 -4.8 638.6
15,000 5.5 -14.7 626.7
20,000 -12.3 -24.6 614.6
25,000 -30.2 -34.5 602.6
30,000 -48.0 -44.4 589.6
35,000 -65.8 -54.3 576.6
40,000 -69.7 -56.5 573.8
50,000 -69.7 -56.5 573.8
60,000 -69.7 -56.5 573.8
Variation of the speed of sound in the

standard atmosphere
Rev. 00 77
11.1
SUPERSONIC SPEED REGIMES In the subsonic regime it is most likely that pure subsonic airflow
exists on all parts of the aircraft.
It is important to note that compressibility effects are not limited
to flight speeds at and above the speed of sound. Since on an In the transonic regime it is very probable that flow on the aircraft
aircraft when developing lift there will be local flow velocities on components may be partly subsonic and partly supersonic. The
the surfaces, which are greater than the flight speed. Thus, an transonic regime of flight provides the opportunity for mixed
aircraft can experience compressibility effects at flight speeds subsonic and supersonic flow and accounts for the first
well below the speed of sound. significant effects of compressibility.
If an aero foil is placed into a free subsonic airstreams moving at The supersonic and hypersonic flight regimes will provide
about .75M, the aerofoil has the usual subsonic accelerating definite supersonic flow velocities on all parts of the aircraft. Of
effect on the air which is moving towards the point of maximum course, in supersonic flight there will be some portions of the
thickness. If free stream speed is V than the peak speed boundary layer, which are subsonic, but the predominating flow
reached at the point of maximum thickness is V + v (Figure) is still supersonic.
If the free-stream speed is then increased, the peak speed
follows suit. It is apparent that the speed of sound must first be
reached over the point of maximum thickness.
Since there is the possibility of having both subsonic and
supersonic flows existing on the aircraft it is convenient to define
certain regimes of flight. These regimes are defined
approximately as follows:
- Subsonic-Mach numbers below 0.75
- Transonic-Mach numbers from 0.75 to 1.20
- Supersonic-Mach numbers from 1.20 to 5.00
- Hypersonic-Mach numbers above 5.00
While the flight Mach numbers used to define these regimes of
flight are quite approximate, it is important to appreciate the
types of flow existing in each area.
Rev. 00 78
11.1
Rev. 00 79
11.1
SUPERSONIC FLOW INSIDE A CLOSED TUBE

The principal differences between subsonic and supersonic flow The example of supersonic compressible flow is complicated by
are due to the compressibility of the supersonic flow. Thus, any the fact that the variations of flow density are related to the
change of velocity or pressure of a supersonic flow will produce changes in velocity and static pressure.
a related change of density, which must be considered and
The behavior of supersonic compressible flow is that a
accounted for.
convergence causes compression while a divergence causes
Figure provides a comparison of incompressible and expansion. Thus, as the supersonic compressible flow
compressible flow through a closed tube. Of course, the approaches a constriction and the streamlines converge, velocity
condition of continuity must exist in the flow through the closed decreases and static pressure increases. Continuity of mass flow
tube; the mass flow at any station along the tube is constant. is maintained by the increase in flow density, which
This qualification must exist in both compressible and accompanies the decrease in velocity. As the supersonic
incompressible cases. compressible flow enters a diverging section of the tube, velocity
increases, static pressure decreases, and density decreases to
The example of subsonic incompressible flow is simplified by the
accommodate the condition of continuity.
fact that the density of flow is constant throughout the tube.
Thus, as the flow approaches a constriction and the streamlines The previous comparison points out three significant differences
converge, velocity increases and static pressure decreases. In between supersonic compressible and subsonic incompressible
other words, a convergence of the tube requires an increasing flow.
velocity to accommodate the continuity of flow. Also, as the
- Compressible flow includes the additional variable of flow
subsonic incompressible flow enters a diverging section of the
density.
tube, velocity decreases and static pressure increases but
density remains unchanged. - Convergence of flow causes expansion of incompressible
flow but compression of compressible flow.
The behavior of subsonic incompressible flow is that a
convergence causes expansion (decreasing pressure) while a - Divergence of flow causes compression of incompressible
divergence causes compression (increasing pressure). flow but expansion of compressible flow.
Rev. 00 80
11.1
SUBSONIC AND SUPERSONIC FLOW IN A VENTURI
Rev. 00 81
11.1
TYPICAL SUPERSONIC FLOW PATTERNS

MACH WAVES - If the velocity of the point source is increased to the value of
the acoustic speed (u = a), all the eccentric circles will be
Figure shows the wave pattern associated with point source p of
tangent to one another at the most forward point i.e., the
weak pressure disturbances when stationary and when moving
point source itself.
in a straight line at different velocity regimes. The surrounding
fluid is assumed to be at rest. The circles represent the wave - If the velocity of the point source increases above the
fronts at a particular instant of time. If the time elapsed since the acoustic speed (u = la in this example), the eccentric circles
wave front was emanated is t, the radius of a wave front is at, will intersect one another and all the circles will be tangential
where a is the acoustic speed. to two symmetrically inclined lines (a cone in three
dimension) whose apex is the point source. These lines are
- The source is at rest. In two-dimensional flow the wave fronts
termed Mach waves or Mach lines, and in three dimension
are concentric circle whereas in the three dimensional case
there is a Mach cone. The semi vertex angle is termed the
they are concentric spheres.
Mach angle ( θ ) the mach angle, would become smaller as
- When the point source moves at a velocity u, less than a the speed rose.
(u = 0.5a) the wave fronts adopt a different pattern. The
individual wave fronts remain circular with their centers on - The cone, which marks the boundary of the sphere of
the line of motion of the source and are eccentric but non- influence of the body, is called a mach cone. All objects
intersecting. which are within the mach cone would experience the effects
of the passage of the body; all these outside would be
The point source moves through a distance ut in the time the unaffected.
wave moves through a greater distance at. Once again, the
waves signaling the pressure disturbance will move through the Note. if the speed a increases the Mach angle reduces. The
whole region of the fluid, ahead and behind the moving source. pressure disturbances are confined to the Mach cone. The area
outside is known as the zone of silence, and it is totally unaware
of the moving object.
Rev. 00 82
11.1
FORMATION OF PRESSURE WAVES
Rev. 00 83
11.1
The knowledge of the flow pattern of a point source can be When supersonic flow is clearly established, all changes in
extended to understand the changes undergone by a supersonic velocity, pressure, density, flow direction, etc., take place quite
flow when encountered with an object of a particular shape. suddenly and in relatively confined areas. The areas of flow
Unlike the subsonic flow, the supersonic flow will not get prior change are generally distinct and the phenomena are referred to
information about an object in the downstream flow path as weak as "wave" formations. All compression waves occur suddenly
pressure waves cannot propagate forward. and are wasteful of energy. Hence, the compression waves are
distinguished by the sudden "shock" type of behavior .All
So there won't be an upwash ahead of the leading edge and the
expansion waves are not so sudden in their occurrence and are
airflow will not accelerate as it moves over the leading edge of a
not wasteful of energy like the compression shock waves.
convex profile.
Various types of waves can occur in supersonic flow and the
When moving along a flat plate, the Mach waves generated by
nature of the wave formed depends upon the airstream and the
small irregularities will be parallel to one another. As the flow
shape of the object causing the flow change. Essentially, there
suddenly encounters a corner, the Mach waves will converge or
are three fundamental types of waves formed in supersonic flow:
diverge to create a compression wave, or an expansion wave
respectively, depending upon the contour. The compression - The oblique shock wave (compression),
wave is termed a shock wave.
- The normal shock wave (compression),
- The expansion wave (no shock).
Rev. 00 84
11.1
Rev. 00 85
11.1
OBLIQUE SHOCK W AVE As the free stream Mach number increases, the shock wave
angle decreases.
Consider the case where a supersonic airstream is turned into
the preceding airflow. Such would be the case of a supersonic If the wedge angle is increased to some critical amount, the
flow' 'into a corner' as shown in figure a. It will decelerate unlike shock wave will detach from the leading edge of the wedge. It is
in the subsonic case where it would have accelerated. As the important to note that detachment of the shock wave will
flow decelerates, the Mach waves converge to form a produce subsonic flow immediately after the central portion of
compression wave termed an oblique shock wave. the shock wave.
A supersonic air stream passing through the oblique shock wave Figure illustrates these typical flow patterns and the effect of
will experience these changes: Mach number and wedge angle.
- The airstream is slowed down; the velocity and Mach
number behind the wave are reduced but the flow is still
supersonic
- The flow direction is changed to flow along the surface
- The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave is
increased
- The density of the airstream behind the wave is increased
- Some of the available energy of the airstream (indicated by
the sum of dynamic and static pressure) is dissipated and
turned into unavailable heat energy. Hence, the shock wave
is wasteful of energy.
A typical example is the shock wave formation at a wedge
pointed into a supersonic air stream, as illustrated in figure b.
The oblique shock will form on each surface of the wedge and
the inclination of the shock wave will be a function of the free
stream Mach number and the wedge angle.
Rev. 00 86
11.1
Fig. a Fig. b WEDGE PLACED IN SUPERSONIC FLOW
Rev. 00 87
11.1
NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

If a blunt nosed object is placed in a supersonic airstream the As the local supersonic flow moves aft, a normal shock wave
shock wave which is formed will be detached from the leading forms slowing the flow to subsonic. The transition of flow from
edge. This detached wave also occurs when a wedge or cone subsonic to supersonic is smooth and is not accompanied by
angle exceeds some critical value. Whenever the shock wave shock waves if the transition is made gradually with a smooth
forms perpendicular to the upstream flow, the shock wave is surface. The transition of flow from supersonic to subsonic
termed a "normal" shock wave and the flow immediately behind without direction change always forms a normal shock wave.
the wave is subsonic. Any relatively blunt object in a supersonic
A supersonic airstream passing through a normal shock wave
airstream will form a normal shock wave immediately ahead of
will experience these changes:
the leading edge slowing the airstream to subsonic so the
airstream may feel the presence of the blunt nose and flow - The airstream is slowed to subsonic; the local Mach number
around it. behind the wave is approximately equal to the reciprocal of
the Mach number ahead of the wave-e.g. If Mach number
Once past the blunt nose the airstream may remain subsonic or
ahead of the wave is 1.25, the Mach number of the flow
accelerate back to supersonic depending on the shape of the
behind the wave is approximately 0.80.
nose and the Mach number of the free stream. See figure a.
- The airflow direction immediately behind the wave is
In addition to the formation of normal shock waves described
unchanged.
above, this same type of wave may be formed in an entirely
different manner when there is no object in the supersonic - The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave is
airstream. increased greatly.
It is particular that whenever a supersonic airstream is slowed to - The density of the airstream behind the wave is increased
subsonic without a change in direction a normal shockwave will greatly.
form as a boundary between the supersonic and subsonic - The energy of the airstream (indicated by total pressure-
regions. This is an important fact since aircraft usually encounter dynamic plus static) is greatly reduced. The normal shock
some.’Compressibility effects" before the flight speed is sonic. wave is very wasteful of energy.
Figure b illustrates the manner in which an airfoil at high
subsonic speeds has local flow velocities, which are supersonic.
Rev. 00 88
11.1
Fig a Fig b
Rev. 00 89
11.1
EXPANSION W AVE SUMMARY

When turning around a corner as shown in figure, a supersonic
airflow does not create sharp, sudden changes and hence it is
not a shock wave. The flow accelerates and the Mach waves
diverge to create an expansion wave. The changes take place in
a rather gradual manner and no energy loss will take place. In
contrast, a subsonic flow would have decelerated around this
corner causing a rise in static pressure.
A supersonic wave passing through an expansion wave will
experience the following changes:
- The airstream is accelerated; the velocity and Mach number
behind the wave are greater.
- The flow direction is changed to flow along the surface-
provided separation does not occur.
- The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave is
decreased.
- The density of -the airstream behind the wave is decreased.
- Since the flow changes in a rather gradual manner there is
no’, shock’, and no loss of energy in the airstream. The
expansion wave does not dissipate airstream energy.
The table summarizes the characteristics of the three principal
waveforms encountered with supersonic flow.
Rev. 00 90
11.1
Rev. 00 91
11.1
SECTIONS IN SUPERSONIC FLOW

In order to appreciate the effect of these various waveforms on Parts (c) and (d) of Figure show the wave pattern and resulting
the aerodynamic characteristics in supersonic flow, inspect pressure distribution for a double wedge airfoil at zero lift.
figures that follow.
The air stream moving over the surface passes through an
Parts (a) and (b) of fig show the wave pattern and resulting oblique shock, an expansion wave, and another oblique shock.
pressure distribution for a thin flat plate at a positive angle of The resulting pressure distribution on the surfaces produces no
attack. net lift, but the increased pressure on the forward half of the
chord along with the decreased pressure on the aft half of the
The airstream moving over the upper surface passes through an
chord produces a "wave" drag. This wave drag is caused by the
expansion wave at the leading edge and then an oblique shock
components of pressure forces, which are parallel to the free
wave at the trailing edge. Thus, a uniform suction pressure
stream direction.
exists over the upper surface. The airstream moving underneath
the flat plate passes through an oblique shock wave at the The wave drag is in addition to the drag due to friction,
leading edge then an expansion wave at the trailing edge. This separation, lift, etc., and can be a very considerable part of the
produces a uniform positive pressure on the underside of the total drag at high supersonic speeds.
section. This distribution of pressure on the surface will produce
a net lift and incur a subsequent drag due to lift from the
inclination of the resultant lift from a perpendicular to the free
stream.
Rev. 00 92
11.1
Rev. 00 93
11.1
Parts (e) and (f) of figure below illustrate the wave pattern and The figures discussed illustrate the typical patterns of supersonic
resulting pressure distribution for the double wedge airfoil at a flow and point out these facts concerning aerodynamic surfaces
small positive angle of attack. in two-dimensional supersonic flow:
The net pressure distribution produces an inclined lift with drag - All changes in velocity, pressure, density and flow direction
due to lift, which is in addition to the wave drag at zero lift. will take place quite suddenly through the various
waveforms. The shape of the object and the required flow
Part (g) of figure shows the wave pattern for a circular arc airfoil.
direction change dictate the type and strength of the wave
After the airflow traverses the oblique shock wave at the leading
formed.
edge, the airflow undergoes a gradual but continual expansion
until the trailing edge shock wave is encountered. - The amount of acceleration and drop in pressure is
proportional to the slope of the upper surface
Part (h) of figure illustrates the wave pattern on a conventional
blunt nose airfoil in supersonic flow. When the nose is blunt the - As always, lift results from the distribution of pressure on a
wave must detach and become a normal shock wave surface and is the net force perpendicular to the free stream
immediately ahead of the leading edge. Of course, this wave direction. Any component of the lift in a direction parallel to
form produces an area of subsonic airflow at the leading edge the wind stream will be drag due to lift.
with very high pressure and density behind the detached wave.
- In supersonic flight, the zero lift drag of an airfoil of some
The mechanics of supersonic lift are simpler than those of finite thickness will include a "wave drag.’ The thickness of
subsonic because the pressure at any point over the wing is the airfoil will have an extremely powerful effect on this wave
dependent only on the slope of the surface over which it is drag since the wave drag varies as the square of the
passing. If the slope is towards the free stream, the pressure is thickness ratio-if the thickness is reduced 50 percent; the
always positive if away it is always negative. Only varying the wave drag is reduced 75 percent. The leading edges of
angle of attack can therefore change pressure. supersonic shapes must be sharp or the wave formed at the
leading edge will be a strong detached shock wave.
- Once the flow on the airfoil is supersonic, the aerodynamic
center of the surface 'will be located approximately at the 50
per-cent chord position. As this contrasts with the subsonic
location for the aerodynamic center of the 25 percent chord
position, significant changes in aerodynamic trim and stability
may be encountered in transonic flight.
Rev. 00 94
11.1
Rev. 00 95
11.1
One of the most interesting, and perhaps surprising, Features of At a still larger angle - but the reader may like to draw this for
the flow is that there is no upwash in front of the aerofoil (how himself. Eventually, as the angle of attack is increased, the bow
can there be when the airflow doesn't know that the aerofoil is wave will become detached, as it always is in front of a blunt
coming) - and no appreciable downwash behind the aerofoil; the nose.
deflection of the air (the eventual cause of the lift) is only
The theoretical pressure distribution of a double-wedge aerofoil
between the Shock waves. The pressure distribution over the
at a high angle of attack, divorced from boundary layer and other
aerofoil accounts for both lift and drag.
effects, can therefore be shown as two sets of parallel lines (Fig.
Figure a. shows a double wedge aerofoil at the angle of attack b). The area between the lines of the upper and lower surfaces
for best L/D ratio. This angle is equal to half the angle of the being proportional to the lift. The C.P. will be at the 50 percent
wedge and it can be seen that the upper front and lower rear chord position; Fig c is a typical lift curve for a wedge shaped
surfaces are parallel to the airflow. Consequently the free air aerofoil at supersonic speed.
stream is virtually unaffected by these surfaces and is only acted
upon by the two inclined surfaces. Therefore around the corner
of the upper surface the flow is accelerated through the
expansions and swung round parallel to the rear portion with a
drop in pressure; at the trailing edge the shock restores the
pressure and velocity at the trailing edge the shock restores the
pressure and velocity to free-stream conditions. On the lower
surface at the lower front portion and an expansion of the corner
restores the higher pressure portion and an expansion of the
corner restores the higher pressure and reduces speed to free-
stream values. Thus only two shock waves are attached to the
wing at this angle of attack and the wave drag is therefore less
than that at any other angle of attack, at which all four planes of
the section are affecting the flow.
Rev. 00 96
11.1
Fig. b
Fig. a
Fig. c
Rev. 00 97
11.1
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER COMPRESSIBILITY MACH NUMBER

By definition, critical Mach number is the 'free stream Mach The compressibility Mach number is that Mach number at which,
number which produces first evidence of local sonic flow. because of compressibility effects, control of an aircraft becomes
Therefore, shock waves, buffet, airflow separation, etc., take difficult and beyond which loss of control is probable. From this
place above critical Mach number. definition it can be seen that the compressibility Mach number is
not significant on all aircraft. Those with good transonic
The free-stream speed at which sonic speed is first reached over
characteristics have no compressibility mach number; but on
the wing is the critical velocity (V crit ) for the particular aerofoil
those that eventually lose control, or suffer a serious drop in
section.
stability and control this mach number is important.
It can be seen that, V crit + v = a
V crit = a –v.
The critical speed is therefore always lower than the speed of
sound. The free-stream Mach number prevailing when V crit is
reached is termed the Critical Mach Number (M crit). This
Mach number is of great significance in flying since it marks the
beginning of the compressibility drag rise.
Rev. 00 98
11.1
Rev. 00 99
11.1
SHOCKWAVE DEVELOPMENT IN TRANSONIC FLIGHT

Consider a conventional airfoil shape as shown in figure a If this However, an increase in speed above critical Mach number
airfoil is at a flight Mach number of 0.50 and a slight positive sufficient to form a strong shock wave can cause separation of
angle of attack, the maximum local velocity on the surface will be the boundary layer and produce sudden changes in the
greater than the flight speed but most likely less than sonic aerodynamic force coefficients. Such a flow condition is shown in
speed. Assume that an increase in flight Mach number to 0.72 figure a by the flow pattern for M=0.77.
would produce first evidence of local sonic flow. This condition of
Note that a further increase in Mach number to 0.82 can enlarge
flight would be the highest flight speed possible without
the supersonic area on the upper surface and form an additional
supersonic flow and would be termed the "critical Mach
area of supersonic flow and normal shock wave on the lower
number."
surface. As the flight speed approaches the speed of sound the
As critical Mach number is exceeded an area of supersonic areas of supersonic flow enlarge and the shock waves move
airflow is created and a normal shock wave forms as the nearer the trailing edge. The boundary layer may remain
boundary between the supersonic flow and the subsonic flow on separated or may reattach depending much upon the airfoil
the aft portion of the airfoil surface. The acceleration of the shape and angle of attack.
airflow from subsonic to supersonic is smooth and
When the flight speed exceeds the speed of sound the "bow"
unaccompanied by shock waves if the surface is smooth and the
wave forms at the leading edge and this typical flow pattern is
transition gradual. However, the transition of airflow from
illustrated in figure b by the drawing for M= 1.05. If the speed is
supersonic to subsonic is always accompanied by a shock wave
increased to some higher supersonic value all oblique portions of
and, when there is no change in direction of the airflow, the
the waves incline more greatly and the detached normal shock
waveform is a normal shock wave.
portion of the bow wave moves closer to the leading edge.
Recall that one of the principal effects of the normal shock wave
is to produce a large increase in the static pressure of the air
stream behind the wave. If the shock wave is strong, the
boundary layer may not have sufficient kinetic energy to
withstand the large, adverse pressure gradient and separation
will occur. At speeds only slightly beyond critical Mach number
the shock wave formed is not strong enough to cause separation
or any noticeable change in the aerodynamic force coefficients.
Rev. 00 100
11.1
Figure a
Figure b
Subsonic Speeds. No shock wave, Breakaway at transition point.
At critical Mach Number. First shock wave develops.
At speed of Sound. Shock wave stronger and moving back.
Transonic speeds. Bow wave appears from front, Original wave at tail.
Fully supersonic flow. Fully developed waves at bow and tail.
Rev. 00 101
11.1
FORCE DIVERGENCE WAVE OR PRESSURE DRAG

The airflow separation induced by shock wave formation can Wave drag at supersonic speeds is the major cause of the drag
create significant variations in the aerodynamic force rise associated with flight at these speeds. Below is given a
coefficients. When the free stream speed is greater than critical simple explanation of the origin of this type of drag:
Mach number some typical effects on an airfoil section are as
During flight at subsonic or supersonic speed, positive pressure
follows:
is acting against the leading edges of the wings, causing a drag
- An increase in the section drag coefficient for a given section force. However, in subsonic flight, as the airflow decelerates
lift coefficient. over the rear portion of the wing and the pressure starts
increasing, the effect of squeezing an orange pip between finger
- A decrease in section lift coefficient for a given section angle
and thumb) which, at subsonic speeds exactly balances the
of attack.
positive pressure on the leading edge; thus there is no pressure
- A change in section pitching moment coefficient. drag.
A reference point is usually taken by a plot of drag coefficient At supersonic speeds the flow accelerates over the rear portion
versus Mach number for a constant lift coefficient. Such a graph (the reverse of the subsonic behavior) and in doing so drops in
is shown in figure. The Mach number which produces a sharp pressure. The pressure is restored to the free stream static
change in the drag coefficient is termed the "force divergence" pressure on passing through the trailing –edge shock. The
Mach number and, for most airfoils, usually exceeds the critical decrease in pressure produces a rearward-facing suction on the
Mach number at least 5 to 10 percent. This condition is also tapering section of the aerofoil. This is a drag force, which,
referred to as the "drag divergence" or "drag rise. when added to that acting on the leading edge produces a
pressure drag also called wave drag.
Rev. 00 102
11.1
Rev. 00 103
11.1
THE SHOCK STALL

As stated previously, a marked rise in pressure occurs The shock stall and the ordinary stall, although having different
immediately behind the shock wave. The pressure increases causes, have certain points in common. These are:
progressively thereafter until the air leaves the trailing edge at
• A sudden increase in drag often accompanied by marked
the prevailing static pressure. The effect of the sudden rise in
buffeting which increases in intensity with the growth of
pressure is to cause the boundary layer to decelerate rapidly in
the stall.
its attempt to make headway through the pressure rise. If the
adverse effects of the pressure rise become pronounced the • Sudden or gradual loss of lift, depending on the aerofoil
boundary layer breaks away from the wing contour immediately section and the wing planform.
behind the shock, taking with it the layers of air above it,
• Decrease of stability.
As is rather to be expected all this adds up to a sudden and
considerable increase in drag- it may be as much as a ten times But the similarity must not lead us to forget the essential
increase. This is accompanied, if it is an aerofoil, by a loss of lift difference –no it isn’t the speed, we have already made It
and often, due to a completely changed pressure distribution, to clear, that the ordinary stall can occur at any speed; the
a change in position of the center of pressure and pitching essential difference is that the ordinary stall occurs at a large
moment, which in turn may upset the balance of the aeroplane. angle of attack and to avoid confusion we’ll call it the high
incidence stall to distinguish it from the shock stall which is
At the same time the turbulent airflow behind the shock wave is more likely to occur at small angles of attack.
apt to cause severe buffeting, especially if this flow strikes some
other part of the aeroplane such as the tail plane. One can Associated with the "drag rise" are buffet, trim and stability
hardly avoid saying- very like a stall. Yes, so like the stall that it changes, and a decrease in control surface effectiveness.
is called just that -a shock stall. Conventional aileron, rudder, and elevator surfaces
subjected to this high frequency buffet may "buzz," and
changes in hinge moments may produce undesirable control
forces. Of course, if the buffet is quite severe and prolonged,
structural damage may occur if this operation is in violation of
operating limitations.
Rev. 00 104
11.1
Rev. 00 105
11.1
TUCK UNDER in the overall center of pressure to the initial position. The
aircraft comes back into trim.
As any wing approaches high Mach numbers between 0.6 and
0.8, the local flow at certain points over the upper surface At Mach 0.88 the shock wave further spreads and at this point
reaches the speed of sound. When this happens, a shock wave the loss of lift over the inboard wing section starts to dominate
forms at the particular point on the upper surface. The shock the trim change due to the forward pressure movement. The
wave causes a breakdown of the surface boundary layer, and a aircraft pitches down, so that a backward stick pressure is
breakaway of flow behind the shock wave occurs. As speed necessary to prevent an increased rate of descent. This effect
increases the shock wave moves rearward. becomes more and more marked as Mach number increases
further.
The effect of this is two-fold. The wing loses lift behind the
shockwave and consequently the centre of pressure of the wing At first the rearward movement of the center of pressure is more
moves rearward. There is also a loss of total lift due to the noticeable than the loss of lift. As speed increases the lift loss
ineffectiveness of the section of the wing behind the shock wave becomes more and more apparent. The aircraft approaches the
so-called “high speed stall”
The shock waves tend to first form on the root section of the
wing (because of the extra thickness there) and as Mach number
increases the shock wave spreads towards the tip, as well as
moving rearward.
In demonstrating the “tuck” phenomenon the aircraft is trimmed
to fly at Mach 0.82. As speed increases to about Mach 0.82. At
this speed there is a very small shock wave at the root of the
wing. As speed increases to about Mach 0.85 the shock wave
spreads outboard and increases in intensity. The consequent
forward movement of the center of pressure gives rise to a slight
pitch up change of trim.
With a further Mach increase to 0.87 the shock wave spreads
outboard still further and becomes more intense. At this speed
the loss of lift over the inboard section of the wing due to the
shock wave becomes apparent and the consequent movement
Rev. 00 106
11.1
Rev. 00 107
11.1
MACH TRIM COMPRESSIBILITY BUFFET

As the aircraft speed increases in the transonic region, along Erratic movement of control surfaces caused by the turbulent
with the shock wave formation and separation, the center of flow of air over the surfaces due to shockwave formation.
pressure moves rearward. This causes a nose down moment or
tuck under. Trimming the horizontal stabilizer or the all-moving
tail plane to counter this moment as a function of the Mach
number is termed Mach trim. The same effect can be achieved
by changing the aircraft center of gravity by transferring fuel from
a forward fuel tank to a rear one.
Rev. 00 108
11.1
Rev. 00 109
11.1
SONIC BOOM
As a corollary of supersonic flight the shock wave formation on the
airplane may create special problems outside the immediate
vicinity of the airplane surfaces. While the shockwaves a great
distance away from the airplane can be quite weak, the pressure
waves can be of sufficient magnitude to create an audible
disturbance. Thus, "sonic booms" will be a simple consequence of
supersonic flight.
Just below the speed of sound the pressure energy generated by
the various noises both aerodynamic and mechanical of the aircraft
are dispersed ahead of the machine. Above the speed of sound,
the noise will lag behind the aircraft. At the speed of sound
however, the noise travels with the aircraft, and the longer the
exact speed of sound is maintained the greater the accumulation
and reinforcement of the pressure energy.
When eventually released, either ahead or behind the aircraft, the
bubble or wave of reinforced pressure energy will travel down the
path of flight, curving slightly as the result of atmospheric
refraction, and strike the earth at a tangent to cause what is known
as a “sonic bang”. In supersonic flight two sonic bangs will be
produced; one as the aircraft’s speed draws level before
overtaking the speed of sound, and a second as it drops back level
with sonic velocity before becoming subsonic.
Rev. 00 110
11.1
Rev. 00 111
11.1
TRANSONIC AND SUPERSONIC CONFIGURATIONS Once the configuration of a transonic aircraft is fixed, the pilot
must respect the effect of angle of attack and altitude. The local
The airplane configuration must have aerodynamic shapes,
flow velocities on any upper surface increase with an increase in
which will have low drag in compressible flow. Generally, this will
angle of attack. Hence, local sonic flow and subsequent shock
require airfoil sections of low thickness ratio and sharp leading
wave formation can occur at lower free stream Mach numbers.
edges and body shapes of high fineness ratio to minimize the
supersonic wave drag. Because of the aft movement of the A pilot must appreciate this reduction of force divergence Mach
aerodynamic center with supersonic flow, the increase in static number with lift coefficient since maneuvers at high speed may
longitudinal stability will demand effective, powerful control produce compressibility effects, which may not be encountered
surfaces to achieve adequate controllability for supersonic in unaccelerated flight.
maneuvering.
The effect of altitude is important since the magnitude of any
Since most of the difficulties of transonic flight are associated force or moment change due to compressibility will depend upon
with shock wave induced flow separation, any means of delaying the dynamic pressure of the airstream. Compressibility effects
or alleviating the shock-induced separation will improve the encountered at high altitude and low dynamic pressure may be
aerodynamic characteristics. of little consequence in the operation of a transonic aircraft.
However, the same compressibility effects encountered at low
An aircraft configuration may utilize thin surfaces of low aspect
altitudes and high dynamic pressures will create greater trim
ratio with sweepback to delay and reduce the magnitude of
changes, heavier buffet, etc., and perhaps transonic flight
transonic force divergence. In addition, various methods of
restrictions which are of principal interest only to low altitude.
boundary layer control, high lift devices, vortex generators, etc.,
may be applied to improve transonic characteristics. The aircraft power plants for supersonic flight must be of
relatively high thrust output. Also, in many cases it may be
For example, the application of vortex generators to a surface
necessary to provide the air breathing power plant with special
can produce higher local surface velocities and increase the
inlet configurations, which will slow the airflow to subsonic prior
kinetic energy of the boundary layer. Thus, a more severe
to reaching the compressor face or combustion chamber.
pressure gradient (stronger shock wave) will be necessary to
Aerodynamic heating of supersonic flight can provide critical inlet
produce airflow separation,
temperatures for the gas turbine engine as well as critical
structural temperatures.
Rev. 00 112
11.1
Rev. 00 113
11.1
VORTEX GENERATORS
“The Drag Rise” is the expression given to compressibility drag Located ahead of the ailerons these vortex generators improve
which is the drag caused by local shock waves associated with aileron effectiveness and also delay high speed stall. The
Mach numbers at and above 0.8. Drag due to compressibility generator can be used to prevent flow separation over control
effects can be alleviated slightly by the use of a device known as surfaces and cause the shock wave to attach itself to the vortex
a vortex generator. generator and will be arrested in its rearward movement as the
speed increases. The other effect is that the agitation to the
When airflow separation due to compressibility occurs it is
boundary layer by the vortex generator will prevent flow
always associated with the formation of a shock wave resulting
separation.
in adverse characteristics downstream of the shock wave. To
relieve this adverse effect, energy must be given particles, there
by preventing separation. The vortex generator is designed to
do this job.
The vortex generator is actually a pair of small airfoils placed
vertically at opposite angles of attack to each other on the upper
surface of the wing.
The-generator is taking relatively high energy (high speed) air
from above the boundary layer and mixing it with the low energy
air (dead air) in the boundary layer. The differential pressure
caused by the opposing angles of attack of a pair of these airfoils
creates corkscrew effect on the airflow direction the high-speed
air into the boundary layer. Obviously, the size and location of
the vortex generator must be such as to penetrate through the
boundary layer. The number of generators and the orientation
on the wing largely depends upon flight test investigation.
Rev. 00 114
11.1
Rev. 00 115
11.1
AIRFOIL SECTIONS
Aircraft configurations developed for high-speed flight will have An improvement of the compressibility characteristics can be
significant differences in shape and planform when compared obtained by moving the points of maximum camber and
with aircraft designed for low speed flight. One of the outstanding thickness aft on the chord. This would distribute the pressure
differences will be in the selection of airfoil profiles for transonic and velocity more evenly along the chord and produce a lower
or supersonic flight peak velocity for the same lift coefficient. Fortunately, the airfoil
shape to provide extensive laminar flow and low profile drag in
It should be obvious that airfoils for high-speed subsonic flight
low speed, subsonic flight will provide a pressure distribution,
should have high critical Mach numbers since critical Mach
which is favorable for high-speed flight.
number defines the lower limit for shock wave formation and
subsequent force divergence. An additional complication to Figure illustrates the pressure distributions and variation of
airfoil selection in this speed range is that the airfoil should have critical Mach number with lift coefficient for a conventional low
a high maximum lift coefficient and sufficient thickness to allow speed airfoil and a high-speed section.
application of high lift devices. Otherwise an excessive wing area
In order to obtain a high critical Mach number from an airfoil at
would be required to provide maneuverability and reasonable
some low lift coefficient the section must have:
takeoff and landing speeds.
• Low thickness ratio.
However, if high-speed flight is the primary consideration, the
airfoil must be chosen to have the highest practical critical Mach The point of maximum thickness should be aft to smooth
number. the pressure distribution.
Thus, the airfoil shape and lift coefficient-which determine the • Low camber.
pressure and velocity distribution will have a profound effect on
The mean camber line should be shaped to help
critical Mach number.
minimize the local velocity peaks. Cambered aerofoil
Conventional, low speed airfoil shapes have relatively poor have adverse effects on drag and stability during
compressibility characteristics because of the high local transonic and supersonic flight/ The consequent
velocities near the leading edge. These high local velocities are desirability of using Symmetrical airfoils means that the
inevitable if both the maximum thickness and camber are well maximum lift coefficient at low speeds is decreased,
forward on the chord. leading to-higher stalling speeds.
In addition, the higher the required lift coefficient the lower the
critical Mach number and more camber is required of the airfoil.
Rev. 00 116
11.1
Rev. 00 117
11.1
THICKNESS CHORD RATIO (T/C) The t/c ratio plays an important part in the variation of CL with
Mach number. When the critical Mach number is reached, the
The t/c ratio is a major consideration in the wing design of
shock waves cause boundary- layer separation with its attendant
transonic and supersonic aircraft. The two most important effects
loss of lift (decreased CL). The CL falls steadily to a minimum
of variation in the t/c ratio are dealt with below:-
value and then rises to settle at a supersonic value slightly lower
Thin aerofoil sections are the Key to smooth transonic flight. than the subsonic one corresponding to the particular angle of
Whereas the t/c ratio of the wings of transonic fighters is in the attack. The suddenness and degree of the loss in CL depends
region of 8 to 10 per cent that of supersonic aircraft is about 6 largely on the t/c ratio and indicated clearly the advantage of
percent or less. The reason for these thinner wings can be seen using a thin wing. ( Fig b.)
in the curves of Fig a. which show the effect of speed on the
Stability. The lower part of Fig C shows the effect of increasing
drag coefficient of two wings, one of 12 per cent and the other 7
speed on the fore-and-aft trimmed position of an aircraft using
per cent t/o ratio. (It must be remembered that this coefficient is
wings of 12 per cent and 8 percent t/c ratio. The large nose-up
not the drag force itself but a term in the drag formula, D = CD
pitch at about 8M followed by the thick aerofoil characteristic of
Therefore affects the rate at which the drag increases with
aircraft that are basically subsonic. The same curve for the 8 per
speed). Note that the thinner wing has a much lower peak CD –
cent wing shows a more gradual nose-down pitch followed by an
about a third of the thicker section. The curve shows that as the
equally gradual nose-up. These curves are illustrative only,
aircraft approaches mach 1.0, the drag coefficient and so the
since their shape varies with the aerofoil section used. The
rate of growth of total drag increases rapidly.
upper part of Fig. c shows the change in angle of attack
The CD, which was constant at subsonic speeds, increases necessary to maintain level flight (constant lift) with increasing
because of the wave drag and the adverse effects of the shock Mach number. Again, the superiority of the thin wing is obvious,
wave on the boundary layer. Above 1.0 M the total drag the pronounced peak of the 12 per cent section calling for an
continues to increase with speed, but because the CD is falling, impossible violent change of attitude.
the rate of increase is less. The drop in the value of the CD
It makes little difference whether the thickest point is half-way
immediately after 1.0M is mainly due to the decreasing transonic
back, or more or less; there is little change of drag for x / c ratios
effects and improving boundary-layer conditions. At about 1.3 M
between 40 Per cent and 60 per cent and the lift and centre of
the CD stabilizes at a higher figure than the subsonic value, the
pressure Positions are not affected at all. But we have to
higher figure being caused by the effects of the wave drag
consider flight at subsonic speeds and, from this point of view,
characteristic of supersonic airflow.
maximum thickness should be at 40 per cent of the chord rather
than farther back.
Rev. 00 118
11.1
Fig a
Fig c
Fig b
Rev. 00 119
11.1
BI-CONVEX AEROFOIL SUPERCRITICAL WING

The foregoing paragraphs have dealt with flow about a double- Recently an airfoil has been developed that has a critical Mach
wedge section because of the multiple nature of the flow about it. number close to I. This airfoil is referred to as the supercritical
The bi-convex section, although subject to the same effects, has design and was developed by Dr. Richard Whitcomb of NASA.
by reason of its curved section, a different pressure distribution.
The supercritical airfoil, illustrated in Figure c, has a very slight
The outlines of the bi-convex section are arcs of circles; curvature on the upper surface and the maximum thickness is
therefore the point of maximum thickness is at the 50 percent much farther back than normal. The airfoil curves downward at
chord position. Because the slope of the section is changing the trailing edge. This design prevents the rapid pressure rise
continuously, the pressure must follow suit and the separate normally associated with a more cambered airfoil. It also delays
expansions of the double wedge section now occur and softens the onset of shock waves on the upper surface of a
progressively along the surface. wing. The shock wave is far less severe than on a conventional
wing, as is shown in Figure b, and fuel efficiency is substantially
Fig. a shows the theoretical pressure distribution of this section
improved. This design is being adopted on many transport
at fairly high angle of attack. The dotted curve for the top
category and business-jet aircraft.
surface is a falling-off in lift that occurs in practice through
adverse boundary- layer effects, while the dotted line for the
lower surface shows a local increase in pressure near the
leading edge. Thus the total lift remains near the same, but the
effect of the dotted lines is to move the C.P., forward of the mid-
chord point by about 10 per cent.
Comparison of the pressure distributions between subsonic and
supersonic airflows shows that most of the lift on the subsonic
wing comes from the pressure drop-over the front portion of the
upper surface (fig. b) i.e., the C.P. is situated at about the
quarter chord point. The C.P. of the supersonic wing is almost at
the half-chord point. The rearward movement of the C.P. During
transition from subsonic to supersonic speed is the cause of the
changes in trim and stability.
Rev. 00 120
11.1
Fig. a
Fig. c
Fig. b
Rev. 00 121
11.1
SWEEPBACK In addition to the delay of the onset of compressibility effects,

sweepback will reduce the magnitude of the changes in force
Another method for increasing the critical Mach number is to
coefficients due to compressibility. Since the component of
sweep back the wing. This will improve the critical Mach number.
velocity perpendicular to the leading edge is less than the free
Sweepback produces an unusual effect on the high-speed stream velocity, the magnitude of all pressure forces on the wing
characteristics of a surface and has basis in a very fundamental will be reduced
concept of aerodynamics. A grossly simplified method of
Since compressibility force divergence occurs due to changes in
visualizing the effect of sweepback is shown in figure a.
pressure distribution, the use of sweepback will "soften" the force
The swept wing shown has the stream wise velocity broken divergence. This effect is illustrated by the graph of figure b,
down to a component of velocity perpendicular to the leading which shows the typical variation of drag coefficient with Mach
edge and a component parallel to the leading edge. The number for various sweepback angles.
component of speed perpendicular to the leading edge is less
The straight wing shown begins drag rise at M=0.70, reaches a
than the free stream speed (by the cosine of the sweep angle)
peak near M=1.0, and begins a continual drop past M= 1.0. Note
and it is this velocity component, which determines the
that the use of sweepback then delays the drag rise to some
magnitude of the pressure distribution.
higher Mach number and reduces the magnitude of the drag
The component of speed parallel to the leading edge could be rise.
visualized as moving across constant sections and, in doing so,
Generally, the effect of wing sweep will apply to either sweep
does not contribute to the pressure distribution on the swept
back or sweep forward. While the swept forward wing has been
wing. Hence, sweep of a surface produces a beneficial effect in
used in rare instances, the aero elastic stability of such a wing
high-speed flight since higher flight speeds may be obtained
crates such a problem that sweep back is more practical for
before components of speed perpendicular to the leading edge
ordinary applications.
produce critical conditions on the wing. This is one of the most
important advantages of sweep since there is an increase in The Critical Mach of a wing is dependent, among other things,
critical Mach number, force divergence Mach number, and the upon the wing sweep and the airfoil shape. The thinner the
Mach number at which the drag rise will peak. In other words, airfoil and the more wing sweep the higher the Critical Mach
sweep will delay the onset of compressibility effects. number.
Rev. 00 122
11.1
Fig a Fig b
Rev. 00 123
11.1
In view of the preceding discussion, sweep back will have the A few of the less significant advantages of sweepback are as
following principal advantages: follows:
- Sweepback will delay the onset of all compressibility effects. The wing lift curve slope is reduced for a given aspect ratio. This
Critical Mach number and force divergence Mach number is illustrated by the lift curve comparison of figure a. for the
will increase since the velocity component affecting the straight and swept wing. Any reduction of lift curve slope implies
pressure distribution is less than the free stream velocity. the wing is less sensitive to changes in angle of attack. This is a
Also, the peak of drag rise is delayed to some higher beneficial effect only when the effect of gusts and turbulence is
supersonic speed-approximately the speed which, produces considered.
sonic flow perpendicular to the leading edge.
‘Divergence’, of a surface is an aero elastic problem, which can
- Sweepback will reduce the magnitude of change in the occur at high dynamic pressures. Combined bending and
aerodynamic force coefficients due to compressibility. Any twisting deflections interact with aerodynamic forces to produce
change in drag, lift, or moment coefficients will be reduced by sudden failure of the surface at high speeds. Sweepback tends
the use of sweepback. to stabilize the surface by' ‘trailing’, and tends to raise the
divergence speed
These advantages of drag reduction and preservation of the
transonic maximum lift coefficient are illustrated in the previous Sweepback contributes slightly to the static directional-or
figure. weathercock-stability of an aircraft.
Thus, the use of sweepback on a transonic aircraft will reduce Sweepback contributes to lateral stability in the same sense as
and delay the drag rise and preserve the maneuverability of the dihedral. When the swept wing aircraft is placed in a sideslip, the
aircraft in transonic flight. wing into the wind experiences an increase in lift since the
sweep is less and the wing away from the wind produces less lift
since the sweep is greater. These effects are shown in Fig b.
Rev. 00 124
11.1
Fig a
Fig b
Rev. 00 125
11.1
As shown, the swept wing has certain important advantages. • As shown by the lift curve of figure the use of sweepback will
However, the use of sweepback produces certain inevitable reduce the lift curve slope and the subsonic maximum lift
disadvantages, which are important from the standpoint of both coefficient. It is important to note this case is definitely
airplane design and flight operations. The most important of subsonic since sweepback may be used to improve the
these disadvantages are as follows: transonic maneuvering capability.
• When sweepback is combined with taper there is an The reduction of the low speed maximum lift coefficient in
extremely powerful tendency for the wing to stall tip first. This has very important implications in design. If wing loading is
pattern of stall is very undesirable since there would be little not reduced, stall speeds increase and subsonic
stall warning, a serious reduction in lateral control maneuverability decreases. On the other hand, if wing
effectiveness, and the forward shift of the center of pressure loading is reduced, the increase in wing surface area may
would contribute to a nose up moment ("pitch up” or "stick reduce the anticipated benefit of sweepback in the transonic
force lightening"). flight regime. Since the requirements of performance
predominate, certain increases of stall speeds, takeoff
Design for high-speed performance may dictate high
speeds, and landing speeds usually will be accepted.
sweepback, while structural efficiency may demand a highly
tapered planform. When such is the case, the wing may • The use of sweepback will reduce the effectiveness of trailing
require extensive aero dynamic tailoring to provide a suitable edge control surfaces and high lift devices. A typical example
stall pattern and a lift distribution at cruise condition which of this effect is the application of a single slotted flap over the
reduces drag due to lift. Washout of the tip, variation of inboard 60 percent span to both a straight wing and a wing
section camber throughout span, flow fences, slats, leading with 35° sweepback. The flap applied to the straight wing
edge extension, etc. Are typical devices used to modify the produces an increase in maximum lift coefficient of
stall pattern and minimize drag due to lift at cruise condition. approximately 50 percent. The same type flap applied to the
swept wing produces an increase in maximum lift coefficient
of approximately 20 percent.
To produce some reasonable maximum lift coefficient on a
swept wing may require unsweeping the flap hinge line,
application of leading edge high lift devices such as slots or
slats, and possibly boundary layer control.
Rev. 00 126
11.1
Rev. 00 127
11.1
WING TIP STALLING

There are two main reasons for an accentuated tendency
towards tip stalling on swept-back wings:
• When a wing is swept-back, the effect is to change the
distribution of the lift so that the proportion carried by the
outer portions of the wing is increased i.e., the local lift
coefficients near the wing tips are increased. This is a
possible cause of the tip stall.
• There is a tendency for the boundary-layer to change
direction and drift out wards towards the tips and interact
with the possible critical conditions over the tips leading
to an early stall in this region.
If wing stall tip first, there will be the associated problems such
as a change in pitching moment and loss of control due to flight
control surface ineffectiveness.
Rev. 00 128
11.1
Rev. 00 129
11.1
REMEDIES FOR WING TIP STALLING

Various methods employed to prevent wing tip stalling are CRESCENT WING
mentioned below: -
Another method of avoiding the tip stall is to reduce the amount
ALL-MOVING WING TIPS of sweep-back on the outer sections of the wings, so that the
inboard sections are comparatively highly swept, whereas the
Since the ailerons of most aircraft are situated at the wing tips, in
tips have little or even no sweep-back on the outer sections of
the region where the adverse effects of the thickened boundary-
the wings. This gives the leading edge of the wing the shape of
layer are greatest, the effectiveness of the ailerons tends to
a crescent and hence the name Crescent wing. It is also known
decrease as the angle of attack is increased. Therefore
as “Cranked wing” or compound Sweep.”
comparatively large aileron movements are necessary. As a
solution to the aileron ineffectiveness, all-moving wing have LEADING EDGE NOTCHES
been devised. The extreme tip of the wing is hinged and usually
The notch creates a high energy chord wise vortex which
power-operated, to give more precise control at transonic and
prevents drifting of the boundary layer toward the tips as well as
supersonic speeds in the same manner as the all-moving tail
energizing the boundary layer thereby preventing wing tip
plane.
stalling.
WING FENCES
This is another device to avoid the wing tip stalling. There are
small chord wise metal strips, a few inches in height, fitted on the
upper surfaces of some swept-back wings to improve the stalling
characteristics. The fences may extend all the way from the
leading edge to the trailing edge or over only a part of the chord.
On some wings the fences may even be continued around the
leading edge and for a short distance on the lower surface of the
wing. Depending on its size and position, the fence relieves the
wing tip stalling tendency either by restricting the span wise
movement of the boundary layer or a combination of both.
Rev. 00 130
11.1
Wing fence
Crescent wing
Leading edge notch
Rev. 00 131
11.1
EFFECT OF ASPECT RATIO

In addition to wing sweep, planform properties such as aspect
ratio, and tip shape, can produce significant effects on the
aerodynamic characteristics at high speeds.
Another method for increasing the critical Mach number is to
reduce the aspect ratio. This is not a completely satisfactory
solution, because a low aspect ratio adversely affects flight at
low speeds. The Concorde, pictured, cruises at speeds of over
Mach 2, yet its design, which incorporates a delta planform wing
with an aspect ratio of 1.7, is still capable of adequate
performance at subsonic speeds.
There is no particular effect of aspect ratio on critical Mach
number at high or medium aspect ratios. The aspect ratio must
be less than four or five to produce any apparent change in
critical Mach number. This effect is shown for a typical 9 percent
thick symmetrical airfoil in the graph of figure b
Note that very low aspect ratios are required to cause a
significant increase in critical Mach number. Very low "aspect
ratios create the extremes of three dimensional flow and
subsequent increase in free stream speed to create local sonic
flow. Actually, the extremely low aspect ratios required to
produce high critical Mach number are not too practical.
Generally, the advantage of low aspect ratio must be combined
with sweepback and high-speed airfoil sections.
Rev. 00 132
11.1
Fig b
Fig a
Rev. 00 133
11.1
SUPERSONIC WING SHAPES - PLAN FORM This airflow may not be actually subsonic, but at least the
resolved part of it at right angles to the leading edge, or across
supersonic flow is more accommodating than subsonic flow, less
the chord, is likely to be. So although a swept-back wing is better
fussy in what it encounters, and compared with subsonic flow,
than an unswept wing in the transonic region, it may retain some
the lift coefficient is less, the drag coefficient greater, and the L/
of its advantages even into the supersonic region and this
D ratio in consequence lower, the actual values of CL/ CD, and
applies particularly to thick wings which are naturally more prone
L/ D, and the Position of the centre of pressure seem to be little
to the formation of shock waves.
affected by the shapes of either the cross-section or the plan
form of the wing. Of course, if we are to keep within the Mach Cone the sweep
back must increase with the Mach Number, until eventually the
It will be remembered that in the transonic region there was
delta shape may be more appropriately described as an arrow-
advantage in a considerable degree of sweep back of the
head shape (Fig. b),
leading edge because it delayed the shock stall, the increase of
drag, buffeting, and so on - in other words, it raised the critical But whenever we discuss the advantages of sweep back we
Mach number. must never forget its disadvantages which are largely structural;
the twisting and Bending stresses on a heavily swept-back wing
At supersonic speed and higher, the advantage of the sweptback
give many headaches to the designer and mean extra weight to
wing begins to decrease, and at Mach 2, the straight wing is
provide the strength. But there is also the problem of tip stalling
superior This might be true if the only effect of sweepback was to
and lateral control near the stalling and landing speed.
delay the critical Mach number - but actually it does more than
this. Shapes A and B are better structurally than C and D, they are
better, too, from the point of view of tip stalling; they also Have
Consider, for instance, the plan shapes A, B, C, and D (Fig. a);
an interesting, though perhaps rather concealed, advantage in
with the possible exception of B, all these have been used on
that owing to the long chord the wing can be thick (which means
high-speed Aircraft. At the apex of each are shown the Mach
a good Ratio of strength to weight), yet still slim as regards
Lines for a Mach number of about 1.8, and it will be noticed that
thickness/chord Ratio (which is what matters as regards shock
the leading edges for these shapes all lie within the Mach Cone,
drag).
and this in turn means that The airflow which strikes the wing
has been affected by the wing before it reaches it; if, as is The advantage of C and D lies chiefly in Lower drag the point
probable, there are also shock waves at the nose of the airplane, and so in better Lift/ drag ratio; they are also more suitable for
or at the apex of the wing, the whole of the leading edge of the the conventional fuselage and control system, and for engine
wing will be behind these shock waves and so will encounter an installation.
Airflow of speed lower than that of the airplane.
Rev. 00 134
11.1
Supersonic planforms
Arrowhead delta wing for high mach numbers
Rev. 00 135
11.1
One rather unexpected bonus resulting from the use of delta This value is inferior to L/ D ratios for subsonic wing shapes
wings, or Others with extreme taper and sweep back of more (only about half), but it is reasonably economical when
than 55° or so, comes From the stall itself; this is a leading edge everything is taken into consideration.
stall which starts at the wing Tip and progresses gradually
The Lift coefficient is the same for all the shapes, and although it
inboard, the separation bubble is then Swept back with the
is smaller than those of subsonic airfoils this does not matter at
leading edge and shed as a trailing vortex, tightly Rolled up and
high speeds;
with a very low pressure at its core. The low pressure acts on the
forward facing parts of the upper surface of the wing giving a Where it does matter is that it means high stalling and landing
'Form thrust' (in effect a negative drag) and a lift boost; moreover speeds, which in turn mean long runways, and devices such as
the Flow in the core is stable and causes little buffeting, unlike tail parachutes to help reduce the speed after landing. A leading-
the separation vortex on wings with sweepback of less than 50°. edge flap or a permanent Droop at the leading edge (sometimes
This is, in fact, an effective way of producing lift. Concorde uses called a droop-snoot), will appreciably lower the landing and
it at both sub and supersonic speeds. stalling speed of a supersonic aerofoil
The use of fences saw teeth and vortex generators can, at best, The fundamental difficulty, for aircraft, is to provide wings that
only give partial mitigation of the resulting stalling phenomena are suitable not only for supersonic flight, but also for subsonic
such as the buffeting, wing drop and pitch up. and transonic flight. After all, supersonic airplanes have to take
off and land; and they also have to pass through the transonic
But whatever the pros and cons of sweep back there is no doubt
region. The real answer - so far as plan form is concerned - is
that there is a lot to be said for the straight rectangular wing for
surely in variable sweep
really high supersonic speeds. With the small aspect ratio, and
tremendously high wing loading associated with such speeds, As regards to plan shape the only way of making an aerofoil
the wings are very small anyway, and from the strength point of suitable for subsonic, transonic, and supersonic flight is to make
view a rectangular wing, or a wing that is tapered for structural it variable in shape.
reasons rather than for aerodynamic reasons, will probably win
the day. Theory predicts a maximum value of L/ D of 12.5 for a
wing with a Thickness/ chord ratio of 4 per cent at a Mach
number above about 1.3.
(Note that in this statement there is no reference to the shape of
the Wing, or where is the greatest thickness.)
Rev. 00 136
11.1
How the drag increases with Mach number for

straight, highly-swept and delta wing shapes
Variable sweep
Rev. 00 137
11.1
CONTROL SURFACES
The design of control surfaces for transonic and supersonic flight The deflection of a trailing edge control surface at low subsonic
involves many important considerations. This fact is illustrated by speeds alters the pressure distribution on the fixed portion as
the typical transonic and supersonic flow patterns of figure 3.19. well as the movable portion of the surface. This is true to the
Trailing edge control surfaces can be affected adversely by the extent that a 1-degree deflection of a 40 percent chord elevator
shock waves formed in flight above critical Mach number. If the produces a lift change very nearly the equivalent of a 1-degree
airflow is separated by the shock wave the resulting buffet of the change in stabilizer setting.
control surface can be very objectionable.
However, if supersonic flow exists on the surface, a deflection of
In addition to the buffet of the surface, the change in the the trailing edge control surface cannot influence the pressure
pressure distribution due to separation and the shock wave distribution in the supersonic area ahead of the movable control
location can create very large changes in control surface hinge surface. This is especially true in high supersonic flight where
moments. Such large changes in hinge moments create very supersonic flow exists over the entire chord and the change in
undesirable control forces and present the need for an pressure distribution is limited to the area of the control surface.
"irreversible" control system.
The reduction in effectiveness of the trailing edge control surface
An irreversible control system would employ powerful hydraulic at transonic and supersonic speeds necessitates the use of an
or electric actuators to move the surfaces upon control by the all-movable surface. Application of the all-movable control
pilot and the air loads developed on the surface could not feed surface to the horizontal tail is most usual since the increase in
back to the pilot. Of course, suitable control forces would be longitudinal stability in supersonic flight requires a high degree of
synthesized by bungees, "q" springs etc. control effectiveness to achieve required controllability for
supersonic maneuvering.
Any movable control surface, which is hinged behind a fixed
surface, suffers a marked reduction in effectiveness at high
Mach number.
Ideally, when the control surface is moved it should influence the
pressure distribution over both. In supersonic flight influence is
restricted to the area aft of the shock wave, which springs from
the fixed surface ahead of it, consequently the effectiveness of
the control is reduced and larger movements are necessary to
obtain a given reaction from the aircraft.
Rev. 00 138
11.1
Rev. 00 139
11.1
AEROELASTIC EFFECTS
The requirement for structural stiffness and rigidity is the The effect of additional weight is best illustrated by preliminary
consideration given to the interaction of aerodynamic forces and design studies of a very long range, high altitude bomber. In the
deflections of the structure. The aircraft and its components preliminary phases of design, each additional pound of any
must have sufficient stiffness to prevent or minimize aeroelastic weight would necessitate a 25 – pound increase in gross weight
influences in the normal flight range. Aileron reversal, to maintain the same performance. An increase in the weight of
divergence, flutter, and vibration should not occur in the range of any item produced a chain reaction – more fuel, larger Tanks,
flight speeds, which will be normal operation for the aircraft. bigger engines, more fuel, heavier landing gear, more fuel, etc.
In the competitive sense of design, no additional structural
It is important to distinguish between strength and stiffness.
weight can be tolerated to provide more strength than is
Strength is simply the resistance to load while stiffness is the
specified as necessary for the design mission requirement.
resistance to deflection or deformation. While strength and
stiffness are related, it is necessary to appreciate that adequate
structural strength does not automatically provide adequate
stiffness. Thus, special consideration is necessary to provide
the structural components with specific stiffness characteristic to
prevent undesirable aero elastic effects during normal operation.
An obvious solution to the apparent problems of static strength,
fatigue strength, stiffness and rigidity would be to build the
airplane like a product of an anvil works, capable of withstanding
all conceivable loads. However, high performance airplane
configurations cannot be developed with inefficient, lowly
stressed structures.
Rev. 00 140
11.1
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Rev. 00 141
11.1
AILERON REVERSAL
Aileron reversal is a phenomenon particular to high-speed flight.
When in flight at very high dynamic pressures, the wing torsional
deflections, which occur, with aileron deflection are considerable
and cause noticeable change in aileron effectiveness. The
deflection of an aileron on a rigid wing creates a change in lift
and produce a rolling moment. In addition the deflection of the
control surface creates a twisting moment on the wing. When
the actual elastic wing is subject to this condition at high dynamic
pressures, the twisting moment produces measurable twisting
deformation, which affects the rolling performance of the aircraft.
Figure illustrates this process and the effect of airspeed on
aileron effectiveness.
At some high dynamic pressure, the twisting deformation will be
great enough to nullify the effect on aileron deflection and the
aileron effectiveness will be zero. Since speeds above this point
create rolling moments opposite tot eh direction controlled, this
point is termed the “aileron reversal speed.” Operation beyond
the reversal speed would create an obvious control difficulty.
Also, the extreme large twisting moments, which produce loss of
aileron, effectiveness creates large twisting moments capable of
structural damage.
In order to prevent loss of aileron effectiveness at high
airspeeds, the wing must have high torsional stiffness. This may
be a feature difficult to accomplish in a wing of very thin section
and may favor the use of inboard ailerons to reduce the twisted
span length and effectively increase torsional stiffness. The use
of spoilers for lateral control minimizes the twisting moments and
alleviate the reversal problem.
Rev. 00 142
11.1
Rev. 00 143
11.1
FLUTTER
Flutter involves aerodynamic forces, inertia force and the elastic
properties of a surface. The distribution of mass and stiffness in
a structure determine certain natural frequencies and modes of
vibration. If the structure is subject to a forcing frequency near
these natural frequencies, a resonant condition can result with
an unstable oscillation. The aircraft is subject to many
aerodynamic forces at various speeds have characteristic
properties for rate of change of force and moment. The
aerodynamic forces may interact with the structure in a fashion,
which may excite or negatively damp the natural modes of the
structure and allow flutter.
Flutter must not occur within the normal flight-operating envelope
and the natural modes must be damped if possible or designed
to occur beyond the limit speed. A typical flutter mode is
illustrated in Figure.
Since the problem is one of the high-speed flight it is generally
desirable to have very high natural frequencies and flutter
speeds well above the normal operating speeds. Any change of
stiffness or mass distribution will alter the modes and
frequencies and thus allow a change in the flutter speeds. If the
aircraft is not properly maintained and excessive play and
flexibility exist, flutter could occur at flight speeds below the limit
airspeed.
Rev. 00 144
11.1
Rev. 00 145
11.1
DIVERGENCE
Is another phenomenon common to flight at high dynamic
pressures. Like aileron reversal, it is an effect due to the
interaction of aerodynamic forces and elastic deflections of the
structure. However, it differs from aileron reversal in that it is a
violent instability which produces immediate failure. Figure
illustrates the process of instability. If the surface is above the
divergence speed, any disturbance precipitates this sequence.
Any change in lift takes place at the aerodynamic center of the
section. The change in lift ahead of the elastic axis produces a
twisting moment and a consequent twisting deflection. The
change in angle of attack creates greater lift at the a.c., greater
twisting deflection, more lift, etc. until failure occurs.
At low flight speeds where the dynamic pressure is low, the
relationship between aerodynamics force buildup and torsional
deflection is stable. However, the change in lift per angle of
attack is proportional to V but the structural torsional stiffness of
the wing remains constant. This relationship implies that at some
high speed, the aerodynamic force build up may overpower the
resisting torsional stiffness and “divergence” will occur. The
divergence speed of the surfaces must be sufficiently high that
the airplane does not encounter this phenomenon within the
normal operating envelope. Sweepback, short span, and high
taper help raise the divergence speed.
Rev. 00 146
11.1
Rev. 00 147
11.1
AREA RULE
In addition to the necessity for each component part to be Similarly behind the point of maximum cross-sectional area it is
aerodynamically refined, care is needed to ensure that the the total cross-sectional area that must be gradually decreased.
interference drag set up when the components are combined is
It will be realized that the application of this rule gives a waist to
also kept low. Through careful design, the total compressibility
the fuselage where wings or other parts such as the tail plane
(Wave) drag of the aircraft can be made less than the total of the
are attached (Fig b). It will be realized too, that sweepback in
compressibility drag of the separate components.
addition to its other advantages is to some extent an area rule in
To this end a concept known as the area rule is used to achieve itself so far as the wings are concerned, the cross-sectional area
the minimum interferences drag. The area rule is simply means being added gradually, and so the waisting of the fuselage will
that the area of cross-section should increase gradually to a be less marked with sweptback wings than with straight wings.
maximum, then decrease gradually; This rule offers advantages
In some aircraft the application of this rule is evident from the
only over in fixed band of speed and its usefulness decreases on
indented or “waisted” appearance of the fuselage where the
either side of this band. Broadly the area rule states that for
fuselage does not result in marked departure from the required
minimum drag the variation of the aircraft’s total cross-sectional
profile. On other aircraft having a high transonic drag caused
area, along its length, should approximate to that of an ideally
through a poor cross-sectional area profile, an improvement may
shaped object having minimum wave drag. This implies that the
be obtained by carefully shaped fuselage “bulges”, fore and aft
cross-sectional area profile should be fairly flat and free from
of the wing, which give a smoother profile.
sudden increases at the points where the other components are
attached. It should be noted that a waisted fuselage is not required if the
aircraft is correctly proportioned from the outset. If a thin,
The body in Fig a. obeys the area rule but it hasn't got any
sweptback wing is used, the rate of growth of the area profile
wings. If we add a projection to a body, such as the wings to a
can be kept close to the ideal without the structural
fuselage, we shall get a sudden jump in the cross-sectional area
complications of the waisted fuselage and the loss of internal
and that means that the area rule is not being obeyed. What
space for fuel, etc.
then can we do?
The answer is that we must decrease the cross-sectional area of
the fuselage as we add the cross-sectional area of the wings in
such a way that the total cross- sectional area of the aeroplane
increases gradually.
Rev. 00 148
11.1
Fig. a
Fig b
Rev. 00 149
11.1
CONFIGURATIONS SUMMARY
When all the various components of the supersonic airplane are
developed, the most likely general configuration properties will
be as follows:
- The wing will be of low aspect ratio, have noticeable taper,
and have sweepback depending on the design speed range.
The wing sections will be of low thickness ratio and require
sharp leading edges.
- The fuselage and nacelles will be of high fineness ratio (long
and slender). The supersonic pressure distribution may
create significant lift and drag and require consideration of
the stability contribution of these surfaces.
- The tail surfaces will be similar to the wing-low aspect ratio,
tapered, swept and of thin section with sharp leading edge.
The controls will be fully powered and irreversible with all
movable surfaces the most likely configuration.
- In order to reduce interference drag in transonic and
supersonic flight, the gross cross section of the aircraft may
be "area ruled to approach that of some optimum high speed
shape.
Rev. 00 150
11.1
SR 71 BLACKBIRD
Rev. 00 151
11.1
SUPERSONIC ENGINE INLETS If the supersonic airstream can be captured, the shock wave
formations will be swallowed and a gradual contraction will
Air which enters the compressor section of a jet engine or the
reduce the speed to just above sonic. Subsequent diverging flow
combustion chamber of a ramjet usually must be slowed to
section can then produce the normal shock wave, which slows
subsonic velocity.
the airstream to subsonic.
This process must be accomplished with the least possible
Further expansion continues to slow the air to lower subsonic
waste of energy. At flight speeds just above the speed of sound
speeds. This is the convergent- divergent type inlet shown in
only slight modifications to ordinary subsonic inlet design
figure. If the initial contraction is too extreme for the inlet Mach
produce satisfactory performance. However, at supersonic flight
number, the shock wave formation will not be swallowed and will
speeds, the inlet design must slow the air with the weakest
move out in front of the inlet. The external location of the normal
possible series or combination of shock waves to minimize
shock wave will produce subsonic flow immediately at the inlet.
energy losses and temperature rise.
Since the airstream is suddenly slowed to subsonic through the
Figure illustrates some of the various forms of supersonic inlets strong normal shock a greater loss of airstream energy will
or diffusers. One of the least complicated types of inlet is the occur.
simple normal shock type diffuser. This type of inlet employs a
Another form of diffuser employs an external oblique shock
single normal shock wave at the inlet with a subsequent internal
wave, which slows the supersonic airstream before the normal
subsonic compression. At low supersonic Mach numbers the
shock occurs. Ideally, the supersonic airstream could be slowed
strength of the normal shock wave is not too great and this type
gradually through a series of very weak oblique shock waves to
of inlet is quite practical.
a speed just above sonic velocity. Then the subsequent normal
At higher supersonic Mach numbers, the single normal shock shock to subsonic could be quite weak.
wave is very strong and causes a great reduction in the total
Such a combination of the weakest possible waves would result
pressure recovered by the inlet. In addition, it is necessary to
in the least waste of energy and the highest-pressure recovery.
consider that the wasted energy of the airstream will appear as
The efficiency of various types of diffusers is shown in the graph-
an additional undesirable rise in temperature of the captured
accompanying figure and illustrates this principle.
inlet airflow.
Rev. 00 152
11.1
SUPERSONIC ENGINE INLETS
Rev. 00 153
11.1
An obvious complication of the supersonic inlet is that the

optimum shape is variable with inlet flow direction and Mach
number. In other words, to derive highest efficiency and stability
of operation, the geometry of the inlet would be different at each
Mach number and angle of attack of flight.
A typical supersonic military aircraft may experience large
variations in angle of attack, sideslip angle, and flight Mach
number during normal operation. These large variations in inlet
flow conditions create certain important design considerations.
- The inlet should provide the highest practical efficiency. The
ratio of recovered total pressure to airstream total pressure is
an appropriate measure of this efficiency.
- The inlet should match the demands of the power plant for
airflow. The airflow captured by the inlet should match that
necessary for engine operation.
- Operation of the inlet at flight conditions other than the
design condition should not cause a noticeable loss of
efficiency or excess drag. The operation of the inlet should
be stable and not allow 'buzz" conditions (an oscillation of
shock location possible during off-design operation).
In order to develop a good, stable inlet design, the performance
at the design condition may be compromised. A large variation of
inlet flow conditions may require special geometric features for
the inlet surfaces or a completely variable geometry inlet design.
Rev. 00 154
11.1
Rev. 00 155
11.1
RAM JET
The purpose of ramjets and jet engines is to provide the thrust to
propel the airplane or missile, and it can only do this if the
velocity of Outflow from the engine is greater than the velocity of
the airplane or missile through the air. The air enters the ramjet
or turbojet at the inlet where it arrives with the velocity of the
airplane; if this is above the Speed of sound we can by a clever
arrangement of a centre body in the Inlet (Fig. 12.14) cause
shock waves to be formed here and so put up the Pressure
which, in the case of the turbojet, is further increased by the
Compressor itself. The air then speeds up in the expanding duct,
and the burning of the fuel adds still further to its energy. When
the gases leave the jet pipe a system of shocks and expansion
wave will form in the Emerging jet if the pressure is not matched
to that of the atmosphere at exit, resulting in losses and
consequent inefficiency.
But we are not yet beaten. If we now add a divergent nozzle to
the contracting duct (Fig. 12.15) we get at the throat an
expansion wave
Which is reasonably gradual and, after it, a decrease of pressure
more gradually to atmospheric, together with an increase of
velocity - which is just what we wanted. It is in this form that the
convergent-divergent nozzle is sometimes referred to as a de
Laval nozzle after the famous Turbine engineer of that name.
Rev. 00 156
11.1
Centre body at the inlet of a ramjet or turbine, since the A De Laval nozzle
angle of the bow wave will depend on the Mach number the
centre body must be movable to be fully effective.
Rev. 00 157
11.1
AERODYNAMIC HEATING The turbojet engine is adversely affected by high compressor

inlet air temperatures. Since the thrust output of the turbojet is
When air flows over any aerodynamic surface certain reductions
some function of the fuel flow, high compressor inlet air
in velocity occur with corresponding increases in temperature.
temperatures reduce the fuel flow that can be used within turbine
The greatest reduction in velocity and increase in temperature
operating temperature limits. The reduction in performance of
will occur at the various stagnation points on the aircraft. Of
the turbojet engines with high compressor inlet air temperatures
course, similar changes occur at other points on the aircraft but
requires that the inlet design produce the highest practical
these temperatures can be related to the ram temperature rise at
efficiency and minimize the temperature rise of the air delivered
the stagnation point.
to the compressor face.
While subsonic flight does not produce temperatures of any real
HEAT BARRIER
concern, supersonic flight can produce temperatures high
enough to be of major importance to the airframe and power For the aircraft structure, apart from the question of skin friction,
plant structure. The graph a. illustrates the variation of ram speed itself generates heat from the kinetic energy of the airflow,
temperature rise with airspeed in the standard atmosphere. which is slowed down by the boundary layer of air clinging to the
aircraft. Expansion follows and some of the kinetic energy is
The ram temperature rise is independent of altitude and is a
transferred into a rise of temperature. At sea level the heat
function of true airspeed. Actual temperatures would be the sum
generated by a speed of 2,600 M.P.H. is enough to raise the
of the temperature rise and the ambient air temperature. Thus,
temperature of the object to the melting point of aluminum. Even
low altitude flight at high Mach numbers will produce the highest
at quite high altitudes, moderate Mach numbers will enclose the
temperatures.
aircraft in a cocoon of very hot air with a temperature of 10000C
Aerodynamic heating creates special problems for the airplane or so, Up to a height of 45,000 ft. In fact, the density of the air
structure and the power plant. will cause a generation of heat that will restrict speed by the
The effect of temperature on the short time strength of three temperature limitations of the materials used in the airframe
typical structural materials is shown in graph b. Higher structure. Above 45,000 ft, decreasing density of the air affords
temperatures produce definite reductions in the strength of less resistance. Although individual air molecules have high
aluminum alloy and require the use of titanium alloys, stainless temperatures, their extremely rarefied nature would result in a
steels, etc., at very high temperatures. negligible heat transfer to any body that was present. So, the
conclusion is heat barriers only to be considered for troposphere
Continued exposure at elevated temperatures effects further and a part of stratosphere flights. It is how the rockets do not
reductions of strength and magnifies the problems of "creep' experience this effect at very high altitudes.
failure and structural stiffness.
Rev. 00 158
11.1
GRAPH b
GRAPH a
Rev. 00 159
11.1
HELICOPTERS The main rotor is unique in that as a single system it performs all
the basic functions required for any air vehicle: namely,
The study of principles of flight thus far has been concerned with propulsion, support and controllability.
aircraft that are moved by thrust developed by propellers or The rotor system on which we shall concentrate is three bladed,
exhaust gases from turbojet engines, and which derive lift from with hinges to permit each of the blades to flap up and down with
fixed wings. The helicopter is more precisely defined as 'a respect to the vertical axis, lead and lag with respect to the
rotorcraft deriving lift from power-driven rotors rotating about azimuth position and to change blade pitch. This is known as a
axes that are vertical or nearly so when the aircraft is in forward fully articulated rotor. The rotor blades are high aspect ratio
flight'. rotating wings of non-symmetrical aerofoil section.
The unique aspects of the helicopter are the ability to ascend The engine (or engines) drives the main rotor through a gearbox
and descend vertically, hover with respect to the ground with or transmission, and the tail rotor is directly coupled to the main
winds from nearly any direction or speed, and to achieve forward rotor, normally by a drive shaft, as shown in figure b. For this
flight. example, the engine will be a gas turbine with a rotor speed
The airplane depends on its wings for lift: and depends on governor. Only one engine is used for this discussion, as the
forward motion created by an engine – driven propeller. The total power is not important, and in a helicopter the loss of power
rotor blades of a helicopter are its wings, its propeller, speed and from one engine does not introduce any asymmetric effect, as on
directional controls; thus, the helicopter is essentially a set of a fixed-wing aircraft.
power-driven rotating wing, which support a weight – carrying In the event of a total loss of engine power, the transmission
structure. incorporates a free wheel system which during the ensuing
GENERAL descent, permits the rotors (main and tail) to rotate and also
ensures continued operation of ancillary systems such as
The construction of the typical helicopter is shown in figure a. hydraulics and electrics. This descent without power is known as
This serves as a useful example on which to introduce the autorotation.
general principles of helicopter. Description of systems such as
electrical and oil systems, transmissions, fuel controls and so on
are omitted.
The main features with which we are concerned are a single
main rotor, a tail rotor, an engine, fuselage, and horizontal and
vertical stabilizers.
Rev. 00 160
11.1
Rev. 00 161
11.1
In order to carry out the particular flight maneuvers associated An important control to counteract the reaction of the main rotor
with a helicopter, a flight control system that will produce both is the tail rotor. Typically, the tail rotor changes thrust only, and is
control and stability must be fitted. As discussed earlier, in a controlled by the pedals. It must be able to provide thrust both to
fixed-wing aircraft a pilot changes thrust by means of the power the left and the right, to cater for the great variety of wind and
control (or throttle), and changes the direction of flight by means power conditions that the helicopter will encounter.
of separate pitch-and-roll control surfaces.
A helicopter is able to descend or ascend vertically, to fly with no
In a helicopter the control of pitch and roll is combined with airspeed and (within limits) to maintain a ground position with
control of the magnitude of lift (or thrust). The flight control winds from any direction. In forward flight it is able to perform
system must be capable of changing both the magnitude and nearly all of the maneuvers of a fixed-wing aircraft.
size of the thrust vector. In both types of aircraft yaw control is
accomplished by rear-mounted control surfaces or devices, i.e.
in a fixed-wing aircraft, the rudder; and in a helicopter, the tail A helicopter can do three things that an airplane cannot
rotor.
• A helicopter can fly backwards.
The main rotor controls in a helicopter are called the collective
• The entire aircraft can rotate in the air.
and the cyclic and their functions are as follows:
• A helicopter can hover motionless in the air
• Collective control changes the pitch of all the main rotor
blades by the same amount (or collectively) with respect
to the main rotor shaft. In a general sense this controls
the magnitude of the thrust vector.
• Cyclic control changes the pitch of the rotor blades
individually with respect to azimuth as they move around
the rotor disk. During each cycle the blades will
experience a variation in pitch in a cyclical manner. In a
general sense this controls the direction of the thrust
vector.
Rev. 00 162
11.1
Rev. 00 163
11.1
ROTOR SYSTEM
A rotor blade on a helicopter is subject to a tremendous variety The hinges are known as:
of airspeeds and stresses. In order to remove the stresses and
• Flapping hinges that permit the blades to flap up and
prevent a large dissimilarity of lift from one side to another
down with respect to the main rotor hub to achieve
(discussed later) a variety of methods of hinging the blades has
equality of lift across the rotor disk.
been developed. There are several types of rotor system in
common use, namely: There are a number of different types of • Dragging hinges that permit the blades to lead and lag in
rotor systems azimuth from a nominal position (i.e. in a three-bladed
rotor the blades will not always be separated by 120°).
• Semi-rigid or teetering,
This is due to what is termed Coriolis Effect, whereby as
• Articulated, a blade flaps up and down, its center of gravity moves
closer to and farther away from the hub. To conserve
• Hinge less.
angular momentum, it is necessary for the blade to speed
We will discuss the fully articulated system. A rotor system of up or slow down, inducing stresses on the blade root,
three or more blades that are individually hinged so that each unless it has been permitted to lead and lag.
blade has freedom of motion both up and down, fore and aft, and
• Feathering or pitch change hinges that permit the blades
a change of pitch or rotation round the feathering axis is called a
to change pitch as they rotate to control the helicopter.
fully articulated system
The articulated rotor system incorporates three hinges close to
the hub. The reasons for these hinges is beyond the scope of
this book, as they involve very complex aerodynamic and
physical descriptions.
Rev. 00 164
11.1
Rev. 00 165
11.1
AXIS SYSTEM
A helicopter has the same degrees of freedom of movement as a For descriptive purposes, the tip path plane, that is, the plane
fixed-wing aircraft, and uses the same axis convention. There is, described by the tips of the rotor blades as they rotate, is
however, an additional system of axes that relates to the rotor assumed to be a flat disc that corresponds to the angle of the
system, since the rotor blades can assume different angles with main rotor hub. It is often referred to as the rotor disc. It will also
respect to the rotor mast. The axes are defined as follows: be assumed that the rotor produces a uniform lift across the disc
when hovering, and that all lift acts perpendicular to the disc.
• Shaft axis - about which the blades rotate (fig. b);
When the blades are rotating, they are producing lift, which
• Hub axis - that is, perpendicular to the hub, which itself is makes them move upwards and centrifugal force is also
free to tilt with respect to the shaft; attempting to make them fly outwards. The combination of these
• Rotor axis - that is, perpendicular to the plane of the tips two forces creates what is known as coning angle (shown in fig.
of the blades as they go around the hub, as various a). This will vary with rotor speed, amount of lift produced, and
flight conditions will change the relationship between the several other minor factors.
blades and the hub.
Rev. 00 166
11.1
Rev. 00 167
11.1
ROTOR DISC AREA THRUST

The area swept by the rotating blades in one revolution is During vertical ascent, thrust acts vertically upward while drag
theoretically a horizontal, circular area and is called the disc and weight act vertically downward (Figure c). Drag, opposing
area. The rotor disc would be the area of the circle made by the upward motion of the helicopter, will be increased form the
tips of the blades in rotation (Figure a). downwash of air form the main rotor. Thrust must be sufficient
to overcome both of these forces. The main rotor, as previously
TIP PATH PLANE
stated, is responsible for both propulsive thrust and lift; therefore,
Tip path plane is the path through the air in a circular motion the force representing the total airfoil reaction to the air may be
made by the tips of a blade is known as the tip path plane. In considered as two components. One component, lift, is the force
other words, the tip path plane is the imaginary circular surface required to support the weight of the helicopter. The other
formed by a plane passed through the average tip path of the component, propulsive thrust, is the force required to overcome
rotor blades. If viewed from above, the tip path plane would a drag on the fuselage (Figure d). During vertical ascent or
appear as a circle, as shown on the left in Figure b. Rotor disc hovering, the tip path plane is horizontal and the resultant force
has much the same meaning as tip path plane. acts vertically upward.
Rev. 00 168
11.1
Rev. 00 169
11.1
LIFT
In the zero airspeed hover, the main rotor blades produce equal
amounts of lift regardless of the azimuth. As the helicopter
moves forward and airspeed increases, the blades will produce
different amounts of lift.
The reason for this is that the blade which is advancing into the
air stream experiences a total speed equal to speed due to blade
rotation plus the forward speed. For the blade that is retreating
the total speed experienced is equal to the speed due to blade
rotation minus the forward speed.
At any airspeed above approximately 20 knots, this difference in
the lift created on the two sides of the disk can become
significant. Figure shows this effect. To maintain equal lift on
both sides of the disk, the pitch of the blades is changed by the
cyclic, and the blades are also free to flap up and down
Rev. 00 170
11.1
Rev. 00 171
11.1
LATERAL, ROLLING, AND VERTICAL AXES CONTROL CONTROL SYSTEM

To control completely the position and attitude of a body in The main source of controlling moments on the helicopter is the
space requires control of the forces and movements about all main rotor, and it must be free to change magnitude and
three axes. direction of thrust. This is typically accomplished by means of a
swash plate mechanism, as shown in figure.
This involves six independent controls; thus, if the body drift to
the side, a force may be exerted to right it again. It would be The swash plate has a fixed portion that is attached to the air-
exceedingly difficult for a man to coordinate the controls of any frame and is moved by the pilot's controls. Because of the high
machine having six independent control systems. Fortunately, it aerodynamic forces that are encountered by the rotor blades, it
has been possible to reduce this number by coupling together is difficult to control manually any but the smallest of helicopters.
independent controls. For this reason, hydraulic servo-actuators are installed in the
control system to assist the pilot in applying control. These
The helicopter is considered a five-control aircraft, these controls
position the fixed swash plate, in pitch and roll as well as for
are the fore and aft cyclic, lateral cyclic, anti-torque (controlled
overall blade pitch.
by the feet), collective pitch and throttle (Figure b and c).
The swash plate is free to tilt fore and aft, laterally and also to
To successfully accomplish helicopter flight, a pilot must be able
move up and down on the mast. Roughly speaking, tilting is the
to coordinate all the controls. Operation of the helicopter without
means of controlling the direction of the thrust vector, while up
proper coordination of the controls can result in severe damage
and down movement controls the magnitude of the thrust vector.
to the machine. The flight controls normally employed in
present-day helicopters are the cyclic, or azimuth control stick in Attached to the rotating part of the mast, and also connected to
the pilot’s right hand; collective pitch stick with the motor-cycle the fixed swash plate through bearings, is the rotating swash
type throttle in the pilot’s left hand; and foot pedals. Let’s take plate. The rotating swash plate has pitch change rods attached
each control separately, and then see how each works in to it, which in turn are connected to the rotor blades. This
coordination with the others. arrangement permits the rotor blades to change their pitch with
respect to the mast, and vary the magnitude and angle of the
thrust vector.
Rev. 00 172
11.1
Rev. 00 173
11.1
COLLECTIVE PITCH SYSTEM

The collective pitch system, as shown in Figure a. consists of a The throttle, located on the end of the collective pitch control
collective pitch stick linked to the main rotor blade pitch change stick, is coordinated with collective pitch to maintain a constant
arms, a collective balance mechanism, and a collective pitch operating rpm. Although most helicopters have a certain amount
fraction knob. The collective pitch system controls ascent and of designed synchronization between collective pitch and throttle
descent of the helicopter by varying the pitch of all main rotor control, the pilot is primarily responsible for throttle control. The
blades equally and simultaneously by vertical movement of the motorcycle grip is rolled outward to increase the throttle setting,
swash plate assembly. and rolled inward to decrease it.
The collective pitch control stick is a lever with up-and- down The collective pitch stick also controls power output by demand.
travel located to the pilot’s left, and manipulated naturally by the Manifold pressure or torque indicates the output of engine
left hand. By raising or lowering the collective pitch stick, you power. As collective pitch is increased the engine is required to
can change the collective pitch, the pitch on all of the main rotor develop more power in order to maintain a constant rpm. To
blades. Raising the stick increase the pitch. If the rotor rpm hold a constant power setting, coordination of pitch and throttle
remains constant, increasing or decreasing the blade pitch correction should be simultaneous.
causes the helicopter to climb or descend.
Rev. 00 174
11.1
Rev. 00 175
11.1
CYCLIC CONTROL SYSTEM

The cyclic control system controls the forward, backward, and As previously stated, resultant thrust is always perpendicular to the tip
sideward movement of the helicopter by tilting the main rotor path plane. When the tip path plane is tilted forward, resultant thrust is
disc in the desired direction of travel. This action is inclined forward and propulsive thrust is developed in the direction of tip
accomplished by varying the pitch of the rotor blades as they path plane tilt.
rotate. As the pitch of the rotor blades is varied, lift generated by
The rotor system will move rapidly in the direction of thrust and pull the
the blades causes the main rotor disc to tilt. The usual
fuselage in the direction of movement. The fuselage will pitch about
mechanical arrangement incorporated to tilt a rotor disc consists
the lateral axis and will assume a nose low attitude. As the cyclic stick is
of a cyclic stick connected by linkage to a control plate referred
moved in any direction-whether forward, rearward, or sideward-an
to as the swash plate.
inclination of the tip path plane will be established in the direction of the
This swash plate is, in turn, connected to the main rotor blades. cyclic stick movement. The directional speed of the helicopter is
Cyclic control stick movements are transmitted to the swash controlled by the degree of tilt (Figures a and b).
plate, which in turn varies the pitch of the rotor blades by means
of rods connecting the swash plate and rotating blades. The
cyclic control stick, in appearance, is similar to the control stick
of a conventional aircraft, and control movements mush the
same.
Movement of the cycle control stick in any direction causes the
main rotor disc to tilt in the same direction. With the cyclic stick
in a neutral position, pitch on the main rotor blades will be equal
throughout the cycle of rotation, as in hovering or vertical ascent.
Forward stick will cause the rotor disc to tilt forward because of
gyroscopic precession, to be explained later.
Rev. 00 176
11.1
Rev. 00 177
11.1
TAKE-OFF AND CLIMB GROUND EFFECT

As in the case of a fixed-wing aircraft, a helicopter can take off When a helicopter is hovering near the ground, the down ward
and climb only when the lift force is greater than the weight. For stream of air strikes the ground and does not escape from
the fixed-wing aircraft, this is accomplished during the take off beneath the helicopter as rapidly as it is being driven towards the
run when the airflow over the wings produces the required lift ground. This causes a build up of air pressure below the
force. helicopter, which acts as a cushion to help support the machine
in the hovering position. The ground effect is usually effective to
For the helicopter to take off vertically, an increase in lift force is
a height of approximately ½ of the diameter of the main rotor
needed, and this can be considered to be overall thrust. Lift (and
while the helicopter is hovering.
thrust) are produced by the pitch (and RPM) of the rotating
blades and controlled by use of the collective pitch lever and the In ground effect (IGE), the rotor downwash working against the
speed of the output of the engine. Raising the lever increases ground will affect the amount of power required to maintain the
the pitch of the blades and the lift, and lowering the lever helicopter at a certain height. Above a certain height, and
reduces the blade pitch and lift. dependent upon the size of the rotor, the disc loading and the
density of the air, this effect disappears and the helicopter is now
Because changing pitch (and hence angle of attack) changes the
hovering out of ground effect, or OGE as it is commonly called.
amount of lift of the blade, it will also change the amount of drag.
Out of ground effect, a change in lift or thrust from that used to
The blades are designed to operate most efficiently at a set rotor
maintain a steady hover will produce a constant rate of climb or
RPM (RRPM). Changing the drag will cause the blades to
descent.
change RRPM. This will cause the lift to change, requiring an
adjustment to the blade angle to produce the same amount of HOVER FUSELAGE ATTITUDE
lift, and so on. The combination of changing both blade angle
The attitude that the fuselage makes with the rotor (and the
and RRPM makes accurate manual control of the magnitude of
earth) will depend upon the position of the longitudinal, lateral
the lift difficult. Rotor speed is normally controlled automatically
and vertical position of the center of gravity. To simplify matters,
by an RRPM governing system, which is part of the engine.
a rotor disc will always be horizontal with respect to the earth in
When the total lift (or thrust) is greater than the weight, the
a zero airspeed hover, and the fuselage will take up an attitude
helicopter will lift off and climb to a height dependent upon the
beneath it to balance all the forces. Figure shows a helicopter in
amount of lift that is demanded compared to the weight of the
the hover with a neutral CG diagram (a), and an aft CG diagram
helicopter, and by a phenomenon known as ground effect.
(b).
Rev. 00 178
11.1
Rev. 00 179
11.1
TAIL ROTOR AND TRANSLATING TENDENCY

An additional problem is caused by the requirement to balance
the forces in the horizontal axis. The main rotor torque moment
attempts to rotate the fuselage in the opposite direction to the
main rotor by virtue of Newton's Third Law; this rotation is
prevented by the tail rotor.
The tail rotor produces thrust to balance the main rotor, but this
thrust also then attempts to translate the helicopter laterally. This
translating tendency is prevented by a slight tilt of the main rotor
thrust, either by tilting the fuselage or by a permanent offset of
the transmission system. Changing the thrust at the main rotor,
i.e. changing the collective position, will change the balance of
forces, and the thrust of the tail rotor will have to be adjusted,
together with an adjustment of the lateral tilt of the thrust vector.
This is shown in figure.
The vertical position of the tail rotor with respect to the height of
the main rotor hub will have an effect on the amount of lateral tilt
that is required to balance the overall moments. If the tail rotor is
mounted in-line with the main rotor hub, there is little, if any,
rolling moment produced. For this reason the tail rotor is often
mounted on a pylon.
In summary, in a zero airspeed hover, the main rotor thrust will
be vertical when viewed from the side, but tilted slightly when
viewed from the rear.
Rev. 00 180
11.1
Rev. 00 181
11.1
FUSELAGE HEADING
The foot pedals control fuselage heading by changing the pitch
on the tail rotor blades. The primary purpose of tail rotor, as
explained previously, is to compensate for torque, but fuselage
heading is maintained by increasing or decreasing the horizontal
thrust of the tail rotor. Applying left rudder causes the nose of
the helicopter to turn left. Applying right rudder causes the nose
to swing to the right, as shown in Figure b.
It is normal for the single main rotor to turn from right to left as
viewed from the pilot’s position, and torque would turn the nose
of the fuselage to the right. The application of left pedal increase
the pitch on the tail rotor, which increase horizontal thrust, thus
establishing fuselage heading. When the pilot wishes to
maintain a constant heading, he keeps just enough pitch on the
tail rotor to neutralize the torque effect.
Rev. 00 182
11.1
Rev. 00 183
11.1
FORWARD FLIGHT TRANSLATIONAL LIFT

A helicopter moves forward by tilting the thrust vector in the A helicopter requires a good portion of available power to
direction of desired movement, A pilot accomplishes forward maintain a hover. The power is used to give momentum or
flight by tilting the tip path plane forward though cyclic pitch acceleration to the mass of air moving through the rotor system,
control. In steady forward flight, the tip path plane will be tilted which, in turn, produces an upward thrust. When a helicopter is
forward with respect to the fuselage. The total blade force tilts moving horizontally in flight at more than 15 kn [7.7 mls], the
forward with the rotor total thrust acting both upward and performance of the main rotor improves, owing to the increased
forward. The component lift is opposite weight. The other volume of air passing through it. This effect is called translational
component, propulsive thrust, acts in the direction of flight to lift because the lift of the rotor increases. Less engine power is
move the helicopter forward. required to maintain flight when the helicopter is flying
horizontally than when it is hovering.
The balance of forces (weight, thrust, drag, lift from the
horizontal stabilizer, horizontal and vertical components of rotor
thrust) about the CG must still be maintained, as shown in figure.
Obviously, the higher the forward speed, the more forward the tilt
of the rotor disc, and the greater the change in fuselage attitude.
This may be unacceptably nose down for reasons of ride
comfort, field of view from the cockpit, etc.
In order to keep the fuselage near level, various methods are
used. In some cases, the fuselage attitude in the hover is quite
nose up, and in forward flight is near level. Another method is to
use a horizontal stabilizer mounted at the rear of the fuselage,
such that its cambered aerofoil section produces downward lift,
to keep the fuselage level with increasing speed.
In any kind of flight, forward (Figure a), vertical, hovering (Figure
b), backward (Figure c), or sideward the lift forces of a rotor
system are perpendicular to the tip path plane or plane of
rotation.
Rev. 00 184
11.1
Rev. 00 185
11.1
GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION
The term gyroscopic precession describes an inherent quality of As a result of the foregoing principle, if the pilot wants the main
rotating bodies in which an applied force is manifested 90° in the rotor of a helicopter to tilt in a particular direction, the applied
direction of rotation from the point where the force is applied. force must be at an angular displacement of 90° ahead of the
Since the rotor of a helicopter has a relatively large diameter and desired direction of tilt. The required force is applied
turns at several hundred revolutions per minute, precession is a aerodynamically by changing the pitch of the blades through the
prime factor in controlling the rotor operation. cyclic-pitch control. When the cyclic control is pushed forward,
the blade at the left increases in pitch as the blade on the right
The cyclic-pitch control causes a variation in the pitch of the rotor
decreases in pitch. This applies an "up" force to the left-hand
blades as they rotate about the circle of the tip path plane. The
side of the rotor disk, but the up movement takes place 90° in
purpose of this pitch change is, in part, to cause the rotor disk to
the direction of rotation. The up movement is therefore at the
tilt in the direction in which it is desired to make the helicopter
rear of the rotor plane, and the rotor tilts forward. This applies a
move. When only the aerodynamic effects of the blades are
forward thrust and causes the helicopter to move forward. The
considered, it would seem that when the pitch of the blades is
action is illustrated in Figure.
high, the lift would be high, and the blade would rise. Thus, if the
blades had high pitch as they passed through one side of the
rotor disk and low pitch as they passed through the other side of
the disk, the side of the disk having the high pitch should rise,
and the side having the low pitch should fall. This would be true
except for gyroscopic precession.
Gyroscopic precession is caused by a combination of a spinning
force and an applied acceleration force perpendicular to the
spinning force. Figure is a drawing of a spinning disk that
represents the main rotor of a helicopter. If the disk is spinning in
the direction indicated by the arrow and a force is applied
upward at 3:00, the disk will precess (move) in the direction
shown at 12:00. Thus, if a force is applied perpendicular to the
plane of rotation, the precession will cause the force to take
effect 90° from the applied force, in the direction of rotation.
Rev. 00 186
11.1
Rev. 00 187
11.1
AUTO-ROTATION
The helicopter must incorporate a safety feature to provide for Once the collective pitch is at the low-pitch limit, the rotor
the condition that exists in the event of power failure. This revolutions per minute can be increased only by a sacrifice in
feature is called autorotation and is required before a helicopter altitude or airspeed. If insufficient altitude is available to
can be certificated by the Federal Aviation Administration. If exchange for rotor speed, a hard landing is inevitable. Sufficient
power failure occurs, the engine is automatically disengaged rotor rotational energy must be available to permit adding
from the rotor system through a free-wheeling device associated collective pitch to reduce the helicopter's rate of descent before
with the transmission. This disconnect device, the first step in the final ground contact.
autorotation safety feature, will eliminate the engine drag from
At low altitudes and low forward velocities, power failure in a
the rotor system as well as preventing further damage to the
helicopter is hazardous because of the difficulty in establishing
engine.
sufficient auto rotational lift to make a safe landing.
The second step required for autorotation is to provide for Manufacturers provide airspeed-versus-altitude limitations
adequate wind milling of the rotor during descent and to create charts to inform the pilot regarding the combinations of safe
enough inertia in the rotor system so the pilot can apply sufficient altitudes and speeds. A typical chart is shown in Figure 5-57.
collective pitch to cushion the landing. Autorotation is Note that it is comparatively safe to hover and fly at low speeds
accomplished by aerodynamic forces resulting from an upward at very low altitudes. After attaining an indicated airspeed of 50
rotor inflow created by the descent of the helicopter. The turning mph, or 44 kn [22 m/s], it is comparatively safe to fly at any
of the rotor generates lift, which makes it possible to continue altitude above 50 ft [16 m] because there is sufficient time to
controlled flight while descending to a safe landing. Remember make the transition to the autorotation mode.
that during autorotation, aerodynamic force, not engine force, is
During autorotation, the outer 25% of the blades produces the
driving the rotor.
lift, the section between 25 and 70% of the distance from the tip
If engine failure occurs, the pilot immediately lowers the of the blades produces the driving force that keeps the rotor
collective-pitch control, thus reducing the pitch of all rotor blades turning, and the inner 25 to 30% produces neither lift nor drive in
simultaneously. The cyclic-pitch control is moved forward to any measurable degree.
establish the best forward speed for autorotation. Each
helicopter has a characteristic forward speed, which produces
maximum lift and lowest rate of descent.
Rev. 00 188
11.1
Rev. 00 189
11.1
STUDENT NOTES
Rev. 00 190
11.1

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Module 11.1 - B1 - Rev 00 PDF

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Module 11 – AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 11.1 – THEORY OF FLIGHT

SUB MODULE 11.1

Table of contents Page Table of contents Page

Table of contents Page Table of contents Page

Forward-Swept Wing .................................................................. 66 Critical mach number .................................................................. 98

Table of contents Page Table of contents Page

“The training notes and diagrams are

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SUB MODULE 11.1.1

AEOROPLANE AEORODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS

The primary control surfaces are used to "steer" the airplane in

Generation of aerodynamic force

FIXED AIRFOILS VERTICAL FINS

MOVABLE FLIGHT CONTROLS

ADVERSE YAW OTHER WAYS OF OVERCOMING ADVERSE YAW ARE;

∆L1 – increase in lift due to increased camber

This effect is illustrated by the graph in figure and certain typical

Different types of flaps used on aircraft

Slots and slats can produce significant increases in CL but the

TRIM TABS CONTROLLABLE TRIM TABS

Pitch and Yaw control

Figs a show two practical applications of this type of balance; in

INTERNAL BALANCE OR BALANCE PANELS.

Aerodynamic balance panels

CONDITIONS LEADING TO A STALL STALL WARNING

WING TIP STALL WING FENCES AND LEADING EDGE NOTCHES

EFFECT OF WING DESIGN ON STALL

B2 Stealth Bomber – Flying wing

SUB MODULE 11.1.2

HIGH SPEED AERODYNAMICS

enables one to understand certain peculiarities in aircraft

MACH NUMBER VARIATION OF THE SPEED OF SOUND

Mach .8 = 760 x .8 = 610 m.p.h a = a0 θ

ALTITUDE TEMPERATURE SPEED OF SOUND

Variation of the speed of sound in the

SUPERSONIC FLOW INSIDE A CLOSED TUBE

SUBSONIC AND SUPERSONIC FLOW IN A VENTURI

TYPICAL SUPERSONIC FLOW PATTERNS

FORMATION OF PRESSURE WAVES

Fig. a Fig. b WEDGE PLACED IN SUPERSONIC FLOW

NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

EXPANSION W AVE SUMMARY

SECTIONS IN SUPERSONIC FLOW

SECTIONS IN SUPERSONIC FLOW

SECTIONS IN SUPERSONIC FLOW

CRITICAL MACH NUMBER COMPRESSIBILITY MACH NUMBER

SHOCKWAVE DEVELOPMENT IN TRANSONIC FLIGHT

FORCE DIVERGENCE WAVE OR PRESSURE DRAG

THE SHOCK STALL

MACH TRIM COMPRESSIBILITY BUFFET

BI-CONVEX AEROFOIL SUPERCRITICAL WING

SWEEPBACK In addition to the delay of the onset of compressibility effects,

WING TIP STALLING

REMEDIES FOR WING TIP STALLING

Leading edge notch

EFFECT OF ASPECT RATIO

Arrowhead delta wing for high mach numbers

How the drag increases with Mach number for

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SUPERSONIC ENGINE INLETS

An obvious complication of the supersonic inlet is that the

AERODYNAMIC HEATING The turbojet engine is adversely affected by high compressor