Adv.
Bio Exam Study Guide 1
Chapter 9- DNA/RNA
 Structure of DNA and RNA
 Refer to picture one for DNA
 Refer to picture two for RNA
 Different types of RNA
 mRNA- Messenger RNA- Carries
the code to build a protein out of the
nucleus to the ribosome
 tRNA- Transfer RNA- Attaches to a
free amino acid and carries it to the
ribosome
 rRNA- Ribosomal RNA- Makes up
part of the ribosome itself
 Base Pair Matching
 In DNA, adenine (A) always
attaches to thymine (T), and cytosine
(C) always attaches to guanine (G).
 In RNA, there is no thymine, so
uracil (U) attaches to adenine.
 DNA Replication (DNA DNA)
 Step 1: The double helix unwinds by
the use of the DNA helicases
breaking the hydrogen bonds that
link the complementary nitrogen
bases.
 Additional proteins are attached to
the each strand after they have
separated. This is to prevent them
to assume their double helix
shape.
 The area made by the separation is
called the replication fork.
 Step 2: At the replication fork, the
DNA polymerase move along each
strand. Each polymerase adds
nucleotides to the exposed nitrogen
base, according to the base-pairing
rules. Therefore, two new double
helixes are formed.
 Step 3: The process above continues
until the polymerases are signaled to
detach.
 This process produces two identical
DNA molecules, each made of a new
and an original strand.
Chapter 10- How Proteins are
Made
 Transcription (DNA  mRNA)
 Step 1: The RNA polymerase binds
to the gene’s promoter- a specific
sequence of DNA that acts as a
“start” signal for transcription.
 Step 2: The RNA polymerase
unwinds and separates the two
strands.
 Step 3: The RNA polymerase adds
and then links complementary RNA
nucleotides as it “reads” the gene. It
moves along the nucleotides of the
DNA strand that has the gene, much
like a train moves along on a track.
 Transcription follows the base-
pairing rules (U and A, C and G).
 Translation (mRNA Protein)
 Translation begins when the mRNA
leaves the nucleus and enters the
cytoplasm.
 Step 1: The mRNA “start” codon
AUG, which signals the start of the
beginning of a protein chain, is
oriented in the P site, a region of the
ribosome. That is where the tRNA
molecule carrying the methionine
can bind to the start codon.
 Step 2: The tRNA carrying the
amino acid specified by the codon in
the A site arrives. It has a
complementary anticodon to bind to
the codon.
 Step 3: A peptide bond forms
between adjacent amino acids.
Enzymes form the peptide bond.
 Step 4: The tRNA in the P site
detaches and leaves its amino acid
behind.
 Step 5: The tRNA in the A site
moves to the P site and another
tRNA carrying the next amino acid
arrives in the A site.
 Step 6: A peptide bond is formed.
The tRNA in the P site leaves its
amino acid behind. (Just like step 4)

Step 7: Steps 2-6 is repeated until a
stop codon is reached. The ribosome
complex falls apart. The protein is
released.
 Codon/Anticodon chart
 Refer to the chart one of
codons/anticodons
Chapter 11- Gene Technology
 Genetic Engineering Experiment
 There are four basic steps:
• Step 1: Cutting DNA: The DNA
of interest is cut by restriction
enzymes. The DNA from a
vector is also cut.
• Step 2: Making Recombinant
DNA: The DNA fragments from
the organism containing the gene
of interest are combined with the
DNA fragments from the vector.
DNA ligase is added to help bond
the ends.
• Step 3: Cloning: In gene cloning,
many copies of the gene of
interest are made each time the
host cell reproduces.
• Step 4: Screening: Cells that
received the gene of interest are
distinguished from the cells that
don’t have it.
 Genetic Engineering
 This is used for:
• The Human Genome Project
• Genetically Engineered Drugs
and Vaccines
• DNA Fingerprinting
• Improving Crops
• Transgenic Animals
• Cloning
Chapter 12 and 13- Evolution
 Earth
 Formed 4.6 billion years ago
 Started Ball of rock
 Meteorites and volcanoes shook the
planet
 At first, it was too hot for life
Adv. Bio Exam Study Guide 2
 Cooled down and water condensed
massive rainstorms which made oceans
 First life Cyanobacteria in the ocean
3.5 billion years ago; autotrophic and
made oxygen
 Fossils
 Give evidence of life long ago
 Different kinds:
 Casts-mold of organism
 Amber- preserved/frozen
 Trace- footprints
 Paleontologist- studies fossils
 In sedimentary rock: sediment covers
organism and then there are earth
movements and erosion that happen to
bring them to the top
 Age of Fossils
 Relative Dating- Estimating (top-
younger, bottom- older)
 Absolute Age- Radiometric techniques
 Major Periods of Earth
 Precambrian- 4.6 billion-545 million
years ago; earth formed cyanobacteria,
algae, sponges, jellyfish; 87% of earth’s
history
 Paleozoic- 545 million- 248 million
years ago; worms, echinoderms,
primitive arthropods, fishes, plants (ferns
and gymnosperms), amphibians, reptiles
 Mesozoic- 248 million- 65 million years
ago
 Triassic- (oldest) small mammals
(rodents)
 Jurassic- (middle) Dinosaurs
 Cretaceous- (last) other mammals,
flowering plants, dinosaurs become
extinct; movement of tectonic plates
(continents)
 Cenozoic- 65 million years ago- present
day; mammals flourish, primates
 Animals
 Gradualism- slow evolution
 Punctuated Equilibrium- Faster
evolution because of environmental
changes
 Divergent evolution- one species over
time becomes two

 Convergent evolution- two different
species that have the same body shape
but are unrelated to one another
 Earliest cells were prokaryotic that were
anaerobic, feeding on organic
compounds.
 A competition between the prokaryotes,
which were heterotrophic, led to
autotrophic bacteria (oxygen provider).
 Eukaryotes were created by prokaryotes
working together (endosymbiosis).
 Lightning made some O2 into O3 (ozone).
 Theories of Evolutions
 Oparin (1930s) said that life began in the
ocean. The lightning and the sun brought
gases together to create organic
compounds and the compounds dropped
in the ocean.
 Miller and Urey (1950s) created gaseous
conditions and got organic compounds.
 Charles Darwin- Founder of Evolution
 “Species can and do change.”
 He rode on the Beagle ship for five
years. This ship was an expedition to
South America and the South Pacific. He
collected12
Chapter andand
studied
13specimens.
(con’t)
 “Survival of the fittest”
 The ones with the best adaptations will
make it, reproduce, and pass on the traits
onto the offspring.
Chapter 14- Classification of
Organisms
 Taxonomy
 Today, we used the binomial
nomenclature system made by Carl
Linnaeus, a Swedish biologist. It is
to be written in Latin. Generally it’s
just the genus and the species.
 This is the order:
• Domain- Eukarya, Archaea,
Bacteria
• Kingdom- Plants, Fungi, Protist,
Eubacteria, Archeabacteria,
Animal
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
Adv. Bio Exam Study Guide 3
• Family
• Genus- Capitalized
• Species- No capitalized
 Mnemonic Device: “Did King
Phillip Come Over For Grape
Soda?”
 Dichotomous Key
 Answer the question “yes” or “no”.
Follow where the questions ask.
Chapter 19- Characteristics of
Kingdoms
 Refer to the chart on page 417 in the book.
Chapter 20- Viruses and Bacteria
 Viruses
 Structure of Viruses
 Refer to picture three for virus
structure
 Viral Diseases
 Refer to the chart on page 440 in the
book
 Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles
 Step 1: The virus attaches to a cell
and injects DNA.
 Step 2: Viral DNA enters the lytic
cycle or the lysogenic cycle.
 Lytic Step 3: New viruses are made.
 Lytic Step 4: The cell breaks open
and releases viruses.
 Lysogenic Step 3: Viral DNA
integrates with the host DNA.
 Lysogenic Step 4: The host cell
divides normally.
 Lysogenic Step 5: The provirus may
enter the lytic cycle.
 Characteristics of Viruses
 Spread by air, water, food, and
bodily fluids.
 Smaller than bacteria and has less
genes than bacteria
 Listed as “nonliving”
 Bacteria
 Structure of Bacteria
 Bacteria differ from eukaryotes by:
• Internal compartmentalization-
These are prokaryotes.

•Cell Size- Most range between
1μ and 5μ, while the eukaryotes’
cells range between 10μ and
100μ.
• Multicellularity- These are
singled-celled.
• Chromosomes- Bac
chromosomes consist of one
circular piece of DNA.
Eukaryotic chromosomes are in
linear pieces.
• Reproduction- These reproduce
by binary fission. Eukaryotes
reproduce by mitosis.
• Flagella- Bacteria flagella are
simple structures made of a
single fiber of protein that spins.
Eukaryotic flagella are more-
complex structures that whip
back and forth.
♦ Pili- Some bacteria have
shorter and thicker
outgrowths called pili, which
enables them to attach to
other bacteria.
• Metabolic Diversity- Bacteria
perform several different kinds of
anaerobic and aerobic processes,
but eukaryotes usually only
perform aerobic processes.
 Endospores
 This is created when the bacteria is
exposed to harsh conditions (lack of
nutrients, drought, heat).
 Naming According to Shape
 Refer to picture four for the shapes
 Bacillus- Rod- Shaped
Chapter 20 (con’t)
 Coccus- Round-Shaped
 Spirillum- Spiral-Shaped
 -trophic
 Autotrophic bacteria are
photosynthesizers.
 Heterotrophic bacteria are the
primary decomposers of the world
along with fungi.
 Chemoautotrophic bacteria remove
electrons from inorganic molecules.
 Bacterial Diseases
Adv. Bio Exam Study Guide 4
Refer to chart on page 447 in the
book.
 Antibiotics
 Use for bacterial infections not for
viral infections.
Chapter 21- Protists
 Animal-like Protists
 Sarcodines
 Ex. Amoeba proteus
 Uses pseudopod for movement
 Traps food with pseudopod
 Reproduces asexually and sexually
 Contractile vacuoles keeps the water
balanced
 Ciliates
 Ex. Paramecium caudatum
 Uses cilia for movement
 Grabs food with cilia
 Reproduces by binary fission
(asexually) and conjugation
(sexually)
 Contractile vacuoles keeps the water
balanced
 Flagellates and other animal-like protists
 Ex. Euglena
 Uses flagella only for movement
 Reproduces by mostly mitosis, but
some are known to produce gametes
and reproduce sexually.
 Contractile vacuoles keeps the water
balanced
 Diseases
 Refer to chart on page 472 in the
book
 Plant-like Protists
 Algae
 Red, Green, or Brown
 Golden Algae (a.k.a. diatoms)
• Found in water
• Photosynthetic
• Has 2 overlapping halves
• Reproduces asexually
 Fire algae (a.k.a. dinoflagellates)
• Red or Yellow pigments
• Has 2 flagella and spins in the
water

• Feeds on protists and bacteria
 Fungus-like Protists
 Slime Molds
 Cellular slime molds eat bacteria and
lives in moist places.
• When under stress, they group up
and create a “slug” and spores.
 Plasmodial slime molds are in
groups
• They eat bacteria and live in
moist places
• When under stress, the group
separates and creates its own
spores.
Chapter 22- Fungus
 General Structure of Fungus
 Fungus is made of hyphae. A mass
of hyphae is called mycelium.
 Food and Digestion
 They are saprobes (heterotrophic).
 They use enzymes to absorb the
food.
 Reproduction
 They reproduce by spores.
 Importance of Mycorrhizae
 The mycorrhizae are the funguses
that are on the roots of plants. These
help the plant get nutrients.
 Lichens
 Lichens are composed of a fungus
and an autotrophic organism.
Chapter 23 and 24- Plants
 Moss
 Nonvascular
 Archegonium produces eggs
 Antheridium produces sperm
 Gametophyte stage green. Both
male and female gametophytes are
present.
 Sporophyte stage mostly brown,
but can be green. It is a stalk with a
sporangium on top.
 The sporangium shoots out spores
male or female gametophyte
Adv. Bio Exam Study Guide 5
 Sperm and egg join and make a
zygote
 Fern
Chapter 23 and 24 (con’t)
 Vascular
 At some point in time, the bottom of
the frond will develop sorus (sori).
(brown dots)
 The sori are sporangia (produces
spores)
 Fern is sporophyte
 Gametophyte small, heart-shaped
structure
 On top of the heart-shaped structure
are the archegonia and the antheridia.
 Gymnosperms
 Seeds
 Reduced Gametophyte
 Wind Pollination
 Produces cones
 Angiosperms
 Produces flowers and fruit
 Produces gametes to become a seed.
 Fertilization occurs in flowers.
 Pollen grains- male structures carried
from flower to flower by pollinators
 A pollen grain lands on the stigma
(female structure) and a pollen tube
is formed (Stigma  Ovary/Ovules).
 Ovary becomes fruit.
 Fruits have seeds and it is dispensed
by wind, water, or animals.
 Two groups of angiosperms:
monocots and dicots.
 Structure of a flower
 Refer to picture five for structures
 Functions of the Flower Parts
 Petal- attracts pollinators
 Anther- produces pollen
 Filament- supports anthers
 Stamen- anther + filament
 Sepal- protects flower
 Stigma- where pollen lands
 Style- supports stigma
 Ovary- ovules develop here
 Ovule(s)- develops into a seed
 Pistil- stigma + style + ovary
 Monocots vs. Dicots
 Adv. Bio Exam Study Guide 6

 Refer to chart 2 for the comparison  Eats protozoans and dead/dying animals
 Layers of in a Leaf and Stomatas  Phylum Nematoda
 Refer to picture six and seven for the  *Roundworms: Heartworms*
layers and stomata  Bilateral symmetry
 Pseudocoelomate
Chapter 27-31- Invertebrates  Digestive tract
 Characteristics of Animals (general)  Round, long, and cylindrical body
 Heterotrophic  Moves by whipping body from side to
 Mobile side
 Multicellular  Reproduce sexually, often inside a host
 Diploid  Phylum Mollusca
 Sexual Reproduction  *Gastropods, Cephalopods, Bivalves*
Chapter 27-31 (con’t)
 No Cell Wall  Bilateral symmetry
 Blastula Formation: Ectoderm,  True coelom
Mesoderm, and Endoderm  Organs and Systems
 Tissue  Three part body plan: visceral mass,
 Body Plan mantle, foot
 Symmetry- Asymmetrical, Bilateral,  Most have a shell
and Radial  Reproduce Sexually
 Body Cavity- Coelomate,  Larval stage called trochophore
Acoelomate, and Pseudocoelomate  Feed by using radula or filter feeders
 Phylum Porifera  Three major classes of mollusks:
 *Sponges*  Gastropod- “stomach-footed”
 Asymmetrical • *Snails, Slugs*
 Specialized cells in mesoglea • Single shell
 Sessile • One large foot
 Made of spongin and spicules • Radula
 Can reproduce asexually or sexually  Bivalve- two shells
 Feeds by circulating water through body • *Clams, Oysters, Scallops,
 Phylum Cnidarian Muscles*
 *Jellyfish, Coral, Hydra* • No distinct head region
 Radial symmetry • Some are sessile
 Made up of tissues • Filter feeders
 Two body forms: Medusa and Polyp • Forms pearls
 Reproduce sexually  Cephalopod- “head-footed”
 Tentacles contain cnidocytes • *Octopus, Squid, Chambered
 Food enters mouth Nautilus*
 Gastrovascular cavity • Most have no shell
 Phylum Platyhelminthes ♦ Octopus- no shell
 *Flatworms: Tapeworm, Fluke, ♦ Squid- reduces shell (pen)
Planarian* ♦ Nautilus- shell
 Bilateral symmetry • Foot Tentacle
 Acoelomate ♦ 8- Octopus
 Organs and Systems ♦ 10- Squid
 Reproduce asexually in the summer and • Developed brain and eyes
sexually in other times
 Adv. Bio Exam Study Guide 7

• Moves by squirting water  Endoskeleton made of ossicles, then

through a siphon covered by a thin layer of skin, many
• Hard beak with radula inside have spines
 Phylum Annelidia  Simple circulation and respiration: skin
 *Segmented Worms: leech, earthworms* gills
 Bilateral Symmetry  Movement by tube feet: water-vascular
 Segmentation system
 Has septa (internal wall that separates  Reproduces sexually
segments)  Phylum Chordata (Invertebrates)
 Coelom  *Tunicates*
 Hydrostatic skeleton  Four Chordate characteristics:
 Organs and systems  Notochord
 Primitive brain  Dorsal Nerve Chord
 Complex nervous system  Pharyngeal Gill Slits
 Closed circulatory system  Post-Anal Tail
 Move by setae and/or parapodia  Invertebrate chordates don’t have
 Trochophore larval stage backbones
 Reproduce sexually  Tunicates
 Phylum Arthropoda • Asymmetrical
 *Insects, Crustaceans* • Sessile
 “joint-footed” • Filter Feeder
 Segmentation: Head, Thorax, Abdomen • Reproduce Asexually or Sexually
 Sometimes Cephalothorax
 Distinct head with compound eyes
 Exoskeleton Chapter 32-35- Chordates
 Open circulatory system (Vertebrates)
 Reproduce sexually by metamorphosis  Vertebrates
 Jointed appendages  4 chordate characteristics 
 Walking legs  Backbone
 Pedipalps  Provides support
 Mandibles  Protects dorsal nerve chord
 Jaws/Fangs/Pincers for catching prey  Provides a site for muscle attachment
 Respiration tracheal tubes and  Bony skull
spiracles  Segmentation
 Largest number of species of all animals  Bilateral symmetry
 Crustaceans  Two pairs of jointed appendages
• *Crabs, Lobster, Shrimp,  Exhibits cephalization
Crawfish*  Complex brain
• Respiration gills  Sense organs
• Two pairs of antennae  True coelom
• Branched appendages  Closed circulatory system
 Phylum Echinodermata  Chambered heart
 *Sea Star, Sea Urchin, Sand Dollars*  Fish
 “Spiny-Skinned”  First vertebrates were called agnathans
 Pentamerous radial symmetry  No jaw, no pair fins
 Marine
 Adv. Bio Exam Study Guide 8

 Sharks and bony fish evolved and are  Body covered with feathers
thought to outlive the earlier fish  Lightweight/ hollow bones
because they were swifter and superior  Endothermic
swimmers  Super efficient respiratory system
 Characteristics:  Four chambered heart
 Gills  Lungs
 Primitive loop blood circulation  Mammals
 Vertebral column  Characteristics:
 Two chambered heart  Hair
 Nephrons- tube-like units in kidneys  Specialized teeth
(regulates water and salt content)  Endothermic
 Most exhibit external fertilization;  Mammary glands
Sharks and rays exhibit internal  Unborn nourished by a placenta
fertilization.
 Four chambered hear
 Ectodermic
 Lungs
 3 types of fish:
 Three groups of mammals
 Cartilaginous- internal skeleton of
 Monotremes
cartilage *sharks, skates, rays*
 Marsupials
 Bony- internal skeleton of bony
*flounders, perches*  Placental
• Lateral line
• Operculum
Chapter 38 and 39- Body
• Swim bladder Systems
 Jawless- internal skeleton of  Circulatory system
cartilage; eel-like bodies *hagfishes,  Arteries- away from heart
lampreys*  Veins- to the heart
 Amphibians  Capillaries- Smaller vessel connected to
 Characteristics veins and arteries
 Legs  Structure of heart
 Lungs  Refer to picture eight for the heart
 Double loop circulation structure
 Three chambered heart  Functions of the heart parts
 Septum separates atrium into right  Valve- prevents blood backflow
and left halves.  Sinoatrial node- starts heart
 Ectodermic contractions
 Reptiles Chapter 38 and
 Pacemaker 39 abnormal
controls (con’t) heart
 Characteristics: rhythms.
 Strong, bony skeletons and toes with  Path of blood through heart
claws  Refer to picture eight for path of
 Ectodermic blood
 Dry, scaly skin that is almost water-  Red blood cells
tight  Called erythrocytes
 Amniotic egg  Has hemoglobin
 Four chambered heart  No nucleus
 Birds  Life span- 4 months
 Characteristics:  Made in bone marrow
 Wings  White blood cells
 Adv. Bio Exam Study Guide 9

 Called leukocytes  Refer to picture 10 for digestive

 Not as many of WBC as there are structure
RBC  Function
 Defends the body from disease  Salivary glands- break down starches
 Nucleus  Esophagus- moves food to stomach
 Platelets  Stomach- digests food
 Cell fragments of cytoplasm  Liver- produces bile
 Clots blood vessels if a hole  Gall bladder- stores bile
develops  Pancreas- produces insulin
 Blood Types  Small intestine- where blood takes
 A,B,AB,O nutrients
 Universal recipient- AB  Large Intestines- Fecal matter;
 Universal donor- O produces vitamin B and K
 Respiratory System  Rectum/ Anus- where fecal matter is
 Structure expelled
 Refer to picture nine for respiratory
structure The End.
 Function of parts
 Pharynx- transports food, liquids,
and air
 Larynx- voice box
 Epiglottis- covers opening to larynx;
keeps food and drinks from trachea
Good Luck on EXAMS!! 
 Trachea- wind pipe
 Bronchi- tubes connected to trachea
 Bronchioles- divides into alveoli
 Alveoli- small air sacs where gas
exchange occurs
 Diaphragm- supports and aids in
respiration
 Pathway of air
1. Nose/Mouth
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx
4. Trachea
5. Bronchi
6. Lungs
7. Bronchioles
8. Alveoli
9. Capillaries
10. Oxygen goes to cells
 Exchange of gases
 Occurs at alveoli
 CO2 changes into a bicarbonate
(HCO3-)
 Digestive System
 Structure