CHAPTER SIX

Well Barriers
Well barriers are fundamental to well integrity and well control. An
uncontrolled blowout can only occur if more than one barrier fails.
Understanding the physical properties of a barrier, where the barriers are
located, how they are tested, and the actions to take if a barrier fails, are
critical skills for anyone working in completions or interventions. During
interventions and workovers, barrier elements and the barrier envelope
often change as the job progresses. Those working in completions and
interventions must be able to clearly identify each change of barrier ele-
ment, and how the barrier envelope changes throughout the operation.
Many operating companies now incorporate barrier diagrams in work
programmes. These diagrams clearly identify the primary and secondary
barrier envelopes, all the individual barrier elements, and how they
should be tested. Any change to the barrier configuration requires a new
barrier diagram. This is an excellent system, and if properly implemented
will mean those tasked with carrying out the work are always clear about
where barriers are, how they change as work progresses, and crucially,
how to respond to a barrier failure.

6.1 DEFINING WELL BARRIERS AND WELL BARRIER

ELEMENTS
The Norwegian regulatory authority NORSOK define a well bar-
rier as an “envelope of one or several dependent barrier elements pre-
venting fluidsa or gases from flowing unintentionally from the formation,
into another formation or to surface.” They further define a well barrier
element as an “object that alone cannot prevent flow from one side to
the other side of itself ” (sic).1 This is an important distinction, and not
always made in some well control manuals and text books.

a
A pedantic point. This should probably read liquids or gases. Gas is a fluid.

Well Control for Completions and Interventions. © 2018 Elsevier Ltd.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100196-7.00006-3 All rights reserved. 217
218 Well Control for Completions and Interventions

For example, a slickline stuffing box is often described as the primary

well control barrier when wireline is in the hole. Although this is not
incorrect, it is not a comprehensive answer. During slickline operations
on live wells the well barrier, as defined by NORSOK, would include
not just the stuffing box, but all the other “barrier elements” that, when
combined, prevent the release of well fluids.

6.2 BARRIER CLASSIFICATION

There are two broad categories of barriers, or to be precise, barrier
elements.
Normally open. These are barriers that are normally open, but can be
closed to contain well fluids. For example, BOP rams, a downhole safety
valve (SCSSSV), or Christmas tree valves.
Normally closed. A permanent barrier in the well that prevents fluid
flow. For example, cemented casing, production packer, liner top seals.
Barriers may be further classified as:
Independent barrier. This is not reliant on another for integrity. A
mechanical plug, properly tested, would constitute a single, independent
mechanical barrier.
Dependent barrier. Relies on another barrier for integrity. For example,
a check valve that requires a full column of kill weight fluid above it to
remain closed.
Primary barrier. The first object that prevents flow from the well.
Secondary barrier. The second object that contains flow, the object that
will contain flow from the failed primary barrier.
Tertiary barrier. The third object that prevents flow from a well. Only
used if both primary and secondary barriers fail.
A properly implemented barrier philosophy will be based on the pre-
sumption that the primary barrier should remain intact. If it fails, opera-
tional priority will be to reinstate the primary barrier before work
continues. For example, during the running of a completion string, the
primary barrier is a column of kill weight fluid. Fluid loss to the forma-
tion results in a loss of overbalance and a kick. Well integrity is restored
by closing the BOP annular preventer (secondary barrier), and installing a
full opening safety valve on the tubing (secondary barrier). Restoration of
Well Barriers 219

the fluid barrier becomes the priority, and must be carried out before
operations resume. Failure of the secondary barriers is contained by acti-
vating shear and blind rams (tertiary barrier).

6.2.1 Mechanical barriers

Mechanical barriers must be verified by pressure testing. Where possible,
the test should be in the direction of flow. Closed barriers are usually
tested when they are first installed. Normally, open barriers should be
tested at the time of installation and then at intervals in accordance with
regulatory requirements. For example, in the United Kingdom and
Norwegian sectors of the North Sea, Christmas tree valves are normally
integrity tested every six months.
There are several types of mechanical barrier elements, these include:
• Production packer (annulus barrier).
• Tubing hanger seals (annulus barrier). Hanger seal integrity is tested
via ports in the wellhead and by performing an annulus pressure test.
• Wellhead annulus valves (or Valve Removal (VR) plugs in the side
outlet bore).
• Drilling, coiled tubing, and wireline BOPs.
• Plugs. Some operating companies will only consider a mechanical
plug equipped with chevron seals to be a barrier if it can be tested in
the direction of flow. This is because a chevron seal (V-packing) can
only hold pressure in one direction. Most plugs are dressed with two
sets of seals, one for each direction of flow. Testing in one direction
only tests part of the seal stack. Solid slab seals solve this problem, but
are not available for all wireline set plugs.
• Tubing or wireline retrievable SCSSSV. There are many conflicting
views about the use of downhole safety valves as a well control barrier.
However, many operating companies permit the use of the SCSSSV,
providing it can be inflow tested in the direction of flow. Safety valve
acceptance is normally based on a zero leak rate rather than the API
permissible leak rate of 400 cc/minute for liquids or 15 scf/minute
gas.2 Ideally, a small differential pressure from below is needed to keep
the flapper seated. However, the risk of dropped objects must be con-
sidered, since the closed flapper valve in a safety valve does not have
the resilience of, e.g., a wireline set bridge plug.
• Annulus SCSSSV.
• Surface controlled downhole “lubricator valve.”
220 Well Control for Completions and Interventions

• Surface controlled “inflow control valves.”

• Formation isolation valves (of the type commonly used during gravel
packing operations).
• Cemented liner or casing.

6.2.2 Fluid barriers

A static column of mud or brine of sufficient density to overbalance the
highest anticipated reservoir pressure can be classified as a fluid barrier.
Mud is classified as a barrier where:
• The mud can be conditioned (circulated) to keep the solids in suspen-
sion. If mud remains static for too long the mud solids (barite) will
begin to settle, and the mud will lose density.
Brine can only be classified as a barrier if certain conditions are met:
• Since brine contains no solids, losses are probable unless lost circula-
tion material (LCM) is held against the formation.
• Where LCM is required to prevent losses, the brine cannot be classi-
fied as an independent barrier, since it is dependent on the effective-
ness of the LCM to maintain a hydrostatic overbalance.
• In low permeability reservoirs, e.g., shale, no LCM is required, and
brine can be classified as an independent fluid barrier.
• Brine can only be classified as a barrier if the fluid level can be contin-
ually observed and the fluid level maintained.
• If a brine column is supported by a mechanical barrier, e.g., a plug, it
can only be considered a single barrier, since it is dependent on the
plug integrity.
• Where fluid losses are permissible, the loss rate must be less that the
agreed limit.

6.3 BARRIER TESTING

Until successfully tested, no mechanical or fluid device can be con-
sidered a well control barrier. The normal method for testing mechanical
barriers is to apply differential pressure. The main considerations are:
• Differential pressure: Test pressure (Δp) must be more than the antici-
pated maximum differential the barrier will be exposed to when in
Well Barriers 221

service. Typically, at least 10% more. There may be a requirement for

some barrier elements to be tested to their working pressure.
• Duration: A barrier test must last long enough to allow pressure to sta-
bilize, and for any pressure changes or flow to be observed. When
testing a large volume component, e.g., a casing test, a small leak
would not be noticeable on a short duration test.
• Documentation: Most operating companies require barrier tests to be
recorded. Plots and print-outs should be retained for the well
records.
• Frequency: Some well barrier elements will be tested at specified inter-
vals, e.g., the SCSSSV, wellhead, and Christmas tree valves. Other ele-
ments might only ever be tested at the time of installation. Items of
well intervention pressure control equipment and drilling BOP equip-
ment are tested each time they are rigged up and following any repairs
or break of containment. They are also tested to working pressure at
regular intervals to obtain the necessary certification.
• Verification: Where downhole mechanical barriers are close together, it
can be difficult to verify the integrity of the upper barrier. The lower
barrier will normally be inflow tested. With the lower barrier in place,
the only way of testing the upper barrier is to test from above.
However, if the space between the plugs is small (low volume) it will
be very difficult to determine if the upper plug is leaking. Plugs are
now available that allow pressure and temperature between the plugs
to be monitored.3 This enables both plugs to be verified.

6.4 INFLOW TESTING

Inflow tests in high temperature wells can be difficult to interpret
because of fluid expansion. It can be difficult to determine if flow from
the well is a leak or fluid expansion, as the cold test fluid warms. In very
high temperature wells it can take many hours for the fluid temperature
to stabilize. One method of determining if flow is diminishing is to create
a Horner plot of flow rate against time, with Horner Time on the x axis
and flow rate on the y axis.
After plotting a series of rate against time points, draw a straight-line
interpolation between the sample points. If the line intersects the x axis
222 Well Control for Completions and Interventions

Figure 6.1 Horner plot example.

before infinite time (Horner time 5 1) the leak is diminishing and the
inflow test is good. If the plot makes an intersect of the y axis, it means
there is flow at infinite time and the inflow test has failed (Fig. 6.1).

6.5 NONCONFORMANCE WITH BARRIER POLICY

Many workover and intervention operations are performed to repair
or replace worn and damaged equipment that threatens the integrity of
the well. In some cases, the condition of the well is such that installing
two mechanical barriers may not be possible. Consider a situation where
barriers are needed to enable the Christmas tree to be removed and the
drilling BOP installed. Consider also that the reason for the intervention
is a need to replace the production tubing that has parted just below the
tubing hanger. In such a situation, a fluid barrier plus a mechanical plug
set in the tubing hanger nipple profile may be all that can be achieved.
In exceptional circumstances, and after a rigorous examination of the
risks, dispensation from normal barrier policy may be granted and per-
mission to proceed given. Much will depend on the conditions at the
well site. Factors influencing that decision will include reservoir pressure
and the nature of the reservoir, GOR, the quantity of H2S, and the gen-
eral condition of the wellhead and Christmas tree.
Well Barriers 223

6.6 BARRIER REQUIREMENTS IN SUBHYDROSTATIC

RESERVOIRS
Where a reservoir is known to be subhydrostatic and incapable of
flow, then some operating companies and jurisdictions will allow work to
be carried out against a single well control barrier. Note that subhydro-
static wells are very often capable of flowing gas to surface.

6.7 WELL INTERVENTION WELL CONTROL BARRIERS

Many well intervention operations are performed on live wells.
The barriers are provided by pressure control equipment rigged up on
the Christmas tree. Pressure control equipment specifically intended
for use on live well interventions is described in some detail in the
chapters of this book dealing with wireline, coiled tubing, and hydrau-
lic workover (snubbing). The main barrier categories are summarized
here.

6.7.1 Wireline
Primary (first) barrier.
• Stuffing box or grease head and lubricator system.
• When the wireline toolstring is at the surface, the tree valves are
closed to allow the lubricator to be vented and opened. The
Christmas tree valves form the primary barrier.
Secondary barrier.
• Wireline BOP that can close around and seal on the wire in the hole.
For braided cable and e-line a dual ram BOP is required.
• Christmas tree valves if the wire parts and are ejected from the stuffing
box (grease head). If the wire is ejected from the stuffing box, pressure
should be contained in the lubricator by the BOP gland or ball check
in the stuffing box/grease head.
During fishing operations, there may be occasions where wire is
stripped through a closed BOP. In these circumstances, the BOP becomes
the primary barrier.
Tertiary barrier.
• Wire cutting shear seal BOP.
• Wire cutting tree valve.
224 Well Control for Completions and Interventions

In the event of primary and secondary failure, and where no wire cut-
ting BOP is fitted, it may become necessary to cut the wire with the tree
valves. If the tree valves are not designed to cut wire, the gate may be
damaged and it may not be possible to obtain a seal with the valve closed.
If a tree valve must be used to secure the well, always use the upper mas-
ter valve.
• If the lower master valve is damaged, two mechanical set barriers must
be installed in the wellbore before repairs can be made.
• If the swab valve is damaged, it would not be possible to flow the
well whilst maintaining double barrier isolation (swab valve and
swab cap).

6.7.2 Coiled tubing

6.7.2.1 External pressure control
Primary Barrier.
• Stripper rubbers and riser.
• Christmas tree valves when deploying tools in and out of the riser. If a
downhole lubricator valve is fitted, this would be the primary barrier
when installing tools into or out of the well.
• Gate valves if a tool-string deployment system is being used.
Secondary Barriers.
• BOP rams.
• SCSSSV or lubricator valve if the coil tubing BHA is above.
Tertiary Barrier.
• Shear and seal capability in BOP. For many operations, a shear/seal
combination BOP will be mounted immediately above the tree.
• Some trees are fitted with gate valves able to shear coil tubing.

6.7.2.2 Internal pressure control

Primary Barrier.
• Check valves (nonreturn valves) in the BHA.
Secondary Barriers.
• Fluid pumped into the coil to prevent hydrocarbon ingress and valves
on the side of the reel.
Tertiary Barrier.
• Shear and seal capability in BOP. For many operations a shear/seal
combination BOP will be mounted immediately above the tree.
• Some trees have been fitted with gate valves able to shear coil tubing.
Well Barriers 225

Note: Some coil tubing operations use reverse circulation to clean out the well-
bore. This means no check valves are included in the BHA. In these circumstances,
the primary internal barrier is provided by maintaining overbalance on the forma-
tion to prevent hydrocarbons from entering the reel.

6.8 HYDRAULIC WORKOVER (SNUBBING) UNIT: LIVE

WELL OPERATIONS
6.8.1 External pressure control
Primary Barrier.
• Stripper rubbers or annular preventer.
• If rigged up on top of a Christmas tree, the tree gate valves provide
the primary barrier when rigging up and when lubricating tools in
and out of the riser.
• If no Christmas tree is installed, tools are lubricated in and out of the
well above closed BOP blind rams.
Secondary Barriers (pipe in the well).
• 2 x BOP pipe rams.
Tertiary Barrier.
• BOP shear and blind rams or a shear seal ram.

6.8.2 Internal pressure control

Primary Barrier.
• Check valves (nonreturn valves) in the BHA.
Secondary Barrier.
• A full opening stab-in safety valve (Kelly Cock).
Tertiary Barrier.
• Shear ram and blind ram or shear/seal ram on the BOP.
• Facility to kill or plug the well: pumps, kill weight fluid, LCM,
cement, etc.

6.9 WELL BARRIER SCHEMATICS

Well schematics have been used by the oil industry for many years
to provide a simple overview of the well architecture, and list critical
226 Well Control for Completions and Interventions

features and depths. The concept of using a well schematic to identify

well control barriers is said to have first begun in Norway in 1992.4 Since
then the use of barrier schematics has gained in popularity and is rapidly
becoming standard practice for many operating companies.
A barrier schematic clearly illustrates both primary and secondary bar-
rier envelopes, as well as listing the barrier elements. The barrier sche-
matic can be used to detail how each barrier is tested. On a long and
complex completion or intervention, the barrier envelope may change
several times as the operation progresses. Embedding a barrier schematic
for each phase of the operation in the work programme or procedures
manual helps well site personnel keep track of well control barriers as the
job progresses. This reduces the risk of errors in barrier identification,
and consequently reduces the possibility of barrier failure. It also improves
response time where barriers do fail, and will help in planning the actions
necessary to reinstate the vital primary barrier.
Commercial barrier drawing software is now available,5 and the draw-
ings produced are similar to those found in NORSOK D 010. The
example barrier drawings shown here are based on the NORSOK model.
By convention, these drawings display the primary barrier in blue, and
the secondary barrier in red.
When preparing barrier drawings, the correct identification of both
primary and secondary barrier envelopes is important. A simple approach
is to ask, between the reservoir and surface, what parts of the wellbore/
completion are exposed to reservoir fluids, i.e., the primary well barrier
envelope. If an element of the primary barrier envelope fails, where is the
fluid going next? Anything exposed to fluid leaking from the failed pri-
mary barrier forms the secondary well barrier.
The next few pages are a series of well barrier drawings for some
commonly performed completion, workover, and intervention
operations.
Well Barriers 227

6.9.1 Tripping with open ended completion tubing or work

string open perforations
228 Well Control for Completions and Interventions

6.9.2 Removing BOP and installing Christmas tree

Well Barriers 229

6.9.3 Gas lifted production well with annular safety valve

(ASV)
230 Well Control for Completions and Interventions

6.9.4 Barriers during wireline intervention in a live well

Well Barriers 231

6.9.5 Barriers during wireline intervention in a live well

232 Well Control for Completions and Interventions

6.9.6 Hydraulic workover unit: running tubing in to a live

well (shear rams able to function)
Well Barriers 233

6.9.7 Subsea well test string—well shut in after flowing

234 Well Control for Completions and Interventions

REFERENCES
1. NORSOK Standard D-010. Well Integrity in Drilling and Well Operations. Revision
3. August 2004.
2. Design, Installation, Repair and Operation of Subsurface Safety Valve Systems ANSI/
API Recommended Practice 14b Fifth Edition, October 2005.
3. Stein A. Meeting the Demand for Barrier Plug Integrity Assurance. SPE paper
175489-MS. 2015.
4. Fjagesund T. Technology Update: Using Schematics for Managing Well Barriers. SPE
paper-0915-0034-JPT.
5. https://www.wellbarrier.com.