ECP Practical Manual

PRACTICAL NO: DATE:
TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO MULTIMETER
AIM: 1.To knows the function of different knobes on the multimeter.

2. To measure AC and DC voltage and current with the help of AMM and DMM.
APPARATUS: Multimeters, DC power supply, function generator.
THEORY:
Normally there are two types of multimeter:-

1. Analog multimeter:-In which we have a pointer scale, by observing a proper scale we can
measure AC/DC Voltage/Current.
2. Digital multimeter:-In which we have a different range to select, by selecting proper range
we can measure accurate reading of AC/DC Voltage/Current as a display on the screen.
Multimeter is used to measure many electrical quantities. It can measure AC -DC voltage,
current and resistance. So multimeters are used as voltmeter, ammeter and ohmmeter. It has
also various ranges of voltage, current and resistance.
With the help of functional switch the multimeter is converted into voltmeter, ammeter or
ohmmeter. The range switch is used to fix the range of the measurement.
To measure the voltage the meter is connected across the device. To measure the current the
meter is connected in series with the device. For resistance measurement the resistor is placed
in shunt position with the meter. If voltage and current is unknown before the measurement
select the highest range.
PROCEDURE:
(For AC/DC voltage measurement)
1. Set multimeter for DC/AC voltage

2. Select the range.
3. Apply I/P voltage and measure it.
4. Tabulate the result.
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(For AC/DC current measurement)
1. Connect the meter in series for the required path.

2. Set meter for DC/AC current.
3. Select the range.
4. Now switch on AC/DC power supply so current starts flowing.
5. Take the reading and tabulate the result.
CONCLUSION:
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EXPERIMENT NO : TITLE: TYPES OF RESISTANCE DATE :
AIM: TO STUDY DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESISTORS.

(Identify different types of Resistors.)
THEORY: - Resistance is actually a property of matter to oppose the passage of electric

current through it. Resistance of the material is given by
R = ρ. L/A
Where ρ is the resistivity in Ωm.
L is the length in m and
A is area of cross sectional in m².
Many different types of resistors have been developed according to the requirement and
application. Resistors are mainly classified into the two types.
1. Fixed type resistors

2. Variable type resister
 FIXED TYPE RESISTORS
The fixed type resisters are again classify into three parts
1. Carbon Film Resistor
2. Metal Film Resistor
3. Wire wound type
4. Special Purpose Resistor
COMPOSITION TYPE: In this type the resistance material is Carbon (graphite). The
filler material may be silica or ceramic.
The coating is applied on the resistor to give insulation and to avoid moisture penetration.
Color coding is done at last. Value of the resistance is determined by the amount of
carbon and the filler. The resistance is less for more amount of carbon. These are
available in different power ratings from 0. 125 W to 2 W. These resistors have negative
resistance coefficient. These resistors are cheap and are used in general; purpose
electronic equipment.
1. & 3. CARBON FILM /METAL FILM RESISTOR: The film type resistors consist
of a film of suitable resistive material deposited on the ceramic or other insulating
cylinder. The resistive material may be carbon (RESISTORS 1A….TO 1H) or metal or
metal oxide (RESISTORS 3A, 3B, 3C) or ceramic. The value of the resistance is depends
upon the thickness of the film. Resistance value is continuously monitored and grooving
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is stopped when desired value is reached. End caps with copper leads are then attached at
the each end. Depending upon different resistance material utilized film type resistors are
divide into three parts
2. WIRE WOUND RESISTORS: (RESISTORS 2A….TO 2F) in wire wound resistor

the resistance element is resistance alloy wire. Ceramic rod or tube is used as a core. In
this type of resistor the resistance materials is closely wound over the core. The ends of
the wire are welded on butt caps. This protects the actual resistance wire from mechanical
strain. The whole assembly is then covered by insulating material to protect it against
moisture and to provide insulation. Wire wound resistors are mainly of two types
1. General purpose type and
2. Precision type.
4. SPECIAL PURPOSE RESISTOR: (RESISTORS 4A, 4B, 4C)

VDR (VOLTAGE DEPENDENT RESISTOR)
The Resistance of this Resistor changes with applied voltage across it.
LDR (LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR)
The Resistance of this Resistor changes with application of light intensity.
THERMISTOR (NTC)
The Resistance of this Resistor changes with application of Temperature.
It has negative temperature coefficient that means its resistance decrease as temperature
increases.
 VARIABLE TYPE RESISTORS
In variable resistors the value of the resistance is not fixed but can be varied. It has three
terminals. Two terminals are fixed and one is taken from the variable tapping. Variable
resistor can be used in two ways. One way is to use it to vary the resistance. In this case
anyone fixed terminal and a variable terminal are used. Resistance is change by changing
the position of the variable tap. Another use of variable resistor is the potential divider to
get the desired value of the voltage from the fixed available value. In this the fixed
voltage is applied across the two fixed terminal and the variable voltage is taken from one
fixed and the variable terminal.
Much different type of variable resistors is available as describe below.
1. Rotary Type Wire Wound Variable Resistor
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2. Single Turn Preset Pot
3. Step Variable Resistor
4. Decade Resistor
The resistance has three important parameters which we have to specify while buying any
resistor.
1. Value : It can be read from color code.
2.Tolarence :It shows accuracy of resistor it can be indicated by

±.5%,±1%,±5%±10%,±20%
3. Power Rating: It shows current capacity which can be calculate from W= I*I*R
It has the possible values 0.25W, 0.5W, 1W, 2W, 5W, 10W.
CONCLUSION:
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EXPERIMENT NO : DATE :
TITLE: COLOR CODE OF RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS

(Find value of different types of resistors and Capacitors.)
AIM: Study of color code of resistors and capacitors
RESISTORS:
Most resistors and capacitors are so small that it is impractical to print their values on
them using normal numeric characters. Instead, they are marked using a code of colored
bands. Resistors made to tolerances of 5% and 10% are marked with 4 bands while
higher precision types, such as 2% and 1% are marked with 5 bands to allow for extra
digit of precision.
How to read 4 bands?

At one end of the resistor there is either gold or silver band. Start with the band nearest to
the other end. That is the first band.
Band one- first figure of value
Band two-second figure of value
Band three-number of zeroes/multiplier
Band four-tolerance

Because the final band on these resistors is usually brown or red, it can be a bit more
difficult to know which end to start from. In most cases the first four bands are grouped a
bit closer together than the fourth and fifth bands. The first two bands are read the same
as they are on the 4 band types. The third band supplies the third digit of the value. The
fourth band now becomes the multiplier and the fifth represents the tolerance.
E.g. If 5 bands are from first to 4th, red/yellow/white/gold/brown, then the three
significant digits of the value would be 249,the multiplier would be 0.1, and the tolerance
1%.Hence,this is the code for a 24.9 ohm,1% tolerance.
Band one-first figure
Band two-second figure
Band three-third figure
Band four-multiplier
Band five tolerances
CAPACITORS:
Capacitors are mostly marked with their values, voltage ratings, accuracy, temperature
stability etc. Most capacitors are not marked with all these, but value and voltage ratings
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usually given. Capacitors are usually measured in Farads which is too large, so smaller
values are measured in microfarad (abbrev. As uF), nanofarad (nF), picofarad (pF).
Capacitors are also color coded sometimes to read their values.

Band three-multiplier

Band four-tolerance

They are of two types
Band one-temperature co-efficient

Band two-first figure
Band three-second figure
Band four-multiplier
Band five-tolerance

Band four-tolerance
Band five-Voltage rating
How to read value of ceramic capacitor?

By knowing the markings on the capacitors we can find the value, voltage rating,
tolerance etc. of the capacitor.
For e.g. A capacitor marked 104k 63v. Its value -10 * 104 pF
K –denotes the tolerance value
63 v – tells the voltage rating
RESISTOR COLOR CODES:

FIRST SEC.
COLOR BAND MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
FIG. FIG.
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BLACK 0 0 1Ω NO BAND ±20%
BROWN 1 1 10 Ω SILVER ±10%
RED 2 2 100 Ω GOLD ±5%
ORANGE 3 3 1K RED ±2%
YELLOW 4 4 10 K BROWN ±1%
GREEN 5 5 100 K
BLUE 6 6 1M
VIOLET 7 7 10 M
GREY 8 8 100M
WHITE 9 9 1 GΩ
GOLD 0.1 Ω
SILVER 0.01 Ω
CAPACITOR COLOR CODE:

COLOR FIRST SEC.
MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
BAND FIG. FIG.
BLACK 0 0 1 pF BLACK ±20%
BROWN 1 1 10 pF WHITE ±10%
C≥10
RED 2 2 100 pF GREEN ±5%
pF
ORANGE 3 3 1k RED ±2%
YELLOW 4 4 10 k BROWN ±1%
GREEN 5 5 100 k WHITE ±1pF
BLUE 6 6 1M C<10 GREEN ±0.5pF
VIOLET 7 7 ---- pF RED ±0.25pF
GREY 8 8 0.01 pF
WHITE 9 9 0.1 pF
TEMP. CO-EFFICIENT
BLACK 0 * 10 -6
ORANGE -150 * 10 -6
VIOLET -750 * 10 -6
VOLTAGE RATING
BROWN 100
RED 250
YELLOW 400
BLUE 630
CONCLUSION:
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TITLE: SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION OF RESISTORS
AIM: - TO STUDY SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION OF RESISTORS
THEOR: Resistance can be connecting in Series and Parallel.
(A) Series Connection:

The connection of Resistor R1 and R2 are call series connection if they are connected as
shown in figure
For such connection Total Resistance Req = (R1+ R2) Ω……(1)
For n number of resistors connected in series have total resistance equal to algebraic
summation of resistors connected in series.
Req= (R1+R2+….+Rn) Ω
This type of connection has following properties.

1. Current in all resistors have same value.
2. Voltage across each resistor is proportional to its value.
3. Total resistance is largest of all value of individual resistors.
4. The value of total resistance is nearer to the value of largest resistance in
series.
(B) Parallel Connection:

The connection of Resistor R1 and R2 are call parallel connection if they are connected
as shown in above figure
For such connection Total Resistance 1/Req = (1/R1+ 1/R2) Ω
For n number of resistors connected in parallel have total resistance equal to

1/Req= (1/R1+ 1/R2+….+1/Rn) Ω
For simplicity total resistance in parallel of two resistances have value…
Req = (R1*R2) / (R1+R2) Ω……..(2)
This type of connection has following properties.

1. Voltage across all resistors has same value.
2. Current through each resistor is inversely proportional to its value.
3. Total resistance is smallest of all value of individual resistors.
4. The value of total resistance is nearer to the value of smallest resistance in
parallel.
Procedure: Series/Parallel Connection:
1. Connect the resistors as shown in figure.
2. Measure the Equivalent resistance by DMM.
3. Calculate the equivalent resistance using equation (1) or (2).
4. Note down the reading in a table.
Observation Table
Sr.
R1 in ohm R2 in ohm Req Measured Req Calculated
No.

Sr.
R1 in ohm R2 in ohm Req Measured Req Calculated
No.
Calculation Example:
1 if R1 = 100 ohm and R2 = 10Kohm
Req = 100 + 10K = 100 + 10000 (convert Kohm in to ohm)
= 10100 ohm
Req = 10.1Kohm (convert ohm in to Kohm)
CONCLUSION:
TITLE: STUDY OF CAPACITOR
Aim:-To study different types of capacitor. (Identification)
There are two basic types of capacitor:-fixed & variable. In fixed there are again two types:
electrostatic & electrolytic. In electrostatic there are mica, paper, ceramic, plastic etc. & in
electrolytic there are two types aluminium & tantalum.
01] Plastic Film Capacitors include polyester (Mylar), polystyrene, polypropylene,

polycarbonate, metallised paper, Teflon etc. Film type capacitors are available in capacitance
ranges from as small as 5pF to as large as 100uF depends upon the actual type of capacitor
and its voltage rating. Film Capacitors which use polystyrene, polycarbonate or Teflon as
their dielectrics are sometimes called "Plastic capacitors".
01A] Polyester capacitor: Construction of this capacitor is similar to paper capacitor .In it
alternate aluminium & polyester foil are inter wound in layers. The tinned copper wire is
attached to aluminium foil to avoid bad contacts. Capacitor body is coated with a special
weather proof lacquer.
01B] Polystyrene capacitor: The construction is similar to above using polystyrene film.
This film has low dissipation factor, highly stable properties with temperature .These are
useful in computer memory circuits, and radio frequency tuned circuit.
01C] Polycarbonate capacitor: These capacitors have dissipation factor stability as those of
polystyrene capacitors. Their operating temperature may go up to 140 degree Celsius. They
are available from 0.0001 microfarads to 1 microfarads their voltage rating from 63v, 100v,
250v, 400v commonly used.
Radial Lead Type Axial Lead Type
02] Ceramic Capacitors: Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally
called are made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are
then stacked together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance values a single ceramic
disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and
LOW K and are available so that relatively high capacitances can be obtained in a small
physical size. Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their
body to identify their capacitance value in Pico-farads. Generally the first two digits indicate
the capacitors value and the third digit indicates the number of zero's to be added. Letter
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codes are sometimes used to indicate their tolerance value such as: J = 5%, K = 10% or M =
20% etc. these capacitors are available in various shapes like pinup, flat, flat foil, disc &
tubular.
03] Variable Capacitor: these are capacitor were a continuous variation of capacitance is
required for tuning transmitters, receivers and transistor radios. Variable dielectric capacitors
are multi-plate air-spaced types that have a set of fixed plates (the stator vanes) and a set of
movable plates (the rotor vanes) which move in between the fixed plates. The position of the
moving plates with respect to the fixed plates determines the overall capacitance value. The
capacitance is generally at maximum when the two sets of plates are fully meshed together.
Variable Capacitor Symbols
As well as the continuously variable types, preset type variable capacitors are also available
called Trimmers. These are generally small devices that can be adjusted or "pre-set" to a
particular capacitance value with the aid of a small screwdriver and are available in very
small capacitances of 500pF or less and are non-polarized. Trimmers are known by their
dielectric such as AIR Trimmer, ceramic trimmer, wire trimmer, & button trimmer .Trimmers
are adjusted for high frequency setting & padder for low frequency setting in radio receiver.
03A] PVC gang capacitor:

It consists of two sets of plates usually made of aluminium. The one set is referred to as the
rotor, is mounted on a shaft & meshes with a set of fixed metal plates referred to as stator.
Stator& rotor plates are permitted to touch each other. Upon rotation of the shaft , more or
less area exists between the rotor & stator plates. Because capacitance is directly proportional
to the area of the plate, capacitance is obtained in variable fashion. Generally there are two
sections & capacitance is varied simultaneously by common shaft it is referred as gang
capacitor .The dielectric is air, then it is called as air gang capacitor .But when PVC is useful
for transistor radio, it is called as PVC gang capacitor.
03B] Button trimmer: They are small in size & directly mounted on PCB shape appears as
button. There is one metallic circular plate which is fixed & a movable semi-circular plate
move on the fixed plate. Plate moved with the help of screw. There is a dielectric which may
be mica or plastic film separate these plates’ .The electrodes are available from fixed &
movable plate.
03C] Mica trimmer: It has a ceramic plate on which a small flat metal is mounted. A thin
mica sheet is placed on this plate; a spring metal plate with adjusting screw is placed on the
mica sheet .Mica sheet act as dielectric while both plates serve the electrode purpose.
03D] Wire trimmer: It consists of a small ceramic tube. The inside of tube is coated with
silver which acts as plate &taken out with a rod. This rod behaves as one electrode. The outer
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surface of tube is wound with enamel wire with many turns close to each other .This wire
itself act as outer electrode. The ceramic tube act as dielectric.
04 &05] Electrolytic Capacitors: Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very
large capacitance values are required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer for
one of the electrodes, a semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly or paste is used
which serves as the second electrode (usually the cathode). The dielectric is a very thin layer
of oxide which is grown electro-chemically in production with the thickness of the film being
less than ten microns. The majority of electrolytic types of capacitors are Polarised, that is
the DC voltage applied to the capacitor terminals must be of the correct polarity, i.e. positive
to the positive terminal and negative to the negative terminal as an incorrect polarisation will
break down the insulating oxide layer and permanent damage may result. All polarised
electrolytic capacitors have their polarity clearly marked with a negative sign to indicate the
negative terminal and this polarity must be followed. Electrolyte’s generally come in two
basic forms; Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors and Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors.
04A-B] Dry electrolytic capacitor: it consists of two stripes of aluminium foils in between a
paper gauge is placed which is soaked in acidic solution. This is rolled into the form of
bundle like paper capacitor .The +ve battery terminal connected to Al foils is acting as anode.
The oxidation layer is formed inside surface which is in contact with paper gauge. The
compact roll is placed in Al container. According the way how the terminals are taken from
dry electrolytic capacitor they are classified as dry type axial & dry type radial capacitor. If
the terminals are taken vertically they are called radial & if the terminals are taken
horizontally they are called axial.
4C-D] TANTALUM CAPACITOR RADIAL/AXIAL: Tantalum capacitors are compact,

low voltage devices up to several hundred microfarads; these have a lower energy density &
are more accurate than aluminium electrolytic. They are also polarised. They are more
expensive than al based capacitor &used in application such as cellular telephones. They are
available on two forms tantalum radial/axial capacitor.
4E] NON-POLOR CAPACITOR: It is a type of capacitor that has no implicit polarity it

can be connected either way in a circuit. Ceramic, mica and some electrolytic capacitor are
non –polarized.
05] Wet electrolytic capacitor: An electrolytic capacitor employing a liquid electrolyte
.there is a circular Al can filled with electrolyte. The inner surface of can is chromium plated
to prevent the formation of oxide film on it. An Al rod in the centre not permit the electrolyte
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to come out & connected to +ve terminal of dc battery & Al can to –ve terminal ,causes
electrolysis & oxygen layer is generated at centre rod act as anode & thin Al oxide layer is
formed act as dielectric & electrolyte as second electrode.
06] Varactors: When a p-n junction is reversed bias, the width of depletion layer widens
.The p & n regions act as the plates of capacitor while these are separated by depletion layer
act as dielectric.
CONCLUSION:
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EXPERIMENT NO : TITLE: STUDY OF CABLES DATE :
AIM: TO STUDY OF DIFFERENT CABLES. (Identification and Testing)
APPARATUS: Cable Display Board
 Features Of Bare Copper Wires

-Smooth Surface
-High electrical conductivity
-Uniform resistant
 Wire should be free from dust,
(A)Bare Copper roughness, patches & should be of
Wire brighter shining.
17 SWG,22 SWG  Conductor Diameter test: Power
and voltage is inversely
proportional to the diameter of the
conductor.
 Electrical Resistance test of
Conductor.
 Cottoned cover wires are used in
1
manufacturing of coils and
antennas.
 These offer high working
temperatures and wear resistance
with different SWGs to be used for
(B)Cotton cover varied applications.
single 17 SWG  It provides better results; these are
double17 SWG either insulated using a double
layer of cotton or paper. Double
Cotton/Paper Covered Copper
enameled wires and bare wires can
be ideally covered with cotton and
are widely used for instrument
transformers and induction coils.
 The Enameled Copper Wires are
available in different types such as
2 Enameled Copper Polyester Enameled Copper Wire
and Polyurethane Enameled
Copper Wire.
Page No.:
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
provides cables with the ability to
resist oils, acids alkalis, sunlight,
heat weathering and abrasion.
 PVC insulated wires are used
PVC insulated
3 underground feeders (UF), control,
Wire
street lighting, direct burial wires
and aerial. It is often used as an
impervious jacket in installations
that require cables to be highly
protected.
 Multi Core Flexible Copper Cables
are used in machine tools,
control panels, appliances.
 Conductor is drawn from bright
electrolytic grade Annealed Bare
4 Multitier flexible
Copper. The insulation support is
provided using specially
formulated PVC compound with
superior insulation resistance
values.
 Electrical wiring in general refers
to insulated conductors used to
carry electricity, and associated
5 Electrical wires devices. There are used long-
distance electric power
transmission and electric power
distribution.
 Flexible flat cable, or FFC, refers
to any variety of electrical cable
that is both flat and flexible. A
flexible flat cable refers to the
extremely thin flat cable often
found in high density electronic
applications like laptops and cell
6 Flat cables
phones. Where used to connect to
flat panel displays, FFCs may also
be referred to as flat panel cables
(FPC).
 FFC is a miniaturized form of
ribbon cable, which is also flat and
flexible. The cable usually consists
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of a flat and flexible plastic film
base, with multiple metallic
conductors bonded to one surface.
 Transmission lines use specialized
construction such as precise
conductor dimensions and spacing,
(A)Transmission
and impedance matching, to carry
Cable
electromagnetic signals with
minimal reflections and power
losses.
 Used for outdoor connections
between distribution poles and
building entry point. This type of
cable is used for TV receiver to
carry signal from antenna to the
(B)A Pair of
receiver.
Parallel conductors
 Features Of Parallel Conductor
Wires
- Consist of two conductors laid in parallel
- Sheath color black
- PE Insulation.
 Twisted pair cable consists of a
7 pair of insulated wires twisted
(C)A twisted pair together. It is a cable type used in
conductors telecommunication.
(insulted)  Cable twisting helps to reduce
noise pickup from outside sources
and crosstalk on multi-pair cables.
 Coaxial cable is a type of cable
that has an inner conductor
surrounded by a tubular insulating
layer, surrounded by a tubular
conducting shield. Many coaxial
cables also have an insulating
(D)Shielded single
outer sheath or jacket.
conductors(co-
 Types Of Coaxial cable
axial) thin & thick
-Thicknet: RG-8 and RG-11
Thickness of this type of cable is
about 12 mm. 1.Outer plastic sheath
-Thinnet: RG-58 2. Woven copper
Thickness of this type of cable is shield
about 6 mm. 3. Inner dielectric
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 Co-axial cable is used in T.V. insulator
cameras, mines for radio 4. Copper core
communication, CCTV system.
 Twisted pair cables are often
shielded in an attempt to prevent
electromagnetic interference.
(E)Shielded Because the shielding is made of
twisted pair of metal, it may also serve as a
conductors-two ground. Usually a shielded or a
core screened twisted pair cable has a
special grounding wire added
called a drain wire which is
electrically connected to the shield
or screen.
 This shielding can be applied to
individual pairs, or to the
collection of pairs. When shielding
is applied to the collection of pairs,
(F) Multipair cable this is referred to as screening.
4 pair and 8 pair Shielding provides an electric
conductive barrier to attenuate
(G) Shielded electromagnetic waves external to
twisted triplet - the shield and provides conduction
three core path by which induced currents
can be circulated and returned to
the source, via ground reference
connection.
 Rectangular waveguides are used
for compact systems like radar and
inside equipment shelter. That is
Wave guide probably due to the generally
8
rectangular greater rigidity of rectangular
structures because the wall
thickness can be easily made
thicker than with circular.
 A fiber optic chain works in the
following manner. At the one end,
the fiber cable is connected to a
9 Single Fiber cable transmitter. The transmitter
converts electronic pulses into
light pulses and sends the optical
signal through the fiber cable. At
Page No.:
the other end, the fiber cable is
plugged into a receiver which
decodes the optical signal back
into digital pulses.
Testing Procedure:
1. Inspect the insulation layer of the give piece of cable.
2. Check the continuity of given piece of cable.
3. Fill the report as per following table:
Sr. Name of Cable Report of Insulation Report of Continuity

No.
1
2
3
CONCLUSION:
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EXPERIMENT NO : TITLE: TYPES OF FUSE DATE :
AIM: - TO STUDY DIFFERENT TYPES OF FUSES.
THEORY: -
A fuse is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive
current flows through it and thus breaks the circuit.
The fuse element is generally made of materials having low melting point, high
conductivity and least deterioration due to oxidation e.g., silver, copper etc. It is inserted
in series with the circuit to be protected. Under normal operating conditions, the fuse
element is at a temperature below its melting point. Therefore, it carries the normal
current without overheating. However, when a short-circuit or overload occurs, the
current through the fuse increases beyond its rated value. This raises the temperature and
fuse element melts (or blows out), disconnecting the circuit protected by it.
Types of Fuses:
Fuse is the simplest current interrupting device for protection against excessive currents.
Since the invention of first fuse by Edison, several improvements have been made and
now-a-days, a variety of fuses are available. Some fuses also incorporate means for
extinguishing the arc that appears when the fuse element melts. In general, fuses may be
classified into:
1. Low voltages fuses
2. High voltage fuses
It is a usual practice to provide isolating switches in series with fuses where it is
necessary to permit fuses to be replaced or rewired with safety. If such means of isolation
are not available, the fuses must be so shielded as to protect the user against accidental
contact with the live metal when the fuse carrier is being inserted or removed.
1. Low Voltage Fuses
Low voltage fuses can be subdivided into two classes viz., (i) semi-enclosed rewireable
fuse (ii) high rupturing capacity (H.R.C.) cartridge fuse.
1. Semi-enclosed rewireable fuse.

Rewireable fuse (also known as kit-kat type) is used where low values of fault current are
to be interrupted. It consists of (i) a base and (ii) a fuse carrier. The base is of porcelain
and carries the fixed contacts to which the incoming and outgoing phase wires are
connected. The fuse carrier is also of porcelain and holds the fuse element (tinned copper
wire) between its terminals. The fuse carrier can be inserted in or taken out of the base
when desired.
PAGE NO:
When a fault occurs, the fuse element is blown out and the circuit is interrupted. The fuse
carrier is taken out and the blown out fuse element is replaced by the new one. The fuse
carrier is then reinserted in the base to restore the supply. This type of fuse has two
advantages. Firstly, the detachable fuse carrier permits the replacement of fuse element
without any danger of coming in contact with live parts. Secondly, the cost of
replacement is negligible.
Disadvantages:
1. There is a possibility of renewal by the fuse wire of wrong size or by improper
material.
2. This type of fuse has a low-breaking capacity and hence cannot be used in circuits
of high fault level.
3. The fuse element is subjected to deterioration due to oxidation through the
continuous heating up of the element. Therefore, after some time, the current
rating of the fuse is decreased i.e., the fuse operates at a lower current than
originally rated.
4. The protective capacity of such a fuse is uncertain as it is affected by the ambient
conditions.
5. Accurate calibration of the fuse wire is not possible because fusing current very
much depends upon the length of the fuse element.
Semi-enclosed rewireable fuses are made up to 500 A rated current, but their breaking
capacity is low e.g., on 400 V service, the breaking capacity is about 4000 A. Therefore,
the use of this type of fuses is limited to domestic and lighting loads.
2. High-Rupturing capacity (H.R.C.) cartridge fuse. The primary objection of low and
uncertain breaking capacity of semi-enclosed rewireable fuses is overcome in H.R.C.
cartridge fuse.
Fig. shows the essential parts of a typical H.R.C. cartridge fuse. It consists of a heat
resisting ceramic body having metal end-caps to which is welded silver current-carrying
PAGE NO:
element. The space within the body surrounding the element is completely packed with a
filling powder. The filling material may be chalk, plaster of paris, quartz or marble dust
and acts as an arc quenching and cooling medium.
Under normal load conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting
point.
Therefore, it carries the normal current without overheating. When a fault occurs, the
current increases and the fuse element melt before the fault current reaches its first peak.
The heat produced in the process vaporizes the melted silver element. The chemical
reaction between the silver vapour and the filling powder results in the formation of a
high resistance substance which helps in quenching the arc.
Advantages
1. They are capable of clearing high as well as low fault currents.
2. They do not deteriorate with age.
3. They have high speed of operation.
4. They provide reliable discrimination.
5. They require no maintenance.
6. They are cheaper than other circuit interrupting devices of equal breaking
capacity.
7. They permit consistent performance.
Disadvantages
1. They have to be replaced after each operation.
2. Heat produced by the arc may affect the associated switches.
3. H.R.C. fuses with tripping device:

Sometime, H.R.C. cartridge fuse is provided with a tripping device. When the fuse blows
out under fault conditions, the tripping device causes the circuit breaker to operate. Fig.
shows the essential parts of a H.R.C. fuse with a tripping device. The body of the fuse is
of ceramic material with a metallic cap rigidly fixed at each end.
PAGE NO:
These are connected by a number of silver fuse elements. At one end is a plunger which
under fault conditions hits the tripping mechanism of the circuit breaker and causes it to
operate. The plunger is electrically connected through a fusible link, chemical charge and
a tungsten wire to the other end of the cap as shown.
When a fault occurs, the silver fuse elements are the first to be blown out and then current
is transferred to the tungsten wire. The weak link in series with the tungsten wire gets
fused and causes the chemical charge to be detonated. This forces the plunger outward to
operate the circuit breaker. The travel of the plunger is so set that it is not ejected from
the fuse body under fault conditions.
Advantages:
H.R.C. fuse with a tripping device has the following advantages over a H.R.C. fuse
without tripping device:
1. In case of a single phase fault on a three-phase system, the plunger operates the
tripping mechanism of circuit breaker to open all the three phases and thus
prevents “single phasing”.
2. The effects of full short circuit current need not be considered in the choice of
circuit breaker. This permits the use of a relatively inexpensive circuit breaker.
3. The fuse-tripped circuit breaker is generally capable of dealing with fairly small
fault currents itself. This avoids the necessity for replacing the fuse except after
highest currents for which it is intended.
Low voltage H.R.C. fuses may be built with a breaking capacity of 16,000 A to 30,000 A
at 440V. They are extensively used on low-voltage distribution system against over-load
and short circuit conditions.
2. High Voltage Fuses

The low-voltage fuses discussed so far have low normal current rating and breaking
capacity. Therefore, they cannot be successfully used on modern high voltage circuits.
PAGE NO:
Intensive research by the manufacturers and supply engineers has led to the development
of high voltage fuses.
Some of the high voltage fuses are:
(i) Cartridge type. This is similar in general construction to the low voltage cartridge
type except that special design features are incorporated. Some designs employ fuse
elements wound in the form of a helix so as to avoid corona effects at higher voltages. On
some designs, there are two fuse elements in parallel; one of low resistance (silver wire)
and the other of high resistance (tungsten wire). Under normal load conditions, the low
resistance element carries the normal current. When a fault occurs, the low-resistance
element is blown out and the high resistance element reduces the short-circuit current and
finally breaks the circuit. High voltage cartridge fuses are used up to 33 kV with breaking
capacity of about 8700 A at that voltage. Rating of the order of 200 A at 6·6 kV and 11
kV and 50 A at 33 kV are also available.
(ii) Liquid type. These fuses are filled with carbon tetrachloride and have the widest
range of application to h.v. systems. They may be used for circuits’ up to about 100 A
rated current on systems up to 132 kV and may have breaking capacities of the order of
6100 A.
PAGE NO:
Fig. shows the essential parts of the liquid fuse. It consists of a glass tube filled with
carbon tetrachloride solution and sealed at both ends with brass caps. The fuse wire is
sealed at one end of the tube and the other end of the wire is held by a strong phosphor
bronze spiral spring fixed at the other end of the glass tube. When the current exceeds the
prescribed limit, the fuse wire is blown out. As the fuse melts, the spring retracts part of it
through a baffle (or liquid director) and draws it well into the liquid. The small quantity
of gas generated at the point of fusion forces some part of liquid into the passage through
baffle and there it effectively extinguishes the arc.
(iii) Metal clad fuses. Metal clad oil-immersed fuses have been developed with the
object of providing a substitute for the oil circuit breaker. Such fuses can be used for very
high voltage circuits and operate most satisfactorily under short-circuit conditions
approaching their rated capacity.
Advantages:
1. It is the cheapest form of protection available.
2. It requires no maintenance.
3. Its operation is inherently completely automatic unlike a circuit breaker which
requires elaborate equipment for automatic action.
4. It can break heavy short-circuit currents without noise or smoke.
5. The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current limiting effect under short-
circuit conditions.
6. The inverse time-current characteristic of a fuse makes it suitable for over current
protection.
7. The minimum time of operation can be made much shorter than with the circuit
breakers.
Disadvantages:
1. Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after operation.
2. On heavy short-circuits, discrimination between fuses in series cannot be obtained
unless there is sufficient difference in the sizes of the fuses concerned.
3. The current-time characteristic of a fuse cannot always be co-related with that of
the protected apparatus.
Difference between a Fuse and Circuit Breaker:

It is worthwhile to indicate the salient differences between a fuse and a circuit breaker in
the tabular form.
PAGE NO:
Sr. Particular Fuse Circuit Breaker
No.
It performs both It performs interruption function
1 Function detection and only. The detection of fault is made
interruption functions. by relay system.
Inherently completely Requires elaborate equipment
2 Operation
automatic. (i.e. relays) for automatic action.
Breaking
3 Small Very large
Capacity
Operating Very small (0·002 sec or
4 Comparatively large (0·1 to 0·2 sec)
time so)
Requires replacement
5 Replacement No replacement after operation.
after every operation.
CONCLUSION:
PAGE NO:
TITLE: DIFFERENT TYPES OF SWITCHES
AIM: To study different type of Switches. (Identification & Application)
Type of Switch Circuit Symbol Example

1 ON-(OFF)
Push-to-break = SPST Momentary
A push-to-break switch returns to its
normally closed (on) position when
Push-to-break switch
you release the button.
1 Push-Push Switch (e.g. SPST =
ON-OFF)
This looks like a momentary action
push switch but it is a standard on-off
switch: push once to switch on, push
again to switch off. This is called a
latching action.
2 (ON)-OFF
Push-to-make = SPST Momentary
A push-to-make switch returns to its
normally open (off) position when
you release the button, this is shown
Push-to-make switch
by the brackets around ON. This is
the standard doorbell switch.
3 Key Board Switch
The switch contact mechanism is
unique rotating ball gold plated,
which offers a fresh surface as
contact, each time plunger is
depressed. Key switches constitute
the main electromechanically part of
a keyboard. They are used mainly in
telephone, telecommunication,
instrumentation, and computers.
Page No.:
4 Leaf Switch
This type of switch is in leaf shape.
There are two leaves isolated to each
other by plastic caps. These two
leaves make a contact when the lever
is pressed.
ON-ON
5 & 8 Single Pole, Double Throw
= SPDT
This switch can be on in both
positions, switching on a separate
device in each case. It is often called
a changeover switch. For example, a
SPDT switch can be used to switch SPDT toggle switch
on a red lamp in one position and a
green lamp in the other position.
A SPDT toggle switch may be used
as a simple on-off switch by
connecting to COM and one of the A
or B terminals shown in the diagram.
SPDT slide switch
A and B are interchangeable so
(PCB mounting)
switches are usually not labeled.
ON-OFF-ON
SPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard
SPDT switch. It has a third switching
position in the centre which is off.
Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) SPDT rocker switch
versions are also available where the
switch returns to the central off
position when released.
6 & 10 Dual ON-ON

Double Pole, Double Throw =
DPDT
A pair of on-on switches which
operate together (shown by the
dotted line in the circuit symbol).A
DPDT switch can be wired up as a DPDT slide switch
reversing switch for a motor as
Page No.:
shown in the diagram.
ON-OFF-ON
DPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard Wiring for Reversing Switch
SPDT switch. It has a third switching
position in the centre which is off.
This can be very useful for motor
control because you have forward,
off and reverse positions. Momentary
(ON)-OFF-(ON) versions are also
available where the switch returns to
the central off position when
released.
7 ON-OFF
Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST
A simple on-off switch. This type can
be used to switch the power supply to
a circuit.
When used with mains electricity this
type of switch must be in the live
wire, but it is better to use a DPST
SPST toggle switch
switch to isolate both live and
neutral.
9 Dual ON-OFF
Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST
A pair of on-off switches which
operate together (shown by the dotted
line in the circuit symbol).
A DPST switch is often used to
switch mains electricity because it
can isolate both the live and neutral
DPST rocker switch
connections.
Page No.:
Type of Switch Example
11 Micro switch (usually SPDT = ON-ON)
Micro switches are designed to switch fully open
or closed in response to small movements. They
are available with levers and rollers attached.
12 Rocker switch
Rocker switches are used in a large number of
applications ranging from household appliances
and power tools to industrial machines and plant
equipment. Cherry rocker switches are the
perfect choice for eco-nominal, compact
switching, in current ratings of up to 20 amperes.
They are available in a wide variety of shapes
and colors, in lighted and non-lighted designs,
and with different switch characteristics,
electrical ratings and protection classes.
These are general purpose power on-off switch
available in illuminated and non illuminated
types.
Snap mounting is used for these switches.
These are normally used up to 250V, 4A, AC
and are available in SPST, SPDT and DPST
configuration.
13 & 14 Slide Switch
Slide Switch 2 Pole 2 Way
Slide Switch 4 Pole 2 Way
These switches are normally available in
multiples, multiways configuration. Different
contacts are made by sliding the lever. These are
either mounted on printed circuit board or used
with conventional wiring. It is very much similar
to the rotary switch with reduced size. These
switches are normally used in measuring
instruments, receivers and microphones.
Page No.:
15 Push Switch 6 Pole 2 Way
Size – 6 pole 2 way
Rating - 1A, 25V DC or 0.2A, 230V AC
Contact Resistance - 10 milli ohms initial 50
milli ohms max.
Function - Push-Push (Push to on push to off)
Momentary (Push to on)
16 Thumb Wheel Switch
In this type of switch 0 to 9 numbers are marked
on a wheel which rotates by the motion of the
thumb to select a particular digit. Each digit
represent a way and there is a pole for each
wheel.
For a particular wheel, the way corresponding to
the digit, which is visible to us on the switch,
makes contact with the pole. Similarly by the
rotation of Wheel other ways may also make
contact with the pole. Number of wheel may be
assembled on a particular switch depending upon
the requirement.
Reed Switch (usually SPST)
The contacts of a reed switch are closed by
bringing a small magnet near the switch. They
are used in security circuits, for example to check
that doors are closed. Standard reed switches are
SPST (simple on-off) but SPDT (changeover)
versions are also available.
DIP Switch (DIP = Dual In-line Parallel)
This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches;

the example shown has 8 switches. The package
is the same size as a standard DIL (Dual In-Line)
integrated circuit.
This type of switch is used to set up circuits, e.g.
setting the code of a remote control.
Page No.:
Multi-way Switch
Multi-way switches have 3 or more conducting
positions. They may have several poles (contact
sets). A popular type has a rotary action and it is
available with a range of contact arrangements
from 1-pole 12-way to 4-pole 3 way.
The number of ways (switch positions) may be Multi-way rotary switch
reduced by adjusting a stop under the fixing nut.
For example if you need a 2-pole 5-way switch
you can buy the 2-pole 6-way version and adjust
the stop.
Contrast this multi-way switch (many switch
1-pole 4-way switch symbol
positions) with the multi-pole switch (many
contact sets) described above.
CONCLUSION:
Page No.:
TITLE: SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION OF CAPACITORS
AIM: - TO STUDY SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION OF CAPACITORS
THEORY: - Capacitors can be connecting in Series and Parallel.
When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than any one of the
series capacitors’ individual capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in
series, the overall effect is that of a single (equivalent) capacitor having the sum total of
the plate spacing of the individual capacitors. An increase in plate spacing, with all other
factors unchanged, results in decreased capacitance.
Thus, the total capacitance is less than any one of the individual capacitors’ capacitances.
The formula for calculating the series total capacitance is the same form as for calculating
parallel resistances:
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance is the sum of the
individual capacitors’ capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in parallel,
the overall effect is that of a single equivalent capacitor having the sum total of the plate
areas of the individual capacitors. An increase in plate area, with all other factors
unchanged, results in increased capacitance.
Thus, the total capacitance is more than any one of the individual capacitors’
capacitances. The formula for calculating the parallel total capacitance is the same form
as for calculating series resistances:
Procedure:
Series/Parallel Connection:
1. Connect the capacitors as shown in figure.
2. Measure the Equivalent capacitance by DMM.
3. Calculate the equivalent capacitance using equation (1) or (2).
Observation Table:

Sr.
C1 in Faraday C2 in Faraday Ceq Measured Ceq Calculated
No.

Sr.
C1 in Faraday C2 in Faraday Ceq Measured Ceq Calculated
No.
CONCLUSION:
EXPERIMENT NO : TITLE: TYPES OF INDUCTOR DATE :
AIM: - TO STUDY DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUCTORS.
THEORY: -
Inductors are components that are simple in their construction, consisting of coils of
insulated copper wire wound around a former that will have some type of core at its
centre. This core might be a metal such as iron that can be easily magnetized; or in high
frequency inductors, it will more likely to be just air.
Inductors depend for their action on the magnetic field that is present around any
conductor when it is carrying a current. If the wire coil is wound around a core made of a
material that is easily magnetized, such as iron, then the magnetic field around the coil is
concentrated within the core; this greatly increases the efficiency of the inductor.
Factors determining Inductance:

1. Number of turns
2. Area of the coil
3. Length of the coil
4. Core material used within the coil
Inductance is proportional to the number of turns.

Inductance is proportional to the area of the coil.
Inductance is inversely proportional to the length of the coil.
Inductance is proportional to the permeability of the core.
N 2 A
L
l
Where, L = Inductance in Henrys
N = Number of turns
A = Cross-sectional area of the coil in square meters
μ = Permeability of the core material
l = Length of the coil in meters
Symbol:
Unit: Henry
Types of inductors:
1. Fixed-Value Inductors
2. Variable-Value Inductors
PAGE NO:
Fixed-Variable Inductors: An inductor whose value is fixed.
Air-Core Inductor: An inductor that has no metal core.
Air cored inductor is the type where no solid core exists inside the coils. In addition, the
coils that wound on nonmagnetic materials such as ceramic and plastic are also
considered as air cored. This type does not use magnetic materials in its construction.
The main advantage of this form of inductors is that, at high magnetic field strength, they
have a minimal signal loss. On the other hand, they need a bigger number of turns to get
the same inductance that the solid cored inductors would produce. They are free of core
losses because they are not depending on a solid core.
Iron-Core Inductor or Choke: An inductor used to impede the flow of alternating or

pulsating current.
Ferrous: Composed of or containing iron. A ferrous metal exhibits magnetic
characteristics as opposed to nonferrous metals.
Ferrite: A powered, compressed and sintered magnetic material having high resistivity.
The high resistance makes eddy-current losses low at high frequencies.
PAGE NO:
This type uses ferromagnetic materials such as ferrite or iron in manufacturing the
inductor for increasing the inductance. Due to the high magnetic permeability of these
materials, inductance can be increased in response of increasing the magnetic field.
At high frequencies it suffers from core loses, energy loses, that happens in ferromagnetic
cores.
Toroidal Core Inductor:
Toroidal Inductor constructs of a circular ring-formed magnetic core that characterized

by it is magnetic with high permeability material like iron powder, for which the wire
wounded to get inductor. It works pretty well in AC electronic circuits' application.
The advantage of this type is that, due to its symmetry, it has a minimum loss in magnetic
flux; therefore it radiates less electromagnetic interference near circuits or devices.
Electromagnetic interference is very important in electronics that require high frequency
and low power.
Laminated Core Inductor:
This form gets typified by its stacks made with thin steel sheets, on top of each other
designed to be parallel to the magnetic field covered with insulating paint on the surface;
commonly on oxide finish. It aims to block the eddy currents between steel sheets of
stacks so the current keeps flowing through its sheet and minimizing loop area for which
it leads to great decrease in the loss of energy. Laminated core inductor is also a low
frequency inductor. It is more suitable and used in transformer applications.
PAGE NO:
Powdered Iron Core:
Its core gets constructed by using magnetic materials that get characterized by its
distributed air gaps. This gives the advantage to the core to store a high level of energy
comparing to other types. In addition, very good inductance stability is gained with low
losses in eddy current and hysteresis. Moreover, it has the lowest cost alternative.
Variable-Value Inductors: An inductor whose value can be varied.
Another Classification of Inductor:

Coupled Inductor:
It happens when inductors are related to each other by electromagnetic induction.
Generally it gets used in applications as transformers and where the mutual inductance is
required.
RF Inductor:
Another name is radio frequency of RF inductors. This type operates at high frequency
ranges. It is characterized by low current rating and high electrical resistance. However, it
suffers from a proximity effect, where the wire resistance increases at high frequencies.
Skin effect, where the wire resistance to high frequency is greater than the electrical
resistance of current direct.
Multi-Layer Inductor:
Here the wounded wire is coiled into layers. By increasing the number of layers, the
inductance increases, but with increasing of the capacitance between layers.
Molded Inductor:
The material, for which it stands from, is molded on ceramic or plastic. Molded inductors
are typically available in bar and cylindrical shapes with a variety option of windings.
Choke:
The main purpose of it is to block high frequencies and pass low frequencies. It exists in
two types; RF chokes and power chokes.
Applications of Inductors:
In general there are a lot of applications due to a big variety of inductors. Here are some
of them. Generally the inductors are very suitable for radio frequency, suppressing noise,
signals, isolation and for high power applications.
PAGE NO:
More applications summarized here:
1. Energy Storage
2. Sensors
3. Transformers
4. Filters
5. Motors
The use of inductors somehow is restricted due to its ability of radiation of
electromagnetic interference. In addition, it is a side effect which makes inductor deviate
a little bit from it is real behavior.
CONCLUSION:
PAGE NO:
TITLE: SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION OF INDUCTORS
AIM: - TO STUDY SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION OF INDUCTORS
THEORY: - Inductors can be connecting in Series and Parallel.

When inductors are connected in series, the total inductance is the sum of the individual
inductors’ inductances. To understand why this is so, consider the following: the
definitive measure of inductance is the amount of voltage dropped across an inductor for
a given rate of current change through it. If inductors are connected together in series
(thus sharing the same current, and seeing the same rate of change in current), then the
total voltage dropped as the result of a change in current will be additive with each
inductor, creating a greater total voltage than either of the individual inductors alone.
Greater voltage for the same rate of change in current means greater inductance.
Thus, the total inductance for series inductors is more than any one of the individual
inductors’ inductances. The formula for calculating the series total inductance is the same
form as for calculating series resistances:

When inductors are connected in parallel, the total inductance is less than any one of the
parallel inductors’ inductances. Again, remember that the definitive measure of
inductance is the amount of voltage dropped across an inductor for a given rate of current
change through it. Since the current through each parallel inductor will be a fraction of
the total current, and the voltage across each parallel inductor will be equal, a change in
total current will result in less voltage dropped across the parallel array than for any one
of the inductors considered separately. In other words, there will be less voltage dropped
across parallel inductors for a given rate of change in current than for any of those
inductors considered separately, because total current divides among parallel branches.
Less voltage for the same rate of change in current means less inductance.
Thus, the total inductance is less than any one of the individual inductors’ inductances.
The formula for calculating the parallel total inductance is the same form as for
calculating parallel resistances:
Procedure:
Series/Parallel Connection:
1. Connect the inductors as shown in figure.
2. Measure the Equivalent inductance.
3. Calculate the equivalent inductance using equation (1) or (2).
Observation Table:

Sr.
L1 in Faraday L2 in Faraday Leq Measured Leq Calculated
No.

Sr.
L1 in Faraday L2 in Faraday Leq Measured Leq Calculated
No.
CONCLUSION:
EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:
TITLE: INTRODUSTION TO CRO
AIM: Identify terminals, operate and sketch symbolic representation of CRO.
Front Panel Controls:
Sr. Controls Description Figure

No.
1 Screen Usually displays a V/t graph, with
voltage V on the vertical axis and time t
on the horizontal axis. The scales of
both axes can be changed to display a
huge variety of signals.
2 On/off switch Pushed in to switch the oscilloscope on.

The green LED illuminates.
Page No:
3 X-Y control Normally in the OUT position.
When the X-Y button is pressed IN, the

oscilloscope does not display a V/t
graph.
Instead, the vertical axis is controlled

by the input signal to CH II. This allows
the oscilloscope to be used to display a
V/V voltage/voltage graph.
The X-Y control is used when you want

to display component characteristic
curves,
4 TV- Oscilloscopes are often used to
separation investigate waveforms inside television
systems. This control allows the display
to be synchronized with the television
system so that the signals from different
points can be compared.
You must not try to investigate

television systems because of the
dangerously high voltages inside. The
correct position for this control is OFF.
5 TIME / DIV Allows the horizontal scale of the V/t
graph to be changed.
6 Trigger This group of controls allows the

controls oscilloscope display to be synchronized
with the signal you want to investigate.
When the AT/NORM button is in the

OUT position, triggering is automatic.
This works for most signals.
If you change the AT/NORM button to

it’s IN position, the most likely result is
that the signal will disappear and the
oscilloscope screen will be blank.
However, if you now adjust the LEVEL
control, the display will be reinstated.
Page No:
As you adjust the LEVEL control, the
display starts from a different point on
the signal waveform. This makes it
possible for you to look in detail at any
particular part of the waveform.
The EXT button should normally be in

its OUT position. When it is pushed IN,
triggering occurs from a signal
connected to the trigger input, TRIG
INP, socket.
6.A The slide switch to the left of
TIME/DIV gives additional triggering
options. AC is the normal position and is
suitable for most waveforms.
In the DC position, you use the LEVEL

control to select a particular DC voltage
on the signal waveform where triggering
will occur.
The +/- button gives triggering on the

upward slope of the signal waveform in
the OUT position, and triggering on the
downward slope in the IN position.
The green TRIG LED illuminates when

a trigger point is detected.
HF gives triggering in response to high

frequency parts of the signal; LF gives
triggering for low frequency
components and indicates that
triggering will occur at 50 Hz,
corresponding to UK mains frequency.
You are not likely to need any of these
slide switch positions.
6.B The HOLD OFF control allows you to
introduce a delay relative to the trigger
point so that a different part of the signal
can be seen.
Normally, you will want to leave the

HOLD OFF control in its minimum
position, as illustrated.
Page No:
7 Intensity and Adjusting the INTENSITY control
focus changes the brightness of the
oscilloscope display. The FOCUS
should be set to produce a bright clear
trace.
If required, TR can be adjusted using a

small screwdriver so that the
oscilloscope trace is exactly horizontal
when no signal is connected.
8 X-POS Allows the whole V/t graph to be moved
from side to side on the oscilloscope
screen.
This is useful when you want to use the

grid in front of the screen to make
measurements, for example, to measure
the period of a waveform.
9 X-MAG In the IN position, the horizontal scale
of the V/t graph is increased by 10 times.
For example, if TIME/DIV is set for
1 ms per division and X-MAG is pushed
IN, the scale is changed to 0.1 ms per
division.
10 CAL outputs The top terminal gives a 0.2 VPP square
wave, while the lower terminal gives a
2 VPP square wave, both at 50 Hz.
The signals from these outputs are used

to confirm that the oscilloscope is
correctly calibrated.
11 Component The output socket provides a changing
tester voltage which allows component
characteristic curves to be displayed on
the oscilloscope screen.
When the button is IN, the oscilloscope

displays a V/V graph, with the
component tester voltage connected
internally to provide the horizontal axis.
To get normal V/t graph operation the

component tester button must be in the
OUT position.
Page No:
12 Y-POS I and These controls allow the corresponding
Y-POS II trace to be moved up or down, changing
the position representing 0 V on the
oscilloscope screen.
To investigate an alternating signal, you

adjust Y-POS so that the 0 V level is
close to the centre of the screen. For a
pulse waveform, it is more useful to
have 0 V close to the bottom of the
screen.
Y-POS I and Y-POS II allow the 0 V

levels of the two traces to be adjusted
independently.
13 Invert When the INVERT button is pressed IN,
the corresponding signal is turned upside
down, or inverted, on the oscilloscope
screen.
This feature is sometimes useful when

comparing signals.
14 CH I and CH Signals are connected to the BNC input
II inputs sockets using BNC plugs.
The smaller socket next to the BNC

input socket provides an additional 0 V,
GROUND or EARTH connection.
15 VOLTS / DIV Adjust the vertical scale of the V/t graph.
The vertical scales for CH I and CH II
can be adjusted independently.
16 DC/AC/GND In the DC position, the signal input is

slide switches connected directly to the Y-amplifier of
the corresponding channel, CH I or CH
II. In the AC position, a capacitor is
connected into the signal pathway so
that DC voltages are blocked and only
changing AC signals are displayed.
In the GND position, the input of the Y-

amplifier is connected to 0 V. This
allows you to check the position of 0 V
Page No:
on the oscilloscope screen.
The DC position of these switches is

correct for most signals.
17 Trace The settings of these switches control
selection which traces appear on the oscilloscope
switches screen.
The effects of different settings are summarised in the table:
CH I/II DUAL ADD Effect Of Setting
normal operation:
OUT OUT OUT
only CH I displayed, triggering from CH I
IN OUT OUT only CH II displayed, triggering from CH II
OUT IN OUT CH I and CH II displayed on alternate sweeps, triggering from CH I
IN IN OUT CH I and CH II displayed on alternate sweeps, triggering from CH II
CH I and CH II signals added together to produce a single trace,

OUT OUT IN
triggering from CH I
CH I and CH II signals added together to produce a single trace,

IN OUT IN
triggering from CH II
OUT IN IN CH I and CH II displayed simultaneously, triggering from CH I
IN IN IN CH I and CH II displayed simultaneously, triggering from CH II
ASSIGNMENT:
(1) Draw the observed waveform when you calibrate CRO.
(2) Note down positions of all switches when you calibrate CRO.
(3) Write applications of CRO.
CONCLUSION:
Page No:
TITLE: CRO BEAM ADJUSTMENT
AIM: - (1) To bring the beam on CRO.

(2) Connect input to CRO.
(3) Selecting proper channels, volt/ div, time / div.
APPARATUS:-CRO, CRO probe, function generator.
PROCEDURE:
(A) LOCATE FOLLOWING IMPORTANT SWITCHES.
 Power on/off.
 Intensity.
 Focus.
 X- Position (x-shift).
 Y- Position (y-shift). For channel 1 & 2 (optional )
 Time/div.
 Variable time.
 Volt/div.
 Variable volt (optional).
 Triggering.
 Channel selection.
 AT/ normal.
 Level.
 Switches for type of inputs (AC, DC, and GND).
 input of channel -1
 input of channel -2
 GND connector
(B) ADJUSTMENT ON CRO
1. Deselect or unpress or release any press switches.
2. Remove any cable or connected accessory.
3. Bring variable volt and variable time knob on cal position.
4. Switch on power switch.
5. Adjust intensity and focus at middle level and further adjust it for proper appearance of
beam.
6. Select any channel (i.e. channel 1, 2 or dual).
7. Adjust time /div, x-position, y-position to bring the beam.
8. Connect function generator with any one channel of CRO and try to observe sinusoidal
output.
9. We can measure peak to peak voltage of AC wave form , periodic time of AC wave
form and DC voltage by using CRO .
CONCLUSION:
TITLE: MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE USING CRO
AIM: Measurement of voltage using CRO.
APPARATUS: AC signal generator, DC voltage source, CRO probe, CRO.
THEORY:
DC voltage:
DC voltage have two possible polarities so it should be indicated by prefix ‘+
‘or’ –‘.The measured value is ‘Average value’ by default it is also equal to the measured
value by DC voltmeter.
AC voltage:
AC voltage is indicated by its rms value by default. It is the same value which
is also measured by AC Voltmeter. But when we see the waveform on CRO we can
measure peak value or peak to peak value.
The peak value is indicated by suffix Vpand peak to peak value is indicated by
suffix Vpp.
Vrms =Vp/2=Vpp/2*sqrt (2).
PROCEDURE:
(1) For DC voltage measurement:
1. Set the CRO and bring the beam using procedure of ‘study of CRO’.
2. Select channel 1 and set input switch to GND.
3. Adjust Y position of channel 1 and set beam on centre on horizontal line.
4. Connect DC voltage source and select input switch on DC.
5. Horizontal line of beam will shift vertically in ‘up’ or ‘down’ direction for ‘+’or ‘-’ DC
voltage.
6. Adjust volt/div. of channel 1 such that shift is of the order of 2/3 divisions. (on Y axis).
7. Measure no. of divisions in vertical direction (B).
8. Note volt/div (A).
9. Measured voltage= + or – A*B volt.
10. Compare the measured voltage with the measured voltage of meter.
(2) For AC voltage measurement:
1. Set the CRO and bring the beam using procedure of ‘study of CRO’.
2. Select channel 1 and set input switch to GND.
3. Adjust Y position of channel 1 and set beam on centre on horizontal line
4. Connect AC source with probe and select input with AC.
5. Adjust volt/div such that 2/3 vertical division.
6. Observe Peak to Peak.
7. Measure Vp using X pos. and Y pos in terms of division (B).
8. Note down volt/div (A).
9. Calculate Vrms.
10. Compare readings
(1) DC voltage measurement:
Sr. No. of Div No. of Div Measured voltage by CRO = Measured voltage by
No. (A) (B) (A)*(B) Volt meter (V)
(2) AC voltage measurement:
Sr. No. of No. of Measured voltage by rms = Vp / Measured voltage by

No. Div (A) Div (B) CRO = Vp Volt sqrt (2) meter (V)
CONCLUSION:
TITLE: MEASUREMENT OF TIME USING CRO
AIM: To study the measurement of periodic time T using CRO.
APPARATUS: CRO, function generator, cables etc.
TEORY: Periodic time T is a time elapse during one cycle of any periodic signal.
It is a time difference between any two points on the waveform which have phase
difference 360 between them.
It is convenient to measure time difference between two crests or two troughs
using CRO as shown in figure 2 & 3.
For accuracy of measurement it is advisable that T is measured when one to three
cycles are observe on CRO screen.
CAUTION: Before time measurement using CRO variable knob of time/div must be set
on CAL position otherwise measurement have no meaning.
PROCEDURE:
1. SET the beam on CRO.

2. Connect function generator with CRO and switch it on.
3. Measure the number of division along the x axis.
4. While measuring observes only 2/3 cycles use x-position and y-position.
5. Calculate periodic time and frequency of the signal & compare it with reading of
frequency meter.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
SR NO. TIME/DIV NO OF DIV T= A*B F=1/T OBSERVE

(B) X-AXIS SEC HZ FROM
(A) FUNCTION
GENE.
CALCULATION:
T=A*B
F=1/T
CONCLUSION:
Measured Frequency =
Observed Frequency from Oscillator =
TITLE: PN JUNCTION CHARACTERISTIC
AIM: To study the V-I characteristics of PN Junction diode.
APPARATUS: Circuit board, variable DC power supply, DC voltmeter, Ameter, Connecting

wires.
THEORY:
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. They have four electrons in their orbit.
When trivalent or pentavalent impurities are added into intrinsic semiconductor, they are called
extrinsic semiconductor. Adding of trivalent impurities like Al, Ga, In, B makes P type
semiconductor and adding of pentavalent impurities like P, As makes N type semiconductor.
PN junction diodes can be of grown type, alloyed type, or diffused type. The majority carriers in P
type and N type are holes and electrons respectively. At the boundary of P and N semiconductors
the neutral region is formed which is called depletion region. The recombination of holes and
electron at depletion region makes P type negative and N type positive, so potential difference is
established between P-N junction which is also called Threshold or cut in voltage.
It is the voltage at which PN junction starts conduction when it is forward biased. The current in
diode can be expressed as I= I0 (ev/ηvt -1)
Where I = diode current, forward if +ve and –ve.
I0 = reverse saturation current
V= voltage applied across diode
η = 1 for Ge & 2 for Si
Vt = T/11600, a quantity in volts.
In reverse bias width of depletion region increases and current in the diode varies when applied
voltage is less than Vb = breakdown voltage.
Page No:
Circuit diagram:-
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. Input voltage Voltage across diode Current through diode

No. Vin volt VD in volt ID in mA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure. For forward bias of PN junction.

2. Vary DC voltage and measure VD & ID i.e. voltage across diode and current through diode.
3. Draw graph for VD / ID for forward bias.
4. Calculate DC resistance at 0.6v.
5. Calculate dynamic/ AC resistance at 0.6v +/- 0.1v.
Page No:
6. Observe reverse bias current.
CALCULATIONS:
DC resistance = VD / ID = 0.5/6mA = _______ Ω

AC resistance = ΔV / ΔI = ______ Ω
CONCLUSION:
Page No:
PRACTICAL NO: DATE:
TITLE: HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
AIM: To Perform the Half Wave and Full wave rectifier.
APPARATUS: Circuit board, CRO, Multimeter, Connecting wires.
THEORY:
Half Wave Rectifier:

In this circuit, one diode is used for rectification. Rectification means to convert AC signal into DC
signal. During positive half cycle of AC input the diode will be forward biased & it will conduct. So
load current (IL) passes through load resistance (RL). Now negative half cycle the diode will be
reverse biased. So it will not conduct & output voltage will be Zero.
Full Wave Rectifier:

In this circuit, two diodes are used with center tap transformer. During positive half cycle of AC
input, diode D1 will be forward biased and d2 will be reverse biased. Current (IL) passes through
(RL) load resistance and voltage developed across R L.
The purpose of capacitor filter is to filter out AC component and circuit will give proper DC output.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Page No:
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Type of AC input DC pulsating Nature of

Rectifier voltage( volts) voltage at the waveform
output (volts)
Without With Without With
filter filter filter filter
Half
wave
Full
wave
PROCEDURE:
1. Make connection for the half wave rectifier without filter as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the power supply, measure the AC voltage at secondary of transformer and DC
voltage at output of rectifier with multimeter.
3. Connect the CRO at input as well at output and observe the input and output waveforms.
4. Connect the circuit for half wave rectifier with filter and repeat above steps.
5. Connect the circuit for full wave rectifier with and without filter and repeat above step 2 and
3.
6. Draw input, output waveforms for half wave and full wave rectifier with filter and without
filter.
CONCLUSION:
Page No:
PRACTICAL NO : DATE :
TITLE: TRANSISTOR
AIM: Study Different Types of Transistors.
APPARATUS: Display board of transistor types.
THEORY:
AF small signal transistor
1) BC-177 PNP(TO-18 PACKAGE)
It is a PNP type transistor generally used for AF small signal application. It has package type
TO-18 which is shown in fig above.
2) BC-547 NPN(TO-92)
It is a NPN type transistor usually used for AF small signal application. It has package type TO-
92 as shown in fig above. On special request, these transistors are also manufactured in the pin
configuration TO-18.
IF/RF AMPLIFIER
3) 2N-481 PNP(TO-5)
It is a PNP type of transistor with type TO-5 package. It is designed for IF/RF amplifier
applications. Germanium is the material used for its fabrication.
4) BF-194 NPN(X09)
It is a NPN type of transistor with type X-09 package. It is designed for IF/RF amplifier
applications. Here silicon is the material used for its fabrication instead of Ge.
Page No:
HIGH SPEED SWITCHING
5) 2N 2907 PNP(TO-5)
It is a PNP type transistor with type TO-5 package. They are designed for high speed saturated
switching and general purpose application.
6) 2N-2369 NPN(TO-18)
It is a NPN transistor with type TO-18 package (metallic). It is a low current low voltage
transistor. It is used for high speed switching and VHF amplification.
MATCHED PAIR
 COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY PAIR
One is PNP and one is NPN.
7) AC-188 PNP (TO-1)

8) AC-188 PNP (TO-1)
GENERAL PURPOSE
9) SK-100 PNP (TO-39)
SK100 is a general purpose, medium power PNP transistor. The basic applications of a transistor
are switching, amplification and regulation.
Page No:
10) SL-100 NPN (TO-39)
SL100 is a general purpose, medium power NPN transistor. It is mostly used as switch in
common emitter configuration.
POWER AMPLIFIRE HIGH WATTAGE

11) MJ-2955 PNP (TO-3)
It is a general purpose transistors commonly used as a Complementary PNP power transistor also
used as an audio amplifier. They are manufactured in epitaxial-base planar technology and are
suitable for audio, power linear and switching applications.
12) 2N-3055 NPN (TO-3)

It is a power amplifier designed for general purpose switching and amplifier applications. It has
excellent safe operating area.
HIGH VOLTAGE
13) BD-115 NPN (TO-39)
Page No:
It is a NPN type transistor with TO-39 package. It has high voltage applications. Silicon is used
for its fabrication.
SWITCHING POWER
14) 2N-5294 (TO-220)
It is a NPN type transistor with type TO-220 package and generally used in power amplifier and
medium speed switching applications. It has high power dissipation.
PIN DESCRIPTION
1. Base
2. Collector; connected to mounting base
3. Emitter
DARLINGTON PAIR Two TRANSISTORS are couple in CE CONFIGURATION FOR

CURRENT GAIN AND POWER GAIN.
15) BEL-DP NPN (TO-92)
Photo transistor it is working with light.

16) FPT-100(TO-18)
Page No:
MOSFET DUAL GATE IT IS TWO GATE MOSFET.
17) 3N-187 N-CHANNEL (TO-72)
UJT
18) 2N-2646 N-CHANNEL (TO-18)
1 – Emitter
2 – Base 1
3 – Base 2
The 2N2646 is a N-channel unijunction transistor in a TO-18 package. They are used in pulse
and timing circuits, sensing circuits and thyristor trigger circuits.
FET
19) 2N4393 N-CHANNEL (TO-72)
It is an N-channel Field Effect Transistor with type TO-72 package. It makes use of the
fundamentals of FET theory.
CONCLUSION:
Page No:
TITLE: DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIODES
AIM: TO STUDY THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIODES
Apparatus: Display board on different types of diode.
THEORY:
1) Silicon rectifier IN4007 (p-n semiconductor diode): The electrical conductivity of pure or
intrinsic silicon or germanium can be increased considerably by doping i.e. introducing a
controlled amount of impurity. The two types of doped semiconductor materials are known as n-
type and p-type. When p-type material is joined with n-type material, diode is created. Such
diodes are referred to as p-n junction diodes & can be made either of Ge or of Si.
2) Detector diode (OA-79): It is a Ge type p-n junction type diode .It is used to demodulate
(Detect) the radio & TV signals.
3) Switching diode: Semiconductor devices are extensively used as switches in applications

involving rapid switching, where mechanical switches cannot be used. A switch has two distinct
states, on and off. Simply by altering bias condition across the diode it can be changed from a
closed switch to open switch .It is used in digital circuits.
4) Zener diode (6v8): If an ordinary junction diode is subjected to a sufficiently high reverse
voltage, it eventually breaks down and conducts a heavy current. Ordinary junction diode can be
damaged if they are subjected to their respective break-down voltages. Special diodes are
constructed which can operate at voltages that are equal or exceed their break down ratings.
These special diodes are referred to as Zener diode. Thus the Zener diode is a heavily doped
diode which, as a result of doping, has a very narrow depletion region. This allows the diode to
be operated in the reverse biased region of the characteristic curve without damaging the p-n
junction. It is used for reference voltage source & for voltage regulation .where 6v8 shows its 6.8
breakdown voltage.
5) Junction diode (DR -150): It is a p-n junction diode of higher current capacity .It is a si type
diode.
6) Power diode: It is a high power diode .It is used in high power application like industrial
rectifier, inverter, and chopper. Heat-sink can be used with such diode.
7) Diode bridge: It is a combination of four p-n junction diode. It is used as a bridge rectifier for
full rectification. A.C input is connected with terminal marked with symbol. Positive & negative
D.C output are obtained from the terminal marked with terminal + & -.
Page No.:
8) Varicap diode (BA102): It is also known as varactor diode.sThis diode works in reverse bias
condition and restricts the flow of current through the junction. Depending on the amount of
biasing, the width of the depletion region keeps varying. This diode comprises of two plates of a
capacitor with the depletion region between them. The capacitance of diode can be changed by
changing reverse bias voltage across diode.
9) Light emitting diode (LED): The diode emits light when forward biased. It is available with
colors Red, Yellow, Green etc.It is used as an indicator hence source of light. It is available with
various sizes & power capacity. It can switch on & off within high frequency. It consumes low
power & has long life.
10) Photodiode (SI-100): This diode produces the huge current when light energy fall on
transparent window. It is used as a light detector in optical circuits.
11) Photovoltaic diode (solar cell): This diode produces the small D.C voltage of that order of
0.3v when light is incident on transparent window of diode. For more voltage & current
requirement such diode can be connect in series & parallel respectively.
12) Diac: A diac is a bidirectional triggering device used with triac.
13) Silicon controlled rectifier (XL-084): It is a three terminal device which are anode,
cathode, and gate. The period of rectification can be controlled by giving triggering pulse on gate
terminal.
14) Silicon controlled rectifier (TO-220): It is see same as diode no.13 only the package is
different.
15) Triac (T-280B): It is like a two scrs connected back to back .It requires triggering pulse on
gate which can be provided using triac.
Observation: Draw the display board with name & symbol of various diodes.
CONCLUSION:
Page No.:
TITLE: DATASHEET
PRACTICAL NO: DATE:
AIM: To read Datasheet.
THEORY:
What is Datasheet?
Datasheets are instruction manuals for electronic components. They (hopefully) explain
exactly what a component does and how to use it. Unfortunately these documents are
usually written by engineers for other engineers, and as such they can often be difficult to
read, especially for newcomers. Nevertheless, datasheets are still the best place to find the
details you need to design a circuit or get one working.
A datasheet’s contents will vary widely depending on the type of part, but they will
usually have most of the following sections:
The first page is usually a summary of the part’s function and features. This is where
you can quickly find a description of the part's functionality, the
basic specifications (numbers that describe what a part needs and can do), and sometimes
a functional block diagram that shows the internal functions of the part. This page will
often give you a good first impression as to whether potential part will work for your
project or not.
A pinout lists the part’s pins, their functions, and where they’re physically located on the
part for various packages the part might be available in.
Detailed tables of electrical specifications follow. These will often list the absolute
maximum ratings a part can withstand before being damaged.
You'll also see the more normal recommended operating conditions. These may
include voltage and current ranges for various functions, timing information, temperature
ranges, bus addresses, and other useful performance information.
Some parts will have one or more graphs showing the part’s performance vs. various
criteria (supply voltage, temperature, etc.).
Truth tables show how changing the inputs to a part will affect its output. Each line has
all the part's inputs set to specific states, and the resulting output of the part. "H" means
that input is a logical high (usually VCC), "L" means a logical low (usually GND), "X"
Page No:
means the chip doesn't care what the input is (could be H or L), and an arrow means that
that you should change the state of that pin from L to H or H to L depending on the arrow
direction. This is called "clocking" an input, and many chips rely on this for proper
operation.
Timing diagrams show how data should be sent to and received from the part, and what
speed it should be sent / received. These are typically laid out with various inputs and
outputs as horizontal lines, showing the logic transitions that happen to those lines over
time. If the trace dips down, that's a L input or output. If the line rises higher, that's a H
input our output. Timing specifications are laid out as arrows between transitions (names
are referenced back to timing numbers in the electrical specs), and vertical bars or arrows
will link related transitions.
Complex parts will have extensive application information. This varies depending on
the part, but may include detailed descriptions of pin functions, how to communicate with
the part, lists of commands, memory tables, etc. This is often very useful information, so
read through it carefully.
Some datasheets will include example schematics for various circuits that can be built
around the part. These are often very useful building blocks for interesting projects, so be
sure to look through them.
Some parts are sensitive to the way they’re built into a circuit, and the datasheet will
provide layout considerations. These can range from noise-reduction techniques, to
dealing with thermal issues, to mechanical mounting considerations as with the
accelerometer below. This all tends to be very good advice, that if followed from the start
will lead to the most trouble-free circuits. Likewise, if you don't follow this advice, your
circuit may have problems later on that can be hard to diagnose, and harder to fix.
At the end of many datasheets is packaging information, which provides accurate

dimensions of the packages a part is available in. This is very useful for PCB layout.
Finally, a few of our customers have correctly pointed out that datasheets are subject to
having errors just like anything else, and running into one of these errors can be
frustrating to say the least. To reduce this possibility, be sure you have the latest version
of a datasheet before doing any serious work. These are available at the manufacturer's
website.
Page No:
When working with a new part for the first time, or when deciding which part to use for
your project, it’s a very good idea to read that part’s datasheet from beginning to end,
paying close attention to the fine print.
Find Specifications and package of following components from Datasheet:
(1) Diodes IN4001 to 1N4007, IN4148, 2N5402, 2N5408, BY127

(2) Zener Diode - 5V6
(3) Photo diode - BPW10
(4) LED - LED 55
(5) Varactor diode
(6) Seven segment LED
(7) Transistors BC107, BC177, BC547/548
(8) Transistors SL100, SK100, AC127/128, BF194, TIP122
(9) IC 78XX, 79XX
(10) LM317
(11) SMD components: Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor & Diode-LL4148, SM4007,
Chip transistor, Chip Darlington transistor, Bridge rectifier.
CONCLUSION:
Page No:

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PRACTICAL NO: DATE:

TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO MULTIMETER

AIM: 1.To knows the function of different knobes on the multimeter.

APPARATUS: Multimeters, DC power supply, function generator.

Normally there are two types of multimeter:-

(For AC/DC voltage measurement)

1. Set multimeter for DC/AC voltage

1. Connect the meter in series for the required path.

AIM: TO STUDY DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESISTORS.

THEORY: - Resistance is actually a property of matter to oppose the passage of electric

1. Fixed type resistors

 FIXED TYPE RESISTORS

2. WIRE WOUND RESISTORS: (RESISTORS 2A….TO 2F) in wire wound resistor

4. SPECIAL PURPOSE RESISTOR: (RESISTORS 4A, 4B, 4C)

1. Rotary Type Wire Wound Variable Resistor

3. Step Variable Resistor

1. Value : It can be read from color code.

2.Tolarence :It shows accuracy of resistor it can be indicated by

TITLE: COLOR CODE OF RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS

AIM: Study of color code of resistors and capacitors

How to read 4 bands?

How to read 5 bands?

How to read 3 bands?

How to read 4 bands?

How to read 5 bands?

Band one-temperature co-efficient

Band one-first figure

How to read value of ceramic capacitor?

RESISTOR COLOR CODES:

CAPACITOR COLOR CODE:

TITLE: SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION OF RESISTORS

AIM: - TO STUDY SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION OF RESISTORS

THEOR: Resistance can be connecting in Series and Parallel.

(A) Series Connection:

For such connection Total Resistance Req = (R1+ R2) Ω……(1)

This type of connection has following properties.

(B) Parallel Connection:

For such connection Total Resistance 1/Req = (1/R1+ 1/R2) Ω

For n number of resistors connected in parallel have total resistance equal to

Req = (R1*R2) / (R1+R2) Ω……..(2)

This type of connection has following properties.

(B) Parallel Connection:

TITLE: STUDY OF CAPACITOR

Aim:-To study different types of capacitor. (Identification)

01] Plastic Film Capacitors include polyester (Mylar), polystyrene, polypropylene,

Radial Lead Type Axial Lead Type

03A] PVC gang capacitor:

4C-D] TANTALUM CAPACITOR RADIAL/AXIAL: Tantalum capacitors are compact,

4E] NON-POLOR CAPACITOR: It is a type of capacitor that has no implicit polarity it

AIM: TO STUDY OF DIFFERENT CABLES. (Identification and Testing)

APPARATUS: Cable Display Board

 Features Of Bare Copper Wires

Sr. Name of Cable Report of Insulation Report of Continuity

AIM: - TO STUDY DIFFERENT TYPES OF FUSES.

1. Semi-enclosed rewireable fuse.

3. H.R.C. fuses with tripping device:

2. High Voltage Fuses

Some of the high voltage fuses are:

Difference between a Fuse and Circuit Breaker:

AIM: To study different type of Switches. (Identification & Application)

Type of Switch Circuit Symbol Example

6 & 10 Dual ON-ON

This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches;