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© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 2
Power in Balanced 3-Phase
*
Systems S V I 1 LN
S3 3 S1
3 V LL I *
P jQ
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 3
Leading & Lagging Power
Factors
ETAP displays lagging Power Factors as positive and leading Power Factors
as negative. The Power Factor is displayed in percent.
Leading Lagging
Power Power
Factor Factor P jQ P - jQ P + jQ
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 4
3-Phase Per Unit System
kVA B S 3VI If you have two bases:
IB Then you may calculate the other two
3kVB V 3ZI
by using the relationships enclosed in
SB brackets. The different bases are:
2 IB
(kVB ) 3VB •IB (Base Current)
ZB
MVA B ZB
VB2 •ZB (Base Impedance)
SB •VB (Base Voltage)
•SB (Base Power)
I actual Vactual ETAP selects for LF:
I pu Vpu •100 MVA for SB which is fixed for the
IB VB entire system.
•The kV rating of reference point is
Zactual Sactual used along with the transformer turn
Zpu Spu ratios are applied to determine the
ZB SB base voltage for different parts of the
system.
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 5
Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts the branch
impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF reports show
the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31
and the X/R = 12.14
Transformer Turn Ratio: The transformer turn ratio is
used by ETAP to determine the base voltage for different
parts of the system. Different turn ratios are applied starting
from the utility kV rating.
1 N1
kV B kVB2
N2
kVB2
Transformer T7: The following equations are used to find
the impedance of transformer T7 in 100 MVA base.
X
Z pu
R x pu
X pu R pu
X
2
X
1
R R
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 6
0.065(12.14) 0.06478
X pu 0.06478 R pu 0.005336
2
1 (12.14) 12.14
The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where “n” stands for new and “o” stands for old.
o 2 n 2
V S 13.8 100
Znpu Zopu B
n
B
o
(5.33 10 3
j0.06478) (0.1115 j1.3538)
V B S B 13.5 5
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 7
The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 8
Load Flow Analysis
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 9
Load Flow Problem
• Given
– Load / Power consumption at all buses
– Configuration / Network Topology
– Power production for each generator
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 10
Load Flow Studies
• Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
– Voltage Profile
– Power Flows
– Current Flows
– Power Factors
– Transformer LTC Settings
– Voltage Drops
– Generator’s Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
– Total Generation & Power Demand
– Steady State Stability Limits
– MW & Mvar Losses
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 11
Size & Determine System
Equipment & Parameters
• Cable / Feeder Capacity
• Capacitor Size
• Transformer MVA & kV Ratings (Turn Ratios)
• Transformer Impedance & Tap Setting
• Current Limiting Reactor Rating & Imp.
• MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
• Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
• Generator’s Mvar Demand
• Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 12
Optimize Operating
Conditions
• Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
• Fast in speed, but high requirement on • Fast in speed, but low in solution
initial values. precision.
• First order derivative is used to speed up • Better for radial systems and
calculation. systems with long lines.
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 15
Load Nameplate Data
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 16
TYPE OF LOADS:
TYPE OF LOAD PHASOR PHASE POWER ABSORBED BY THE LOAD
ANGLE P Q
I
V R I V Ф=0 P>0 Q=0
I V
V L Ф Ф = +90° P=0 Q>0
I
I I
C Ф = - 90° P=0 Q<0
V Ф V
I R
V V
L Φ 0 <Φ<+90 P>0 Q>0
I
V R L
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 17
TYPE OF LOADS:
TYPE OF LOAD PHASOR PHASE POWER ABSORBED BY THE LOAD
ANGLE P Q
I
V R
C I
Φ V -90°<Φ<0° P>0 Q<0
C
V R
Tuned to
Resonance
IL = Ic
I
L PL = Pc
V C
Energy travels - P=0 Q=0
Ic IL 90 <=Φ<=+9
Back & forth
0
Between C&L
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 18
Constant Power Loads
• In Load Flow calculations induction,
synchronous and lump loads are treated
as constant power loads.
• The power output remains constant even
if the input voltage changes (constant
kVA).
• The lump load power output behaves like
a constant power load for the specified %
motor load.
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 19
Constant Impedance Loads
• In Load Flow calculations Static Loads, Lump Loads
(% static), Capacitors and Harmonic Filters and Motor
Operated Valves are treated as Constant Impedance
Loads.
• The Input Power increases proportionally to the
square of the Input Voltage.
• In Load Flow Harmonic Filters may be used as
capacitive loads for Power Factor Correction.
• MOVs are modeled as constant impedance loads
because of their operating characteristics.
© 1996-2008 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 20
Constant Current Loads
• The current remains constant even if the
voltage changes.
• DC Constant current loads are used to test
Battery discharge capacity.
• AC constant current loads may be used to test
UPS systems performance.
• DC Constant Current Loads may be defined in
ETAP by defining Load Duty Cycles used for
Battery Sizing & Discharge purposes.
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 21
Constant Current Loads
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 22
Load Type Summary
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 23
Generic Loads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 24
Generator Operation Modes
Feedback Voltage
•AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
•Fixed: Fixed Excitation
(no AVR action)
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 25
Governor Operating Modes
• Isochronous: This governor setting allows the
generator’s power output to be adjusted based on
the system demand.
• Droop: This governor setting allows the generator
to be Base Loaded, meaning that the MW output is
fixed.
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 26
Isochronous Mode
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 27
Droop Mode
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 28
Droop Mode
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 29
Droop Mode
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 30
Adjusting Steam Flow
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 31
Adjusting Excitation
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 32
In ETAP Generators and Power Grids have four operating
modes that are used in Load Flow calculations.
Swing Mode
•Governor is operating in
Isochronous mode
•Automatic Voltage Regulator
Voltage Control
•Governor is operating in
Droop Mode
•Automatic Voltage Regulator
Mvar Control
•Governor is operating in
Droop Mode
•Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR
action)
PF Control
•Governor is operating in
Droop Mode
•AVR Adjusts to Power Factor
Setting
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 33
• In the Swing Mode, the voltage is kept fixed. P & Q can vary
based on the Power Demand
• In the Voltage Control Mode, P & V are kept fixed while Q &
are varied
• In the Mvar Control Mode, P and Q are kept fixed while V &
are varied
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 34
Generator Capability Curve
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 35
Generator Capability Curve
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 36
Generator Capability Curve
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 37
Maximum & Minimum
Reactive Power
Machine Rating (Power Factor Point)
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 38
Generator Capability Curve
Field Winding
Machine Rating
Heating Limit
(Power Factor
Point)
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 39
Generation Categories
Generator/Power Grid Rating Page
10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power Grid
in the System
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 40
Power Flow
V1 V1 1
V2 V2 2
S V*I P jQ
2
V1*V2 V *V V2
*SIN( 1 2 ) j 1 2 *COS( 1 2 )
X X X
V1*V2
P *SIN( 1 2 )
X
2
V1*V2 V2
Q *COS( 1 2 )
X X
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 41
Example: Two voltage sources designated as V1 and V2 are
connected as shown. If V1= 100 /0 , V2 = 100 /30 and X = 0 +j5
determine the power flow in the system.
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 42
The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a generator supplying real power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
1 1
Power Flow S
( V E) 0
sin
X
2
( V E) V
cos
X X
2
2
0
Real Power Flow
Reactive Power Flow
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 43
Bus Voltage
ETAP displays bus voltage values in two ways
•kV value
•Percent of Nominal Bus kV
For Bus4:
kVCalculated 13.5 kVNo min al 13.8
kVCalculated
V% 100 97.83%
kVNo min al
For Bus5:
kVCalculated 4.03 kVNo min al 4.16
kVCalculated
V% 100 96.85%
kVNo min al
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 44
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 45
Lump Load Negative
Loading
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 46
Exercise Time
• Open LF-Example-A1
• Follow instructions in LF-Example-A1.PDF
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 47
Load Flow Adjustments
• Transformer Impedance
– Adjust transformer impedance based on possible length variation
tolerance
• Reactor Impedance
– Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
• Overload Heater
– Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
• Cable Length
– Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 48
Load Flow Study Case
Adjustment Page
Adjustments applied
•Individual
•Global
Temperature Correction
• Cable Resistance
• Transmission Line
Resistance
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 49
Allowable Voltage Drop
NEC and ANSI C84.1
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 50
Load Flow Alerts
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 51
Equipment Overload Alerts
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 52
Protective Device Alerts
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 53
If the Auto Display
feature is active, the
Alert View Window will
appear as soon as the
Load Flow calculation
has finished.
© 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 54
Exercise Time
• Open LF-Example-B1
• Follow instructions in LF-Example-B1.PDF
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 55
Load Flow Example
B1 Part 1
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 57
Voltage Control
• Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 58
Under-Voltage Example
• Create Under Voltage • Method 2 - Shunt
Condition Capacitor
– Change Syn2 Quantity to 6. – Add Shunt Capacitor to Bus8
(Info Page, Quantity Field) – 300 kvar 3 Banks
– Run LF – Voltage is improved
– Bus8 Turns Magenta (Under • Method 3 - Change Tap
Voltage Condition)
– Place LTC on Primary of T6
• Method 1 - Change Xfmr – Select Bus8 for Control Bus
– Change T4 from 3 MVA to 8 – Select Update LTC in the
MVA, will notice slight Study Case
improvement on the Bus8 kV – Run LF
– Too Expensive and time – Bus Voltage Comes within
consuming specified limits
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 59
Advanced LF Topics
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 60
Mvar Control
• Vars from Utility • Method 2 – Add Capacitor
– Add Switch to CAP1 – Close Switch
– Open Switch – Run Load Flow
– Run LF
– Var Contribution from the
Utility reduces
• Method 1 – Generator
– Change Generator from • Method 3 – Xfmr MVA
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control – Change T1 Mva to 40 MVA
– Set Mvar Design Setting to 5 – Will notice decrease in the
Mvars contribution from the Utility
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 61
Advanced LF Topics
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 62
Load Flow Convergence
• Negative Impedance
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 63
Exercise Time
• Open LF-Example-A2
• Follow instructions in LF-Example-A2.PDF
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 64
Advanced LF Topics
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 65
Review of Load Flow
Solution
• Given generation, loading and control
settings (Mwgen, Vgen, LTC, Capacitor
Bank, …)
• Solve bus voltages and branch flows
• Check over/under voltage, device
overloading conditions
• Reset controls and run Load Flow again
• Iterative process
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 66
Optimal Power Flow
Approach
• Given control setting ranges
• Specify bus voltage and branch loading
constraints
• Select optimization objectives (Min. P
Losses, Min. Q Losses, …)
• Solve bus voltages, branch flows and control
settings
• Direct solution
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 67
Control Variables
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 69
Objective Functions
• Minimize Shunt var Devices
- To minimize var generation from available shunt
var control devices
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 71
Objective Functions
• Maximize Voltage Security Index
2n
AllBuses Vi Vi ,avg
Voltage Security Index
i dVi
Where,
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 72
Objective Functions
• Maximize Line Flow Security Index
AllBranches 2n
Si
Line Flow Security Index
i Si
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 73
Other Constraints
• Bus Voltage Constraints
• …
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 74
Exercise Time
• Open LF-Example-A3
• Follow instructions in LF-Example-A3.PDF
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 75
Comparison of LF and OPF
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 76
Panel Systems
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 77
Panel Boards
• They are a collection of branch circuits
feeding system loads
• Panel System is used for representing power
and lighting panels in electrical systems
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 78
Representation
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as
an internal or external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 79
Pin Assignment
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 80
Assumptions
• Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
• Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3-
Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/√3) times the rated panel voltage
• The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire
panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
• There are no losses in the feeders connecting a
load to the panel
• Static loads are calculated based on their rated
voltage
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 81
Line-Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A A
B B
C C
Load
LoadB
Angle by which load current IBC lags the load voltage = θ
Therefore, for load connected between phases B and C: For load connected to phase B
SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos (θ + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin (θ + 30)
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 82
Info Page
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of
the panel
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 83
Rating Page
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 84
Schedule Page
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 85
Description Tab
First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total
panel load
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the
element type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected load’s
demand factor status
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 86
Rating Tab
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 87
Loading Tab
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 88
Protective Device Tab
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 89
Feeder Tab
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 90
Action Buttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 91
Summary Page
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 92
Output Report
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 93
Panel Code Factors
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 94