FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND

SOCIETY

Assessment Cover Sheet and Feedback Form 2015/16

Module Code: Module Title: Module Lecturer:

BS4S16 Leadership & Management Evanthia Papachristoforou
Theories
Assessment Title and Tasks: Assessment No.
Summative Essay 1 of 1
No. of pages submitted in total including this page: Word count of submission:
32 (if applicable) Completed by student
Date Set:30 September Submission Date: 30 R30 September 2018
2018 September 2018 eturn Date:

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Part B: Marking and Assessment

(to be completed by Module Lecturer)
Assessment Task:

Summative Essay: Critically evaluate the application of leadership theories to a

leader in an organisational context (e.g. a company of your choice) and
management theories to a contemporary organisation.

Learning Outcomes to be assessed(as specified in the validated module

descriptor):

LO1. Critically evaluate the development of leadership and management theories;

LO2. Critically appreciate the nature of leadership and management theories and
their application in a range of leadership and management settings.

Grading Criteria:

A strong essay must use the key themes addressed in the module to develop the
analysis, namely:

 Classical to Contemporary Management Theories

 Behavioural Management
 Masterliness
 Culture & Leadership
 Leader-centric and behavioural Theories of Leadership
 Contemporary Theories in Leadership

Essay marking criteria:

Element Weight %

Presentation, structure, style and referencing 10

Contextual discussion of the broader development of 10

leadership or management theory as appropriate to the
chosen topic for critical evaluation;

2
Critical evaluation of literature 30

Critical discussion of practice relating to leader or 30

organisation

Commentary on the fit between theory and practice 20

3
Student Name(s): Rasha Esmat Mohammad Elbanna
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5
 FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND
SOCIETY

APPLICATION OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT IN THE MIDDLE EAST (ARAB

COUNTRIES)

Rasha Elbanna
R1805D5376972
MBA - Master of Business Administration V2
Module- BS4S16-V1
27/09/2018

6
Abstract:

The purpose of this report critical analyzing several management and leadership and

the impact of cultural background on the management and leadership style in the

Middle East (Arab countries) and its effect on subordinates’ performances. Identifying

the reason behind the difficulty in applying the commonly used management styles in

Middle East. Comparison between Western and Middle Eastern manager within the

same organization and its effect on employees.

Chapter-1: Introduction

1.1-Introduction:

The difference in management styles across the world is highly associated with culture,

since culture and management are interconnected (Geert Hofstede et al., 2010). It was

previously noted that a competent environment is advisable in order to apply the

principles of management effectively. Cultures differ, and it has to be contemplated

whether different management styles as well as associated problems vary with the

culture and the possibilities of customizing management and leadership skills to be

able to serve different environments. Management is a process that is highly affected by

culture, psychology, sociology, economics, political science and much more; that

generates a diversity of managers. To move further with the topic we need initially to

understand that Leadership is as well a social influence which is directly affected by

culture. Many in the Middle East do not separate professional and personal life. Doing

business revolves around or is more concerned of personal relationships, family ties,

trust, and honor and a tendency to prioritize personal matters first and foremost, rather

7
than focusing on individual performance or efficiency or the needs of the subordinates.

It is therefore compelling that business relationships are modeled on mutual friendship

and trust. This eventually would create a feeling of discrimination and grudge to

subordinates who will replicate a similar management as well as leadership style once

they attains a position and the never ending cycle continues. Bandura ,1991 suggests

Theory and research on social cognitive theory suggest that “leading by example” is an

extremely important social influence mechanism whereby leadership positively affects

follower development and performance (e.g., Bass and Steidlmeier, 1999, Gardner et

al., 2005, Lord et al., 1999). Authentic transformational leaders serve as the “moral

standard bearer” (May et al., 2003) .Similarly, Sosik, 2006 reaffirms the influence of

moral exemplars for followers with their expressed moral values, character, and

authentic actions. To understand the impact of cultural background on leader ship and

management, we need to initially define each concept and its development separately.

The rate of unethical conduct of leaders/ managers in the Middle East has become

increasing oblivious day by day. It is very important to link the reasons behind this fact,

whether this occurrence is due to mentality of leaders or followers as well or it has

become part of the culture and society and is completed accepted and is not a point of

shame.

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Chapter 2: Identifying Management, Leadership and Culture

2.1: Defining Management

It’s of no doubt that the theory / concept of management has always been an

argumentative subject over the past century. Although the common or the basic

definition of management is managing people and their work to achieve the common

goal by employing the organization’s resources, theorists continue to unveil the matrix

of management and its relation to organization.

2.1.1: Scientific Management Approach

Starting with Scientific Management which was pioneered by Taylor, Gilbreth and Gantt.

Taylor was one of the early practical manager –theorists. Taylor suggested organizing

all working elements into efficient and profitable operations. Glibreth later presented it

as ‘motion study’. Unlike Taylor and the Glibreth, Gantt proposed a bonus system,

which left some discretion and initiatives to workers. Years later McGregor introduced

two contradicting extremes, Theory X and Theory Y with sets of assumptions. Theory X

is where a manger assumes that employees are lazy, require control, need coerced and

threatened, they avoid responsibility and seek security above all else. Theory Y, is

where the manager assumes that their employees like work (as natural as rest and

play), do not need to be controlled or coerced when committed to organizational

objectives; will accept and seek responsibility in the right 12 conditions; exercise

imagination and ingenuity in accomplishing work.

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2.1.2: Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy , a hierarchical arrangement which is commonly found in the Middle East

region until date, presented by the sociologist Max Weber who suggested legitimate

authority which was divided into:

 Traditional authority –where acceptance of those authority arises from tradition

and custom ( as in monarchy system)

 Charismatic Authority: where acceptance arises from loyalty , to and confidence ,

the personal qualities of the ruler.

 Rational-legal authority –where acceptance arises out of the office or position of

the person in authority, as bounded by the rules and procedure of the

organization.

2.1.3: Classical Management Approach

Classical management theorists have bestowed the fundamental theories of

management. In the early twentieth century Fayol known as The Father of Modern

Management Theory outlined the five principles of management that portrays/ delineate

the kinds of behaviors managers should legislate or formulate, so that the goals and

objectives of an organization are effectively met. This includes planning, organizing,

commanding, coordinating and controlling. Similarly, the classical theorist Berch in 1975

established four elements of management equivalent to Fayol’s proposal in the

functions of planning, co-coordinating and control but incorporates human relation or

what is so called behavioral approach. Nevertheless, Berch was more concerned about

the framework of organizational structural in terms of defining responsibilities, job

10
description and delegations. He emphasized on maintaining high morale which was as

well contemplated by Fayol in his 14 principles as “Espirit de Coeur.

2.1.4: Contemporary Management Approach

Proceeding from the classical approach to contemporary approach we need to get a

closer view on how contemporary management can be accomplished. Contemporary

management skills include managing/ commanding people to accomplish tasks,

perpetuating authority, constructing discipline and securing/confirming direction and

plans are consistent throughout the company. Other types of required skills involve

handling conflict, rendering equitable remuneration, centralizing operations as

appropriate, organizing work flow, maintaining order and ensuring fairness.

In 1973 Henry Mintzberg proposed breaking down management roles and

responsibilities and organizing the workplace to simplify complex concepts. Mintzberg

noted that everyone should practice and master each of these interpersonal,

informational and decision-making roles.

Mintzberg bared in mind the function of commanding, controlling, coordinating and of

course planning as in classical theory but within an open system organization,

considering the external environment and challenges.

Prahalad (2000) a researcher who deployed his enlightments and researches

exclusively based on the practicing community, initiated the idea of strategic intent of

organizations. He contributed an alternative perspective to strategy implementation, via

strategy as a leverage to accomplish extraordinary performance of the organization with

the existing resources. In a similar fashion to the open system environment of

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Mintzberg, Prahalad In his book The New Age of Innovation (2008) with M.S. Krishnan

tactfully combines mass customization, strategic outsourcing, innovation on global

supply chains, implementation of information technology in restructured business

process, interdependence of the firms at the global level, etc.

Similarly, Hamel (2007) stressed on turning an entire organization into a sensory organ

alerted to any external change and to eliminate the lags between “sense” and “respond

through minimizing hierarchy. In addition, Hamel argues that organizations need

management innovation now more than ever, as new ways of mobilizing talent,

allocating resources, and formulating strategies.

Likewise, Robert Heller, (1997), best-selling author on business management, author of

more than 50 books, and the founding editor of Management Today and the Global

Future Forum focuses on Leadership as the new management technique suggesting 10

key strategies for future mangers which included developing leadership, managing

motivators, team work, quality management etc.

2.2: Defining Leadership

Leadership has always been a vague terminology, complex to define. Leadership differs

from time to time and from region to region. What a leader could do or perform decades

back cannot be done years later. Due to globalization, people tend view leaders

differently due to exchange of ideas, views, habits, etc. Leadership will still remain an

area of research. A leadership style is a leader's style of stipulating direction, executing

plans, and motivating people. It is the outcome of the philosophy, personality, and

experience of the leader.

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Chester Barnard (1938) suggested that leadership is “The ability of a superior to

influence the behavior of subordinates and persuade them to follow a particular course

of action”. Leadership is fundamentally an influential activity, which can have a positive

or negative impact over a group of people, an organization or even a nation as a whole.

Conclusively, what is called leadership technique is directed at accomplishment of goal

whether good or bad.

A great deal of personality characteristics was detected to be reliably integrated with

leadership emergence. Leadership emergence is the concept that people born with

specific traits become leaders and those without these characteristics do not qualify to

be leaders. People like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, and Nelson Mandela all

share traits that an average person does not. This involves people who choose to get

engaged in leadership roles, when compared to others who do not. Research indicates

that up to 30% of leader emergence has a genetic basis, contradictingly there are still

no reliable researches that concluded that there is a “leadership gene”, but instead we

inherit certain characteristics that might leverage our decision to pursue leadership.

Both anecdotal and empirical evidence support a stable relationship between specific

traits and leadership behavior. Several studies carried out by researchers found that

there are three factors that motivate leaders; affective identity (enjoyment of leading),

non-calculative (leading earns reinforcement), and social-normative (sense of

obligation).

Scholars have argued the leader and manager have different roles whilst others have

deemed them synonymous. Managerial role does not need to influence his

subordinates, but rather have the ability to execute the goals of an organization through

13
being task oriented. A leader, on the other hand, must have the ability to influence other

team members (Cole and Kelly, 2016).

I will be discussing few leadership approaches and styles that I shall be further

illustrating later on my exemplars.

2.2.1The Trait approach

The trait theory of leadership is assumes that leaders are born and due to this belief,

those that possess the correct qualities and traits are better suited to leadership. This

theory often identifies behavioral characteristics as shown in figure 1 below that are

common in leaders.

Figure 1- Trait Theory of Leadership and Its Key Characteristics

https://www.educational-business-articles.com/trait-theory-of-leadership/
2.2.2 Autocratic or authoritarian
Autocratic – classical approach - manager holds the authority and makes the decisions:

An autocratic leader centralizes power and decision-making in himself. He gives orders,

assigns tasks and duties without consulting the employees. The leader takes full

14
authority and assumes full responsibility .In 1958 Tannerbaum and Schmidt suggested

Leadership Continuum Theory where the leader takes the decisions announces them,

expecting subordinates to carry them out without question. Although this type of

leadership tend to discourage people, but on the bright side of autocratic or what is

called authoritarian leadership there are times when it might be useful, for instances

when decisions need to be made quickly without consulting large group of people, in

cases where a great deal of pressure is involved ,or small groups where leadership is

lacking , or in situations where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the

group or has access to information that other members of the group do not.

2.2.3 Democratic

Manager consults – informs – shares decision making: Participative or democratic

leaders de-centralize authority. It is characterized by consultation with the subordinates

and their participation in the formulation of plans and policies. S/He encourages

participation in decision-making. Democratic leadership is sometimes referred to as

participative leadership or shared leadership as members of the group take a more

participative role in the decision-making procedure . This pattern of leadership is

applicable to any organization, from private businesses to schools to government. One

of the drawbacks of this style of leadership is at times it might lead to team members

feeling like their opinions and ideas aren't taken into account, which may lower

employee satisfaction and morale.

2.2.3 Ethical and Authentic leadership

According to the Oxford Dictionary, ethics is “moral principles that govern a person’s

behavior or the conducting of an activity”. By being moral, you are doing what is ‘right’

15
The globe is made up of different people of different cultures, religions, gender ,and

their perspectives on various aspects as ‘right’ others would see it odd. The definition of

ethical behavior has even changed within similar cultures, as society development and

change.

Many scholars suggested that Authentic leader is an ethical one . These types of

leadership work hand in hand and cannot be separated. Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner,

Wernsing, & Peterson, (2008, p. 94) defines authentic leadership as:

“[a] pattern that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a

positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral

perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part

of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development.”

On the contrary Shamir, B., & Eilam, G.(2005), suggested the word “authentic” in

authentic leadership that one can be true to a corrupt value system and still be an

authentic leader. Faking a set of ethical constraints to which a leader does not

personally prescribe would be a sign of inauthenticity.

2.2.4Transactional leadership

Transactional leadership is style of micromanagement, where the leader insures the

compliance of his followers through a system of reward and punishment. Transactional

leader motivates followers by placing self-interest over group-interest. Transactional

leader ship can be related to Theory X Douglas McGregor's. Burns, 1978 reaffirms that

transactional leadership approach lead followers to short term relationships of exchange

with the leader .

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2.2.5 Transformational Leadership

This term was original founded by Downton in 1973, in his paper ““Rebel Leadership:

Commitment and Charisma in a Revolutionary Process”. The business dictionary

defines this as, Style of leadership in which the leader identifies the needed change,

creates a vision to guide the change through inspiration, and executes the change with

the commitment of the members of the group. Burn (1978:141) “one who raises the

followers’ level of consciousness about the importance and value of desired outcomes

and the methods of reaching those outcomes”. Bass (1985) added, in defining

transformational behaviors and include individualized consideration (compassionate

leadership), intellectual stimulation (thinking outside of “the box”), inspirational

motivation (exciting the masses/sharing the vision), and idealized influence (walking the

walk- charisma).

2.4.6 Servant Leadership

“Servant Leadership” was coined by Robert K. Greenleaf in "The Servant as Leader", an

essay that he first published in 1970, suggesting the servant-leader is servant first. It

begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. James Sipe and

Don Frick, in their book The Seven Pillars of Servant Leadership, state that servant-

leaders are individuals of character, those who put people first, are skilled

communicators, are compassionate collaborators, use foresight, are systems thinkers,

and exercise moral authority.

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2.4.7 Toxic

A toxic leader is a person who has responsibility over a group of people or

an organization, and who abuses the leader–follower relationship by leaving the group

or organization in a worse condition than when they first found them. The phrase was

coined by Marcia Whicker in 1996 and is linked with a number

of dysfunctional leadership styles. They tend to keep people illiterate, ignorant, so they

stay the most knowledgeable within a group of people so they can lead.

Similarly Barbara Kellerman (2004) suggested Bad leadership, where she explains that

bad leaders exhibit a number of characteristics or orientations which included:

• Incompetence – the leader and at least some followers lack the will or skill (or both)

to sustain effective action

• Rigidity – the leaders and few followers are inflexible and stubborn. Even if they were

qualified or efficient, they are unable or unwilling to adapt to new ideas

• Intemperance – the leader lacks self-control and encourages unethical acts by

followers.

• Callousness – the leader and at least some followers are unconcerned or disregard

the needs of subordinates.

• Corruptness – Self interest comes first over public interest. The leader and few

followers lie cheat or steal exceeding all ethical standards.

• Insularity –They are narrow and disregard the health and welfare of ‘the other i.e.

parochialism.

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• Evilness –Carry out brutality. They use pain as an instrument of power. The abuse

committed in men, women, and children is severe rather than slight including physical,

psychological, or both.

They tend to keep people illiterate, ignorant, so they stay the most knowledgeable or the

wisest within a group of people so they can lead.

2.3: Defining Culture

Globalization has made cultural awareness critically crucial .Culture and society is

defined as beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics common to the

members of a particular group or society. Through culture, people and groups define

themselves, conform to society's shared values, and contribute to society. Thus, culture

includes many societal aspects: language, customs, values, norms, mores, rules, tools,

technologies, products, organizations, and institutions. (Online Houghton Mifflin

Harcourt Cliff Notes, 2016). Culture is what identifies different groups and organizations

from one another. It is the ‘glue’ that binds a group of people together(Martin and

Myerson, 1988) .From a managerial prospect, culture as a set of shared values, goals,

attitudes, and practices within the organization’s context when it carries out a project

(Putty, 2009). Leadership culture is the self-reinforcing web of beliefs, practices,

patterns, and behaviors. It's the way things are done; the way people interact, make

decisions, and influence others. Leaders' own conscious and unconscious beliefs drive

decisions and behaviors, and repeated behaviors become leadership practices. Hall

and Schneider, 1973 proposed five levels of culture: National Culture, Regional Culture,

Organizational Culture, Team Culture and Individual culture. Every country enjoys

unique institutional and cultural characteristics, which in turn, influence organizational

19
culture and as such influences the practices of the organizations (England , 1983 cited

in Thomas ,2008).Hofstede identified five major dimensions on which culture differs

Power Distance , Uncertainty avoidance Individualism vs. Collectivism , Masculinity vs.

Femininity and Long –term/ Short-term work orientation.

The GLOBE Project (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior

Effectiveness Project) is a study of cross-cultural leadership that spans over 60

countries and cultures. The Project was established in 1993 by Robert J House to

investigate how cultural values are interconnected to organizational practices,

conceptions of leadership, the economic competitiveness of societies, and the human

condition of its members across 62 Societies (House et al, 2004).

Chapter -3: Middle Eastern (Arabs) Culture management and leadership culture

3.1 –Overview on Middle Eastern (Arabs) Culture

Middle East region (except Israel) has a national culture in common which includes

language, religion, values, political system, education etc. Differences are touched

when you move from country to country within the region.

3.2 –Middle Eastern (Arabs) Culture management and leadership culture

As briefed in my introduction that most of the organization in the Middle East would

primarily consider the personal relationships, family ties, trust, and honor which would

deliver a different type of management style. Individuals in the MENA region define

themselves in relation to their family and other in-groups. They find satisfaction through

their network of relationships and feel great attachment to their in-groups. A common

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practice in the Middle East is what is called ‘WASTA’: which can be translated as who

you know or a mediator. Members in the network of relationships ask leaders for favors

based on their relationships rather than merit. A system of borrowed and returned

favors is prevalent. Generally, the hierarchy and bureaucratic management system are

the most significant and beloved in this region. Authoritarian form and centralized

management dominates .Decision is always preserved for the leader or manger. Since

childhood the perception that people are controlled through power or position held by

individuals is nurtured in homes, schools, society etc and continues until it has become

part of the genes of the society that is lived with in our everyday life.

In 1986, Gareth Morgan in his organizational studies , enlightened a great attention in

understanding assumptions brought by scientists in investigating various organizations’

culture. Morgan initiated "Imaginization" as a new style of thinking and structuring to

establish this notion. In his book ‘Images of Organization’ Morgan instituted the use

of metaphors to interpret and deal with organizational problems, portraying the

organization as:

1. Machines: The machine view which dominates modern management thinking

and which is typical of bureaucracies.

2. Organisms: The organismic view which emphasizes growth, adaptation and

environmental relations.

3. Brains: Organizations as information processors that can learn.

4. Cultures: Organizations as cultures based on values, norms, beliefs, rituals and

so on.

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 5. Political: In political organizations interests, conflict and power issues

predominate.

6. Systems: Organizations can adapt and change.

7. Psychic prisons, flux and transformation :Some organizations are psychic prisons

in which people are trapped by their mindsets

8. Instruments of domination. Some organizations are instruments of domination

with the emphasis on exploitation and imposing your will on others

Lot of Middle Eastern organizations obeys Morgan’s metaphors as follows. In most of

the Middle Eastern organizations, managers deal with their employees or subordinates

as a way to achieve organizational or even personal tasks. An organization can also be

divided into different groups according to the interest of each group, rather than the

interest of the organization as whole but power is mostly what predominates. Fear of

unemployment, turn organization in psychic prisons, where people accept any

management style. Moreover, as people need to fulfill Maslow’s basic needs of social

and economic security, people tend to fall within the cycle of doing orders rather than

being creative, or being empowered. Moreover the Autocratic – classical approach

manager is very common all holds authority and power decisions. He/she centralizes

power and decision-making to himself/herself, rather than participation or consultation of

subordinates. Consultation, which has a special meaning in these countries, is not used

as a power sharing mechanism as in the western cultures, but as a way to show that the

leader cares about the subordinates and values their opinions (Kabasakal and Bodur,

2007, Kabasakal and Dastmalchian, 2001). Cultural background affects the

effectiveness of transformational leadership.

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Bad leader /toxic boss is a common feature of many organization in the middle east. In

fact, these bosses wouldn’t conserve these positions, if they weren’t acceptable at

something. Because they are only being assessed for total outcome of an organization,

example profit or loss rather than asses things like employee retention, expenses, bas

conducts etc.

3.3 Applying Hofstede five major dimensions in the Middle East region.

3.3.1 Power Distance

In the autocratic Middle East ones, where large power distance exist, generally

employees/ subordinates fear to convey disagreement with managers or power

holders. Running alongside with Hofstede (2004), concept of power distance,

managers of the Middle East expect a total submissiveness from employees. Middle

East was declared as one of the most hierarchical societies, being in the 6th place out

of the 38 cultures with preference for a power distance and a great influence and

authority. (Chookar, p. 849)

3.3.2 Uncertainty avoidance

Refers to the extent to which a society, groups and organizations rely on established

social norms, rituals and procedures to avoid uncertainty. Hofstede has labeled Middle

East as a culture with high uncertainty avoidance. Lack of economical stability has

increased fear of unemployment, which increases uncertainty avoidance.

23
3.3.3 Individualism vs. Collectivism

Collectivism is still very common as people are born into families which protect them in

exchange loyalty. Individuals in the MENA region define themselves in relation to their

family and other in-groups. This was explained earlier in what is so called the power of

‘WASTA’ and the strong hierarchal and bureaucratic system which is still sustained.

3.3.4 Masculinity vs. Femininity

Males tend to overrule in the Middle East region and remain as a high masculine

society. Although recently there is a great change in societies of few countries of the

Middle East but the old concepts of in rural areas still prevails.

3.3.5 Long –term/ Short-term work orientation

Most of the leaders / managers are short term oriented, as the importance of reserve

the position is prioritized over the needs of subordinates and therefore slow or no

economic growth occurs.

Chapter 4 :Exemplars

4.1 Exemplar 1: Public Figure

Gamel Abdel Nasser (Iconic Figure)

Nasser is still considered as a leader and a hero by people specially and considered as

a dictator by others. Nasser was inspirational to the Arabs .There is no doubt that he is

one of the most important rulers in the Arab world who played a role in portraying the

image of the Arab region during his era. Nasser who lead and commanded one of the

24
oldest countries in the Middle East but was also hated for his Autocratic rule. Nasser, in

the eyes of many, was a hero who nationalized Egypt, freeing the country from foreign

possession and benefiting the country through the nationalization of the Suez Canal, a

source of much grief and controversy in Egypt.

Nasser is considered as one of the most charismatic leaders in the arab region . he is a

charismatic leader who gained control over the nation even though he is a dictator.

Nasser obeys the trait approach, which is born to be leader. He was dominant and there

was trust in his ideologies. He possessed high level of emotional and social intelligence

.He is considered by researchers as a magnetic leader.

On the hand, some people and critics of Nasser believe that some of the things he did

were destructive to Egypt. Nasser is considered as the leader who ended democratic

and liberal political cultures of the West and started Egypt’s militaristic rule. Starting the

militaristic rule in Egypt was the birth of toxic leadership explained earlier and still exists.

This eventually encouraged unethical acts (Intemperance), and callousness i.e. leader

is indifferent of people’s needs. Moreover corruption rate increased self interest came

over public interest. Many followers cheated or stole exceeding all ethical standards.

During his era high levels brutality was carried.

But above all, Nasser was, and is always, remembered as the nationalist who fought for

the freedom of his nation. Moreover, we can conclude that a charismatic leader is not

always an authentic or ethical leader specially in a region like the middle east where

people honors icons or the head.

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4.2 Exemplar 2: Local Organization

Depicting a western and Middle Eastern manager style within an organization to identify

its effect on employees. An overview on the western manager dealing with different

nationalities with different cultural and educational background within the same

organization, it is observed that the transformational leadership style prevails. The

hygiene factors that were suggested by Fredrick Herzberg which includes achievement,

recognition, work itself, responsibility and advancement which are called the motivators

is a common culture of the organization. Low Power distance and eventually a flat

hierarchal structure of the organization was felt .People are remunerated according to

performance and therefore focuses on people fairness. This gave employee a feeling of

empowerment and loyalty to the organization rather than to an individual.

On the contrary the Arab manager style is characterized by rigid hierarchical levels and

eventually decisions role is left solely for the manager and to conveying decisions down

the levels for implementation. Consultation is just a way to show consideration to

employees but decision is centralized.

Chapter 5: Future Researches:

Suggest further researches to investigate the relationship between education in the

elementary level ’, self-perceptions of their engagement in best leadership practices,

26
teachers’ perceptions of their principals’ engagement in best leadership practices, and

analyzing students academic outcomes .

Chapter 6: Conclusion:

Companies are now tuning into the fact that in order to get ahead in today's global

economy, cultural awareness is critical. It is no longer a luxury but a necessity. The right

intercultural awareness training briefing can offer a company real benefits, namely a

competitive advantage and a greater long term gain. To improve the management style

in the middle east, it would be suggested to follow Chis Argyris’ Immaturity-Maturity

Theory, and abort treating their subordinates as children. People are expected to be

passive, dependent and subordinate in ‘classical’ organizations (immature behavior);

and this leads to apathy, frustration, resentment and working against the organization.

To achieve this, a transformational period is required first to organize political life and

the choice of leaders (political and economic) of trust who are able to achieve goals

under a more threatening pressure of the public opinion.

27
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