DEVELOPMENT OF AN ANXIETY SCALE FOR

UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS
THESIS
Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Award of the
Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION
2015
By
Mrs. Kamini Singhal
ID No.10PHEDU105

Advisor
Dr. (Mrs.) Nishi Tripathi
(Associate Professor)
Head, Department of Psychology
Sam Higgginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology& Sciences
(Formerly Allahabad Agriculture Institute)
(Deemed to be University)
Allahabad -211007
 ABSTRACT

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ANXIETY SCALE FOR UNDERGRADUATE

STUDENTS

Anxiety is an important construct today, especially in the lives of students, as it affects their mental,
physical and social wellbeing. Studies have focussed on anxiety disorders of university students,
some areas of their manifest anxiety, like academic anxiety, job anxiety, death anxiety and so on.
Currently, no Indian scale has been developed to measure the level of anxiety, of this population
except Sinha’s Anxiety Scale, constructed in the sixties. The present study outlines the development
and validation of an Anxiety Scale for Undergraduate Students (ASUS) to measure their level of
anxiety. The ASUS consists of 50 items and is on a 5 – point Likert scale. Results of data have
demonstrated that the scale has internal reliability and construct validity.
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I
Introduction
Anxiety has been a part and parcel of the human mind from time immemorial. In a normal or
moderate amount it acts as a catalyst, a motivator, that helps us to make efforts to do something.
However, if it persists, with or without reason, or exceeds the normal limit, it causes great harm to
the individual. In education it is imperative to know its levels, especially in the youth studying in
higher education, as they are our immediate future and the country’s and world’s development is in
their hands. Therefore, as their academic performance, as well as their social makeup are of
paramount importance, we need to know their level of anxiety. Anxiety seems to be the dominant
fact and is threatening to become the dominant cliché of modern life (Khanna, 1989).

Meaning of Anxiety

Taking into account the historical perspective, in 1844, in ‘The Concept of Anxiety’, written by the
Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), anxiety was explained as the effect of freedom,
of possibility, of the boundlessness of one’s own existence — a kind of choice. It was different from
concepts like fear that refer to something definite, as it is freedom’s actuality or possibility. The
existential psychologist Rollo May in his ‘The Meaning of Anxiety', originally published in 1950,
took this idea further saying that Kierkegaard’s relation between guilt and anxiety can be understood
only by emphasizing that he always spoke of anxiety in its relation to creativity. As it is possible to
create — creating one’s self, willing to be one’s self, as well as creating in all the innumerable daily
activities— one has anxiety. One would have no anxiety if there were no possibility whatever. Now
creating, actualizing one’s possibilities, always involves negative as well as positive aspects. It
always involves destroying the status quo, destroying old patterns within oneself, progressively
destroying what one has clung to from childhood on, and creating new and original forms and
ways of living (Popova, 2013).

According to The Encyclopedia of Psychology (2000), anxiety is an emotion characterized by

heightened autonomic system activity, specifically activation of the sympathetic nervous system i.e.
increased heart rate, blood pressure, respiration and muscle tone), subjective feelings of tensions and
cognitions that involve apprehension and worry. Although subjective experience of anxiety is not
necessarily accompanied by particular behaviors, behavioral indicators are often present, such as
speech dysfluencies, avoidance of the focal object or event, immobilization or observable tremor.
Different dictionaries have defined anxiety. It is a state of uneasiness or tension caused by
apprehension of possible future misfortune or danger, intense desire or eagerness. In Psychology it is
a state of intense apprehension or worry often accompanied by physical symptoms such as shaking,
intense feelings in the gut, etc, common in mental illness or after a very distressing experience
(Collins English Dictionary, 2003). It is a feeling of fear and apprehension, persistent doubt or fear,
state of mind burdened by heavy responsibilities, serious thought combined with emotion, active
and sometimes excessive concern for another’s wellbeing (The American Heritage ® Dictionary,
2009). It is distress or uneasiness caused by fear of danger or misfortune, earnest but tense desire, a
state of apprehension and psychic tension, a threat to some value which the individual holds essential
to his existence as a personality (Webster's College Dictionary, © 2010).

Many eminent psychologists have also, tried to define anxiety. Sigmund Freud (1923, 1924),
described anxiety as ‘something felt’, an unpleasant affective state or condition. This state in patients
with anxiety-neurosis, was characterized by “all that is characterized by the word ‘nervousness’,
apprehension or anxious expectation and efferent discharge phenomenon (Freud, 1923,1924). May
(1950), feels that the special characteristics of anxiety are the feelings of uncertainty and helplessness
in the face of danger. Anxiety was the apprehension cued off by, too much self- indulgence and too
little self- restraint ( Mowrer, 1953). The term anxiety is most often used to describe an unpleasant
state or condition which is characterized by subjective feelings of tension, apprehension and worry,
by activation or arousal of automatic nervous system (Spielberger et al, 1966). Anxiety is an emotion
based on the appraisal of threat, an appraisal which entails symbolic, anticipatory and uncertain
elements…anxiety results when cognitive systems no longer enable a person to relate meaningfully
to the world about him (Lazarus et al, 1970).Anxiety is an unpleasant emotional reaction to real or
imagined dangers, accompanied by autonomic discharge and subjectively experienced, such as
tension, fright or nervousness (Beck, 1972).
Mathison (1977) defined anxiety as a state that has association with feelings of uncertainity,
helplessness and threat to the core of personality. Anxiety in general causes vague diffuse feelings of
uneasiness, distress, inner tension and worrying in advance (Schalling, 1978). These play a critical
role in evoking differences in drive level. According to Spielberger (1983), during the 20th century,
the concept of anxiety attracted much attention from psychologists, since that period was known as
the ‘age of anxiety’. He felt that , generally speaking, if an individual perceives and appraises a
particular situation as threatening, an unpleasant emotional reaction usually occurs. This reaction is
known as anxiety. Gray,(1982) and Gray and McNaughton (1996), defined anxiety as a state of the
conceptual or central nervous system characterized by activity of the behavioral inhibition system
(BIS). Almost all agree that ‘ the characteristics of anxiety as an emotion are that it is distressing and
that its sources are indefinite’, (The Oxford Companion to the Mind, 2006).
Theories of Anxiety
Anxiety has been found as a central explanatory concept in almost all contemporary theories of
personality (Chadha, 1982). For many years, theories of anxiety were rooted primarily in the
experiences of clinical workers and the insight of the sensitive observers of the west.
Theories of anxiety, can be classified as psychoanalytical, learning/ behavioural, physiological,
phenomenological/existential, cognitive and those concerned with uncertainity (Strongman, 1995).
For the most part the bases of these theories are consideration of human anxiety. However, some
experimental investigations that surround them, are based on animal subjects.

Psychoanalytic Theory

A systematic study of anxiety started with Freud’s conceptualization of it as a signal of danger. This
theory of Freud remained influential particularly in applied and clinical settings. Freud (1923,1924),
distinguished anxiety as an emotional state or condition. He proposed two theories of anxiety – in
1917 and 1926. In the first, anxiety was regarded as a transformed libido, the transformation coming
through repression. So, if a person was prevented from doing some instinctive act through repression,
anxiety would result. It arose, when the individual expected punishment or disapproval for his
behavior or thought or when mental conflict became severe. So he believed anxiety to be a physical
feeling generated by sexual strivings. He believed that such sexual tensions were transformed into
anxiety as a result of repression.
He felt that ego was confronted by excessive stimulation, which when not brought under control
became flooded with anxiety. Severe anxiety affected individuals’ adjustment and caused mental
disorders. The resulting symptoms would stop more anxiety from developing. Concern was with
automatic anxiety, resulting from trauma of birth and experiences of the infant, immediately after it.
In his second theory, he reversed the anxiety- repression linkage, and said that repression occurred
because of experience of anxiety. So anxiety was a signal from the ego of real or potential danger.
The unpleasantness of the threat resulted in anxiety, which then resulted in repression as a way of
getting out of danger. He delineated three forms of anxiety-
a) Realistic Anxiety – Here the danger is real, cognition and perception are accurate and the
response is appropriate and adaptive.
b) Neurotic Anxiety – This is generated by conflicting id impulses.
c) Moral Anxiety – This is generated by conflict between the ego and the super–ego.
Anxiety, in both theories, was an everyday phenomenon. This everyday anxiety was realistic anxiety.
This has often been referred to as fear. Neurotic anxiety, according to him, could be free- floating
anxiety, phobic or part of a panic attack and stress was an avoidance of over-stimulation. He gave
three main aspects of anxiety –

1.An unpleasant feeling ,or a feeling of a specific unpleasurable quality.

2.Some sort of discharge process i.e. an efferent or discharge phenomenon

3. Perception of the phenomenon involved in the discharge.

Later psychoanalysts, or Neo- Freudians, like Goldstein (1939), May (1950), Rogers (1951),
Sullivan(1953), Fromm-Reichman (1956) Grinker (1959) and Horney (1964),presented views more
or less, consistent with Freud’s formulation of anxiety as an emotional state and as a reaction to
environmental conditions, perceived by the child as threatening to his development and integrity. It is
accompanied by feelings of fear of isolation, insecurity, helplessness and perception of the outside
world as hostile. A psychoanalytic approach, advanced the view that anxiety is largely determined by
the nature of a situation and interacts with personal characteristics of the individual (Sarason 1972).

Sullivan (1953), emphasized social environment rather than separation, so anxiety was a social,
interpersonal phenomenon rather than an intra-psychic one. Bowlby (1973), stressed the relationship
with the mother, saying that this was based on the apprehension that the mother was not there. Izard
(1977, 1991), said that the adaptive functions of anxiety, were dependent on the cognitive processes
that are a part of the individual’s learning and appraisal. Levitt (1967) feels all Freudian theory is
conflict oriented. Freud stressed the signaling properties of anxiety. Earlier Pavlov(1927a,1927b) also
considered apprehension of danger as an important characteristic of anxiety (Spielberger 1972).

Learning / Behavioural Theory

These theories were originally from Pavlov (1927a,1927b) and Watson (1925). Their main function
was to explain punishment. Organisms learn to avoid noxious stimuli through some mediating
mechanism. This mechanism is normally called fear or anxiety. Post –Pavlov and Watson, analysis
was that when a conditioned stimulus was paired with an unconditioned one (which happened to be
noxious and caused pain ), several pairings led to a conditioned response. This was fear or anxiety
which is often used synonymously by these theorists. The conditioned responses are called secondary
or acquired drives, by classical conditioning. They establish new behavior. Also a conditioned
emotional response could interfere with ongoing behavior.
This view was initially developed by Dollard and Miller (1950) and Mowrer (1953). They said that
drive reduction follows a response, reinforces it, thus increasing the possibility of its recurrence. Fear
was a learned or secondary drive. Mowrer (1953), felt anxiety was a form of fear, when its source
was vague or repressed. This fear was learned and anxiety was built on this through neurotic conflict.
Thus, neurotic fear is anxiety as its source is obscured. These conflicts of childhood, give rise to
anxiety in later life. So, anxiety is learned and once learned , motivates maladaptive behavior.

Later, Staats and Eifert (1990), gave a multi- level behavioral theory of anxiety, which rests on two
basic assumptions – 1.There is a central emotional response at the basis of anxiety. 2. Anxiety can be
acquired through aversive conditioning or language. So, it is not necessary to have a traumatic
experience to develop phobia. Negative thoughts and words can also lead to images of panic.

Hans Eysenck’s (1957, 1997), learning theory of anxiety rests on his personality theory, which
depends on two major dimensions – extroversion/ introversion and neuroticism. The neurotic
individual is sensitive to anxiety – provoking stimuli. This sensitivity is based on the autonomous
nervous system. So anxiety – proneness is inherited. Secondly, according to him, it can also be
learned. Traumatic events can lead to unconditioned fear, which can become conditioned, leading to
new stimuli, which produce the original maladaptive anxiety responses. Thirdly, a person may inherit
an excitation – inhibition imbalance. When this puts the individual at the mercy of social learning, to
be introverted, the person is more prone to anxiety and other emotions, like guilt. Thus anxiety is
partly inherited and partly learned. The learning part depends firstly on conditioned fear and secondly
on the state of the nervous system.

Physiological Theory

Physiological and neuro-physiological theories of anxiety are based largely on what parts of the
central nervous system (CNS) may be involved, in emotion in general and fear / panic / anxiety, in
particular. It is largely through empirical research, that we have arrived at these findings. These
physiologically based theories rely on a model of human psychology, based on natural science. For
them anxiety involves particular parts of the CNS, with addition of general arousal. Some theorists ,
like Eysenck (1957, 1997), linked learning and physiology, in accounting for anxiety. Others like
Ohman (1993), link cognition and physiology. Gray (1982,1987), is a physiological theorist of note,
who makes an extensive conceptualization of fear and includes anxiety within it. He says that the
behavioral inhibition system undermines anxiety, as it suppresses any behavior that threatens an
unwelcome outcome. He speaks of a complex septal- hippocampal system as the basis of anxiety
(and other emotions) and in particular as acting as an interface between emotion and cognition. Also,
other parts of the brain are also involved in anxiety, but the septo – hippocampal system is central.

Phenomenological / Existential theory

These theories of anxiety have their origin in Kirkegaard, 150 years ago (1844). He saw anxiety as a
naturally occurring state of a person. Development and maturity, depend on freedom, which in turn
depends upon possibilities. Anxiety is an integral part of experiencing possibilities. We have a series
of choices from birth onwards. At each choice there is anxiety. He also made a distinction between
fear and anxiety. Fear is of a specific object, whereas anxiety is independent of any object. It is a
necessary condition of choice. A fearful person moves away from a feared object, whereas an
anxious person is in conflict and unsure. For a person to develop, he must face the anxiety and deal
with it.

Fisher (1970), has done much to bring a phenomenological or experimental approach to

understanding anxiety, into the twentieth century. He does so by attempting to integrate all previous
theories. He brings everything together in terms of anxious experiencing. This involves five
components:-

1. There is an identity, which takes the form of milestones towards a way of living. Anxiety
results if any of these milestones are threatened , so that they may be lost.

2. There is a world which consists of, a network of relations and involvements for each
milestone. Anxiety results if this world is threatened or anything in it seems insurmountable.

3. There is motivation in which the world and the person’s identity is perpetuated.

4. There is an action, which is involved in achieving a milestone and which expresses being .

5. Finally, there is ability which is a lived evaluation of uncertain competence. For Fischer

(1970) then, anxiety is both anxious experiencing and the experiencing of the self.

Cognitive Theory
Two major cognitive theories of anxiety of Michael Eyesenck (1988) and Ohman (1993), have a
central place for cognition. Eyesenck (1988) says that the cognitive system is a gateway for the
physiological system, so to understand anxiety we need to consider both systems. There are
differences between people who are high or low in trait anxiety, in the information they have stored
in their long term memory, in the fact that they are anxious in some stress producing situations and
not in others and in the process and structure of their cognitive systems. Their memories differ in
broadly and in specific items such as type and amount of specific worries they might have. Those
high in trait anxiety, worry more. They have more frequent and more highly organized set of
worries in long term memory. Also their negative mood states, assist mood-state –dependent
retrieval. His theory of trait anxiety, takes into account the cognitive system, along with the
physiological and behavioral systems.

Ohman (1993), has put forward his information processing theory of anxiety. It consists of five major
aspects-

1. Stimulus information goes into feature detectors, and then to significance evaluators.

2. The significant evaluators automatically assess their relevance, with expectancies setting the
system to look for particular inputs.

3. The arousal system can tune up the significance evaluator and give input to conscious perception
system.

4. The expectancy system is based on emotion being organized into memory. This is a standard
cognitive system of networks and nodes.

5. The conscious perception system is part of a much larger system- the mind, consciousness and the
cognitive- interpretative system.

It integrates input from the arousal system, the significance evaluators and the expectancy systems. It
then picks out a suitable system to deal with the perceived threat. If avoidance or escape is possible,
the result is fear. If not, the result is anxiety. So, as in most theories, fear is seen as having a tangible
object and outcome, which anxiety does not. Responses of fear and anxiety originate in an alarm
system, shaped by evolution to protect creatures from impending danger. Anxiety is of two types-
directed when responses are blocked and undirected when it comes from the unconscious. Thus,
phobias and panic disorders arise from physiological roots and generalized anxiety, from a cognitive
basis.
Uncertainity Theories

Three emotion theorists, whose theories of emotion in general and of anxiety in particular, cut across
more traditional divisions, are- Izard (1977,1987), Lazarus(1991) and Mandler (1972,1984). All see
uncertainty as a core part of anxiety, in that there is lack of surety about the future and what actions
to take in the face of threat.

Izard (1977, 1987), says that the feeling state of any type of anxiety, is fear. However , anxiety is
linked with various other emotions at different times and in different situations, e.g. interest/
excitement, sadness, shame and guilt. Through his ‘Differential Emotions Theory’, he argues that
though anxiety should be considered as a unitary phenomenon, the other discrete emotions which are
linked with it from time to time , must also be taken into account, as far as subjective experience is
concerned. In this context, he considers anxiety as being dependent on uncertainty.

This notion of uncertainty is taken further by Lazarus (1991), who brackets anxiety with fright. Fright
occurs when there is imminent physical harm, whereas anxiety is characterized by uncertain,
ambiguous, existential threat. His distinction between fright and anxiety, is similar to Freud’s (1923,
1924) between objective and neurotic anxiety. Various primary appraisals might contribute to anxiety
e.g. if there is goal relevance, then any emotion may occur with anxiety. If there is goal irrelevance,
only negative emotions will occur with anxiety. However, if ego - involvement is protection of
personal meaning, protection of ego- identity against existential threat, then anxiety is the only
possible reaction.

Uncertainty, as the core of anxiety, produces a strong drive to objectify it, to make whatever the
threat is, external and objective, in order to reduce the uncertainty. Also, a person’s ability to cope is
also uncertain. The problem with anxiety, he says is that once one objective threat is coped with,
another takes its place, as the basic problem is existential.

Mandler (1972, 1984), gives the most sophisticated explanation of anxiety, which is based on
uncertainty. He synthesizes previous theories as having three common elements:-1.Archetypal
anxiety – invoking events, exist primitively, innately or congenitally.2.Responses to these events are
transferred to other events, that were originally neutral, simply through congruity. This may be
external, or through an organism’s actions. 3. Events that end or reduce anxiety, are related to events
that also invoke anxiety. e.g. the danger of overstimulation, is reduced by reducing the stimulation.

In his own explanation, he gives a non-traumatic theory of the sources of anxiety. He terms anxiety
as fundamental distress. This was a state of unease or anxiety, that did not have a specific causative
event. The core of his theory of anxiety depended on the link between anxiety and interruption (of
organized sequences of responses and/ or expectations), for e.g. the cyclical distress of newborn
provides the first experience of anxiety. This distress does not bear any relationship to antecedent
events, though inhibitors like sucking and rocking reduce it, but may come back if they are
withdrawn. The imperfections of human beings makes them helpless as they are uncertain what to do.
This may lead to depression if it continues for long or with repeated failures.

Apart from the types of anxiety, explained in the theories above, researches today, are
concentrating more on the specific sources/ causes of anxiety, or the particular areas where
anxiety manifests itself. Several subtypes of anxiety, have been identified. They share certain
features in common and any one of them could be characterized with terms such as apprehension,
dread, panic, tension and worry (Encyclopedia of Psychology 2000). The nebulous character of the
phenomena, prompted many researchers to focus their attention on the specific sources of anxiety in
social, public speaking and test situations ( Sud, 2001).
According to this criteria, some forms of anxiety, being vociferously researched today, are as
follows :-
Test anxiety- ‘is concern about negative evaluation that students experience before and during a test. The
anxiety may take the form of worry-unwanted, negative thoughts about one’s performance, or emotionality-
physiological symptoms such as increased heart rate and sweaty palms(Hembree,1988; Powers,2001).
Hembree’s meta analysis of 562 studies found negative correlations between test anxiety and IQ, GPA,
course grades and achievement scores in reading, math, natural sciences and other subjects. Hembree
(1988), concluded that test anxiety is not only related to poor performance but is the cause of it because
interventions that lowered test anxiety resulted in high achievement. Furthermore, women reported more
test anxiety than men, although their performance levels were the same.

Academic anxiety- is a kind of anxiety which relates to the impending danger from the environments
of the academic institutions including teacher and certain subjects like mathematics, science, English
etc. It is a mental feeling of uneasiness of distress in reaction to a school situation that is perceived
negatively (Narania and Singh 2014). Academic Anxiety is the result of biochemical processes in the
body and the brain that make your attention level increase when they occur. The changes happen in
response to exposure to a stressful academic situation, such as completing school assignments
presenting a project in class or taking a test.
Computer anxiety-Chua, et al (1999) defined computer anxiety as a fear experienced when using a
computer or thinking about using a computer. Their meta analysis of studies published since 1990
showed that computer experience was negatively related to computer anxiety.
Mathematics Anxiety- Math anxiety is more than a dislike towards math. Richardson and Suinn
(1972) have defined mathematics anxiety is a feeling of tension and anxiety that interfere with the
manipulation of mathematical problems in varied situations in ordinary as well as academic life. It
can also be explained as a sense of discomfort observed while working on mathematical problems (
Trujillo and Hadfield, 1999; Ma, 2003)

Anxieties of Knowing- include anxieties about reading, writing, speaking, thinking and learning.
Anxiety means uneasiness or uncertainty and sometimes fear of an anticipated state, event or
situation, that may cause psychological impairment or feelings of insecurity and helplessness (Peters
2015).

Separation anxiety- in children fear of separation from mother or main career. In college students,
excessive fears of separation from family members, familiar surroundings etc.
Social anxiety- is the fear and avoidance of social situations in which a person may be exposed to
negative evaluation by others.
Sports anxiety- another form of social-evaluative anxiety, has been conceptualized as a trait and a
state, as well as an interactional process (Richardson and Woolfolk, 1980).It is an anxiety
experienced while taking part in sports activities.

Free Floating Anxiety- a generalized, persistent, pervasive fear that is not attributable to any
specific object event or source .

Paradoxical Anxiety- is anxiety caused by using the methods or techniques that our normally used
to reduce it like cognitive behavioral therapy, meditation etc.
Choice or Decision anxiety- being in excessive fear and worry while making everyday decisions and
choices.
Existential Anxiety- Essence of man is the recognition that ‘being’ and ‘nothingness’ are inevitable
consequences of human existence. Existential Anxiety is derived from man’s experiences of the
dissolution of his experience of ‘being’(Sartre,1972). Alienation is the elemental property of this
anxiety. Existential theory speaks of two forms of anxiety, namely, existential and neurotic anxiety
(Boss 1962, Binswanger 1963, Laing 1961, Sartre 1972). The feeling of alienation leads to
experience of dread and anger and the individual experiences existential anxiety. This if it is not
resolved, leads to neurotic anxiety or physiological anxiety.
Psychological Tests
Psychological tests have been variously defined: They are essentially an objective and standardized
measure of sample of behavior (Anastasi and Urbina 1998). A test is a standardized procedure for
sampling behavior and describing it with scores and categories (Cullari, 1998). A Psychological test
or education test is a set of items designed to measure characteristics of human beings that pertain to
behavior ( Kaplan and Saccuzzo,2001).
An Overview of Foreign Tests of Anxiety
Historical Perspective
Spielberger (1966,1971,1972), Reiss (1997), and Endler and Kocovski (2001) have offered helpful
summaries of the evolution of scientific interest in anxiety, which has long been recognized but only
relatively recently studied systematically…The 1950s saw the development of an experimental
tradition in studying anxiety. Laboratory studies assessed the links among personal drive, anxiety, the
complexity of an experimental task and feelings of fear and frustration. In 1953, Taylor presented her
Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMAS) that built on Freudian theme of neurotic anxiety. The TMAS was
widely used in experimental research; common findings were that people with higher drive, or
“manifest anxiety,” showed superior performance ( McDowell,2006).

During the 1960s, this reference to personality led to Spielberger’s (1966) empirical demonstration of
a distinction between anxiety as a reaction versus an underlying tendency to respond to threats.
Cattell and Scheier (1961) and others had applied newly developed multivariate analysis techniques
to measures of anxiety, thus also showing two distinct facets of anxiety, state, and trait. These
conceptual developments were reflected in the world of health measurements, and in 1963 Cattell and
Scheier developed the Anxiety Scale Questionnaire (ASQ) to measure trait anxiety. It was distributed
by the Institute for Personality Assessment and Testing, so it was also called the IPAT Anxiety Scale
(McDowell, 2006, p9). Spielberger’s(1966) contribution was to clarify further the distinction
between trait and state anxiety, leading to his State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). State and trait
anxiety have been likened to kinetic and potential energy (Endler and Kocovski,2001, p232), but
defining trait anxiety in terms of a general tendency to respond anxiously to stress does not define
either the general tendency or the types of threat (Reiss,1997, p204). Anxiety can feed on itself, so a
subsequent development was to try and separate feelings of anxiety from feelings about anxiety
(McDowell, 2006).

The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) was proposed to record individual differences in fear of
experiencing anxiety. A person who is sensitive to anxiety would tend, for example, to anticipate that
a rapidly beating heart presages a heart attack; a person with low sensitivity might perceive stress as a
transient nuisance (Reiss,1997, p206). Anxiety sensitivity appears similar to trait anxiety, except that
it refers less to past tendencies than to future fears about the consequences of anxiety. More recently,
Endler has presented a multidimensional model of anxiety that maintains the state-trait distinction,
but subdivides each component (Endler,1975;Endler et al,1991a and Endler and Kocovski,2001).
This is portrayed in the Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales (EMAS), which divides state scores
into cognitive-worry and autonomic-emotional components (Endler et al, 1991b).

A 1991 paper by Clark and Watson formed a watershed in formulating the conceptual distinction
between anxiety and depression (Clark and Watson,1991).

Anxiety Tests
The Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMAS) is a test of anxiety as a personality trait. It was
developed by Janet Taylor in 1953 to identify subjects who would be useful in the study of anxiety
disorders. It has subsequently been used as a general indicator of anxiety as a personality trait; it is
not intended as a specific measure of anxiety as a clinical entity (Zung,1974). The test was for adults
but in 1956 a children's version was developed (Castaneda et al, 1956). These scores showed Taylor -
“manifest anxiety”—that is, anxiety that was evident and self-perceived. Her theory predicted that on
simple tasks, performance would be improved by higher levels of drive, as reflected on her measure
of anxiety. The theory further predicted that on more complex tasks, anxiety level would be
negatively related to performance. This was later confirmed. Her empirical testing of the TMAS was
based on trials with undergraduate students undertaken between 1948 and 1951 (Taylor,1956). Her
empirical testing of the TMAS was based on trials with undergraduate students. True-false responses
are used for each item, and the replies indicating anxiety were counted, giving a score from 0 to 28.
The TMAS played an important role in the history of research on anxiety. It was one of the earliest
psychometric measures of anxiety and its content influenced the design of the State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory (McDowell, 2006).
Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI)
Beck’s self-report Anxiety Inventory (BAI) measures the severity of self-reported anxiety in
adults and adolescents; it was especially designed to minimize confounding with symptoms of
depression. The BAI is a brief measure of anxiety with a focus on somatic symptoms of anxiety that
was developed as a measure adept at discriminating between anxiety and depression (Fydrich et
al,1992).
It is administered via self-report and includes assessment of symptoms such as nervousness,
dizziness, inability to relax, etc. It has a total of 21 items. Respondents indicate how much they have
been bothered by each symptom over the past week. Responses are rated on a 4-point Likert scale
and range from 0 (not at all) to 3 (severely).
It is used in efforts to obtain a purer measure of anxiety that is relatively independent of depression.
This is a self-report or interviewer administered questionnaire that can be administered in an
individual format. Scoring is easily accomplished by summing scores for items. The total score
ranges from 0–63. The following guidelines are recommended for the interpretation of scores: 0–9,
normal or no anxiety; 10–18, mild to moderate anxiety; 19–29, moderate to severe anxiety; and 30–
63, severe anxiety.
The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS)
The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) are designed to assess the severity of core symptoms
of depression, anxiety, and tension (or stress) over the previous week. Together, the scales provide a
broad-spectrum measure of psychological distress, indicating the severity and frequency of
symptoms. Originally developed for use with general population samples, they can also be used in
clinical research.
The revised scale includes 42 negative symptoms; 14 each cover depression (DASS-D), anxiety
(DASS-A), and stress (DASS-S). Scores of 0 to 77 represent normal state, 78 to 86 represent mild
disorder, 87 to 94 represent moderate disorder, 95 to 97severe, and 98 to 100 represent extremely
severe distress (Lovibond and Lovibond,1995). The scales were developed for people aged 17 or
older but may be suitable for younger adolescents.
IPAT Anxiety Scale
Cattell and Scheier (1963) developed the Anxiety Scale Questionnaire (ASQ) to measure trait
anxiety. It was distributed by the Institute for Personality Assessment and Testing, so it was also
called the IPAT Anxiety Scale (Spielberger,1985, p9).It is a very convenient and practical measure of
anxiety level. It has 40 items, with three alternatives – yes, in between and no. Items are classified
into 20 items sub-scales. One scale measures covert anxiety and the second measures overt anxiety.
The items are simple and scored as 2,1 or 0.Overt refers to manifest indication of anxiety. Covert
refers to less obvious signs of anxiety. It is constituted on the basis of 5 principal personality factors,
namely emotional stability, suspiciousness, guilt proneness, low integration and tension. It is for 16
years to adults. It is a widely used test with adults, college and high school children.
Zung’s Self-Rating Anxiety Scale (SAS)
The self-rating anxiety scale (SAS) consists of 20 items and is a four-point scale. Index for the scale
is derived by dividing the sum of the values (raw scores) obtained on the 20 items by the maximum
possible score of 80, converted to a decimal and multiplied by 100. The original aim of the scale was
to fulfill the need for a standardized method of evaluating and recording the presence of anxiety as a
clinical disorder. He proposed a cutting-point of 44/45 to indicate clinically significant anxiety
(Zung,1980, p18). Scores of 45 to 59 indicate “minimal to moderate anxiety”; 60 to 74 suggests
“marked to severe anxiety” and 75 or higher indicates extreme anxiety (Zung and Cavenar,1980,
p356). Zung studied 225 psychiatric patients and 343 non-patients (Zung, 1974). The correlation
between the self- and clinician-administered versions was 0.66 overall, rising to 0.74 for patients with
a diagnosis of anxiety disorder (Zung,1971, p378). Zung reported mean scale and item scores for
healthy adolescents (aged 14–19 years) and adults (Zung, 1980,). The mean for adolescents was 45.1
(SD, 8.9); that for adults aged 20 to 64 was 34.4 (SD, 6.9) and for adults 65 and over the mean was
36.9 (SD, 8.8).
The Spielberger State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)
The state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI) was first developed in the 1960s (Nixon and Steffeck,1977)
and later revised in 1983. The original STAI is usually called the STAI-X, and the revised STAI is
usually referred to as the STAI-Y. Although the two versions are highly correlated, several items
were changed and scores on the “Y-version” are said to have a more replicable factor structure and
improved psychometric properties. Both instruments are commonly used and copyrighted for both
clinical and research use.
The STAI is a self-report questionnaire that evaluates feelings of apprehension, tension, nervousness,
and worry. There are two scales, designed to differentiate between the temporary condition of “state
anxiety” and the more general and long-standing quality of “trait anxiety.” The time frame for the
“state” questionnaire is “right now,” which may yield problems when assessing patients with panic
disorder outside the context of a panic attack. The time frame for the “trait” questionnaire is not
defined. Each scale has 20 statements that as scored as a four-point Likert item, ranging from 1 (“not
at all”) to 4 (“very much so”) for the state scale (reflecting intensity), and 1 (“almost never”) to 4
(“almost always'') for the trait scale (reflecting frequency). Although it is used routinely in clinical
settings, the STAI was developed largely with nonclinical undergraduate college and high school
students (Beck et al, 1988, p896).
The Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HARS)
Hamilton developed the HARS within a diagnostic tradition that distinguished between anxiety as a
normal reaction to danger, anxiety as a pathological condition not related to stress, and anxiety as a
state or broad syndrome that he termed “anxiety neurosis” (Hamilton,1969). Although intended as a
severity rating, Hamilton also used his scale to distinguish empirically between anxiety as a
pathological mood, versus a state (or neurosis). His scale had 14 categories. The 14 scores are
summed to give an overall score ranging from 0 to 56, with higher scores indicating higher levels of
anxiety. A total score between zero and five represents no anxiety; six to 14 suggests minor anxiety,
whereas scores of 15 or higher indicate major anxiety (Bech et al,1986 p10). If a single cutting-point
is required, scores of 14 and higher are often taken to designate a case.
The Adult Manifest Anxiety Scale–College Version AMAS-C ( Lowe et al, 2007)
The Adult Manifest Anxiety Scale–College Version (AMAS-C; Reynolds et al, 2003b) is a new,
multidimensional, self-report measure used to assess chronic, manifest anxiety in college students.
Manifest anxiety is a form of trait anxiety (Reynolds, 1985).The AMAS-C is, conceptually, an
upward extension of the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS; Reynolds and
Richmond, 1978), a common measure used to assess anxiety in children and adolescents. However,
the AMAS-C items were written specifically to target college-age students in a collegiate setting and
item selection was based on the responses of college attendees (detailed information on item
derivation and selection can be found in (Reynolds, et al, 2003d) the RCMAS is a downward
extension of the original version of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMAS; Taylor, 1953).
The AMAS-C and RCMAS are unique because these two measures are part of a series of measures
that are used to assess common manifestations of anxiety found among individuals of different age
groups across the life span as well as the developmental variations in anxiety symptoms found among
individuals of different ages. That is, the RCMAS and AMAS-C along with two other versions of the
AMAS, the Adult Manifest Anxiety Scale–Adult Version(AMAS-A; Reynolds et al, 2003a) and the
Adult Manifest Anxiety Scale–Elderly Version (AMAS-E; Reynolds et al, 2003c) are used to assess
common and uncommon manifestations of anxiety in the child and adolescent, college student, young
and middle-age adult, and older adult populations, respectively. The AMAS-C is designed
specifically to assess anxiety in college undergraduate and graduate students and consists of five
anxiety scales and a Lie scale. The Total Anxiety scale provides a global measure of chronic,
manifest anxiety and consists of 42 items (i.e., all of the items from the anxiety subscales). In
addition to the Total Anxiety scale, the AMAS-C also has four anxiety subscales: Physiological
Anxiety, Social Concerns/Stress,Test Anxiety, and Worry/Oversensitivity. The
Worry/Oversensitivity subscale (12 items) reflects excessive worrying, nervousness, or
hypersensitivity to stress. The Test Anxiety subscale (15 items) assesses anxiety associated with
taking college exams. The Physiological Anxiety subscale (8 items) evaluates physical responses to
one’s anxiety. The Social Concerns/Stress subscale (7 items) assesses one’s concerns about the views
of others. The AMAS-C has a Lie scale (7 items). The Lie scale describes ideal behavior and serves
as a validity index on the AMAS-C (Reynolds et al., 2003d).
An Overview of Indian Tests of Anxiety
Historical Perspective
Before 1947, psychological tests in India were mainly adaptations of foreign tests. During 1947 to
1962, many Indian tests were developed ( Asthana, 2011).Test of anxiety was developed for the first
time by Sinha in 1961 (Sinha, 1961).Over the years there have been many serious efforts in the field
of anxiety - testing e.g. Hundal and Kaur (1972), adapted Cattell’s IPAT anxiety test, Nijhawan
(1972), adapted Sarason’s Test Anxiety Scale for children and adaptation of Spielberger’s State Trait
Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger et al, 1973), as reported by Sinha (1992).In 1967,Taylor’s Manifest
Anxiety Test was adapted by B. N. Singh, as reported by Krishna,(2004). In 1969, A comprehensive
Test of Anxiety was developed by Sinha ((Sinha,NLEPT,2014), Asthana ( 2011).
Many tests have been developed to measure the anxiety level, types of anxiety, sources of anxiety
etc. of children in India. Some well – known ones are Nijhawan’s (1972) adaptation of Sarason’s
General Anxiety Scales for children (GASC) and Test Anxiety Scale for Children (TASC) in Hindi
and Punjabi. These scales are simple, easy to score and have been used reliably in research studies.
GASC has been used in many ways, but TASC has been used to assess the level of anxiety before
any scholastic or achievement performance test (Nijhawan, 1972). In 1982, GASC was developed for
6th to 8th grade students, in Hindi by A. Kumar (Kumar, NLEPT,2014). Thakur’s (Thakur and
Thakur,1984), Death Anxiety Scale was used to assess anxiety level of children associated with the
concept of death. Academic Anxiety Scale for Children was developed in Hindi by Singh and Gupta
in 1986. All the above tests are similar in nature and are not drastically different ( Satpathy, 2009).
Indian Anxiety Tests
Sinha's Comprehensive Anxiety Test (SCAT) by Sinha (NLEPT,2014): It is a test available both
in Hindi and as well as in English. It covers five levels of anxiety. The test contains 90 items of
manifest anxiety. It is 15 to 20 minutes test, easily administrable and scorable.
Sinha’s Anxiety Scale by Sinha (1968, NLEPT,2014): This is an another test on anxiety consisting
of 100 items, all in positive form, taken from the following areas :
i) Health, appearance and injury
(ii) Area of ambition
(iii) Family anxieties
(iv) Friendship and love anxieties
(v) Social relationship and approval
(vi) Worries of future.
(vii) Worries of civilization, war, virtue
(viii) Guilt or shame
(ix) Physical and psychological manifestation
(x) Psychological manifestations.
Indian Adaptation of Sarason’s General Anxiety Scale for School going children by Kumar
(NLEPT, 2014): This is a test in Hindi, widely used with school children of both sexes. The scale
contains 45 items related to varied life situations like health, physical appearances and injury, success
and failure in work, afraid of animals and strange things, social relations and approvals, working
regarding family members, worries and future happenings and afraid of loneliness which antiquates
dangerous and painful consequences.
Indian Adaptation of Cattell’s (Cattell and Scheier, 1963) IPAT Anxiety Scale by Hundal and
Kaur (1972):It is a very convenient and practical measure of anxiety level. It is constituted on the
basis of 5 principal, 16 personality factors namely emotional stability, suspiciousness, guilt
proneness, low integration and tension. It is for 16 years to adults. It is a widely used test with adults,
college and high school children.
Achievement Anxiety Scale for Children by Pandit, (NLEPT,2014): This scale is designed of
measure fear of failure as perceived by the students due to perceived inability to perform better as an
academic front. It provides a measure of psychological, social and psychological problems due to
perceived failure in school situations. The list contains 35 items with no time limit.
Academic Anxiety Scale for Children by Singh and Gupta (1986): It is a brief scale of 20 items
and is meant for school children of class 8 to 10th (age 13-16 years). It measures academic anxiety.
Death Anxiety Scale by Dhar et al (NLEPT, 2014): It is a test with 10 items with yes or no
answers. It measures the degree of death anxiety. It is reliable and valid list to measure the death
anxiety. Marks are available on the subjects between 25-55 years.
1. Job Anxiety Scale by Srivastava and Sinha (1977) : This a scale to evaluate job related
anxiety. The scale comprises of 80 items which reveal employees anxiety being manifested in
the context of the following seven components of the job-
a) Job security and safety
b) Recognition
c) Human relations at work-related
d) Reward and punishment
e) Self-esteem and self-image
f) Future prospects
g) Capacity to work.
Need of the Study
In the digital and fast-paced life of today, the most affected and threatened are the youth. Anxiety
effects their mental and physical health. This in turn effects their academic performance, their
adjustment. Undergraduate university students have anxiety about their career, future, appearance,
friendship, money, desire to be the best, have the best and so on. There is tension and worry in their
minds, about almost all things that make up their lives.. Since their education and health is at stake
and they are the immediate future generation, it has become very important, to know their level of
anxiety.
A review of the tests of anxiety shows that in India, they are either adaptations of foreign tests or they
measure some particular type of anxiety – like academic anxiety, death anxiety, job anxiety etc.
There are tests for levels of anxiety of school children, but not for undergraduate students, except for
Durganand Sinha (1961), who constructed the first test in India to measure the level of anxiety in
university students, in Allahabad. Three decades later, he reviewed anxiety tests including his own
test and found that no serious effort had been made either to review his test or construct other tests
for the university student population (Sinha,1992). So, to bridge this gap and study the anxiety level
of present day students, the need arose to construct an anxiety test for them. The change in the
academic and social environment of students, it was felt, would further throw light on the state of
anxiety today.
Statement of the Problem: ‘Development of an Anxiety Scale for Undergraduate Students’.
Objectives:
1. To develop an anxiety scale for undergraduate students.
2. To find out the reliability and validity of the anxiety scale for undergraduate students.
3. To standardize the anxiety scale for undergraduate students.
Operational definitions of terms used
Anxiety: The operational definition of anxiety was framed after identification of dimensions from
the data, obtained after the final administration of the constructed anxiety scale and was as follows :-
‘Anxiety is an unpleasant feeling, caused due to the competitive environment, societal
pressure, friendship with the opposite sex, worry about the future, and the resultant psychological
manifestations, in the individual’.
Scale : A tool consisting of items under different dimensions, to measure the anxiety
levels of students.
Undergraduate Students: Students of first year regular courses, studying in the main campuses of
Central University of Allahabad ( A.U.) and Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology
and Sciences (SHIATS), Naini, Allahabad.
Delimitation of the Study
The study was carried out in Allahabad only.
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
CHAPTER II

A review of literature related with the area of research becomes a necessity for the researcher,
because future research builds on present progress ( Flanders and Simon, 1969). For this a researcher
must go through a huge amount of literature which already exists in various forms. It is necessary
because he has to streamline his problem in the light of what has been done so far and what is yet to
be done in the area. On the basis of the review the need of research is justified and also a comparison
can be made with the findings of the research at hand. However, only those studies that are plainly
relevant, completely executed and clearly reported should be included. According to Best and Kahn
(1989, p. 41), the search for related literature is one of the first steps in the research process.
Therefore it was considered necessary to review the studies that were related to anxiety in youth and
scales for the measurement of this construct.

Foreign Reviews

Jacobs and Suess (1975), assessed the four psychological primary colors, by randomly assigning 40
undergraduates (13 male and 27 females), to 4 treatment groups, with each group receiving either
red, yellow, green or blue illumination. The participants were recruited as unpaid volunteers from
several small psychology classes at the Southern University of Mississippi. Their mean age was 19.2
yrs., with a range of 17 to 29 yrs. As each subject entered the room, he was instructed to look at a
screen on which a color would appear. At 5 min. intervals, he was given a 20-item scale to complete.
Anxiety state was thus assessed, at 5 min. intervals using the State- Trait Anxiety Inventory. The red
and yellow groups had significantly higher A state scores than the blue and green groups. These
values did not change significantly during the 15-min. testing session. The study also suggests that
colors differentially affect anxiety state.

Russell and Wise (1976), compared the relative effectiveness of group-administered cue-controlled
relaxation and group systematic desensitization (SD) in the treatment of speech anxiety. They also
examined the role of professional vs paraprofessional counselors in implementing the treatment
program. 42 undergraduates were assigned to 1 of 5 conditions: (a) SD, professional counselor, (b)
cue-controlled relaxation, professional counselor, (c) SD, paraprofessional counselor, (d) cue-
controlled relaxation, paraprofessional counselor, or (e) no treatment. Changes in self-report indices
of speech anxiety showed the cue-controlled relaxation and SD treatments to be significantly more
effective than no treatment but not different from each other. Similarly, students assigned to
professional vs paraprofessional counselors did better than those given no treatment, yet no
differences were found between these groups. A description of the cue-conrolled relaxation technique
is given, and implications for program development and future research are discussed.

Mathison (1977), explored curricular interventions and programming innovations for the reduction
of mathematics anxiety and found that math anxiety, or mathophobia, is an irrational fear of
mathematics which interferes with the manipulation of numbers. In mild forms it may be only an
annoyance, but severe forms may result in total avoidance of numerical operations, with
accompanying fears and stress. Three methods for dealing with math anxiety have been developed by
various institutions across the country: remediation, content manipulation, and an integrated approach
involving both math coursework and psychological intervention. Basic considerations in curricular
interventions for math anxiety are: (1) population being served, including age and sex; (2) what
institutional resources are available and how they can be structured; (3) faculty selection; and (4)
sensitization of other math faculty within the institution. The third consideration is perhaps the most
crucial, since faculty characteristics such as respect for students, clarity of explanation, and clear but
flexible goals have been shown to have positive effects on student attitude.

Townsend and Mahoney (1980) investigated the roles of humor and anxiety in zest performance.
Measures of trait anxiety, state anxiety and achievement were obtained on a sample of undergraduate
students: the A-Trait and A-State scales of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were used. Half of the
students received additional humorous Items in the achievement test. The purpose of the study was to
examine the assumption that the introduction of humor into the academic test situation would
facilitate achievement test performance for highly anxious students. Results of the study did not
support this thesis: this finding conflicts with two previous investigations of the interaction of humor
and anxiety in test performance. The major difference between the studies involves the method of
humor presentation. The inclusion of humorous items as a pedagogical device may, however, be
detrimental to high anxiety students, who displayed lower achievement than the low anxiety students
on the humorous version of the test.

Spielberger et al (1983), studied adult anxiety through The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and found
that it can be used in clinical settings to diagnose anxiety and to distinguish it from depressive
syndromes. It is also often used in research as an indicator of caregiver distress. Form Y, its most
popular version, has 20 items for assessing trait anxiety and 20 for state anxiety. State anxiety items
include: “I am tense; I am worried” and “I feel calm; I feel secure.” Trait anxiety items include: “I
worry too much over something that really doesn’t matter” and “I am content; I am a steady person.”
All items are rated on a 4-point scale (e.g., from “Almost Never” to “Almost Always”). Higher
scores indicate greater anxiety. The STAI is appropriate for those who have at least a sixth-grade
reading level. Internal consistency coefficients for the scale have ranged from 0.86 to 0.95; test-retest
reliability coefficients have ranged from 0.65 to 0.75 over a 2-month interval. Test-retest coefficients
for this measure in the present study ranged from 0.69 to 0.89. Considerable evidence attests to the
construct and concurrent validity of the scale. It is a sensitive predictor of caregiver distress over
time, and it can vary with changes in support systems, health, and other individual characteristic.

Mahabeer and Bhana (1984) administered The Semantic Differential Scale (constructed to
measure religiosity), the Religious Orientation Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory and the
IPAT Anxiety Scale questionnaires to 360 Indian adolescents, in South Africa, to examine the
relationship between religion, religiosity and general anxiety. The results indicated significant
correlations between each of the two measures of religiosity and general anxiety. Christian and
Muslim subjects were significantly more religious than Hindu subjects. Also, females and younger
adolescents were more anxious than males and older adolescents, respectively. The results are
discussed in terms of the appropriateness of the two religiosity measures used and the theoretical and
practical implications emanating from the data obtained.

Siddique and D’Arcy (1984), analysed the mental –health consequences of stress in a sample 1,038
adolescents 9526 females 7 512 males) from a Canadian prairie city. The study examined the
relationship between perceived stress in family, school and peer-group situations and four measures
of psychological well-being, i.e. anxiety, depression, social dysfunction and anergia. The moderator
effects of locus of control orientation (mastery) on stress-outcome relationships were also examined,
as were the sex differences in health and the perception of stress. All three sources of stress were
found to be related to the four measures of mental health, with family stress having the strongest
negative health impact. The health- protective role of locus of control was limited for the large part
to the stresses emanating from school and peer groups. Substantial sex differences were found in the
perception of family and peer- related stresses as well as in the levels of psychological distress. A
tentative explanation of these differences was examined with reference to prevailing structural
conditions and differences in locus of control orientation, with female adolescents showing greater
externality. Implications of the results are drawn for the long – standing debate on the relative impact
of stress and its sources on adolescents psychosocial development and for a current controversy in
adolescent theory between proponents of “classical”and proponents of ëmpirical’conceptions of
adolescence.
Beck et al (1988), developed a 2l-item self-report inventory for measuring the severity of anxiety in
psychiatric populations is described. The initial item pool of 86 items was drawn from three
preexisting scales: the Anxiety Checklist, the Physician's Desk Reference Checklist, and the
Situational Anxiety Checklist. A series of analyses was used to reduce the item pool. The resulting
Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) is a 21-item scale that showed high internal consistency (a = 0.92) and
test-retest reliability over 1 week, r (81) = 0.75. The BAI discriminated anxious diagnostic groups
(panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, etc.) from non-anxious diagnostic groups (major
depression, dysthymic disorder, etc). In addition, the BAI was moderately correlated with the revised
Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale, r (150) = 0.51, and was only mildly correlated with the revised
Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, r (l 53) = 0.25.

Hocevar and Eid El-Zahhar (1988), in their cross-sectional study, of secondary school boys at
Abha, Aseer Region, Saudi Arabia, eleventh- and twelfth-grade high-school students (or equivalent
subjects in Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Brazil) participated and all subjects were administered the Test
Anxiety Inventory and the Anxiety/Arousability Inventory in their native language. A confirmatory
factor analysis yielded the following conclusions: (1) the measures of trait anxiety arousability, test
anxiety(worry), and test anxiety (emotionality) demonstrated high reliability, factorial validity and
discriminant validity in each of the four samples; (2) as hypothesized, significant positive
correlations were found between all four measures in each of the four samples; (3) analyses of
invariance supported the invariance of factor loadings and factor true variances across three cultural
groups: Egypt, Brazil and the USA. (Saudi Arabia was eliminated from the invariance analysis
because the sample was all male.) Analyses of invariance did not support the invariance of
error/uniqueness and factor correlation.

Zeidner (1988), stated that the second part of the 20th century has been variously designated as the
‘age of stress’, age of anxiety’, or more recently, ‘the age of coping’ (Endler, 1966). While stress,
anxiety and coping are a part of human nature, the environmental stimuli that invoke them, have been
changing, for e.g. in ancient times ,wild beasts , natural catastrophes etc. were sources of
apprehension and anxiety, today, in modern technological and achievement- oriented society, this
invocation is largely by social- evaluative and ambiguous environmental situations….. Tests and
evaluative situations are an important class of stimuli in our society. On these are based an
individual’s status in school, college and work, on tests and other assessment devices.

Hawkins and Tanaka (1992), examined the context of Japanese education to highlight those
aspects most identified with the issue of testing and test anxiety. The unique organization of the
Japanese formal educational system is explored as well as its governance and administration. The
centralized nature of Japanese education contributes to the hierarchical nature of the system and the
centrality of both local and national examinations. The existence of a parallel, less regulated
educational system, generally referred to as juku, is also discussed thereby revealing the complex mix
of factors that influence and shape the testing environment.

Aarona et al (1994), studied the therapeutic utility of creative endeavors for the reduction of anxiety
among undergraduate college students enrolled in a public university in the United States. Students
were randomly assigned to participate in one of three conditions: an individual art project (n = 30), a
group art project (n = 30), or a non-art control project (n = 30). An overall within-subjects effect of
anxiety was noted in which participants reported reduced anxiety levels following intervention. A
statistical interaction showed that anxiety was reduced by both individual and group arts
interventions, but not by the control condition in which participants completed puzzles. The extent of
anxiety reduction did not differ between the individual and group conditions. In conclusion, although
presently underutilized, arts interventions may be a viable form of anxiety-reduction among college
students.

Clark and Watson (1995), opined that a primary goal of scale development is to create a valid
measure of an underlying construct. They discussed theoretical principles, practical issues, and
pragmatic decisions to help developers maximize the construct validity of scales and subscales. First,
it is essential to begin with a clear conceptualization of the target construct. Moreover, the content of
the initial item pool should be over-inclusive and item wording needs careful attention. Next, the item
pool should be tested, along with variables that assess closely related constructs, on a heterogeneous
sample representing the entire range of the target population. Finally, in selecting scale items, the
goal is uni-dimensionality rather than internal consistency; this means that virtually all inter-item
correlations should be moderate in magnitude. Factor analysis can play a crucial role in ensuring the
uni-dimensionality and discriminate validity of scales.

Floyd and Widaman (1995), described the goals of both exploratory and confirmatory factor
analysis. They summarized the procedural guidelines for each approach, emphasizing the use of
factor analysis in developing and refining clinical measures. For exploratory factor analysis, a
rationale is presented for selecting between principal components analysis and common factor
analysis depending on whether the research goal involves either identification of latent constructs or
data reduction. Confirmatory factor analysis using structural equation modeling is described for use
in validating the dimensional structure of a measure. Additionally, the uses of confirmatory factor
analysis for assessing the invariance of measures across samples and for evaluating multi-trait multi-
method data are also briefly described. Suggestions are offered for handling common problems with
item-level data, and examples illustrating potential difficulties with confirming dimensional
structures from initial exploratory analyses are reviewed.

Ambrose and Rholes (1996) reported that Beck and his colleagues had hypothesized that the
symptoms of anxiety and depression have distinct cognitive correlates. They hypothesized that
depression is associated with cognitions concerning loss and deprivation, whereas anxiety is
associated with cognitions concerning threat and danger. In the present study a modification of this
hypothesis was suggested. It was hypothesized that the impact of threat and loss cognitions vary on
the function of severity; specifically, that very high levels of threat influence symptomatology, as
loss cognitions typically do and that low levels of loss have effects similar to those of threat
cognitions. Threat and loss cognitions and symptoms of depression and anxiety were assessed in a
no. of clinical samples of young persons and analyzed through regression techniques. The results of
these analyses provide support for the hypotheses.

Durlak and Wells (1997),used meta-analysis to review 177 primary prevention programs designed
to prevent behavioral and social problems in children and adolescents. Findings provide empirical
support for further research and practice in primary prevention. Most categories of programs
produced outcomes similar to or higher in magnitude than those obtained by many other established
preventive and treatment interventions in the social sciences and medicine. Programs modifying the
school environment, individually focused mental health promotion efforts, and attempts to help
children negotiate stressful transitions yield significant mean effects ranging from 0.24 to 0.93. In
practical terms, the average participant in a primary prevention program surpasses the performance of
between 59% to 82% of those in a control group, and outcomes reflect an8% to 46% difference in
success rates favoring prevention groups. Most categories of programs had the dual benefit of
significantly reducing problems and significantly increasing competencies. Priorities for future
research include clearer specification of intervention procedures and program goals, assessment of
program implementation, more follow-up studies, and determining how characteristics of the
intervention and participants relate to different outcomes.

Ibrahim (1998), studied changes in level of anxiety and academic performance of college students,
wherein he investigated changes in levels of anxiety of college students over an academic session.
The sample used in the study consisted of seventy female and fifty-five male students of Kwara State
College of Education Ilorin in the 1995/96 academic year. Data was collected using two separate
instruments: Manifest Anxiety Scale (MAS), and Achievement Anxiety Test (AAT) which were
administered during non- stress, middle, and stress period. Findings of the study indicated that
students had higher anxiety level during non - stress period than during the stress period, although no
significant difference was obtained among the three periods. When comparison was made on the
basis of sex, female students were found to exhibit higher mean anxiety score than the male students.
There was however significant mean difference only during the non-stress period. Based on the
findings, the implications of the results were discussed and appropriate recommendations made
towards reducing anxiety and improving better academic performance among college students.

Erktin (2000): reviewed and classified the Stress and Research Society (STAR), as a
multidisciplinary intercultural medium for stress and anxiety research. It was observed that the
following categories of stress and anxiety and related topics were discussed by the participants in
STAR meetings in the past ten years: Clinical issues (14%), Education (13%), Copying (10%), work-
related stress (9%), anxiety and related emotions (7%), Methodology and assessment (6%),
Computers and technology (6%), Stress and copying the elderly (6%) Test anxiety (5%), Disasters
and psot traumatic stress (4%), Treatment (4%) Stress and anxiety in Sports (3%), Cross-cultural
issues (2%), stress and anxiety in Music (1%), Migration (1%).
Misra and McKean (2000), investigated the interrelationship among academic stress, anxiety, time
management, and leisure satisfaction among 249 university, undergraduates, in U.S.As. by age and
gender. Time management behaviors had a greater buffering effect on academic stress than leisure
satisfaction activities. Significant gender differences existed among all the measures. Females had
more effective time management behaviors than males, but also experienced higher academic stress
and anxiety. Males benefited more than females from leisure activities. Freshmen and sophomore
students had higher reactions to stress than juniors and seniors. Anxiety, time management, and
leisure satisfaction were all predictors of academic stress in the multivariate analysis. Anxiety
reduction and time management in conjunction with leisure activities may be an effective strategy for
reducing academic stress in college students.

Twenge (2000), in his article aims to explore change over time in anxiety and the reasons behind
these changes.Study1examines170 samples of American college students collected from the
literature, computing the correlation between mean scores on anxiety measures and year of data
collection. It also reports correlations between anxiety scores and social statistics to determine the
causes behind changes in anxiety and the likely direction of causation. Study 2 analyzed 99 samples
of children who completed an anxiety measure. Examining child samples accomplished two goals:
(a) it ensured that changing college populations and/or the unique composition. The two meta-
analyses found that Americans had shifted towards substantially higher levels of anxiety and
neuroticism during recent decades. Both college student (adult) and child samples increased almost a
full standard deviation in anxiety between 1952 and 1993 (explaining about 20% of the variance in
the trait).The average American child in the 1980s reported more anxiety than child psychiatric
patients in the 1950s.Correlations with social indices (e.g., divorce rates, crime rates) suggest that
decreases in social connectedness and increases in environmental dangers may be responsible for the
rise in anxiety. Economic factors, however, seem to play little role. Birth cohort, as a proxy for broad
social trends, may be an important influence on personality development, especially during
childhood.

Aktekin et al (2001), conducted a prospective study in Antalya, Turkey, to study anxiety, depression
and stressful life events among medical students. Their objective was to assess psychological changes
in medical students in Antalya, Turkey during their undergraduate education. All first-year
undergraduate students in the Faculties of Medicine, Economics and PE who were registered in 1996,
were given a detailed, self-report questionnaire and another in the second year. They were asked to
complete the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory
(STAI) and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI).The findings showed that psychological test scores
on the GHQ, the STAI and the BDI rose significantly in medical students between the first and
second years. Using the GHQ, with different cut-off scores, the percentage of students scoring above
the thresholds was higher in medical students in year 2, compared with economics and PE students.
In addition, the scores for some stressful life events of medical students showed a significant rise
from year 1 to year 2. Multiple regression analyses indicated that some stressful life events related to
social activities were associated with the psychological test scores for medical students. These results
indicated that there is a decrease in the psychological health of first-year medical students. Some
inadequacies in the social activities of the students might play a role in this type of disturbance.

Hurd and Xiao (2001), in their study of distance learners, found that foreign language anxiety (FLA)
has been the focus of many studies of affect in classroom settings. However, the growing numbers of
distance language learners worldwide in recent years calls for greater attention to be paid to this
increasingly important constituency of language learners. Following on from Hurd’s investigation
into FLA with distance learners of French at the Open University, UK this article turns its attention to
an Eastern context, reporting on a study into affect in the distance learning of English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) in China. Both studies examined anxiety from the learner’s perspective. Findings
from the Chinese study showed that some anxiety-provoking factors were associated with an inability
to apply even basic knowledge of grammar and acquired vocabulary to actual language use. In terms
of affective control, there was little evidence in either study of the use of affective strategies
considered to be conducive to reducing anxiety. It was also noted that students’ anxiety-reducing
measures were characterized by a preference for self-help over help-seeking strategies, although the
majority considered the tutor’s role to be of paramount importance. Results and pedagogical
implications from the two studies are compared where applicable.

Barnes et al (2002), conducted a reliability generalization study for Spielberger’s State-Trait

Anxiety Inventory (STAI). A total of 816 research articles utilizing the STAI between 1990 and 2000
were reviewed and classified as having (a) ignored reliability (73%), (b) mentioned reliability or
reported reliability coefficients from another source (21%), or (c) computed reliability for the data at
hand (6%). Articles in medically oriented journals were shorter and somewhat less likely to mention
or compute reliability than non-medically oriented articles, perhaps due to paradigm differences.
Average reliability coefficients were acceptable for both internal consistency and test-retest, but
variation was present among the estimates. State test-retest coefficients were lower than internal
consistency coefficients. Score variability was predictive of internal consistency reliability for scores
on both scales. Other predictors were the age of research participants, the form of the STAI, and the
type of research design.
Cassady and Johnson (2002), studied cognitive test anxiety and academic performance. They
reported that a new measure that focused explicitly on the cognitive dimension of test anxiety was
introduced and examined for psychometric quality as compared to existing measures of test anxiety.
The new scale was found to be a reliable and valid measure of cognitive test anxiety. The impact of
cognitive test anxiety as well as emotionality and test procrastination were subsequently evaluated on
three course exams and students’ self-reported performance on the Scholastic Aptitude Test for 168
undergraduate students. Higher levels of cognitive test anxiety were associated with significantly
lower test scores on each of the three course examinations. High levels of cognitive test anxiety also
were associated with significantly lower Scholastic Aptitude Test scores. Procrastination, in contrast,
was related to performance only on the course final examination. Gender differences in cognitive test
anxiety were documented, but those differences were not related to performance on the course
exams. Examination of the relation between the emotionality component of test anxiety and
performance revealed that moderate levels of physiological arousal generally were associated with
higher exam performance. The results were consistent with cognitive appraisal and information
processing models of test anxiety and support the conclusion that cognitive test anxiety exerts a
significant stable and negative impact on academic performance measures.
Kleinert (2002), examined the structure of sport injury trait anxiety and its relationships to
sociodemographic and personality variables. Based on the discussion of anxiety concepts,sport injury
trait anxiety can be defined as a widely indefinite concern or worry to sustain an injury in different
sport situations. Furthermore, referring to the stress-injury model, we can assume interdependencies
between injury anxiety on the one hand and general anxiety, injury history, and physical self-concept
on the other hand. Based on this theoretical background, a 22-item scale was constructed, by which a
person's concern or worry to sustain an injury in different sport situations could be specified. One
hundred and fifty-four male and 107 female sport students were questioned by means of this Sport
Injury Trait Anxiety Scale (SITAS). An exploratory factor analysis led to three dimensions of
situations that cause injury anxiety: situations with low competency, situations with high importance,
and situations with loss of control. Analyses of correlation merely showed low relationships of these
three dimensions to general trait anxiety (STAI) and scales of physical self-concept. The results
underline the necessity of sport- and injury-specific anxiety scales to examine the sport injury
process.

Gliem and Gliem (2003), in their study on calculating, interpreting and reporting Cronbach’s Alpha
reliability coefficient, showed why single-item questions pertaining to a construct are not reliable and
should not be used in drawing conclusions. By comparing the reliability of a summated, multi-item
scale versus a single-item question, the authors show how unreliable a single item is; and therefore it
is not appropriate to make inferences based upon the analysis of single-item questions which are used
in measuring a construct.

Hopko et al (2003), Psychometric properties of mathematics anxiety measures have not adequately
been studied. Using a large sample size (N = 1,239), the authors developed an abbreviated math
anxiety measure, examined its psychometric properties, and assessed the generalizability of the
model across samples. Exploratory factor analysis yielded a nine-item measure and strong internal
consistency, test-retest reliability, and good convergent/divergent validity was demonstrated with an
independent sample. When administered to a replication sample, indexes suggested an excellent
model fit. The Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (AMAS) may represent a more parsimonious and
valid approach to assess mathematics anxiety.

Harrigan et al (2004), while examining state and trait anxiety stated that observers’ ability to detect
state anxiety and trait anxiety in others was evaluated in a meta-analysis that also included a critical
moderator variable, communication channel. The overall effect size (r) for accuracy was. 39 for the
46 state anxiety studies and. 26 for the 34 trait anxiety studies. However, the effect of communication
channel was very substantial in magnitude and highly significant; it also interacted with the type of
anxiety. State anxiety was correctly identified more often from audio-only stimuli (M r = 0. 49)
compared with video-only cues (r = 0.24), whereas the opposite was true for trait anxiety, where
video-only cues resulted in greater accuracy (r = 0.31) compared with audio only stimuli (r = 0.05).
Results indicated that the moment-to-moment change in emotion (state anxiety) may be better
communicated with vocal/verbal stimuli, whereas more stable features of personality (trait anxiety)
may be more apparent from body and facial cues.

Liverant et al, (2004),This study investigated the presence of a stress response after the September
11th terrorist attacks in a sample of indirectly affected college students living in Boston,
Massachusetts. Anxiety was examined at two time intervals, approximately 2 and 4 months after the
attacks. Methods of coping with the stress of the attacks (assessed using the COPE Inventory) and
their impact on initial and longer-term anxiety were also examined. Results demonstrated that the
majority of college students in the study were severely psychologically impacted initially by the
terrorist attacks. However, this initial impact appears to decay over time for most people. Several
potentially maladaptive coping strategies were found to be predictive of initial anxiety, including
denial, behavioral disengagement, mental disengagement, and focus on and venting of emotions.
However, only focus on and venting of emotions was found to be uniquely predictive of longer-term
anxiety.

Mizrachi and Shohamb (2004), in his study on library anxiety, stated that Mellon (1986) first
identified library anxiety as the negative and overwhelming feelings many students experience when
needing to use the library for an information need. She found four sources for the students’ anxieties
in her study: 1) the relative size of the library; 2) not knowing where resources were located; 3) not
knowing how to begin library research; and 4) not knowing how to proceed with library research.
Earlier research had begun investigations of library interactions from the users’ viewpoint, and the
widespread recognition of Mellon’s findings stimulated further exploration of this phenomenon. The
development of the Library Anxiety Scale (LAS) enabled quantitative measurements among large
groups of students in the United States and abroad. Researchers using the LAS found five factors of
library anxiety and identified the characteristics and antecedents most closely associated with this
occurrence. Knowing which groups of users are most at risk, and developing the most appropriate
approaches for intervention and alleviation are important steps to efficient library service to all.

Onwuegbuzie (2004), stated that statistics anxiety, which is experienced by as many as 80% of
graduate students, has been found to debilitate performance in statistics and research methodology
courses. As such, it is likely that statistics anxiety is, in part, responsible for many students delaying
enrollment in these courses for as long as possible. Moreover, it is possible that, once enrolled in
these courses, students with high levels of statistics anxiety tend to procrastinate on assignments.
Thus, the purpose of his study was: (a) to examine the prevalence of procrastination among graduate
students, and (b) tos investigate the relationship between academic procrastination and six
dimensions of statistics anxiety. Participants were 135 graduate students enrolled in three sections of
a required introductory-level educational research course at a university in the southeastern part of
the USA. Findings revealed that a high percentage of students reported problems with procrastination
on writing term papers, studying for examinations, and completing weekly reading assignments. A
canonical correlation analysis (Rc1 = 0.51) revealed that academic procrastination resulting from both
fear of failure and task aversiveness was related significantly to worth of statistics, interpretation
anxiety, test and class anxiety, computational self-concept, fear of asking for help, and fear of the
statistics instructor. Implications for statistics anxiety reduction as a procrastination intervention are
discussed.

Weems et al (2004),Their paper conceptually explores Tillich's (1961), theory of existential anxiety
and examines existing research relevant to each of Tillich's domains of existential apprehension. This
paper also reports data from two initial empirical studies of Tillich's model of existential anxiety and
its relation to symptoms of anxiety and depression. A self-report measure of existential anxiety, the
Existential Anxiety Questionnaire (EAQ) based on Tillich's conceptualization, was developed and
data were collected from two socioeconomic and ethnically diverse samples of adults (Study 1,
N=225; Study 2, N=331). Results indicated that the EAQ has good test-retest and internal
consistency reliability and a factor structure consistent with theory. The EAQ also demonstrated good
convergent and incremental validity estimates. The data suggest that existential anxiety concerns are
common and that they are associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression as well as
psychological distress related to identity problems. Results are discussed with regard to their support
for the viability of employing Tillich's theory in empirical research on existential anxiety and the
importance of further exploring the relation between existential anxiety concerns and other facets of
emotional experience such as clinical anxiety and depression.

Bodas and Ollendick (2005), examined test anxiety from a cross-cultural perspective with specific
reference to the Indian and American cultures. The construct of test anxiety has been examined in
many cultures all over the world. In this review, the importance of understanding and incorporating
contextual factors in cross-cultural research is emphasized. Moreover, some of the methodological
issues related to investigating culture-behaviour relationship are discussed. Specifically, the derived-
etic approach for conducting cross-cultural research is espoused. Then, research findings from
western, cross-cultural, and Indian studies on test anxiety are reviewed. Consistent with the
individualistic orientation of the western society, much of the research in the western world has
adopted a de-contextualized approach. Inasmuch as many of the cross-cultural and Indian studies on
test anxiety have their roots in western research, they have ignored the cultural context as well. To
address this void, contextual variables relevant to test anxiety in the Indian setting are examined and
hypotheses regarding the nature of test anxiety in Indian children are proposed. Finally, a research
agenda is presented to examine these hypotheses using a derived-etic approach.

Lowe and Reynolds (2005), showed that the factor structure of scores on the Adult Manifest
Anxiety Scale-College Version (AMAS-C), a new self-report measure of chronic, manifest anxiety,
is examined across gender for a sample of 943 college students (608 women and 335 men). Values
for the coefficient of congruence and salient variable similarity index are calculated between each of
five matched factors (Physiological Anxiety, Social Concerns/Stress, Test Anxiety,
Worry/Oversensitivity, and Lie) and the Total Anxiety factor. Values obtained suggest that the
factors are similar across gender and provide support for the existence of the AMAS-C scales for
college women and men. Examination of the mean levels of performance across gender indicates that
college women report more anxiety than college men on all the anxiety scales, except one, the Social
Concerns/Stress subscale, and the Lie scale. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Sam et al (2005) Eighty-one female and sixty-seven male undergraduates at a Malaysian university,
from seven faculties and a Center for Language Studies completed a Computer Self-Efficacy Scale,
Computer Anxiety Scale, and an Attitudes toward the Internet Scale and give information about their
use of the Internet. This survey research investigated undergraduates’ computer anxiety, computer
self-efficacy, and reported use of and attitudes toward the Internet. This study also examined
differences in computer anxiety, computer self-efficacy, attitudes toward the Internet and reported
use of the Internet for undergraduates with different demographic variables. The findings suggest that
the undergraduates had moderate computer anxiousness, medium attitudes toward the Internet, and
high computer self-efficacy and used the Internet extensively for educational purposes such as doing
research, downloading electronic resources and e-mail communications. This study challenges the
long perceived male bias in the computer environment and supports recent studies that have
identified greater gender equivalence in interest, use, and skills levels. However, there were
differences in undergraduates’ Internet usage levels based on the discipline of study. Furthermore,
higher levels of Internet usage did not necessarily translate into better computer self-efficacy among
the undergraduates. A more important factor in determining computer self-efficacy could be the
discipline of study and undergraduates studying computer related disciplines appeared to have higher
self-efficacy towards computers and the Internet. Undergraduates who used the Internet more often
may not necessarily feel more comfortable using them. Possibly, other factors such as the types of
application used, the purpose for using, and individual satisfaction could also influence computer
self-efficacy and computer anxiety. However, although Internet usage levels may not have any
impact on computer self-efficacy, higher usage of the Internet does seem to decrease the levels of
computer anxiety among the undergraduates. Undergraduates with lower computer anxiousness
demonstrated more positive attitudes toward the Internet.

Dillbeck (2006), compared two weeks of twice-daily practice of the Transcendental Meditation (TM)
technique with 2 weeks of twice-daily practice of passive relaxation as a means of reduction of
anxiety, as measured by the Trait scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Thirty-three graduate
and undergraduate students were assigned randomly to a relaxation group and a TM group. After a 2-
week experimental interval, the relaxation Ss began TM. As hypothesized, in the comparison
between the relaxation and meditation Ss, as well as between conditions of the relaxation-meditation
group, TM was significantly more effective in reducing anxiety level. Thus, the anxiety-reducing
effect of the practice of TM cannot be attributed merely to sitting quietly twice daily, although
additional research must determine the extent to which expectations for change contributed to this
effect.
Al- Gelban (2007), His research was to determine the prevalence rates and severity of depression,
anxiety and stress among Saudi adolescent boys. A cross-sectional study, of secondary school boys at
Abha, Aseer Region, Saudi Arabia was conducted. The systematic sampling method was used to
select a class at each level in a school. All the students were informed in detail about the study. The
Arabic version of Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS) was used to establish school-boy
levels of depression, anxiety and stress. Results indicated that of 1723 male students recruited to this
study, 59.4% had at least one of the three disorders, 40.7% had at least two and 22.6% had all the
three disorders. Moreover, more than one third of the participants (38.2%) had depression, while
48.9% had anxiety and 35.5% had stress. Depression, anxiety and stress were strongly, positively,
and significantly correlated. It was concluded that there is an urgent need to pay more attention to the
mental health of adolescent secondary school boys in Saudi Arabia. Further studies are needed to
explore knowledge and attitude of students, parents and teachers concerning mental health.

Baloglu et al (2007), stated that a number of studies have continued to investigate cross- cultural
differences in anxiety. However the cross- national research on anxiety is far less advanced than
other psychological constructs such as schizophrenia or depression. Thus , the purpose of this study
was to compare and contrast the levels of anxiety experienced by American, Turkish, Mexican and
Philippines college students as measured by the State- Trait Anxiety Inventory. A total of 1709
college students participated in the present study. Significant differences were found in terms of the
levels of state and trait anxiety. On both state and trait anxiety, Philippines scored the highest
followed by Turkish, Mexican and American students. These findings also indicate negative
correlations between age and anxiety levels, with the younger participants having lower anxiety
levels.

Bar-Haim et al (2007),Their meta-analysis of 172 studies (N _ 2,263 anxious, N _ 1,768 non-

anxious) examined the boundary conditions of threat-related attentional biases in anxiety. Overall,
the results show that the bias is reliably demonstrated with different experimental paradigms and
under a variety of experimental conditions, but that it is only an effect size of d _ 0.45. Although
processes requiring conscious perception of threat contribute to the bias, a significant bias is also
observed with stimuli outside awareness. The bias is of comparable magnitude across different types
of anxious populations (individuals with different clinical disorders, high-anxious nonclinical
individuals, anxious children and adults) and is not observed in non-anxious individuals. Empirical
and clinical implications as well as future directions for research are discussed. Keywords: attentional
bias, selective attention, anxiety, threat.

Bazmi (2007), ), assessed prevalence of anxiety and depression among medical students in a
medical college of Saudi Arabia, through a cross-sectional study on premedical, 1st, 2nd and 3rd year
students of College of Medicine, Qassim University. The instrument used to assess the anxiety and
depression was Self - administered questionnaire, The Aga Khan University Anxiety and Depression
Scale (AKUADS). AKUADS is a screening tool, and at a cut -off point of 19, it has a Specificity of
81%, Sensitivity of 74%, a Positive Predictive Value of 63% and Negative Predictive Value of 88%.
At the time of the study there were a total of 288 male students and 105 female students enrolled in
the college. The overall response rate among the males and females were 68.7% and 99.0%
respectively. Overall the prevalence of anxiety and depression in females were 66.6% and males
44.4% (p-value 0.01). In the first year the prevalence in females were 89.7% and males 60% (P-
Value = 0.006). No suicidal ideation was reported by either males or females. Almost similar level of
anxiety and depression was found in another study using the same instrument in a similar curriculum
model medical college in Pakistan. Our findings are also consistent with the findings from other
studies from western medical schools as well as other Asian and African medical schools using
different screening tools.
Blankstein et al (2007), The present research examined the extent to which sleep disturbance is
involved in the experience of test anxiety. In Study 1, a sample of 80 subjects completed a trait
measure of test anxiety and completed a sleep inventory with reference to the past 30 days. In Study
2, a sample of 188 subjects provided measures of trait and state test anxiety and completed a sleep
inventory for the night preceding an actual test. The results of Study 1 and Study 2 confirmed that
test anxiety is associated with self-reported sleep disturbance. In addition, the results of Study 2
showed that sleep disturbance is also associated with increased state test anxiety. Finally, it was
found in Study 2 that sleep disturbance was not related to actual test performance. However, poorer
test performance was associated with increased state and trait test anxiety. It is concluded that certain
characteristics associated with test anxiety are stable and may be detected in evaluative and non-
evaluative situations. The results are discussed with particular reference to their implications for the
test anxiety construct itself as well as treatment strategies for the test-anxious student.

Endler et al (2007), The Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales (EMAS) are self-report measures
of multidimensional trait anxiety, state anxiety and perception of situations. The scales were
administered to samples of students, adults, and clinical patients. Normative data and reliabilities of
the EMAS are reported. Concurrent and construct validity studies are discussed. In general, the data
support the conclusion that the EMAS are reliable and valid measures of multidimensional trait and
state anxiety. Theoretical and practical uses of the scales are discussed, including their relationship to
the interaction model of personality and their uses in clinical and other applied settings.

Lowe et al (2007), A sample of 79 individuals participated in their present study to evaluate the test
score stability (8-week test-retest interval) and construct validity of the scores of the Adult Manifest
Anxiety Scale–College Version, a new measure used to assess anxiety in college students, for
application to graduate-level students. Results of the study indicated for sa sample of graduate
students that the AMAS-C test scores have adequate to good temporal stability (rs =.70 to .87).
Evidence supporting the construct validity of the AMAS-C test scores was found. Validity
coefficients ranged from –.67 to .88. Implications of the findings are discussed. Keywords:
reliability; validity; graduate students; Adult Manifest Anxiety Scale–College Version (AMAS-C).

Mcleod et al (2007), reported that theoretical models emphasize the role of parenting in the
development and maintenance of child anxiety, but reviews of the empirical literature have provided
mixed support for existing theories. To help clarify the role parenting plays in childhood anxiety, we
conducted a meta-analysis of 47 studies testing the association between parenting and child anxiety.
Across these studies, parenting accounted for only 4% of the variance in child anxiety. Moderator
tests indicated that methodological factors (i.e., how child anxiety and parenting were conceptualized
and assessed) may be a source of inconsistent findings within the literature. In addition, our analyses
revealed that parental control was more strongly associated with child anxiety than was parental
rejection. Specific sub-dimensions within parental rejection and control differed in their association
with child anxiety (e.g., autonomy-granting accounted for 18% of the variance, but warmth was 1%),
indicating that efforts to disaggregate parenting dimensions may inform theory development and
future research. Overall, however, the modest association between parenting and child anxiety
suggests that understanding the origins of children's anxiety will require identifying factors other than
parenting that account for the bulk of the variance.

Smith et al (2007a), stated that previous research indicates the viability of a distinction between
cognitive and somatic components of the anxiety response, and multidimensional anxiety scales have
proven useful in relating cognitive and somatic anxiety to behavioral outcomes. This article describes
the development and validation of a sport-specific measure of cognitive and somatic trait anxiety.
The Sport Anxiety Scale measures individual differences in Somatic Anxiety and in two classes of
cognitive anxiety, Worry and Concentration Disruption. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor
analyses supported these dimensions in several different athlete samples. Psychometric properties of
the Sport Anxiety Scale are described, as are its relations with other psychological measures and with
pre-competition affective state measures. In the last of the four studies reported, scores on the
Concentration Disruption scale were negatively related to the performance of college football players
over the course of a season. The studies suggest that the Sport Anxiety Scale may be useful in
defining sport-related anxiety more sharply and assessing how the cognitive and somatic anxiety
components relate to performance and other outcome measures in sport.

Smith et al (2007b), This study investigated depression and anxiety among students who were
entering medical school prior to the onset of their medical curriculum. Entering students reported
financial, day-to-day, academic, and time hassles as concerns. Interestingly, the population
characteristics of gender, marital status, and ethnicity impacted the type of self-reported hassles
indicated by the students. Measurements of depression and anxiety indicated that entering medical
school students’ emotional status resembles that of the general population. The results suggest that it
is the rigors of the medical curriculum that may play an important role in the increased prevalence of
depression and anxiety for students during their medical education. Further, students who are
entering medical field already have concerns about medical school and are in the process of
anticipating the necessary adjustment to the challenges ahead of them. Preventative programming
efforts should begin early in medical education and address a wide variety of concerns from
academic, to interpersonal relationships and financial worries. Keywords: Anxiety, depression,
hassles, medical students, orientation.

Zeidnera and Shechterb (2007 ), This paper determined the subjective utility and value of
reductions in test anxiety in students via intervention programs by asking subjects to estimate their
willingness to pay to reduce such anxiety. The sample was composed of 207 students drawn from the
Departments of Economics and Education at the University of Haifa in Israel. In the analogue
procedure used, students were provided with four vignettes depicting profiles of students
characterized by varying degrees of test anxiety. Subjects were asked to indicate what percentage of
student tuition they recommend each of the hypothetical test-anxious students to pay for counseling
designed to reduce their typical baseline levels of test anxiety to designated target levels. Students
also rated the perceived probability of treatment success for each willingness to pay assessment. In
addition, students responded to a test anxiety inventory, rated their current and desired levels of test
anxiety, and indicated their own willingness to pay to receive counseling that would reduce their
current level of anxiety with the desired level. As predicted, students with higher stakes associated
with exam success are more anxious and are also willing to pay more for reduction in their own test
anxiety levels compared to students with lower stakes. The data also supported the hypothesis that
students who are more test anxious tend to be willing to pay more for test anxiety reduction.
Furthermore, willingness to pay for reduction in test anxiety was related to the level of dissatisfaction
with current anxiety levels, more so than with absolute baseline levels of test anxiety. In addition,
students were willing to pay significantly more for a larger than smaller reduction in test anxiety.
Based on the results, it appears that students are willing to pay for test anxiety reductions but the
amount is far less than the services cost to provide—hardly good news for counseling center
psychologists.

Brown (2008), This paper presents some findings from an ethnographic study of international
postgraduate students at a university in the South of England, which involved interviews and
participant observation over a 12-month academic year. One of the major themes that emerged from
this research was students’ anxiety over their level of English language. Although all students entered
their course with a minimum level of IELTS , the majority felt disadvantaged by particularly poor
spoken English, and suffered feelings of anxiety, shame and inferiority. Low self-confidence meant
that they felt ill equipped to engage in class discussion and in social interaction which used English
as the medium of communication. A common reaction to stress caused by language problems was to
retreat into mono ethnic communication with students from the same country, further inhibiting
progress in language. Whilst some linguistic progress was made by nearly all students during the
academic sojourn, the anxiety suffered by students in the initial stage must not be underestimated,
and appropriate support systems must be put in place to alleviate their distress.

Hedl (2008) ,factor analyzed items on the Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) and selected State items
(worry and emotionality) from the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) for 543 undergraduates;
multiple solutions were evaluated for simple structure, psychological meaningfulness, and invariance.
Data were factored separately by sex; both varimax and promax rotations were reviewed. It was
predicted that Worry and Emotionality factors would be identified with both TAI and STAI scales.
One test anxiety factor and 2 STAI State factors emerged, one for each occasion of measurement.
This pattern was observed independently for males and females. Results provide strong evidence of
the factor structure of the TAI and the structure when TAI items are factored with STAI State items.
The importance of situational stress levels on the resultant factor structures is demonstrated. Both the
state–trait distinction and the worry–emotionality distinction in test anxiety research are supported by
these findings.

Li and Prevatt (2008), opined that Chinese students from different high school settings face unique
academic and emotional challenges. They are in a very vulnerable position due to high parent and
teacher expectations and pressure to succeed in college entrance examinations and honour the family
and the school. They are also vulnerable due to possible inappropriate parenting practices. This study
examined whether there were significant differences in the number and type of reported fears and
related anxieties in students from different high schools by grade level and gender, controlling for
perceptions of family atmosphere. This study also investigated whether, in general, the fears and
anxieties self-reported by the Chinese sample differed from the normative sample. Finally it
examined whether the standardized measure of fears was able to capture the unique fears of Chinese
students. The findings indicate that the level of fears and related anxieties did not differ based on
school and grade. Gender differences were evident. Positive family atmosphere was related to
decreased level of anxiety. Chinese high school students were found to report higher levels of fears
and related anxieties than their Western counterparts.

Li and Zhang (2008), examined age, gender, birth order and self-perceived level of achievement and
popularity, as predictors of anxieties, fears and depression in Chinese adolescents. A sample of 398
rural Chinese adolescents participated in this study. Gender, academic performance and popularity
have been found to make the greatest contributions to the prediction of Chinese adolescents'
anxieties, fears and depression. Girls with poor academic performance reported higher anxiety level
than boys of similar achievement level whereas boys with an average academic performance level
were reportedly more anxious than their girl counterparts. Adolescents who perceived themselves as
having a higher achievement level and enjoying a higher level of popularity generally reported lower
levels of anxieties, fears and depression than those who perceived themselves as less academically
advanced and as unpopular. Implications for preventive interventions and directions for future
research are discussed.

Mji and Mwambakana (2008), studied the skills shortages in scientifically oriented professions in
South Africa and found that a major contributor to this has been students’ failure in mathematics.
This study set out to identify students who self-reported mathematics anxiety and determine if this
was a factor in their studies. Participants were 204 mathematics first-year students registered for
degrees in Engineering, Information Technology, and Natural Science. Included in this group were
Foundation Year students. Results indicated that the majority of students admitted to higher levels of
anxiety. With respect to the different degree programmes, chemistry students reported higher anxiety.
Specifically, a negative association was established between performance and mathematics
evaluation anxiety. It was concluded that lecturers through investigations such as this can identify
and isolate highly anxious mathematics students. Such students may receive remedial psychological
help or at least, lecturers may revise their presentation methods to suit these particular students. The
study also concluded that there are underlying problems within the teaching and learning of
mathematics among the study sample. As is typical of this type of investigation, a number of
questions remain unanswered such as what the sources of students’ mathematics anxiety are and how
these relate to the variables investigated here.

Pather and Uys (2008),In this article the authors have highlighted a concern that there is insufficient
attention being paid to questionnaire design by researchers. This is especially a concern since the raw
data provided by surveys are the bedrock of good information and useful knowledge. In addition, the
importance of designing instruments with a parsimonious set of items, so as to account for 'survey-
fatigue' syndrome associated with reading text on electronic media, was highlighted. The authors
argue that the use of statistical techniques, such as item analysis, not only aids in condensing scale
items but may also improve the reliability of survey results. The latter was demonstrated through four
cases, in which the authors evaluated data from completed surveys. Through the statistical processes
described above, the authors have shown that the use of item analysis as a technique can improve
survey results. The application of item analysis in all four surveys produced a more condensed set of
items, their liability coefficients showed an absolute improvement in two of the cases and a partial
improvement in the other two. Consequently, the authors do not argue with absolute conclusiveness
that item analysis can enhance survey results each and every time it is applied. Rather, this study does
demonstrate that, through more diligent survey design,' survey fatigue' can be countered by not only
reducing the length of scales, but also improving survey results. Finally, the authors urge researchers
and practitioners to consider the use of techniques such as item analysis during pilot testing so as to
improve the quality and reliability of information that is eventually produced through analysis.

Carruth et al (2009), studied the influence of Aerobic exercise on state anxiety in college students.
They found that many college students have feelings of state anxiety, a temporary emotional response
that is described by subjective, perceived feelings of concern, stress, and apprehension. The present
study measured state anxiety across participants separated into a control and experimental group,
which performed an exercise routine. Participants were also designated as regular or non-exercisers.
Individuals in the experimental group and those who do not normally exercise were predicted to
show larger decreases in state anxiety. All participants completed the Beck Anxiety Inventory, Beck
Depression Inventory, and Zung Self-rating Anxiety Scale at three separate sessions over a two-week
time span. Results showed no significant effect of group placement, amount of exercise in everyday
life, or in the interaction of these variables.

Ford (2009), According to him norm-referenced testing is essential to the practice of psychological
and educational testing. Originating in the work of modern statistics, this assessment method assumes
that human traits and characteristics, such as intelligence, academic achievement, and behavior, are
distributed along a normal probability or bell-shaped curve. This normal curve represents the norm or
average performance of a population and the scores that are above and below the average, within that
population. The norms for a test include percentile ranks, standard scores, and other statistics for the
norm group on which the test was standardized. A certain percentage of the norm group falls within
various ranges along the normal curve. Depending on the range within which test scores fall, scores
correspond to various descriptors ranging from deficient to superior.

Han, Hae-Ra (2009), This paper provided a comprehensive methodological review of the literature
concerning anxiety measurement in children. Initially, a conceptual basis for anxiety measures is
introduced, followed by specific approaches to measuring childhood anxiety based on 14 original
articles. In particular, a variety of strategies that have been used in previous research are discussed in
detail with theoretical underpinnings. Common approaches to measure anxiety such as self-reported
instruments, observational ratings, and behavioral checklists are reviewed one by one with a critical
look at the strengths and weaknesses of each of these approaches. While multiple measures of
anxiety are available to assess the level of anxiety in children, selection of measurement approach
should be an iterative process based on rigorous evaluation of evidence of reliability and cross-
validation of the tool across different age groups of children. Key Words: anxiety, child,
epidemiologic measurement.

Jansen et al ( 2009), This study examined the relationship between religious beliefs, anxiety, and
depression in college students. It stated that many studies have examined the protective factors
associated with religion and mental illness. In some studies, religiosity had an inverse relationship to
mental health problems, whereas in other studies, religiosity has no effect. The Beck Anxiety
Inventory and the Beck Depression Inventory were administered as well as questions about religious
beliefs and religiosity. No difference was found between Catholic and other Christian denominations
in rates and levels of depression and anxiety. Self-reported religious influence and self-reported
religiosity were significantly related to depression but not anxiety. Religious service attendance was
negatively correlated with both anxiety and depression. These results suggest that certain aspects of
religiosity may play a more influential role in the protection against depression, indicating these
aspects of religion play different roles in individual's mental health.

Joycea et al (2009 ),The present study examined differences in college students' preferences for
processes of change across four kinds of problems: academic, relationship, depression, and anxiety.
Two hundred eighteen undergraduates were randomly assigned to complete either an academic
problems, relationship problems, depression, or anxiety Processes of Change Questionnaire along
with the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Services Scale. Results revealed
significant differences for preferred processes of change as a function of problem type. Generally,
processes of change were more preferred for depression, anxiety, and relationship problems than for
academic problems. Results may assist clinicians in selecting psychotherapeutic interventions to
which college students will be most receptive.

Mizrachi (2009), in his study on library anxiety, stated that Constance Mellon (1986) first identified
library anxiety as the negative and overwhelming feelings many students experience when needing to
use the library for an information need. She found four sources for the students’ anxieties in her
study: 1) the relative size of the library; 2) not knowing where resources were located; 3) not
knowing how to begin library research; and 4) not knowing how to proceed with library research.
Earlier research had begun investigations of library interactions from the users’ viewpoint, and the
widespread recognition of Mellon’s findings stimulated further exploration of this phenomenon. The
development of the Library Anxiety Scale (LAS) enabled quantitative measurements among large
groups of students in the United States and abroad. Researchers using the LAS found five factors of
library anxiety and identified the characteristics and antecedents most closely associated with this
occurrence. Knowing which groups of users are most at risk, and developing the most appropriate
approaches for intervention and alleviation are important steps to efficient library service to all.

Putwain (2009), examined the situated and contextual features of test anxiety and found that despite
a literature spanning over 50 years, there has been little test anxiety research conducted on samples of
school-aged students drawn from the UK. As a consequence, little in known about the test anxious
experience in the UK, and whether this experience is contextualized by features of the UK
educational context. For this reason, the decision has been made to break with tradition and use a
qualitative methodology sensitive to contextual and situated features of exploratory research. Thirty-
four students identified as highly test anxious by questionnaire were interviewed and data analysed
using the procedures of grounded theory. Narratives are structured round three categories:
`aspiration, failure and achievement', `anxiety and cognitive difficulties in examinations' and `anxiety
and examination conditions'. Findings from the interview analysis confirmed predictions from the
existing literature and models of test anxiety, and presented a challenge in the following ways. The
perception of examinations as threatening could be conceptualized both as a fear of failure and a
motivation to achieve, suggesting an overlap between the test anxiety and achievement goals
constructs. The experiences of the final two years of compulsory schooling were conceptualized as a
significant developmental antecedent of test anxiety. The perception of low ability increased the
perceived likelihood of failure in a particular examination, suggesting that academic self-concept and
test anxiety are also closely related constructs. Assessment performance may only be detrimentally
affected when a catastrophic response follows anxiety. In summary, this article offers a new
methodological approach to the study of test anxiety, sensitive to situated and contextual features of
experience.

Clements and Bailey (2010),This study of 509 (340 female) undergraduate university students in
southern Appalachia who completed the Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ) and the State-
Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), is the first phase in the development of a model to predict risk for
stress-related health problems. Results indicate that high negative affect strongly predicted
individuals with above average anxiety (OR = 3.7, 95% CI 2.43, 5.64), while high positive affect,
effortful control, and sociability predicted that individuals would be low in reported anxiety (OR =
0.33 [95% CI .25, .44], 0.29 [95% CI 0.19, 0.45], and 0.69 [95% CI 0.56, 0.86], respectively).

Dvorak-Bertsh et al (2010), opined that evidence suggests that focus of attention and cognitive load
may each affect emotional processing and that individual differences in anxiety moderate such
effects. They examined (a) fear-potentiated startle (FPS) under threat-focused (TF), low-
load/alternative-set (LL/AS), and high-load/alternative-set (HL/AS) conditions and (b) the
moderating effect of trait anxiety on FPS across these conditions. As predicted, redirecting attentional
focus away from threat cues and increasing cognitive load reduced FPS. However, the moderating
effects of anxiety were specific to the LL/AS condition. Whereas FPS was comparable for high-
anxiety and low-anxiety subjects in the TF and HL/AS conditions, FPS was significantly greater for
high-anxiety than for low-anxiety subjects in the LL/AS condition. These results suggest that
affective processing requires attentional resources and that exaggerated threat processing in anxious
individuals relates to direction of attention rather than emotional reactivity per se.

Johanson and Brooks (2010), stated that pilot studies are often recommended by scholars and
consultants to address a variety of issues, including preliminary scale or instrument development.
Specific concerns such as item difficulty, item discrimination, internal consistency, response rates,
and parameter estimation in general are all relevant. Unfortunately, there is little discussion in the
extant literature of how to determine appropriate sample sizes for these types of pilot studies This
article investigates the choice of sample size for pilot studies from a perspective particularly related
to instrument development. Specific recommendations are made for researchers regarding how many
participants they should use in a pilot study for initial scale development.

Kao and Craigie (2010) investigated the effect of foreign language anxiety on Taiwanese university
students’ English achievement. To understand the perplexing nature of foreign language anxiety
which Taiwanese students may have, this study aims to contribute to the limited literature examining
the psychological reactions to language anxiety in Taiwanese undergraduate English-major students.
This study employed a survey design that involved the collection of quantitative data to answer the
research question. A total of 101 undergraduate English-major students participated in this study.
Results of the present study suggested that Group A students (the students whose English
achievement fell in the top 1/3 of all participants) experienced lower levels of foreign language
anxiety than Group B students (the students whose English achievement fell in the middle 1/3 of all
participants) and Group C students (the students whose English achievement fell in the bottom 1/3 of
all participants), while Group B students had less foreign language anxiety than Group C students.
The results highlighted that foreign language anxiety is an important predictor of university English-
major students’ English achievement. This study also presented an insight for foreign language
educators to further understand students and help them through their anxiety. It is hoped that
increasing and extensive knowledge of foreign language anxiety will help both university EFL
instructors and EFL learners. Ultimately, the empirical findings of the current study will have a
beneficial impact on the students affected by foreign language anxiety.
Pacheco-Unguetti et al (2010), studied attention and anxiety and found that anxiety modulates the
functioning of attention. Although the existence of this relationship is clear, its nature is still poorly
defined. Added are the facts that different types of anxiety—state or trait—may influence attention
differently and that attention is not a unitary system. They studied the influence of such types of
anxiety by means of a task that, using emotionally neutral information, assesses the efficiency of
three attentional networks: orienting, alerting, and executive control. Results showed a double
dissociation. Trait anxiety was related to deficiencies in the executive control network, but state
anxiety was associated with an over-functioning of the alerting and orienting networks.

Vitasari et al (2010), in their research, found that university students suffer to some levels of study
anxiety, such as; have new experiences, environment and situation. Study anxiety is a real
phenomenon. Campus environment has universal access to increase study anxiety among students.
The prevalence of study anxiety has been acknowledged by students and educators. However, no
current research exists to identify the study anxiety sources among university students. In this
research, we present a survey aimed to identify of study anxiety sources among university students.
The survey involves 770 students of University of Malaysia Pahang. The survey asks students about
experiences, feelings and thoughts related with anxieties during study process. The results identify
seven sources. But, there are five potential sources of study anxiety; exam anxiety, class presentation
anxiety, mathematic anxiety, language anxiety and social anxiety. Descriptive statistics were used to
analyze the data which was run in SPSS 16.0. The results will be used to address study anxiety
sources among university students. Keywords: Study anxiety sources, University students, Academic
performance.

Williams et al (2010), in their study found that factor analysis is a multivariate statistical approach
commonly used in psychology, education, and more recently in the health-related professions. Their
paper attempted to provide novice researchers with a simplified approach to undertaking exploratory
factor analysis (EFA). As the paramedic body of knowledge continues to grow, indeed into scale and
instrument psychometrics, it is timely that an uncomplicated article such as this be offered to the
paramedic readership both nationally and internationally. Factor analysis is an important tool that can
be used in the development, refinement, and evaluation of tests, scales, and measures that can be used
in education and clinical contexts by paramedics. The objective of the paper is to provide an
exploratory factor analysis protocol, offering potential researchers with an empirically-supported
systematic approach that simplifies the many guidelines and options associated with completing
EFA. Keywords: confirmatory factor analysis; exploratory factor analysis.
Byron and Khazanchi (2011), stated that extensive research suggests when and how anxiety has
debilitating or facilitating effects on routine cognitive tasks or motor tasks. However, research
examining anxiety’s relation to performance on creative tasks such as divergent thinking and artistic
tasks is less conclusive despite a rather substantial literature. The authors’ meta-analytic investigation
of 59 independent samples finds that anxiety is significantly and negatively related to creative
performance. In addition, the findings provide insights into factors such as task complexity, type of
task (i.e., figural or verbal), and type of anxiety (i.e., state or trait) that moderate the relationship
between anxiety and creativity—all of which are consistent with the idea that anxiety and creativity
present competing cognitive demands. In addition to identifying gaps in the literature such as the
need for research using a two-component model of anxiety in relation to creativity, the authors’
results have practical implications for those seeking to increase individual creativity.

Cui, Jingjing (2011), explored high school students’ English learning anxiety in Chinese EFL
(English as a Foreign Language) classrooms.The study surveyed and analyzed 105 students from a
high school in Dezhou City, Shandong Province, China. The subjects of the study were 105 second-
year high school students (46 males and 59 females). They were from a science class and an art class
of a high school in Dezhou City, Shandong Province. Their average age was 16. They all had 5-8
years of experience of English learning.Two instruments were used for this study. They were a
questionnaire assessing students’ anxiety level and an achievement test. The questionnaire consisted
of two parts. One was intended to collect personal information of the participants, such as their name,
age, gender, etc. The other was the Chinese version of FLCAS that was designed by Horwitz
(1986).The questionnaire was administered to 50 science students and 60 arts students. 110 copies
were collected back and 105 replies were found statistically valid. Only the students from the science
class supplied their English scores of the final exam. It was found that most students experienced
anxiety in classrooms, especially the fear of negative evaluation. Male students were found to have
higher anxiety of English classes than females. Moreover, it also found that anxiety is a debilitator in
language learning, especially anxiety of tests and English classes. First of all, they can try to create a
relaxed atmosphere for students, which can make them feel safe to speak or express their views.
Secondly, teachers should avoid negative evaluation of students in classrooms and comment on
students’ behaviors with more encouragement. Thirdly, teachers, together with our schools, should
take some measures to relax students’ attention on exams, such as eliminating the ranking of students
by their test scores. Finally, teachers can also explicitly tell students the inevitability of the existence
of anxiety in English learning and let them know that anxiety can be reduced through the self-
regulation of their thinking and study. Although teachers can make use of the above-mentioned
means to help students to overcome their anxiety in English classrooms, they should not try to help
students get away from anxiety completely. Much research indicates that adequate anxiety plays a
positive role and can motivate students to maintain their efforts on learning. Therefore, the teachers’
real job is to help students keep adequate anxiety, neither too high nor too low.

Dama et al (2011) in their evaluation, said that evidence suggests that the State Trait Inventory for
Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA) may be a more pure measure of anxiety than other
commonly used scales. Further, the STICSA has excellent psychometric properties in both clinical
and nonclinical samples. Their study aimed to extend the utility of the STICSA – Trait version by
identifying a cut-off score that could differentiate a group of clinically diagnosed anxiety disorder
patients (n=398) from a group of student controls (n =439). Two receiver operating characteristic
curve analyses indicated cut-off scores of 43 (sensitivity = 0.73, specificity =0.74, classification
accuracy =0.74) and 40 (sensitivity= 0.80, specificity=0.67, classification accuracy=0.73),
respectively. In a large community sample (n =6685), a score of 43 identified 11.5% of individuals as
probable cases of clinical anxiety, while a score of 40 identified 17.0% of individuals as probable
cases of clinical anxiety. As a result of differences in sensitivity and specificity, the present findings
suggest a cut-off score of 43 is optimal to identify probable cases of clinical anxiety, while a cut-off
score of 40 is optimal to screen for the possible presence of anxiety disorders.

Damera and Melendresa (2011), explained that test anxiety is ubiquitous on college campuses and
negatively impacts academic progress as well as overall mental and physical health. Some students
develop test anxiety due to poor study skills, while others experience debilitating anxiety despite
adequate preparation. In this article, a session-by-session description of a 4-week group intervention
designed to address the heterogeneous nature of test anxiety.

Dobmeier et al (2011), in their mixed methods study, they sought to assess student knowledge of
signs, risk factors, and campus services available for mental health disorders. A survey was
completed by 831 students, of a college in the northeastern region of the United States. Among the
831 survey respondents 63.3% identified themselves as female , 32.5% identified as college juniors,
30.4% seniors, 18.1% sophomores, 14.7% freshmen, and 4% graduate students. Participants
represented a broad range of the academic departments at the college. The 13 undergraduates that
participated in the focus groups lived on campus in three residence halls. Three focus groups were
conducted. Respondents felt more knowledgeable about depression than about anxiety and sleep
disorders. Graduate students and seniors had a keener awareness of risk factors for anxiety and
sophomores were in the greatest danger of failing to recognize these risks. Males often failed to
recognize signs and risk factors for mental health problems. Support groups, courses, and workshops
on managing relationships, transition to college, and specific mental health disorders are advocated.

Julian (2011), reviewed three measures : the STAI, the BAI and the HADS-A. These 3 measures
were selected for review based on the previous use in rheumatology, sound psychometric properties,
and detection of generalized symptoms of anxiety. As mentioned above, measures targeted towards
the assessment of specific anxiety disorders including other DSM-IV anxiety disorders (including
post-traumatic stress disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, etc.) are not included in this review.
While assessment of some of these features may be beneficial in rheumatology, for example, some
studies in other populations have observed post- traumatic stress type reactions to receiving specific
medical diagnoses (44,45), these instances are more unique considerations and, therefore, such
measures are not included in this review. It becomes evident, based on the brevity of this review, that
few stand-alone measures of anxiety are currently used in rheumatology. Reasons for the decreased
emphasis on the assessment of anxiety in these populations may be multifaceted and include a
relative increased emphasis on depression in comparison to anxiety, use of larger scale measures
detecting a range of features related to psychological distress, or an under appreciation of the
prevalence and severity of anxiety in many rheumatic conditions. Moving forward, it may be
warranted to explore these factors more fully and determine if the current measures in use are
adequately detecting the presence and severity of symptoms of anxiety that are important to patients
or that need to be addressed in the course of medical care. Nonetheless, based on this review, there
currently exist measures that have good psychometric properties and adequate responsiveness to
change that would warrant use in rheumatology.

Young (2011), The purpose of this study was to compare learning style preferences of international
first year college students and to analyze the effects of accommodating learning-style
preferences of first year international college students on achievement and anxiety levels over one
semester. The study was conducted on international students and stated that given the receptivity of
American colleges to international students, administrators and professors must recognize the
diversity such registrants bring to campus in the form of achievement, age, gender, language, and
national differences. This paper focused on the identification of learning style profiles of first time
visiting Japanese, Korean, and Chinese college student populations. It also assessed the anxiety
and acculturation levels of these international students when they were first introduced to the
American educational system which incorporated teacher facilitation and promoted student
directed studies. Finally, student learning styles were assessed after a six-week summer session to
see if learning styles remained the same after students were introduced to the American educational
system. After the six-week summer session and two semesters, a focus group meeting with a
sample population of students and a separate focus group meeting with instructors were held to
confirm quantitative findings.

Arezou et al (2012), stated that test anxiety has a significant role in one’s educational, professional
and emotional life. Therefore, it is not surprising that the testing environment generates anxiety for a
number of individuals. The issues provided in this article, present a detailed review of the current
literature related to testing, including the conceptualization and components of test anxiety, the
prevalence and negative consequences of test anxiety, possible sources of perception, gender
differences in test anxiety, and treatment for test anxiety. Applying these contents as a whole with
consideration of current views about test anxiety will broaden our knowledge in the field of test
anxiety.

Bitsikaa and Sharpley (2012), investigated the incidence, factor structure and scale item
differences in anxiety-depression comorbidity in a sample of Australian university students defined
according to the presence of anxiety and/or depression. The incidence of anxiety-depression
comorbidity was over 32%, about four times that for anxiety or depression alone. Participants with
comorbidity had significantly higher Self-rating Anxiety Scale (SAS) and Self-rating Depression
Scale (SDS) total and factor scores than those with anxiety or depression alone. The major
differences between the comorbid and unitary disordered subgroups were for self-disintegration and
autonomic arousal. Comorbidity of anxiety and depression is a more serious disorder than either
anxiety or depression alone, and appears to exist in large proportions among university students.
Assessment and treatment plans might benefit from inclusion of this comorbidity.

Devine et al (2012), studied gender differences in mathematics anxiety and its effect on mathematics
performance the relation to mathematics performance while controlling for test anxiety’, and found
that Mathematics anxiety (MA), a state of discomfort associated with performing mathematical tasks,
thought to affect a notable proportion of the school age population, negatively affects mathematics
performance. Girls reported higher levels of MA than boys. On the other hand, boys’ mathematics
performance is more negatively affected by MA than girls’ performance. The aim of this study was to
measure girls’ and boys’ mathematics performance as well as their levels of MA while controlling for
test anxiety (TA) a construct related to MA but which is typically not controlled in MA studies.
Four-hundred and thirty three British secondary school children in classes 7, 8 and 10 completed
customized mental mathematics tests and MA and TA questionnaires. No gender differences
emerged for mathematics performance but levels of MA and TA were higher for girls than for boys.
Girls and boys showed a positive correlation between MA and TA and a negative correlation
between MA and mathematics performance. TA was also negatively correlated with mathematics
performance, but this relationship was stronger for girls than for boys. When controlling for TA, the
negative correlation between MA and performance remained for girls only. Regression analyses
revealed that MA was a significant predictor of performance for girls but not for boys.

The study revealed that secondary school children experience MA. Girls showed higher levels of
MA than boys and high levels of MA were related to poorer levels of mathematics performance. As
well as potentially having a detrimental effect on ‘online’ mathematics performance, past research
has shown that high levels of MA can have negative consequences for later mathematics education.
Therefore MA warrants attention in the mathematics classroom, particularly because there is
evidence that MA develops during the primary school years. Furthermore, our study showed no
gender difference in mathematics performance, despite girls reporting higher levels of MA. These
results might suggest that girls may have had the potential to perform better than boys in mathematics
however their performance may have been attenuated by their higher levels of MA. Longitudinal
research is needed to investigate the development of MA.

Embsea and Hassona (2012), stated that with the enactment of standards-based accountability in
education, high-stakes tests have become the dominant method for measuring school effectiveness
and student achievement. Schools and educators are under increasing pressure to meet achievement
standards. However, there are variables which may interfere with the authentic measurement of
student achievement, such as test anxiety. In addition, test anxiety has risen with the use of test-based
accountability. Their study investigated the prevalence of test anxiety among high school students on
a high-stakes test and potential differences on the basis of socioeconomic status. Results indicated
significant correlations between anxiety subscales and test performance. Implications for
management of anxiety, academic achievement, educational practice, and issues of efficacy are
considered.

Leea (2012),This study examined Library Anxiety in a cohort of developmental English students.
Levels of anxiety were measured in 191 students using Bostick's Library Anxiety Scale (1992).
Thirteen of those students were then interviewed about their use, knowledge and valuation of their
campus library. The results of the interviews were compared against the measured anxiety levels.
While use of the library had connections to levels of Library Anxiety, library knowledge was
primarily affected by the behaviors and attitudes of classroom instructors. Students held high
opinions of the library, and librarians; however, this did not result in better use of it or its resources.
Ratnasiripong et al (2012), expressed the fact that with the rise in stress and anxiety among college
students, there is a need for more comprehensive and effective counseling options for counselors in
college counseling centers. This study investigated the impact of using biofeedback and brief
counseling in treating stress and anxiety in an ethnically diverse college student population. Results
indicated that participants who received biofeedback training and counseling had greater reduction in
anxiety symptoms than did participants who received counseling alone. Implications for augmenting
biofeedback training to traditional college counseling model are discussed.

Shabani (2012), stated that anxiety, as an important affective variable, has been found to be a
significant factor adversely affecting language learning and many studies have explored sources and
causes of anxiety among learners, according to Aydin (2008). However, to date little, if any, studies
have examined levels and sources of anxiety and its relationship with fear of negative evaluation. To
this end, the present study was conducted in Iranian context. Data were gathered through
administering two scales. Foreign language anxiety classroom scale (FLACS) and fear of negative
evaluation (FNE) scale were administered to a sample of 61 EFL learners. To analyse data,
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics, i.e. independent sample t-test, were run. Descriptive
analysis indicated that participants suffer from language anxiety and fear of negative evaluation. The
result of independent sample t-test showed there was no significant difference between males and
females in the levels of anxiety. The computation of means and standard deviations of statements in
questionnaires revealed that the prime sources of language anxiety and fear of negative evaluation are
fear of failing class and fear of leaving unfavourable impression on others, respectively. Furthermore,
Pearson correlation analysis indicated there is a significant correlation between foreign language
anxiety and fear of negative evaluation, as well as to determine the relationship between the two.

Thompson and Lee (2012),Their study was motivated by the gap in the current literature about
foreign language classroom anxiety, namely the underlying construct of FL anxiety with regard to the
understudied relationship between anxiety, proficiency, and multilingualism. The evidence for the
effect of language anxiety on achievement is well-documented. More recently, there has been
evidence that anxiety is inversely proportional to the number of languages studied; however, this
notion of the relationship between multilingualism and anxiety is under-researched. This study
analyzes the anxiety profiles of low-level multilingual (LLM) versus high-level multilingual (HLM)
learners of English, using 123 EFL college students in Korea. The participants completed the Foreign
Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS); a factor analysis, and subsequently discriminant
function analyses show the differences in language learning anxiety from a variety of perspectives.
An intriguing new factor emerged from the data: fear of ambiguity in English, a factor which has
previously not been discussed in the language anxiety research. Additionally, the English language
anxiety profiles of the LLM versus the HLM participants were also distinct, answering the question
of the effect of various levels of multilingualism on language learning anxiety.

Alexander and Harrison (2013), explored the relationship between levels of reported depression,
anxiety, and stress with scores on the Conners’s Adult ADHD Rating Scale (CAARS). In their study
on cognitive responses to stress, depression and anxiety in relation to ADHD symptoms, information
was obtained from 84 1st-year psychology students using the CAARS, the Depression Anxiety and
Stress Scale (DASS), and the Life Experiences Survey (LES). Approximately 23%, 18%, and 12% of
students scored above critical values on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(4th ed., DSM-IV) Inattention Symptoms, the DSM-IV ADHD Symptoms Total, and the
Inattention/Restlessness subscales, respectively. CAARS scores were positively related to reported
levels of depression, anxiety, and stress, which accounted for significant variance among the three
subscales. Only 5% of participants scored above recommended critical values on the ADHD index;
however, a significant amount of the variance on this measure was also attributable to the DASS.
Thus, mood symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and stress may obscure correct attribution of
cause in those being evaluated for ADHD.

Ali and Mohsin (2013), examined the factor structure and explored the psychometric properties for
Urdu version of Test Anxiety Inventory. 2,145 secondary and higher secondary science students were
selected as sample from the Punjab province in Pakistan appearing in 10th grade Board examinations.
The value of alpha reliability for TAI was 0.893 in the pilot study. But in the final study, alpha
reliability values for different scales of TAI (TAI-Total, TAI-Worry, and TAI-Emotionality) ranged
from 0.66 to 0.81 with the individual student as the unit of analysis and from 0.71 to 0.88 with the
class as the unit of analysis. Similarly, The discriminant validity of an individual student as unit of
analysis ranged from 0.19 to 0.32 for three scales of TAI, while the discriminant validity for class as
unit of analysis ranged from 0.27 to 0.40 for these scales of TAI. A three-factor structure consisting
of TAI-Total, TAI-worry and TAI-Emotionality components showed acceptable discriminant validity
and internal reliability. Key Words: Anxiety, Test Anxiety, Psychometric properties, Factor analysis,
Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI).

Asberga (2013), studied hostility/anger as mediator between college students’ emotion regulation
abilities and symptoms of depression, social anxiety and genealised anxety. The study stated that
internalizing problems are common among college students and have been linked consistently to
deficits in emotion regulation (ER). Also, hostility/anger (animosity toward others,
phenomenological aspect of anger) is an important feature of internalizing problems, but has received
limited attention as a mediator between ER and outcomes. Results (N = 160) indicated that although
college students’ ER abilities corresponded with all three types of internalizing symptoms,
hostility/anger mediated fully the relationship for symptoms of depression and social anxiety, but not
generalized anxiety (GAD). The stronger interpersonal aspect inherent in depression and social
anxiety relative to GAD may in part explain findings, but findings must be viewed in lieu of
limitations, which include self-report, a non-clinical sample, and a cross-sectional design. Overall,
hostility/anger may be important to address in interventions and programs aimed at reducing
internalizing problems, especially among those who demonstrate ER deficits and are prone to
depression and social anxiety.

Bedewy and Gabriel (2013), in their study on the development and Psychometric Assessment of a
Scale to Measure the Severity of Examination Anxiety among Undergraduate University Students,
aimed to develop and psychometrically assess an instrument to measure examination anxiety among
undergraduate university students. Based on empirical evidence and recent literature review they
developed a 12 item scale to measure the severity of examination anxiety. The instrument was
administered to Egyptian students, two weeks before they wrote their examinations. Experts (n=10)
participated in a validation process of the instrument before it was administered to students(n = 40).
Internal consistency reliability for the instrument was 0.82 (Cronbach's alpha) and there was 92%
overall agreement between experts about the relevance of the instruments’ items to measure students’
examination anxiety, providing evidence for content validity. Factor analysis resulted in three
cohesive and theoretically meaningful factors. There was evidence for content and convergent
validity. The developed instrument was a reliable, valid and empirical measure to assess the severity
of examination anxiety. The scale took five minutes to complete.

Collins et al (2013), in their research on mental health found that, anxiety disorders are common in
children and may signal risk of depression, social, or academic difficulties. This study evaluated the
effects of a universal mental health promotion intervention delivered in Scottish primary schools.
Three hundred and seventeen 9- to 10-year-olds were randomly allocated by class group to
intervention conditions (psychologist-led or teacher-led), or a comparison condition. Coping and
anxiety were measured pre- and post-intervention and at six-month follow-up. Significant anxiety
reduction and improved coping were found post-intervention and at follow-up. There were no
significant differences between the teacher- and psychologist-led intervention groups. Results
indicated that a universal school programme delivered by teachers can have positive effects on
anxiety and coping.
Fullagar et al (2013) Their study longitudinally tracked the relationship among challenge/skill
balance, flow, and performance anxiety in 27 student musicians over the course of a semester as they
worked toward a recital of a piece of music. Using hierarchical linear modeling, the balance between
the challenge of a passage of music and the perceived skills necessary to play that music was found
to be significantly and consistently correlated with optimal experience. Results of moderated multiple
regression indicated that skill level moderated the relationship between challenge, flow, and
performance anxiety. Results also indicated that flow and performance anxiety were antithetical
experiences, such that when flow was highest, performance anxiety was lowest and vice versa. These
findings are discussed in terms of the application of flow theory to understanding performance, and
the practical implications for reducing task-specific anxiety.

Kazmi (2013), aimed at to measure the relationship between anxiety and aspiration among academic
achievers. A purposive convenient sample consisted of 200 students with average age 15 years of
both gender; 100 female students (high academic achievers =50 , low achievers = 50) and 100 male
students ( high academic achievers = 50, low academic achievers= 50)were taken from Higher
secondary schools of Abbottabad. Taylor manifest anxiety scale (Taylor,1953) along with Study -
Habit Scale ( Ansari,1983) were administered on the sample. Analysis of results revealed that the
pattern of achievement of a student depends on his/her aspiration level and anxiety has association
with level of aspiration in students. Study further highlighted that achievers tend to have considerably
higher achievement scores have higher aspiration as the result of perceived high anxiety. Students
with low achievement scores have lower aspiration as the result of perceived low anxiety. Least -
square line of Regression with achievement status as the outcome of aspiration and anxiety as the
predictor variable indicated good model of fit showed that results indicate there was positive
significant relationship between students’ high level of academic achievement and anxiety. The study
filled some identified gapes in literature and tries to stress the need for more research on this topic.

Legum et al (2013) conducted an empirical study to determine the existence of a statistically

significant relationship to statistical anxiety as measured by student anxiety, worry levels, and coping
skills differentiated by age and gender. Eighty-four (n = 84) undergraduate and graduate students (46
undergraduate students, 38 graduate students) representing the Department of Applied Psychology
and Rehabilitation Counseling from HBCU (A Regional Historical Black University), U.S.A.,
partook in the study. The sample consisted of African American, mixed gender (64 females and 20
males), with ages ranging from 21 to 60. Undergraduate participants had successfully met the
requirement of a general education mathematics course which included a module of a fundamental
statistics. A co-relational research design was implemented to collect data using randomly selected
cluster groups. Modes of measurement consisted of the Statistical Anxiety Rating Scale, Student
Penn State Worry Questionnaire, and the Brief Cope Scale. Quantitative data was coded numerically
and analyzed using a Pearson Product Moment Correlational and Regression Analyses, Analysis of
Variance, and independent t tests. Results revealed a statistically significant relationship between
statistical anxiety and coping skills. Multiple Regression analysis further determined that the
strongest predictor of a student's coping skills is his/her statistical anxiety level. A one-way analysis
of variance revealed a statistically significant difference in worry levels based on the age of the
student. The greater the anxiety level of the undergraduate college student, the less coping skills the
student will have. Women had more difficulty in employing coping skills when faced with an
increased level of anxiety in a statistics course, than males. Younger college students had greater
difficulty coping with their anxiety in a statistics course than their older peers in the class. Overall, it
was found that the level of anxiety that was reported by the undergraduate student was relative to the
coping skills that were available at the time of their increased anxiety in this area of study. Younger
college students were also found to worry more than their older classmates regarding the subject of
statistics. Female students expressed more worries than the male students. As a whole, undergraduate
worried more than the graduate students.

Loke and Lowe (2013), conducted a pilot study to examine the psychometric properties of the
Environmental School Transition Anxiety Scale (E-STAS) with a sample of 220 fourth- to sixth-
grade students who were about to or had completed their school transition. The results of an
exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the students’ responses on the E-STAS produced a two-factor
(Academic and School Organization) structure. The E-STAS scores demonstrated adequate internal
consistency reliability and 1- to 3-week test score stability. Gender differences were also found on
the E-STAS, with females outscoring males. In addition, the results of correlational analyses
provided support for the convergent and discriminant validity of the E-STAS scores. Implications of
the findings for school professionals are discussed.

McWhorter (2013), This study examined the effect of brief functional relaxation (FR) training on
needle anxiety (NA) during vaccinations. Participants: From October, 2010 through May 2012, 48
undergraduates were recruited through the Psychology Participant Pool. Students (N = 48) were
randomly assigned to a 15-minute brief FR session delivered via MP3 player, or a standard care
condition (15-minutes of sitting quietly) prior to receiving injections at the immunization clinic.
Measures were completed before (T1) and after (T2) the assigned condition, assessing expected NA,
state anxiety, blood pressure and heart rate; and after the injection (T3), self-reported NA during the
injection. It was found unexpectedly, that the groups did not differ at T2. However, during the
injection, brief FR participants indicated lower self-reported NA (T3) than standard care. The
conclusions drawn were that brief FR is a simple, inexpensive technique that may reduce NA in
college health settings and help decrease delays in treatment seeking.

Vianaa et al (2013) in their study of risk factors of anxiety, found that temperamental vulnerabilities
(e.g., behavioral inhibition, anxiety sensitivity) and cognitive biases (e.g., interpretive and judgment
biases) may exacerbate feelings of stress and anxiety, particularly among late adolescents during the
early years of college. The goal of the present study was to apply person-centered analyses to explore
possible heterogeneity in the patterns of these four risk factors in late adolescence, and to examine
associations with several anxiety outcomes (i.e., worry, anxiety symptoms, and trait anxiety). Cluster
analyses in a college sample of 855 late adolescents revealed a Low-Risk group, along with four
reliable clusters with distinct profiles of risk factors and anxiety outcomes (Inhibited, Sensitive,
Cognitively-Biased, and Multi-Risk). Of the risk profiles, Multi-Risk youth experienced the highest
levels of anxiety outcomes, whereas Inhibited youth experienced the lowest levels of anxiety
outcomes. Sensitive and Cognitively-Biased youth experienced comparable levels of anxiety-related
outcomes, despite different constellations of risk factors. Implications for interventions and future
research are discussed.

Einbindera (2014), reported that research anxiety significantly declined in a diverse sample of 59
MSW students in their first-year hybrid online research course in which the instructor used an array
of innovative educational techniques empirically proven to reduce this phenomenon. The
pretest/posttest study, the standardized survey instruments used, and a summary of these techniques
are described. This approach offers a way to help students overcome their fears, develop confidence
in their abilities, and master basic components of research methodology, which, in turn, may increase
the likelihood that they will participate in evidence-based practices and other research-related
activities after they graduate.

Hassani and Rajab (2014), found that effects of first language reading and second language
proficiency on second or foreign language reading have been studied either separately or together. As
most studies have indicated that anxiety as one of the main factors could impede second or foreign
language reading process, effect of reading anxiety on SL/FL reading should be explored.
Researchers showed that not only L1 reading and L2 proficiency have substantial effects on SL/FL
reading, but reading anxiety has been focused as a significant factor in SL/FL reading. Recent studies
suggested that besides L1 reading and L2 proficiency in reading comprehension, reading anxiety
need to be considered. Since L1 reading, L2 proficiency and reading anxiety influence SL/FL reading
significantly, to better understand, this article focuses on the effect of reading anxiety not only with
first language reading, but also with English language proficiency to differentiate which factor has
the highest effect on SL/FL reading.

Lian and Budin (2014) in their study identified he levels of the English language anxiety
experienced by Malaysian Form Four students in two selected schools. It was also to find out the
extent of the relationship between students’ English language anxiety and their achievement in school
based oral English tests; and the difference between genders in English language anxiety. A survey
was administered to 200 Form Four students (aged 15-16) of two secondary schools. The
questionnaire reflected three components of English language anxiety, namely: (a) communication
apprehension,(b) fear of negative evaluation, and (c) test anxiety. Descriptive analysis, independent
sample t-test and correlation test were used in the study. The results of this study revealed that
students have a moderate level of English language anxiety and significant difference between
genders in English language anxiety.

Fernandez-Castillo and Caurcel (2015), aimed to assess the level of selective attention and mental
concentration before exams in a sample of university students n Spain and to determine a possible
relationship between anxiety and reduction of levels of attention in this circumstance. A total of 403
university students, 176 men and 227 women, aged from 18 to 46 years, participated in the study. Of
them, 169 were first-year undergraduates, 118 were second to fourth-year undergraduates and 116
were postgraduate Master's degree students. All of them completed the Spanish version of the
Spielberger State-Anxiety Inventory and an Attention Test just before taking an exam. Our results
showed that participants with lower levels of anxiety had higher levels of selective attention and
mental concentration before the exam. These results specifically indicate that when anxiety levels are
very high, this could over-activate the orientating and alerting functions and to reduce the capacity of
attentional control. These processes could have a negative impact on specific attentional processes
and become a negative influence on performance in exams.

Karjanto and Yong (2015), studied The level of test anxiety in mathematics subjects among early
undergraduate students at The University of Nottingham Malaysia. The sample consisted of 206
students taking several mathematics modules who completed the questionnaires on test anxiety just
before they entered the venue for midterm exams. The sample data included the differences in the
context of academic levels, gender groups and nationality backgrounds. The level of test anxiety in
mathematics was measured using seven Likert questionnaire statements adapted from the Test
Anxiety Inventory describing one’s emotional feeling before the exam start. In general, the result
showed that the students who had a lower score expectation were more anxious than those who had a
higher score expectation, but that they obtained a better score than the expected score. In the context
of academic levels, gender groups and nationality backgrounds, there were no significant correlations
between the level of test anxiety and the students’ academic performance. The effect size of the
correlation values ranged from extremely small to moderate.

Sahin et al (2015) reported the development and validation process for an instrument to measure
Turkish university students’ anxiety in physics courses. The development of the Physics Anxiety
Rating Scale (PARS) included the following steps: Generation of scale items, content validation,
construct validation, and reliability calculation. The results of construct validity analysis with 495
university education students showed that the scale consisted of four components: Physics course/test
anxiety, anxiety about lack of physics knowledge, mathematics anxiety, and physics laboratory
anxiety. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient was found as 0 .95 for the whole scale and for
the components it ranged from 0.83 to 0.92. Confirmatory factor analysis, using another sample of
864 university education students with similar characteristics as the previous sample suggested that
the four factor model for the PARS is valid. Hence, each component displayed satisfactory internal
consistency reliability. According to findings, the PARS may be a useful tool in identifying the
anxiety of undergraduate students taking physics courses. It can be used to determine students’
physics anxiety in a particular course for instructional purposes or it can be used as a pre-and post-
test to determine the change in students’ physics anxiety.

Saleem et al (2015), Their study was designed to translate and validate the Death Anxiety Scale in
Urdu language to be used with Pakistani population. The sample consisted of 210 participants 70
youngsters (normal group), 70 Elderly and 70 patients with cardiovascular diseases (clinical group)
from colleges and hospitals of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. To determine the psychometric properties,
reliability and validity; Cronbach alpha, split-half reliability, correlation, factor analysis were
computed. The results showed that Death Anxiety Scale-Urdu (DAS-U) has adequate reliability and
validity. Factor analysis showed multifaceted structure for the DAS-U, bearing in mind the
psychometric characteristics; it can be used in researches about death anxiety. Therefore it can be
concluded that the use of the scale is reasonable for the measurement of death anxiety in CVD
patients and it can be employed in order to have successful treatment and improve the prognosis of
the patients.

Sheriff and Yoong (2015) in their paper, described the steps to develop the Music Performance
Anxiety Scale (MPAS) and the researcher’s experience throughout the whole process of developing
the instrument. Pretest was earlier conducted among a small sample of respondents and content and
face validity were established through extensive literature review and interview with experts. Fifty-
eight (58) potential items of MPAS which was measured using a 7-points Likert-type format and one
open ended question for some comments and suggestions was developed. A sample of 36 university
students in the Faculty of Music, Malaysia, completed the pilot study and the instrument was tested
for internal reliability coefficient using Cronbach’s alpha test. The MPAS demonstrates that all the
seven dimensions of music performance anxiety construct are reliable (Cronbach’s alpha = above
0.7) indicating good reliability. As a result, a valid and reliable fifty eight (58) items of MPAS was
produced which could be utilized in efforts to measure music performance anxiety among music
students.

Shibli et al (2015),in their study on the effects of anxiety on achievement and performance in
college, found that during an interview 150 students 75 male and 75 female, from Faisalabad,
Pakistan, selected on the basis of low performance and high performance during the current year and
were asked to express their personal experiences during the recent examinations for the assess of the
relationship of anxiety with the academic achievements. The responses reveal no significant
relationship between anxiety and academic achievements.

Teh et al (2015) stated in their study that the prevalence of moderate to extremely severe level of
depression, anxiety and stress among undergraduate students in Malaysia was ranging from 13.9% to
29.3%, 51.5% to 55.0% and 12.9% to 21.6% respectively. Medical students have been shown to be
more inclined to emotional disorders, especially stress and depression, as compared to their non-
medical peers. Therefore, the objective of this cross-sectional study was to determine the prevalence
of depression, anxiety and stress among undergraduate students in Melaka Manipal Medical College.
Methods: Self-administered questionnaires consisted of 3 sections: demographic data, socioeconomic
data and DASS 21 questions..The psychological status was categorized according to the presence or
absence of depression, anxiety and stress. A total of 397 undergraduates participated in this study.
The prevalence of the depression, anxiety and stress, ranging from moderate to extremely severe, was
30.7%, 55.5%, and 16.6% respectively. Multiple logistic regression showed significant associations
between relationship status, social life and total family income per month with depression. Only
ethnicity has been shown to be significantly associated with anxiety. There are significant
associations between ethnicity and total family income per month with stress. No other factors have
been found to be significantly associated. So, depression, anxiety and stress have a high detrimental
effect to individual and society, which can lead to negative outcomes including medical dropouts,
increased suicidal tendency, relationship and marital problems, impaired ability to work effectively,
burnout and also existing problems of health care provision. With that, there is a need for greater
attention to the psychological wellbeing of undergraduate students to improve their quality of life.

Indian Reviews

Srivastava (1977), developed a scale of job anxiety. It estimated various components of employees’
anxiety, manifested in relation to seven dimensions of their job, namely, job security and safety
recognition, fair evaluation of human relations at work, rewards and punishments, self esteem and
social status of job, future prospects, capacity to work and shouldering responsibilities.

Malik (1978), studied self-disclosure self-acceptance and anxiety in college students. A sample of
300 college students was selected from Agra University affiliated colleges by the random sampling
technique. There were 200 males and 100 females, belonging to undergraduate and postgraduate
classes. The findings were that (1) Self-disclosure and self-acceptance were positively correlated for
undergraduate and postgraduate girls and postgraduate boys. (2) Self-disclosure had no significant
relationship with anxiety, while self-acceptance had a negative relationship with anxiety. (3) Sex
played a significant role in self-disclosure. Girls tended to disclose more at both undergraduate and
postgraduate levels. (4) Sex played important role in self-acceptance. Girls tended to be more self-
accepting than boys at the undergraduate level. (5) Education played a significant role in self-
disclosure only in boys. The undergraduate boys tended to be more self-disclosing than postgraduate
boys. (6) Education played a significant role in self-acceptance for both boys and girls. The
undergraduate girls tended to be more self-accepting than postgraduate boys.

Chaturvedi (1981), studied the effects of State/Trait Anxiety and field independence upon cognitive
competence.The study was, divided into three sections for the purpose of investigation and analysis.
Section I dealt with the effects of state anxiety and field dependence on cognitive measures. In
Section II, the effects of trait-anxiety and field independence on a series of cognitive measures were
studied. and, in Section III, the effects of state-anxiety and trait-anxiety on cognitive competence
were included for investigation. The total number of subjects were 283 male graduate teachers
attending the teachers' training course in the Regional College of Education. Bhubaneswar. They
were all working teachers having put in at least five years in the teaching profession. The results were
analysed using means and standard deviation. F-test and t-test were used to draw conclusions.

The major findings were: 1. Teachers who were field-independent performed significantly better in
each of the measures of cognitive competence than field-dependent teachers. 2. Low state-anxious
teachers performed significantly better in each of the measures of cognitive competence than high
state-anxious teachers. 3. At low level of state-anxiety there was no difference between field-
dependent and field-independent teachers, whereas at high level of state-anxiety, field-independent
teachers performed significantly better than field- dependent teachers in each of the cognitive
measures. 4. Teachers who were field-independent performed significantly better in each of the
measures of cognitive competence than field-dependent teachers. 5. Low trait-anxious teachers
performed significantly better in each of the measures of cognitive competence than high trait-
anxious teachers. 6 At low level of trait-anxiety, there was no difference between field- dependent
and field-independent teachers, whereas at high level of trait-anxiety field-independent teachers
performed significantly better than field-dependent teachers in each of the cognitive measures. 7.
High state-anxious teachers performed significantly better in each of the measures of cognitive
competence than low state- anxious teachers. 8. Low trait-anxious teachers performed significantly
better in each of the measures of cognitive competence than high trait-anxious teachers. 9. There was
an ordinal interaction between state/trait-anxiety of teachers in relation to each of the cognitive
measures. In other words, the low trait-anxious and the low state- anxious group of teachers
performed significantly better than the high trait-anxious group in relation to each of the cognitive
measures.

Rastogi (1982), He developed an anxiety scale for trait, state and free- floating or neurotic anxiety.
The test included 3 subscales namely, measures of trait, state and free- floating anxiety. The pilot
study was conducted on 100 anxiety patients from the out- patient department of Psychiatry SS
Hospital BHU and on a control group of 100 normal adults of same age, free from mental
maladjustment. The items were analyzed by Edwards standard normal deviates, pt. bi-serial
correlations and phi- coefficients. After item analysis the final scale was administered on a
normative sample of 1,600 students (800 male and 800 female), from universities of Allahabad,
Varanasi and Patna. Factorial validity was established by varimax rotated factor loadings. Other tests
used for validation were – IPAT Anxiety Scale and Sinha’s Anxiety Scale.

Sharma (1982), explored adolescent interests in terms of impact upon them by personality factors,
sex and anxiety. The sample consisted of 460 subjects. It was selected with the help of the multi-
stage random sampling technique. Subjects represented both boys and girls belonged to art, science
and commerce faculties. Anxiety was measured with the help of the Sinha W-A Self- Analysis Form
(anxiety scale). Its split half and test-retest reliability coefficients were 0.86 and 0.73 respectively.
The split-half and test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from 0.38 to 0.81 and 0.48 to 0.80
respectively. The data were analysed with the help of factorial design analysis of variance of equal
cell size.
The findings were: 1. Personality factors affected interests of adolescents. Anxiety affected interests
independent of sex. Sex showed anxiety-independence. 2. Persuasive interest was promoted by
intelligence in high anxiety girls-by super ego in girls and by tension in boys. Scientific interest was
promoted by ego strength in boys. Literary interest was promoted by intelligence in low anxiety
adolescents. Artistic interest was promoted by ego, super-ego in high anxiety adolescents; by
submissiveness in high anxiety girls. 3. Anxiety promoted persuasive interest in boys who were less
submissive and more shrewd. It promoted musical interest in emotionally dry, threat sensitive, self-
adequate adolescents as well as in emotionally dry girls. Anxiety promoted scientific interest in self-
adequate boys as well as in dominant, socially bold or forthright girls. Anxiety promoted literary
interest in girls. Anxiety promoted artistic interest in adolescents possessing ego strength, dominance,
super-ego strength, social boldness, and imaginativeness. 4. Among high anxiety adolescents, less of
submissiveness, more and shrewdness had masculine leaning for persuasive interest. Among high
anxiety adolescents, shrewdness, self-adequacy and among low anxiety adolescents social boldness,
guilt proneness, forthrightness and dominance exhibited masculine leanings towards the scientific
interest. Among high anxiety adolescents poor self-sentiment integration and among low anxiety
adolescents emotional dryness had masculine leaning towards dramatic interest. Among high anxiety
adolescents feminine leaning was noted towards musical interest in emotionally dry adolescents;
towards scientific interest in socially bold, forthright and dominant adolescents; towards artistic
interest in radical, poor self-sentiment oriented adolescents; and towards dramatic interest in
emotionally dry adolescents. Among low anxiety adolescents there was a masculine leaning towards
literary interest. Among low anxiety adolescents, feminine leaning was noted towards persuasive
interest in less submissive, and shrewd adolescents; towards musical interest in socially bold
adolescents; towards scientific interest in self-adequate adolescents; towards artistic interest in
conservative adolescents; and towards dramatic interest in poor self-sentiment adolescents.

Kiran (1983), studied anxiety, task complexity and sex as related to verbally expressed preferences
and problem solving performance. The sample comprised 300 students selected from intermediate
colleges of Agra. The findings were: 1. Anxiety and sex did not affect the mean interestingness it
ratings of subjects separately, whereas the complexity of the task affected it significantly. 2.
Complexity in addition to anxiety as well as sex affected the mean interestingness ratings
significantly. 3. There was found to be a significant main ef- fect of rating trials leading to a
significant interaction between sex and rating trials; anxiety and rating trials, and complexity and
rating trials. 4. The main effect of anxiety, sex and task complexity variables were found significant
as the problem solving performance was concerned. 5. The interactions between anxiety and
complexity, and sex and complexity were found significant whereas the interaction between anxiety
and sex was not significant. 6. On trend analysis, a significant linear and quadratic trend for
complexity variable was found. On linear trend analysis interactions between anxiety and
complexity, and sex and complexity were significant. For the quadratic trend analysis none of these
interactions were found significant.

Singh (1983), in a study of social conformity, investigated some personality correlates like- need
achievement, need affiliation, dominance, extraversion, neuroticism and anxiety. The sample
consisted of 400 male college students. It was drawn from colleges situated in urban and rural areas
of Deoria district of U.P. by a method of successive random sampling. Their age ranged from 16 to
23 years. All were undergraduate students of secular, privately managed, coeducational colleges
affiliated to the University of Gorakhpur. The findings were: 1. There was a significant correlation
between affiliation and conformity; extraversion dimension of personality and conformity; and
conformity and need achievement. 2. An insignificant correlation between conformity and dominance
was found. 3. The correlation of conformity with anxiety as well as neuroticism was also found to be
insignificant. 4. Low, medium and high conformity groups revealed a non-monotonic trend in case of
need achievement, dominance, and anxiety but the trend was weak. 5. Need achievement did not
contribute significantly to variance in conformity. 6. The effect of interaction between need
achievement and situation on conformity was significant. 7. Need affiliation did not contribute to
variance in conformity. The effect of interaction between need affiliation and type of situation on
conformity was not significant. 8. Need dominance was the main source of variance in conformity.
But the interaction between this need and situation did not have a significant effect. 9. Anxiety alone,
or its interaction with the type of situation, was not found to be a significant contributor to variance in
conformity. 10. Extraversion did not have a significant effect on conformity. The interaction between
extraversion and situation was also ineffective. 11. Neuroticism did not have a significant effect on
conformity. The same was true of interaction between this dimension of personality and situation
type. 12. In every case situation was found to be the most potent source of variance in conformity.

Gyanoni (1984), studied frustration reactions as functions of achievement and anxiety at different
age levels.The sample of the study consisted of 300 male students studying in various classes of
different schools and colleges of Agra City. After the finalization of the sample, the tools were
administered in two sessions. In the first session the, n-achievement Test and Test Anxiety
Questionnaire were administered under natural conditions. In the second session the Frustration-
Reaction Test and Trait Anxiety Test were administered. The following were the findings: 1. Most of
the subjects of the parent population were not very aggressive or passive in frustrating situations.
2.Most of the boys of age group 17+ to 20+ years were more self-critical rather than aggression
oriented. At the upper age level (21+ - 24+), most of the boys were more ego defensive rather than
obstacle dominant. 3. At all age groups the percentage of E and `E-D' reactions was comparatively
higher in relation to other frustration reactions. 4. A significant increase in intropunitive behavior was
observed, whereas impunitive frustration reaction increased with age but a significant fall in this
particular reaction was observed after the age of 20 years. 5. Ego defensive and obstacle-dominant
reactions to frustration decreased as the subjects advanced in age but their need- persistent reactions
significantly increased with increase in their age. 6. Boys with high achievement motivation were
intropunitive and need-persistent, but low in extra-punitive and `O-D' behavior. The boys with a low
level of achievement motivation were found to be more ego-defensive, obstacle dominant and
impunitive in their behavior. 7. The students with a high level of anxiety were found to be more
intropunitive and obstacle-dominant, whereas the low level anxiety boys were more impunitive and
need-persistent.

Purandare (1984), studied the effects of the various strategies on the shape of the serial position
curve in the. case of high and low anxious students. A sample of 40 high and 40 low anxious girl
students of First Year B.A. of SNDT Women's University were selected on the basis of the Marathi
adoption of the Anxiety Scale of State-Trait Anxiety Scale. All subjects had a percentile of 50 on the
standard Progressive Matrices Test. Four strategies of serial learning were used. They were classical,
closed-cycle or continuous presentation, isolation and self-pacing. The first three strategies were
experimenter-determined and the last was subject-determined. Ten high and ten low subjects were
randomly assigned to each strategy. Two experiments were done on serial verbal learning. In the first
experiment, three categories were used and in the second experiment only the self-pacing strategy
was used. The 2 * 3 factorial design was used in the first experiment with two levels of anxiety and
three levels of strategies A list of 15 Devanagari nonsense syllables were used in both the
experiments. The error and trial data were tabulated and analysed with the help of non-parametric
statistics. The findings were- 1.The low anxious subjects were better in performance in the serial
verbal learning task as compared to high anxious subjects. 2. The E-determined and S- determined
strategies affected the learning of the subjects. However, the shape of the serial position curve
remained invariant. 3 The closed-cycle strategy was found to be superior to the test of the E-
determined strategies. 4. The primacy finality characteristic of the serial position curve remained
unaffected by the strategies. 5. The HA and the LA subjects did not differ in types of errors made
during the serial verbal learning. 6. The order of group-learning curves revealed that the subjects used
their own anchors at the cognitive level in the absence of the anchors to learn the serial list. 7. The
self-pacing strategy threw more light on the subject's method of attacking the learning task.

Singh (1984), The study was limited to study of four major personality variables-.anxiety level,
adjustment level, frustration level and interest pattern of rural and urban college students belonging to
Agra (Chambal) region. Some of the major findings were: 1. There was a significant difference in the
level of anxiety between rural and urban college students. In this regard, the rural students were
found to have a higher level of anxiety than urban students in all the ten areas related to anxiety. 2.
There was a significant difference in the level of frustration between rural and urban college students.
The rural students were found to have a significantly higher level of frustration. 3. A highly
significant difference was found in the adjustment levels of rural and urban students. The rural
students were found to be significantly more adjusted than urban college students in all the four
major areas of home adjustment, social adjustment, school/college adjustment and health and
emotional adjustment. 4. The urban college students were found to have a significantly higher level
of scientific interest only, but in the other eight areas of interest the rural college students were found
to have a significantly greater interest than urban students. In the area of social work and activities,
no significant differences were discovered.

Barinder (1985), studied general anxiety and test anxiety with reference to environmental factors
and extraversion-introversion of Delhi students.The sample of the study consisted of 200 college-
going students (100 boys and 100 girls) of Delhi University in the age group of 20- 25. The subjects
were selected randomly, irrespective of the course they were pursuing and discipline they belonged
to. The findings swere: 1. Sex was significantly related to anxiety, both general and test anxiety. 2.
Girls exhibited more general anxiety, as well as test anxiety, than the boys. 3. There was a positive
relationship between general anxiety and test anxiety. 4. Socioeconomic status did not play any role
in the case of boys, neither on their general anxiety nor on their test anxiety. There was significant
difference in general anxiety of very high socioeconomic status girls and high socioeconomic status
girls and also between very high socioeconomic status girls and average socioeconomic status girls.
Test anxiety was also seen to be affected by socioeconomic status in case of girls (only in case of
very high. socioeconomic status and average socioeconomic status. The lower the socioeconomic
status of girls, the higher was their test anxiety. 5. The interactive effects of socioeconomic status and
extraversion were again not found in the case of boys, neither in general anxiety nor in test anxiety.
In case of girls, the interactive effect was observed at average socioeconomic status level. There was
no significant difference be- tween very high socioeconomic status extravert girls and very high
socioeconomic status introvert girls and between high socio-economic status extravert girls and high
socioeconomic status introvert girls. 6. There was a significant difference between average
socioeconomic status extravert girls and average socioeconomic status introvert girls on general
anxiety. On test anxiety, there was no significant difference between high socioeconomic status
extravert girls and very high socioeconomic status introvert girls. 7. There was a significant
relationship between general anxiety and test anxiety of boys. 8. There was a significant relationship
between general anxiety and test anxiety of girls.

Mohanty (1985), conducted a study on effects of state-trait anxiety on classroom learning and
personal adjustment of elementary school pupils.The sample for pretest consisted of 150 students, 30
each from classes III to VII randomly selected from two primary schools of Sambalpur town. The
other sample was 370 children, 37 each from class III to class VII. The control group and
experimental group were located in two separate schools. After pretest the training programme for
anxiety reduction began. Training consisted of instruction through narration of (30) stories to all the
five experimental groups in the schools. Fifteen stories were framed on the basis of situations
expressing a state anxiety and the rest were prepared on behaviors expressing a state anxiety. The
training programme continued for one month in the experimental school. The findings of the study
were: 1. The anxiety scales, A-Trait, A-State, GASC and TASC showed a high degree of split-half
reliability. 2. Children at the elementary school stage distinctly showed experience of trait and state
anxiety. Trait anxiety among children was noted at all educational levels, 3. There was also the
difference between these anxiety scores of children at various educational levels. 4. Children's GASC
scores were higher than their TASC scores. 5. There was no interaction between general and test
anxiety and educational level. 6. Both trait and state anxiety had a significant negative relationship
with adjustment of elementary schoolchildren. 7. There existed a low negative correlation between
trait anxiety scores and intelligence test scores of children at the elementary school. 8. Trait and state
anxiety were negatively related to academic achievement. 9. The anxiety level of the experimental
group fell as a result of intervention. 10. The intervention programme improved the adjustment and
academic performance of children at the higher levels of the school by reducing their level of anxiety.

Dubli (1986), The objectives of the study were (i) to find out if neurotics and extraverts differ in their
memory of verbal materials, (ii) to test whether low or high scorers on neuroticism and extraversion
dimensions performed differently on the retention test, (iii) to find out if the sex of the subjects
affected retention, (iv) to examine if taboo, less frequent and frequent words were retained with
differential ease by the subjects; (v) to find out if memory was facilitated by cue and to ascertain
whether different cues facilitated memory differentially, (vi) to find out the effect of anxiety-level on
the retention be- haviour of subjects, and (vii) to find out the effect of interaction among anxiety, sex,
words and cues on the memory of subjects.

The sample of the study consisted of 800 male and female students studying in classes 10, 11 and 12
of different schools of Nagpur city. The age of these subjects varied from 15 to 18 years. The
relevant data were collected. Apart from these a word list of 150 words was prepared which were
chosen from a standard Hindi dictionary. Of these, 15 were identified as those which were used
frequently in day-to-day life, 15 were identified as those that were rarely used in daily life, and 15
were identified as those that had emotional connotations (they were also termed taboo words, because
they were not easily used in our society). For each of these three learning lists (frequently used, rarely
used and taboo words), three, separate cue lists were prepared which were of orthographic, semantic
and recognition nature. Half of the subjects of the sample were presented these three learning lists
along with their cues, whereas, the remaining subjects were presented these learning lists without any
cue. After the presentation of learning lists, the subjects were tested for the retention of the words.
The findings of the study were: 1. Significant differences were observed in the retention behaviour
extra verts and neurotics. 2. Females. excelled males in retention power. 3. The retention of taboo
words was found to be highest, followed by familiar words and unfamiliar words. 4. In general, cues
were found to facilitate memory as against no cues. However, recognition cue was found to be the
best, followed by orthographic and semantic cues in that order. 5. Only two interactions, i.e. between
personality and word and cue were found to be significant. 6. Interaction among all the five factors,
i.e. personality, anxiety level, sex, word and cue was found to be significant. 7. Those subjects that
were high on anxiety were found to retain better than low anxiety subjects. 8. A four-way ANOVA
for-four factor-levels of anxiety, sex, type of words and type of cues resulted in a significant F-ratio,
which testified to the fact that these four factors acting in combination affected the memory
behaviour to a considerable extent.

Dagaur (1988), attempted to study the relationship between neuroticism, anxiety and creative
thinking, in the context of extraversion, psychoticism and sex. The sample consisted of 394 students
studying in class XI, selected through stratified random sampling technique, from 14 senior
secondary schools of Delhi/New Delhi. Major findings were-1.The higher the level of neuroticism,
the higher were the mean scores on originality, flexibility and fluency.2.At higher and average levels
of neuroticism, there was no significant difference in the mean originality scores of males and
females. 3.At low levels of neuroticism, female extraverts showed more flexible and fluent
behaviour, than introverts.4.Anxety affected both introverts and extroverts in their creative thinking.
Bhargava (1989), studied the effect of anxiety and conflict and its relationship with rigidity,
flexibility and level of aspiration. The sample consisted of 800 female students studying in different
intermediate and degree colleges of Agra city. Major findings were-(1) Rigidity went with anxiety
but not with flexibility.(2) Unrealistic goal setting with high discrepancy, promoted more anxiety,
than realistic goal setting with low discrepancy.(3)Being rigid or flexible, did not seem to influence
conflict.(4) Anxiety and conflict had very little relationship for the flexible subjects and low positive
correlation for the rigid subjects.(5)Anxiety and conflict scores had very little relationship for
unrealistic and realistic aspiration group of subjects.

Dutt (1989), investigated the effect of problem-solving strategies on problem-solving ability in

science and examined its relationship with anxiety level, cognitive style and intelligence. The
sample comprised of 300 students selected randomly from class X, from six government schools of
Chandigarh. The tools used were the Problem Solving Ability Test in Science of the investigator: The
Group Embedded Figure Test (GEFT) by Witkin, Oltman and Raskin; the General Mental Ability
Test by S. Jalota and the Comprehensive Anxiety Test by Sinha and Sinha. The findings were (1)
Strategies of problem-solving significantly affected the problem-solving ability of students.
Focusing strategy was found superior to scanning strategy. (2) High-intelligent students, irrespective
of the strategies of training, scored higher on problem-solving ability test, than low-intelligent
students.(3) Field-independent students generally scored higher than the field-dependent ones on the
problem-solving ability of students. (4)Anxiety did not influence the problem-solving ability of
students. (5) Cognitive style and intelligence were found to contribute significantly to the total
variance in problem-solving ability. Anxiety did not make any significant contribution.

Mathur (1989), studied the autonomic responses to musical stimuli as a function of sex and anxiety
level. The experimental method was used in the research. The sample consisted of 120 males and 120
females (18 – 24 yrs.), regular students of graduate and postgraduate classes. Three sets of
independent variables were used – musical stimuli, different anxiety groups and sex. The dependent
variables were the autonomic responses e.g. GSR, ECG and Respiration. Sinha’s Anxiety Scale was
used for selecting groups of low, middle and high anxiety scores. The major findings were (1) R-1
(pure tone) – there was no significant change in males with respect to GSR, ECG and respiration.
GSR showed significant increase in middle and high anxiety females. (2) Introduction of R-2 ( Raga
Bhairav)- significant decrease in ECG and respiration, was seen in low, middle and high anxiety
males and females. A significant increase of GSR in low, middle and high anxiety males and only in
high anxiety males, was found.(3) Presentation of R-3(Raga Bahar)-resulted in significant decrease n
ECG of low and high anxiety males and high anxiety females.GSR showed significant increase in
middle anxiety males and females and also high anxiety males.(4) R-4 (Raga Pilu) produced a
significant decrease in ECG of low anxiety males only.GSR showed increase in middle and high
anxiety males and females.(5) R-5(Rag Darbari Kanhra) produced significant decrease in heart rate
of middle and high anxiety males and low and high anxiety females. A significant change was found
in the respiration and GSR of middle and high anxiety males and females. (6) Pure tone influenced
the emotional level of the subjects n both ways. In low-anxiety group of males it reduced the heart-
rate, whereas in others ,heart- rate increased. (7) Different musical stimuli evoked different types of
responses in males and females, at different anxiety levels.

Nepali (1989), studied the audience effect in relation to sex, audience anxiety and nature of the tasks.
The experimental method was used. The sample consisted of 90 males and 90 females, who were
regular students of graduate and postgraduate classes of the university of Jodhpur, of the age group of
17 to 22 years. Tools used were- Audience Sensitivity Inventory, ASI (the adult form of ASI,
originally developed by Paivo and Lambert, was adapted in Hindi), psychomotor skills ( this task was
to be performed in eye-hand coordination box), mental task (this task required simple mathematical
skills).The major findings were-1. Male audience had a facilitative effect on moderate AA (audience
anxiety) males and females. 2.Presence of opposite sex audience improved the performance rate of
male subjects of moderate AA.3.Opposite sex audience also had a facilitative influence on low AA
male and female subjects.4.The presence of females had a disturbing effect on male and female
subjects of high, middle and low AA.5.Opposite sex audience had a disturbing effect for males of
high and low AA, but for males of moderate AA, they exerted a facilitative effect.6. Opposite sex
audience had a facilitative effect for females of high, middle and low AA, in relation to difference in
sex between themselves and the audience.

Swami (1989),compared the anxiety, self-concept and intelligence of orphan children living in
orphanages with normal students. The sample consisted of 560 high school going orphan students (of
classes VIII, IX and X) in the 20 recognised orphanages of Gujarat State. The study covered 541 of
560 orphan students. The rest (19) were not included as they were absent on the days of testing.541
normal students from the same classes of the same schools, where the orphan students were studying,
were selected by random sampling. The total sample consisted of 1080 students – 541 orphan and
541 normal. The major findings included -1.Normal students were better adjusted than normal
students.2.Sex, grade and religion had no effect on the difference in adjustment of orphan and normal
students.3.Orphan students were more anxious than normal students.4.Self-concept of normal
students was better than orphan students.5.Sex had no effect on differences in self-concept of orphan
and nomal students.6.Self-concept of orphan Muslim and normal Muslim students was
similar.7.Intellgence of normal students was higher than that of orphan students.8.Sex and grade had
no effect on difference in intelligence of orphan and normal students.9.Intelligence of orphan/normal
students of 16, 17 and 18 years of age, was similar.10.Intelligence of orphan Muslim and normal
Muslim students was similar.

Kaur (1991), studied the separate and interactive effects of test anxiety, belief in control of
reinforcement and intelligence on academic achievement in two school systems, in Panjab. The
sample consisted of 214 girls and 178 boys from public schools and 293 girls and 165 boys from
government schools of the age group of 12 to 14 years. The major findings were-1.In public schools
there were significant differences in achievement scores of boys and girls. 2. Of all groups studied,
correlation between test anxiety and various school subjects, did not differ significantly from each
other. The only exceptions being English and Mathematics and English and Social Studies, for the
government school female population. 3.No significant differences were found among the various
school subjects, for any of the groups. 4.Test anxiety ,intelligence and belief in control of
reinforcement, showed a significant relationship with achievement and together accounted for 7% to
32% of the true variance n achievement for public school sample and 9% to 30% for government
school sample.

Ganguli (2000) made an exploratory study to access depression, anxiety and stress among fresh
medical students. A total of 73 undergraduate medical students of 1st year of C.U. Shah Medical
College, Gujarat, were selected who had recently been admitted in institute. Among them 43 were
boys and 30 were girls. Each of them was presented with one copy of questionnaire to assess
depression, anxiety, and stress (DASS) at the first week and eighth week of admission. Informed
consent was taken from each participant after explaining to them the objectives of the study. The
study was approved by institutional ethical committee. This new batch was assessed by self-reporting
scale depression, anxiety and stress Scale (DASS-42). Result was analyzed by appropriate statistical
method. Results showed that a significant proportion of students had depression, anxiety and stress. It
is advisable, therefore, that screening and intervention should be undertaken at the earliest.

Dwivedi and Gunthey (2005), investigated the effect of medium of instruction on academic anxiety
of school students. The sample for the study consisted of the students of different schools from
Jodhpur city. It was divided into 2 categories. In the first category there were 150 boys and 150 girls
from Hindi medium schools. Another category consisted 150 boys and 150 girls from English
medium schools as subjects. All the subjects were in the age range of 12-14 years. The tool used for
the study was Academic Anxiety Scale for Children (AASC). In the selection of sample incidental
purposive sampling technique was used. Findings: The findings of the study reveal that academic
anxiety level of English medium students was significantly greater (M= 10.97, SD-3.09) than that of
the students of Hindi medium (M= 9.42, SD= 2.45).

Vazalwar and Yadav (2005), investigated the relationship of reading comprehension n English, with
respect to anxiety, socio-economic status and school environment. The sample consisted of 547 boys
and 413 girls drawn from higher secondary schools of Bilaspur and Janjgir-Champa district of
Chattisgarh state through random sampling technique. The Intelligence factor of the students was
controlled using their High School Certificate Examination results. The findings were- (1) There was
a significant joint effect of anxiety and SES on reading comprehension in English. (2) There was
significant joint effect of SES and School environment on reading comprehension in English. (3)
There was significant joint effect of school environment and anxiety on reading comprehension in
English. (4) There was significant joint effect of anxiety, SES and school environment on reading
comprehension in English.

Mokashi (2007),This was an ex post-facto research study aimed to identify the relationship between
anxiety and scholastic achievement of residential school students conducted on a purposive sample of
330 students comprised of 165 boys and 165 girls from VIII, IX and X standards of two residential
schools in Dharwad. Their age ranged between 14-16 years. Marks obtained in the previous final
examination were considered for assessing scholastic achievement. Cattel’s (1963) Anxiety Scale
Questionnaire was used to measure anxiety and Raven’s (1956) Standard Progressive Matrices Scale
was used to measure intelligence. The results revealed that there was no significant relationship
between personal characteristics of the respondents with anxiety and scholastic achievement. Among
the boys income of the family and age were negatively related with anxiety and scholastic
achievement respectively. Where as among the girls arts and music, sports and intelligence were
positively related with scholastic achievement. Among the personal characteristics gender alone
contributed to the extent of 9percent variation in the level of anxiety and 13.4 percent variation in the
level of scholastic achievement. Majority of the respondents were definitely above average in
intelligence. The results showed that majority of the respondents were high in their anxiety level and
also in their scholastic achievement. Boys were significantly higher in anxiety while girls were higher
in scholastic achievement and were definitely above average in their intelligence. There was no
significant difference between the boys and girls of VIII, IX and X standards on anxiety, where as a
significant difference was observed between boys and girls of VIII, IX and X standards on scholastic
achievement. Results also revealed a significant negative relationship between lack of self sentiment
development, guilt proneness and anxiety with the scholastic achievement of the respondents. Thus
the results revealed that as anxiety increases scholastic achievement of the respondents’ decreases.

Bhansali and Trivets (2008) aimed to find out the incidences and intensity of academic anxiety
among adolescents and to find out if there are gender difference in incidences and intensity of
academic anxiety amongst adolescents. Method: Incidental purposive sampling technique was used
in the selection of sample for the present study. A total sample of 240 adolescents, 120 girls and 120
boys from different High schools of Jodhpur city were selected. All the selected school had English
as medium of instructions. They were private institutions, half of which were from single sex schools
and the others were from co-educational schools. Findings: The result revealed that a considerable
amount of academic anxiety prevailed amongst the sample. It was seen that girls on the whole had
more incidences and intensity of academic anxiety in comparison to boys.

Ganihar and Wajiha (2009), Their study was exploratory in nature. They examined the factors
affecting academic achievement of IX standard students in Mathematics. The sample consisted of
800 students selected by using stratified technique from 20 secondary schools. The findings were- (1)
Girls are high on achievement in mathematics and test anxiety than boys. But boys are high on July
2008 31 mathematical creativity than girls. No significant difference between boys and girls has been
found on mathematical creativity and attitude towards mathematics. (2) English medium students are
high on achievement in mathematics, mathematical creativity, attitude towards mathematics and
achievement motivation as compared to Kannada medium students. (3) The students studying in
aided schools are high on achievement in mathematics, mathematical creativity, test anxiety and
achievement motivation when compared to government school. (4) Students of aided schools are
high on achievement in mathematics, mathematical creativity, test anxiety, and achievement
motivation as compared to students of government schools. (5) Students of unaided schools are high
on mathematical creativity. Students of aided schools are high on attitude towards mathematics as
compared to students of unaided schools.

Ghaderi et al (2009), conducted a study to understand and compare the experiences of Stress,
Anxiety, and depression among the Indian and the Iranian students. The data was collected from
students studying in different departments of University of Mysore, Mysore, studying post-graduate
and Ph.D. degree courses. The sample comprised of 80 Indian and 80 Iranian, both male and female
students. The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS) was used to assess depression, anxiety and
stress. It was hypothesized that the Depression, Anxiety and Stress level of Iranian students would be
higher than Indian students. Interestingly, the findings revealed that the Depression, Anxiety and
Stress level of Indian students was significantly higher than those of Iranian students. Furthermore
gender differences were not found significant.

Deb et al (2010), The broad objective of their study was to understand better anxiety among
adolescents in Kolkata city, India. Specifically, the study compared anxiety across gender, school
type, socio-economic background and mothers’ employment status. The study also examined
adolescents’ perceptions of quality time with their parents. A group of 460 adolescents (220 boys and
240 girls), aged 13-17 years were recruited to participate in the study via a multi-stage sampling
technique. The data were collected using a self-report semi-structured questionnaire and a
standardized psychological test, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Results show that anxiety was
prevalent in the sample with 20.1% of boys and 17.9% of girls found to be suffering from high
anxiety. More boys were anxious than girls (p<0.01). Adolescents from Bengali medium schools
were more anxious than adolescents from English medium schools (p<0.01). Adolescents belonging
to the middle class (middle socio-economic group) suffered more anxiety than those from both high
and low socioeconomic groups (p<0.01). Adolescents with working mothers were found to be more
anxious (p<0.01). Results also show that a substantial proportion of the adolescents perceived they
did not receive quality time from fathers (32.1%) and mothers (21.3%). A large number of them also
did not feel comfortable to share their personal issues with their parents (60.0% for fathers and 40.0%
for mothers).

Sahoo and Khess (2010), studied the lifetime prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress among
adolescents and young adults around the world and found that it is currently estimated to range from
5% to 70%, with an Indian study reporting no depression among college going adolescents. This
cross-sectional study was conducted to determine prevalence of current depressive, anxiety, and
stress-related symptoms on a Dimensional and Categorical basis among young adults in Ranchi city
of India. A stratified sample of 500 students was selected to be representative of the city's college
going population (n = 50,000) of which 405 were taken up for final analysis. Data were obtained
using Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale to assess symptoms on dimensional basis and using Mini
International Neuropsychiatric Interview to diagnose on categorical basis. Mean age of students was
19.3 years with an average education of 14.7 years. Ranging from mild to extremely severe,
depressive symptoms were present in 18.5% of the population, anxiety in 24.4%, and stress in 20%.
Clinical depression was present in 12.1% and generalized anxiety disorder in 19.0%. Comorbid
anxiety and depression was high, with about 87% of those having depression also suffering from
anxiety disorder. Detecting depressive, anxiety, and stress-related symptoms in the college
population is a critical preventive strategy, which can help in preventing disruption to the learning
process. Health policies must integrate young adults' depression, stress, and anxiety as a disorder of
public health significance.

Hemamalini, H.C. (2011), In her study on ‘ English Language Anxiety In Relation To English
Achievement Among The High School Students’, made an attempt to find the relationship between
English Language Anxiety and the English Achievement of High School Students of Ramanagaram
city. The sample was selected through Stratified Random Sampling Technique. The study was
descriptive in nature and the data were collected using a self prepared English Language Anxiety
Scale through survey method. A significant negative relationship was found between the English
Language Anxiety and English achievement of high school students. The study reveals that very high
anxiety is the cause for low English achievement among the high school students.

Mahmood and Khatoon (2011), in their research on development and validation of the mathematics
Anxiety Scale for Secondary and Senior secondary School Students, presented the procedure of
construction and standardization of operational measure of math anxiety scale (MAS). The initial
form (25 items) of MAS was administered on 250 students, which included 130(52%) male and
120(48%) female students, randomly sampled from six secondary schools of Aligarh District. The
final form of the test has 14 statements which is design to measure the math anxiety of secondary
school and senior secondary school students. MAS as a bi- dimensional and shorter instrument in
which 7 items are worded positively and 7 items worded negatively. It is a 5-point Likert type
instrument that assesses positive and negative dimensions of math anxiety. MAS has split- half
reliability of 0.89 and Cronbach’s alpha 0.87. The content validity of the MAS was established along
with the criterion validity.

Narula et al (2011) opined that In recent years there has been a growing appreciation of the issues of
quality of life and stresses involved in medical training as this may affect their learning and academic
performance. Objective of the study was to explore the effectiveness of humour when used as
intervention in large group teaching over negative emotions amongst students. Their present
interventional, randomized control trial study was carried out on medical students of 4th Semester of
RMCH, Bareilly, which has total 90 students. Using simple random sampling lottery method the
whole class was divided in two groups-A and B consisting of 45 students each Group A as control
group and Group B experimental group. In first and last lecture of both groups DASS was used as
measuring scale, for depression, anxiety and stress and results were compared to see the effect of
humour on these three negative emotions. Comparison of Severe and Extremely severe Stress: In
Group A 40.54% in class -1 increased to 47.54% in class- 4, while in group B initial 13.15 % was
reduced to 0 % (highly significant). Anxiety: In group A, after Class 1 -57.45% increased to 61.11%
after class 4, while in group B, after class 1-23.68% reduced to 2.27% only (highly significant).
Depression: In group A, after Class 1 - 40.53% and 41.66 % after class 4 (not significant), while in
group B, after class 1- 18.41% reduced to 0% (highly significant). In present study humour was
found to be very effective intervention in relieving students on their negative emotions of depression,
anxiety and stress to a larger extent. Further research would justify the use of humour as an effective
teaching aid in medical education.

Singravelu (2011) In his study reported the development of a new instrument to measure students’
mathematics anxiety, and to determine the underlying dimensions of the instrument by examining the
responses of 200 students. The data is collected from VIII standard students of Pondicherry region.
The reliability coefficient obtained is high. Factor analysis with a varimax rotation yielded four
factors: General Mathematics Anxiety, Mathematics Test Anxiety, Anxiety towards Mathematical
Problem Solving, and Anxiety towards Mathematics Learning. Psychometric properties were sound
and the instrument, Mathematics Anxiety Scale (MAnS), can be recommended for use in the
investigation of students’ Mathematics Anxiety.

Vazalwar, (2011), in his study on ‘Effect Of Anxiety On Reading Comprehension In English’, found
that learning an additional language is both cognitively and emotionally demanding. Anxiety, a
complicated phenomenon, is a kind of emotion so the issue of anxiety in second language (L2)
learning has concerned researcher. The present study attempts to explore the role of anxiety in L2
reading. The study was conducted on a sample of 960 standard XI students from 32 Senior Secondary
Schools, of Bilaspur and Janjgir- Champa districts of Chhattisgarh, by random sampling. The tools
used were Sinha’s Comprehensive Anxiety Test (SCAT) and Patel’s Silent Reading Test in English.
The result shows anxiety and reading comprehension in English are correlated negatively in boys and
girls separately and boys and girls both. The normal level of anxiety gives positive affect in reading
comprehension.

Kannan et al (2012), in their study of Computer Anxiety in Higher Secondary Students, opined that
now-a-days computers are put to various applications in Science, Commerce, Technology, etc.
Relatively, computers in teaching are in its infancy. However, the computer is bringing some exciting
innovations to education. Computers are being increasingly used in teaching and learning at all
levels. Many more recent publications in the field of education reveal that current development in
education is e-Learning. The e-learning refers to online delivery of information, communication,
education and training. The role of computer is essential in promoting not only on ‘e-learning’ but it
can be also used in modern applications in the field of education. A sample of 370 students studying
in seven higher secondary schools in Madurai Revenue District, under Tamil Nadu State Board
System, served as the subjects of the study.Tools were- Computer Anxiety scale (Constructed and
Standardized by Kannan and Muthumanickam, (2010), Madurai Kamaraj University) and a General
Information Sheet structured by the investigator. This study indicates that Computer Anxiety of the
Higher Secondary school students is below the average level. Computer Anxiety of the Higher
Secondary school students is independent of one’s school kind, school system and tuition undergoing
and dependent of one’s sex, group studying, locality of school, study habit, computer course
undergone and browsing habit.

Bakhla et al (2013), studied anxiety in school students and stated that the prevalence of anxiety is
high in school going children; however pattern of parenting and gender of the child are important
factors for the development of anxiety. Gender role and parenting patterns are important constructs
that vary across different socio-cultural setting hence are important to be studied in Indian context.
This was a cross-sectional school-based study, conducted at Little Flower School at Jamshedpur,
Jharkhand, India during May 2012. All students of both sexes studying in all three sections of class
VIII, who gave consent, were included for the study. Those with any concurrent medical illness and
other disabilities were excluded. Tools used were Socio-demographic data sheet and Spence anxiety
scale (children version). The sample consisted of 146 (55% male and 45% female) with a mean age
of 12.71 years. A total of 16 (11%) students scored above cut off for high anxiety, the mean scores
across gender shows that female students scored significantly higher in total and all sub types of
anxiety. Most of the students perceived their parents 'Democratic' and other two authoritarian and
permissive type of parenting were almost equal. There was significantly higher anxiety among the
students who perceived their parents as authoritarian. The prevalence of high anxiety was 11% in
class VIII students. High anxiety in students was significantly associated with female gender and
authoritarian parenting pattern as perceived by the children.

Kumaraswamy (2013), described the research carried out in the last 3 decades especially regarding
stress, anxiety & depression. It focuses stress among college students, nature of psychiatric
morbidity, emotional problems and adjustment, psychological problems of college students.
Academic stress, anxiety and depression among college students are a cause of concern. Every nation
invests lot of money on education. However research survey on college students reports at any given
time there will be 10 to 20 % of student population suffering from psychological problems (Stress,
Anxiety & Depression). Emphasising how counselling will help students with emotional problems
and also suggested preventive measures to be taken by colleges such as setting up student counselling
centres, create awareness among college students in seeking help with counselling centres. It is also
suggested to have mentor mentee programme compulsorily on all colleges. A student health
committee should be formed in each college with mental health professionals as its members. There
should be regular seminar & workshop for teachers & college students on various issues of
psychological problems and its coping mechanisms. Keywords: Anxiety, Depression, Stress, college
students, preventive measures.

Latha et al (2013), opined that death is beyond one's personal control, generates great concern and
anxiety, among human beings. Studies exploring the association between religious attitudes and
death attitudes in adolescents and young adults in postmodern society are scarce. This study
examines the relationship between five dimensions of attitude toward death (fear of death, death
avoidance, neutral acceptance, approach acceptance, and escape acceptance), death anxiety, life
satisfaction and meaning, religiosity and selected personal factors among health care staff and
students in three teaching hospitals - : Kasturba Medical College (Manipal & Mangalore); KVG.
Medical College, Sullia and Dr.A.V.Baliga Hospital, Udupi.. A total of 230 adolescents and adults
both sexes who were willing participated. Diener et al Satisfaction with Life, Steger et al Meaning of
Life Questionnaire; Templer's Death Anxiety Scale, Wong's Death Attitude Profile-R and a religious
attitude scale were administered. Findings showed students' search for meaning was higher than
faculty. An unusual finding of higher Approach acceptance death attitude in students emerged.
Correlation analysis revealed that presence of meaning was related to greater life satisfaction in both
groups. It was further related to higher religiosity in both groups and higher neutral acceptance of
death and lesser death anxiety in students alone. In both groups search for meaning was positively
associated with death anxiety. Faculty's search for meaning was positively associated with negative
death attitudes and surprisingly one positive death attitude. Death anxiety was more with faculty's
advancing age, and was also more when both groups held negative death attitudes. Religiosity was
positively associated with death anxiety in students. Further, religiosity was not only positively
associated with positive death attitudes of approach acceptance (both groups) and neutral acceptance
(faculty) but also with negative attitude of death avoidance (faculty). Death anxiety was more despite
both groups embracing approach acceptance death attitude indicating ambivalent death views.

Malhotra and Sabharwal (2013)- Their study aimed to investigate the relation between anxiety and
mental health of adolescents. These were studied with respect to different demographic variables like
gender, locality and academic stream. Sample included 150 randomly selected adolescents i.e. 75
male and 75 female adolescents from various colleges of Education at Rohtak . For obtaining the data
on Anxiety and Mental Health, Sinha’s Comprehensive Anxiety Scale by Sinha and Sinha (1955) and
Mental Health Checklist (MHC) were used. The findings of the study suggest that there lies
significant difference in anxiety and mental health of male and female adolescents as well. It was
further concluded that there lies a high co-relation between anxiety and mental health of adolescent.

Pant et al (2013), examined yoga for controlling examination anxiety, depression and academic
stress in students appearing for Indian Board Examination. According to them, examination anxiety,
depression and academic stress are prevalent problems in students across the country. A student
under a certain level of anxiety and stress does bring out his or her best in examination, however an
extreme level can result into stress induced disorders and deteriorating the academic performance.
Since past studies revealed that yoga can help to reduce stress, this study aims to record the efficacy
of yoga on examination anxiety, depression and academic stress among students appearing for board
examination. The participants for this study were sixty (n=60) 10th standard male students, age
ranging from 16-17 years, from Government High School Naisela, P.O. Bel, Via. Patwadanger,
Block Bheemtal, Dist. Nainital (Uttarakhand). They were randomly assigned to experimental (n=30)
and control (n=30) groups. The experimental subjects, along with daily school schedule, underwent a
Yoga program comprising of various Asanas (isometric type exercises) and Pranayamas (breathing
exercises) whereas control group participated in their regular school schedule only. At the baseline
and after training intervention standard psychological questionnaires were used to assess the levels of
examination anxiety, depression and stress. The results revealed that Yoga training helped to reduce
examination anxiety, depression and academic stress, as compared to control group. The findings
conclude that Yoga training has helped to reduce examination anxiety, depression as well as
academic stress among school students appearing for the board examination.

Patel (2013), The statement of problem of the research was "Construction and Standardization of
Anxiety Measurement Test for Students of Standard 11thand 12th of Anand District” The researcher
had decided objectives considering her limited sources, energy and time. Independent variables were
gender (male-female), standard of students Anxiety Measurement Test. Students of std.-11thand 12th
of Gujarati Medium school students of Anand District of education year 2011-12, were selected as
universe in the present study. Among which 179 students were selected as sample for the present
study. To collect data the researcher had constructed self made tool Anxiety Measurement Test
.After getting data from students, analysis was done by 't' value. Null Hypothesis was constructed to
clear her objectives. Analysis was done for each Hypothesis. The field of research was Educational
Psychology. The research was practical as well as statistical.
Singh and Jha (2013), in their study found that courses related to medical and engineering fields are
quite extensive and demanding, which often lead to stress and anxiety among students. As optimism
was hypothesized to reduce anxiety and enhance academic achievement, the purpose of the current
study was to assess the level of anxiety and its relation with optimism and academic achievement
among medical and engineering students. Since these two courses differ in many aspects and the
gender roles in the society are changing, the secondary objective of the study was to find differences
in anxiety, optimism and academic achievement across genders and academic majors. A total of 346
students (171 medical and 175 engineering) from 3 medical and 4 engineering colleges of Uttar
Pradesh, India participated in the study. Academic results of the latest two semesters were considered
as academic achievement of the students, whereas anxiety and optimism were tested using Sinha’s
Comprehensive Anxiety Test (SCAT,2007), and Learned Optimism Scale (LOS, 2000) respectively.
Both measures are constructed and standardized on Indian students. Results revealed that anxiety had
a significant negative relationship with optimism and academic achievement, whereas a significant
positive relationship was found between optimism and academic achievement. Significant differences
were revealed between medical and engineering students, but the gender differences in the variables
under study were insignificant. The results of this study provide insights for faculty members and
institutions for better academic performance of the students.

Sridevi (2013), attempted to find out the relationship between anxiety and academic achievement of
Higher secondary school students. This area of research has been of considerable interest to teachers
who have observed that some children appear to perform below their best in situations characterized
by a high degree of stress. It was expected that students with high anxiety would be more likely to
perform less adequately throughout their studies than would non-anxious students. The Higher
secondary level is a turning point in the life of the adolescents. The students and their parents take the
decisions of their career selection during this transition period. Adolescents of our schools have many
disturbing problems that often interfere with their academic achievement. Anxiety and anxiety related
problems are very common during adolescence. The investigator randomly selected a total number of
12 schools in Idukki district of Kerala state, for the study that included two government, four private
aided and six private unaided schools. Sample comprised of 180 students for the study. The findings
of the study are: 1)There is a positive high correlation between general anxiety and test anxiety. 2)
There is a negative low correlation between general anxiety and academic achievement. 3) There is a
negative low correlation (-0.222) between test anxiety and academic achievement of higher
secondary students.
Banga (2014), carried out a study, to find out that the academic anxiety among high school students
in relation to different social categories. It was hypothesized that students belonging to different
social categories i.e. scheduled castes, other backward class and general category, do not differ
significantly in their academic anxiety. Data was collected from 200 secondary school students of
Hamirpur district of Himachal Pradesh. The findings revealed that these students do not differ
significantly in their academic anxiety.

Kumari and Jain (2014), conducted a study to know the examinations stress felt by college students
under Arts, Science and Commerce stream of education. Further comparison was done to find out the
level of stress felt by college students enrolled in under graduate and post graduate programmes in
Jaipur. The sample consisted of 90 college students drawn using stratified random sampling method
from two girl’s colleges. A questionnaire was developed by the researcher to access examination
stress and anxiety among college students. The result shows correlation between examination stress
and anxiety of college students. On comparing the stress and anxiety among students of different
streams, the students of Arts were found having higher stress and anxiety during examination
followed by commerce students. There was no significant difference found in the stress and anxiety
level of undergraduate and postgraduate students

Mary et al (2014) stated in their article that the latest report by the National Crime Records Bureau
has positioned Tamil Nadu as the Indian state with highest suicide rate. At least in part, this is
happening due to exam pressure among adolescents, emphasizing the imperative need to understand
the pattern of anxiety and various factors contributing to it among students. Their study was
conducted to analyze the level of state anxiety among board exam attending school students in Tamil
Nadu, India. A group of 100 students containing 50 boys and 50 girls from 10th and 12th grades
participated in the study and their state anxiety before board exams was measured by Westside Test
Anxiety Scale. We found that all board exam going students had increased level of anxiety, which
was particularly higher among boys and 12th standard board exam going students. Analysis of
various demographic variables showed that students from nuclear families presented higher anxiety
levels compared to their desired competitive group. Overall, our results showing the prevalence of
state anxiety among board exam going students in Tamil Nadu, India, support the recent attempt
taken by Tamil Nadu government to improve student’s academic performance in a healthier manner
by appointing psychologists in all government schools.

Ahmed and Julius (2015), stated that there was a growing concern among educators about the low
academic performance of college students and its influence on their mental health. Many university
students continue to have low grades, while many manage to turn around their academic fortunes
(Martin & Marsh, 2006). Programs aimed at teaching academic resilience have proven highly
effective in improving academic performance. Their study aimed at finding the relationship between
academic performance, resilience, depression, anxiety and stress and also the predictors of academic
performance and resilience, namely, depression, anxiety and stress among women college students.
Expost facto research design was used for the study. The sample consisted of 446 college going
women, currently pursuing their second year of under graduation in city colleges, of Chennai and
Sriperumbudur.. The tools used were the Connor Davidson Resilience scale (2003), the DASS scale
by Lovibond & Lovibond (1995), measuring depression, anxiety and stress and the academic
performance, using the marks obtained in the continuous assessment cycle. Correlation was found
using the Pearson's Product moment method. Regression analysis was done to study the predictors
.Results indicates that academic performance, resilience depression, anxiety and stress were
positively correlated among women college students. Regression analysis revealed that academic
performance significantly predict depression, anxiety and stress women college students, while
depression alone is significantly predicted by resilience.

Kumar, (2015) , attempted to find out whether Yoga Intervention has any effect on State and Trait
Anxiety and also on the Subjective well-being, in his empirical view of the Himalayan region. He
expressed the nature of anxiety, depression and perception separately and through this he explained
that anxiety can be considered an important component in perceptual process, though it has always
been believed to be a psychological and neurological problem.
Roy et al (2015) undertook to determine the presence of depression, anxiety and stress among first
year medical undergraduates studying in a premier medical institution to suggest necessity of
interventions to relief stress, anxiety and depression in college students. 200 First year MBBS
students (100 females and 100 males) studying at Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences, Malkapur,
Karad were recruited for the study. Apparently healthy and willing participants were included in the
present study. DASS was used to record depression, anxiety and stress scores. They observed
significant increase in depression, anxiety and stress scores during pre examination period in both
males and females. However there were higher depression scores in female students in both relaxed
state as well as stressed state. Anxiety scores were not significantly different in male and female
students in both relaxed and stressed states. Stress scores were significantly different in stressed state
in male and female students. It was the need of the time to make medical teachers and medical
students aware of negative consequences of high levels of stress, anxiety and depression faced during
pre examination period. They recommended that educational institutes should adopt simple
relaxation methods for highly stressed students and provide support for their well being and better
academic performance.

Bharati, (2016) The present study aims to investigate the anxiety level of sports and non-sports
students during board exam. It also aimed to find out the difference of anxiety among U.P. board
students on the basis of gender and the difference of anxiety among up board students on the basis of
socio-economic status. These were studied with respect to different demographic variables like
school type, socio-economic background, gender and academic stream. Methods: In this study,
Sample included 420 randomly selected students i.e. 210 boys and 210 girls of U.P boards from
various schools of Education at Uttar Pradesh. Subjects were assessed using Socio-demographic
sheet and Anxiety Scale by Sinha and Sinha (1955). The results of the study revealed considerable
anxiety in boys than girls (p<0.01). Students from Hindi medium schools were more anxious than
students from English medium schools (p<0.01). Students belonging to the middle class (middle
socio-economic group) suffered more anxiety than those from both high and low socio-economic
groups (p<0.01). Therefore, parent child relationship, child and teacher relationship and parent and
teacher relationship and support decrease the level of anxiety. Parents and teacher emotional support
drastically change the statics of anxiety in students. Parents and teachers use anxiety prevention
efforts and give lots of confidence to the child.

Overview of Researches on Anxiety

A review of the researches on anxiety above, shows that foreign studies have focused on all levels of
students, right from the primary level to adolescents and college students. Scales have been
constructed, existing scales reviewed, anxiety studied with different variables, some being,
depression, lifestyles and academic achievement. Other studies are on the areas that are the causes of
anxiety, like examination or test anxiety, social anxiety, language anxiety, academic anxiety, library
anxiety and so on. Interventions of anxiety have also been explored.

Review of Indian studies, however, shows that though at the school level anxiety studies included all
the above, including using adaptations of foreign scales, this was not the case at the undergraduate
level. At this stage, no Indian scale to measure the level of general anxiety, had been constructed,
except Sinha’s Anxiety Scale of the sixties which is being used, along with Indian adaptations of
foreign scales. This gap is most alarming, as nobody talks about general anxiety. There is therefore
dire need of an anxiety scale to measure the levels of anxiety of this population, which affects their
physical and mental health.
 CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER III

Research Methodology

The present chapter deals with the method, population and sampling technique employed for the
study, sample size, tools used, administration of the tool, i.e. the process of data collection and
decision regarding data analysis.

Research design is the planning, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain
answers to research questions and to control variance. It enables the researcher to answer research
questions with validity and objectivity, as far as possible, accurately and economically. It is an
arrangement of condition for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. The choice of the appropriate approach
and design in a particular research depends on the special characteristics and availability of the
sample, nature of the measuring instruments and the restraints on the manipulation of variable
involved.

Area of the Study: The study was conducted in Allahabad.

Research Design: The present study belongs to the category of descriptive field survey type of
research.

Population: All first year undergraduate students of regular degree courses, studying in the main
campuses of A.U. and SHIATS.

Sample : 826 first year students were taken as the sample from SHIATS and A.U.

Sampling Type: Purposive Sampling

Table 3.1 Population Sample Distribution

University Total 1st yr. Students who participated Sample %

Undergraduate in the study (frequency)
Students
SHIATS 2430 400
A.U. 5257 426

Total 7687 826

 10.7%

The findings of Table 3.1 present the total population of 1st yr. undergraduate students of SHIATS
and A.U. which was 2430 and 5257 students respectively. Out of this, 400 students from SHIATS
and 426 from A.U. participated in the study.

Fig. 3.1 Pie chart showing the % of the sample taken

10.7 %

population
sample

Figure 3.1 presents the findings that 10.7 % of the students were taken as the sample, from the total
population, for the study.

Table 3.2 Gender Distribution in the Sample

SHIATS A.U. Total %

Boys 123 143 266 32.20%
Girls 277 283 560 67.79%
Total 826
The findings of Table 3.2 present that 123 boys and 277 girls from SHIATS and 143 boys and 283
girls from A.U., participated in the study. 32.20 % were boys and 67.79 % were girls.

Fig. 3.2 Pie Chart showing Gender Distribution in the Sample

266
32.20% Boys
560 Girls
67.79%
Figure 3.2 presents the findings that in the sample, 266 or 32.20 % boys and 560 or 67.79% girls,
participated in the study.

Sampling Type: Purposive Sampling

Method of Scale Construction

Procedure: The study was conducted in three phases. Each phase was further divided into steps.
The following flowchart shows the three phases and all the steps, of the entire process of the
construction of the anxiety scale for undergraduate students.

Fig. 3.3 Flowchart showing the Procedure of Construction of the Scale

Phase I Exploring Generating

Identfying
(Development views about pool of
of the Scale)
dimensions
anxiety items

Phase II
97 item Constructio
Stage I (Relaibilty &
scale n of items
Validity)

Item Reliability of 50 Item

Analysis the scale Scale Stage II

Factor Item
Validity Reliability
Analysis Analysis

Phase III
Dimensions Raw scores
Final Scale (Standarizati
identfied on of Scale) to z-scores

Levels of
Anxiety of Norms
Sample

Figure 3.4 presents the detailed steps of the three phases, in the construction of the final scale of
anxiety. The first phase was qualitative and the second and third phases were quantitative in nature.
The first phase had 4 steps: Exploring views about anxiety, generating pool of items, identifying
dimensions and construction of items. The second phase, Stage I, had 2 steps: Item analysis and
reliability of the scale. Stage II had 5 steps: Item analysis, reliability, validity, factor analysis and
dimensions identified. Phase III had 3 steps: Raw scores to z-scores, norms and levels of anxiety of
the sample.

PHASE I (Qualitative Analysis)

The first phase of the study,was qualitative in nature. It covered the first objective:

Objective1.To develop an anxiety scale for undergraduate students.

The above objective was fulfilled through the following steps:

Step 1

Exploring views about anxiety.

To find out the views and understanding of undergraduate students, about the construct anxiety, an
open – ended questionnaire was developed. It was framed to elicit the written descriptive data. This
questionnaire consisted of the following questions:-

1. What do you know about anxiety ?

2. Today why do you think students are anxious or feel anxiety?

3. What do people do when they are in anxiety ?

This questionnaire was administered on a sample of 210 students.

Table 3.3 Sample of Open – Ended Questionnaire

Institution Students
SHIATS 100
A.U. 110
Total 210
The Table 3.3 presents the sample of 210 students. There were 100 students from SHIATS and 110
students from A.U.

Procedure of administering the questionnaire:

Due permission was taken from the authorities concerned. The aim of the study was explained to the
students and their consent was taken. Then each student was given a question sheet with space to
write down the answers. The following instructions were given to them :

A survey is being conducted on the problems of youth. You are being given a set of three questions.
Please read them very carefully and then answer sincerely and freely according to your personal
feelings. If you need more space to write, do use more sheets to express your ideas. You need not
write your name in the answer sheet if you do not wish to. No answer is right or wrong. Do not leave
any question unanswered. Your answers will be kept strictly confidential and used only for research
purposes. Your cooperation will help in knowing your problems.

Step 2

Generating pool of Items

The next step was to create an item pool, so after collecting the answer sheets , the responses to each
question were analyzed with the help of experts, as follows:

 On the basis of the analysis, items were generated.

 The items were framed keeping in mind, Edward’s (1967) informal criteria of framing items.

 Items under similar themes were grouped together.

Thus a pool of items was created.

Step 3

Identifying Dimensions

 Items under similar themes were grouped together.

 Dimensions were identified.

 Extreme behaviors were avoided.

 Dimensions with less than 3 items were rejected.

 The term anxiety was defined.

 Each dimension was defined.

  Finally a pool of 97 items was created.

Step 4

Construction of Items

After the creation of the items and identification of the dimensions, the next step was to

construct a scale of these items. So with the 97 items finally selected, a 5-point Likert scale was
created. The Likert (1932) scale, is an interval scale, where the differences between consecutive
points on the scale are equal over the entire scale. By this type of measurement we can take some
exact and meaningful decisions (Koul, 2003).The benefits of this scale have been enumerated by Furr
(2010), - the development of a summated rating scale requires a considerable investment of time and
effort.

It also requires that respondents will be able to take several minutes to provide their ratings. There
are three good reasons why single yes-or-no questions are insufficient. They concern reliability,
precision, and scope.. A person may answer ''yes'' today and "no" tomorrow. Thus single items are
notoriously unreliable. They are also imprecise because they restrict measurement to only two levels.
People are placed into only two groups, with no way to distinguish among people in each group.
Finally, many measured characteristics are broad in scope and not easily assessed with a single
question. Some issues are complex, and several items will be necessary to assess them.

Extreme cases like ideas of suicide were left out. Positive responses were taken into consideration, to
frame the negative items, to balance the measurement of the anxiety construct. 97 such statements or
items were identified, under the dimensions decided by experts.

In the constructed scale -

 Each item provided Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Undecided, Agree and Strongly Agree, as
alternatives for responding.

 The scoring was as follows for the positive items:

Strongly Disagree - 1

Disagree - 2
 Undecided - 3

Agree - 4

Strongly Agree - 5

Negative items were scored in the reverse:

Strongly Disagree - 5

Disagree - 4

Undecided - 3

Agree - 2

Strongly Agree - 1

PHASE II (Quantitative Analysis)

Phase II, of the study was quantitative in nature. It was carried out in two stages :

 In Stage 1 the (preliminary) 97- item anxiety scale data was analyzed. It had two steps.

 In Stage 2 the (final)50- item anxiety scale data was analyzed. It had five steps.

The two stages, covered the second objective :

Objective 2. To find out the reliability and validity of the anxiety scale for undergraduate
students.

STAGE 1

Analysis of 97-Item Anxiety Scale

The constructed scale of 97 items was now administered on a sample of 203 students- 103 from
Allahabad Central University and 100 from SHIATS. This was done to examine its psychometric
properties.

Table 3.4 Sample of 97 Item Scale

Institution Students
SHIATS 101
A.U. 102
Total 203
Table 3.4 presents the sample taken for administering the 97 item scale. Out of the total of 203
undergraduate students, 101 were from SHIATS and 102 were from A.U.

After taking the permission of the concerned authorities and consent of the students, the scale was
given individually to each student with the following instructions:

A survey research is being conducted on the problems of youth. You need not write your name in the
answer sheet if you do not wish to. Please read these statements very carefully and then indicate
whether you strongly disagree, disagree, are undecided, agree or strongly agree and answer sincerely
according to your personal feelings. No answer is right or wrong. Do not leave any statement
unanswered. Your answers will be kept strictly confidential and used only for research purposes.
Your cooperation will help in knowing your problems.

Step 5

Item Analysis of the 97 item scale

The data obtained was evaluated for the psychometric properties of the constructed scale, though the
following:

 Descriptives

 Item Discimination Index:

 Item Total Correlation

 Test of Significance

Difficulty Index was not considered as this was an anxiety scale.

For item analysis, the data collected was analyzed for index of discrimination, by using SPSS
(Statistical Package for Social Sciences). Statistical methods are very useful and extensively used in
educational research. They are an indispensible tool that help to collect, organize, analyze and
interpret the data, expressed in numerical terms. They help in deriving conclusions and formulating
generalizations. They assign quantitative values to the characteristics or properties of human beings,
objects or events, for the purpose of discovering relationships between variables under study.
The responses were analyzed for the total sample, firstly through the descriptives. Here, the items
that did not show the required variability, were removed at this preliminary level.

The item discrimination index or item validity index, was calculated. It is the degree to which a
single item separates the higher scoring from the lower scoring individuals, in the trait or group of
traits being measured (Bean, 1953).In other words, the discriminatory power or validity of the item
may be defined as the extent to which the high or low score on that item, indicates the possession of
the trait or achievement being measured (Marshall and Hales, 1972). Kelley (1939), showed that
when the extreme group consists of top 27% and bottom 27% in a normal distribution, the ratio of
difference between the means of the two groups over the standard error of the difference between
these two means is maximum.

Step 6

Reliability of the 97-item scale

After item analysis, the reliability of the scale was calculated by:

 Cronbach’s Alpha (1951), which is calculated to study the correlations of all possible
combinations of inter- item and item- total correlations.

 Split – Half Coefficient

After the above analysis of the scale, anxiety and its dimensions were defined, according to the
theoretical perspective of the responses obtained from the descriptive data of the open-ended
questionnaire. At this stage, the 97 items scale was reduced to a 50-item scale.

STAGE 2

Analysis of 50-Item Anxiety Scale

The new 50 item scale was further administered on a larger sample, to test its psychometric
properties. The sample consisted of 826 students, 400 from SHIATS and 426 from A.U. (refer Table
3.1, pg.90).This sample constituted 10.7 % of the total population of graduate students of SHIATS
and A.U. The students were individually administered the scale.
Step 7

Item analysis of 50 item (final) scale

For item analysis, the following were evaluated:

 Descriptives

 Discimination Index :

(i) t - test

(ii) Item Total Correlation

Difficulty Index was not considered as this was an anxiety scale.

Step 8

Reliability of the 50 item scale

After item analysis of the 50 item scale, its reliability was calculated through :

 Cronbach’s Alpha (1951) and Split – Half Coefficient – for internal reliability

 Test-Retest – for external validity

For test-retest, the final scale of 50 items, was administered on a sample of 173 students :

Table 3.5 Sample for Test - Retest

Institution Students
SHIATS 85
A.U. 88
Total 173
Table 3.5 presents the sample taken for test-retest. Out of the total 173 students, 85 were
from SHIATS and 88 students were from A.U.

Step 9

Validity of the 50-item scale

To find its validity, it was administered along with three other anxiety tools:
 (i) Taylor’s Manifest Anxiety Scale ( 1953)

(ii) Sinha’s Anxiety Scale ( 1968)

(iii) Zung’s Self- Rating Anxiety Scale (1971)

The correlation of the scores of the constructed scale with each of the other three scales/inventories
was computed to know whether the newly constructed scale was also measuring the construct of
anxiety or the level of anxiety of the student participants. The three other three scales were given one
by one after the administering the new scale. The responses were analyzed for the total sample. The
instructions given to the students were the same as given in the pilot study. They were given
separately to clear any doubt , for each scale -

A survey research is being conducted on the problems of youth. You need not write your name in the
answer sheet if you do not wish to. Four sets of statements are being given to you, one by one. Take
your time in reading and understanding them. Please read the statements very carefully and then
indicate your answer sincerely, by putting a tick mark according to your personal feelings. No answer
is right or wrong. Do not leave any statement unanswered. Your answers will be kept strictly
confidential and used only for research purposes. Your cooperation will help in knowing your
problems.

From the data obtained from the students, the correlation of the scores of the three standard scales
with the constructed 50- item scale was calculated.

Step 10

Factor Analysis of 50- Item Scale

The factors analysis was done through SPSS. The no. of factors was calculated, after evaluating the
communalities, scree plot, the total variance explained table, un-rotated component matrix and the
rotated matrix.

Step 11

Dimensions identified

After the factor analysis, the construct anxiety and its dimensions were finally redefined
(operationally), according to the data of the final study. As a result, the no. of items in each
dimension were also identified.
 PHASE III (Quantitative Analysis)

The third phase of the study covered the third objective :

Objective 3. To standardize the Anxiety Scale for Undergraduate Students.

Step 12

Conversion of raw scores into z-scores

To standardize the Anxiety Scale, the scores obtained after the final administration of the scale, were
converted into z-scores, which are standard scores.

Step 13

Determination of Norms

After calculating the z-scores for all the raw scores, the range of z-scores were divided into three
levels, according to their corresponding raw scores. With these levels, the norms for the different
levels of anxiety were determined.

Step 14

Levels of Anxiety in the Sample

To calculate the levels of anxiety in the sample, the frequencies of each raw score were evaluated.
From this data, the number of undergraduate students having different levels of anxiety in the sample,
were tabulated.
 CHAPTER IV

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Result and Discussion

This chapter presents a detailed account, of the construction process. The results obtained from the
data in the three phases have been analyzed and interpreted, objective wise.

PHASE I (Qualitative Analysis)

The first phase of the study was qualitative in nature and was carried out in four steps. The steps
covered the first objective :

Objective 1. To develop an anxiety scale for undergraduate students.

Step 1

Exploring the views and understanding of undergraduate students, about anxiety.

In the first step, an open-ended questionnaire (refer Chpt.III, Pg.93), to obtain the views about
anxiety, of the students was framed. This was given to 210 (refer Chpt. III, Table 3.3, pg.93)
undergraduate students studying in the main campuses of SHIATS and A.U. The sample consisted of
100 students from SHIATS and 110 from A.U.

Step 2

Generating pool of Items

The data consisted of descriptive answers which were analyzed with the help of experts. During the
analysis it was felt by the researcher that indirect or hidden reference had been made to friendship
with the opposite sex, in ten response sheets. The identified responses were again given to the expert
panel. With their consent and consensus, these items were included. All the statements were written
down and coded. A 97 item pool was thus generated.

Step 3

Identifying Dimensions

Similar statements were grouped together. These groups of items were framed into dimensions or
factors, according to the theme or line of thought they represented.. All the statements that came
under one dimension, were the items under it. Dimensions that had less than 3 statements were
discarded. Dimensions were based on the theoretical perspective of the responses obtained by the
open–ended questionnaire.Thus, four dimensions were identified and defined as follows :-

1. Competitive Environment – means the anxiety due to the competition for jobs, career, studies,
rising population and increasing competitive environment.

2. Modern Societal Pressure – was the anxiety due to pressure of society in friendship with the
opposite sex, desire for modern luxuries, to be in fashion, about one’s appearance, of trying to do
multitasking ( many things at the same time).

3. Worry about the Future – was the anxiety due to being insecure about the future, future
outcome of events and the anxiety of being unsuccessful.

4. Psychological Manifestations – The resulting physical and mental manifestations of anxiety,

through psychological symptoms like anger, irritation, loneliness and purely physical symptoms like
crying, shouting and not sleeping.

On the basis of these dimensions (from the open-ended questionnaire), anxiety was defined as:
‘Anxiety is an unpleasant feeling, caused due to the competitive environment, modern societal
pressure, worry about the future , and the resultant psychological manifestations, in the
individual’.

From the 97 – item pool, the total number of items in the dimensions, were as follows :

Table 4.1 Items in each Dimension

Dimensions Items
1 Competitive Environment 24
2 Modern Societal Pressure 23
3 Worry about the Future 17
4 Psychological Manifestations 33
Total 97
Table 4.1 presents the number of items in each of the 4 dimensions : 24 items were framed under the
dimension - Competitive Environment. Modern Societal Pressure had 23 items, Worry about the
Future 17 items and 33 items were under the Psychological Manifestations dimension.
Each dimension had the following items or statements :

Table 4. 2 Items of Competitive Environment

Item Items
No.
1 I am worried that without source, I won’t get a job.
2 I am worried that I am unable to decide what to study.
3 I do not like being compared to my classmates.
4 I am not nervous about examinations.
5 The high cost of tuitions worries me.
6 My studies are a big burden for me.
7 I do not worry about getting a job.
8 I am very worried that jobs are less and jobseekers more.
9 I often suffer with a feeling of inferiority.
10 I am disturbed that my parents are against me.
11 I am in great anxiety when I get poor marks in a test.
12 Even after studying so hard, I feel all is useless.
13 I get irritated with my parents.
14 I am tense that there are differences between my parents and me.
15 I am unable to decide which subjects I should take.
16 The increasing number of competitions makes me nervous.
17 I worry that I am not able to take out proper time for study.
18 It disturbs me that my family does not appreciate my capabilities.
19 My parents’ desire to push me, gives me great pain.
20 Teachers’ behavior angers me.
21 I worry my parents do not have time for me.
22 My parents’ expectations give me strength.
23 I feel nervous in completing work fast.
24 I feel disturbed with others’ progress.
Table 4.2 presents the 24 items of the dimension – competitive environment. They include anxiety
about job, career, education, teachers, subjects, examination, parents, competitions and being
compared with others. There is worry about not getting sufficient time for completing work, non –
adjustment with parents, parent’s pushing children to fulfill their own desires, not recognizing their
capabilities and so on.

Table 4. 3 Items of Modern Societal Pressure

Item Items
No.
1 I worry about my appearance.
2 The desire to obtain everything fast, disturbs me.
3 I worry for money to buy costly gifts for my friend(opposite sex).
4 I fear my friend (opposite sex) on getting a good job might leave me.
5 I often feel like leaving everything and going far away.
6 I worry about looking smart.
7 Doing many things at the same time, makes me nervous.
8 I am worried I do not have costly things like my friends.
9 I am anxious to be in fashion.
10 Spending time with my friend(opposite sex),leaves my important tasks
incomplete.
11 I am disturbed my important work is postponed.
12 I worry that there is a lot of work and very less time.
13 I am anxious that I don’t have the latest mobile.
14 I worry about being a part of the cut-throat world..
15 Increasing expectations of my friend (opposite sex) worries me.
16 I am worried I am not able to adjust with my environment.
17 To reduce nervousness, I indulge in bad habits.
18 I yearn for luxuries.
19 I worry whether my family will accept my friend (opposite sex).
20 Any interference in my friendship with my friend (opposite sex) disturbs me.
21 I am disturbed if my friend (opposite sex) pays attention to someone else.
22 Not talking to my friend (opposite sex) for a long time makes me tense.
23 I fear that my friend (opposite sex) might deceive me.
Table 4.3 presents the 23 items of the second dimension – modern societal pressure. These items
show the students’ anxiety, regarding the pressure of modern society. Here the anxiety is about one’s
appearance, being smart, being in fashion, having all the modern luxuries, like the latest mobile and
costly things that friends have. Anxiety is also about getting all these amenities fast, showing lack of
patience. There is anxiety in another sphere – that of friendship with the opposite sex. This entails
anxiety for a variety of reasons – like increasing expectations of the friend and apprehension that the
friendship may terminate.

Table 4.4 Items of Worry about the Future

Item Items
No.
1 I often worry about the future.
2 I fear possible misfortunes.
3 I cannot put my mind to any work.
4 From where to get money for today’s costly living, worries me.
5 I fear I might remain unemployed.
6 I am in great anxiety that problems might never leave me.
7 I feel afraid I will be unsuccessful.
8 I feel nervous I might not be able to complete my work on time.
9 I worry that others might deceive me.
10 I have faith I will earn well.
11 I feel my future is not good.
12 I feel nervous in accepting any work that involves responsibility.
13 I know that my future is bright.
14 I do not worry what will happen in the future.
15 I worry whether I will get a good job even after studying so much.
16 I am worried I might not earn well in my job.
17 I am disturbed that others might make fun of me.
Table 4.4 presents the 17 items of the dimension – Worry about the Future . This anxiety is about the
future, apprehension of misfortunes, of being able to earn enough money, being unsuccessful,
completing work on time, being deceived, that problems will never disappear, getting a good job and
being made fun of.

Table 4.5 Items of Psychological Manifestations

Item Items
No.
1 I often feel suffocated.
2 I am often tense.
3 I hesitate in talking to strangers.
4 My important work is hindered because I think too much.
5 I often have negative thoughts.
6 Even small things make me cry.
7 I make friends easily.
8 I fear serious diseases.
9 Sometimes I feel like crying a lot.
10 Due to restlessness I cannot sit in one place.
11 I get angry soon.
12 I like being with people.
13 I am often disappointed with life.
14 I often bite my nails.
15 I feel that people do not like me.
16 I often do not like talking to others.
17 I feel that all are looking at me alone.
18 I am not able to share even small things with my friends.
19 I am always happy.
20 I am not able to sleep.
21 I feel like killing myself.
22 I feel that my life is useless.
23 I am easily hurt by others.
24 I feel alone in a crowd.
25 I shout at others.
26 I think positively.
27 I do not feel hungry..
28 I have an upset stomach.
29 Due to nervousness, my palms are wet in winters.
30 I get anxious unnecessarily.
 31 I feel others look down on me because I am useless.
32 I often like to remain alone.
33 I sleep well.
Table 4.5 presents 33 items of the dimension – psychological manifestations. This anxiety manifests
itself in physical manifestations like –crying, shouting, having an upset stomach, not sleeping
properly, feeling hungry, biting nails and having wet palms.

Psychological manifestations were – being tense, hesitating in talking to strangers, thinking too
much, having negative thoughts, thinking they were useless, wanting to remain alone, feeling alone
in a crowd, being more excited than required, being easily hurt by others, feeling life was useless,
being very restless and thinking people did not like them.

Step 4

Construction of Items

After the creation of the items and identification of the dimensions, the next step was to construct a
scale of these items. So, with the 97 items finally selected a 5-point Likert (1932) scale was created.
This scale had 11 negative statements. The scale of 97 Items was as follows:

Table 4.6 Anxiety Scale with Scoring Code and Negative items

A –Strongly Disagree, B – Disagree, C – Undecided, D – Agree, E-Strongly Agree

S.No Items A B C D E
1 I am worried that without source, I won’t get a job. 1 2 3 4 5
2 I often worry about the future. 1 2 3 4 5
3 I am worried that I am unable to decide what to study. 1 2 3 4 5
4 I often feel suffocated. 1 2 3 4 5
5 I fear possible misfortunes. 1 2 3 4 5
6 I am often tense. 1 2 3 4 5
7 I hesitate in talking to strangers. 1 2 3 4 5
8 I cannot put my mind to any work. 1 2 3 4 5
9 My important work is hindered because I think too much. 1 2 3 4 5
10 From where to get money for today’s costly living, worries me. 1 2 3 4 5
11 I worry about my appearance. 1 2 3 4 5
12 I often have negative thoughts. 1 2 3 4 5
13 The desire to obtain everything fast, disturbs me. 1 2 3 4 5
14 I feel alone in a crowd. 1 2 3 4 5
15 I do not like being compared to my classmates. 1 2 3 4 5
16 Even small things make me cry. 1 2 3 4 5
17 I am in great anxiety that problems might never leave me. 1 2 3 4 5
18* I am not nervous about examinations. 5 4 3 2 1
19 I worry for money to buy costly gifts for my friend(opposite 1 2 3 4 5
sex).
20 I am afraid I will be unsuccessful. 1 2 3 4 5
21* I make friends easily. 5 4 3 2 1
22 I fear serious diseases. 1 2 3 4 5
23 Sometimes I feel like crying a lot. 1 2 3 4 5
24 Due to restlessness I cannot sit in one place. 1 2 3 4 5
25 I get angry soon. 1 2 3 4 5
26 I feel nervous I might not be able to complete my work on time. 1 2 3 4 5
27* I like being with people. 5 4 3 2 1
28 I am often disappointed with life. 1 2 3 4 5
29 I fear my friend (opposite sex) on getting good job might leave 1 2 3 4 5
me.
30 The high cost of tuitions worries me. 1 2 3 4 5
31 My studies are a big burden for me. 1 2 3 4 5
32* I do not worry about getting a job. 5 4 3 2 1
33 I am worried jobs are less and jobseekers more. 1 2 3 4 5
34 I often suffer with a feeling of inferiority. 1 2 3 4 5
35 I am disturbed my parents are against me. 1 2 3 4 5
36 I often feel like leaving everything and going far away. 1 2 3 4 5
37 I worry about looking smart. 1 2 3 4 5
38 I fear others might deceive me. 1 2 3 4 5
39 Doing many things at the same time makes me nervous. 1 2 3 4 5
40 I am in great anxiety when I get poor marks in a test. 1 2 3 4 5
41 I often bite my nails. 1 2 3 4 5
42 Even after studying hard, I feel all is useless. 1 2 3 4 5
43 I get irritated with my parents. 1 2 3 4 5
44 I am worried I do not have costly things like my friends. 1 2 3 4 5
45 I feel others do not like me. 1 2 3 4 5
46 I often do not like talking to others. 1 2 3 4 5
47 I feel all are looking at me alone. 1 2 3 4 5
48 I am not able to share even small things with my friends. 1 2 3 4 5
49 I am anxious about differences between my parents and me. 1 2 3 4 5
50 I am unable to decide which subjects I should take. 1 2 3 4 5
51* I am always happy. 5 4 3 2 1
52 I am anxious to be in fashion. 1 2 3 4 5
53 I worry whether my family will accept my friend ( opposite sex ). 1 2 3 4 5
54 I am not able to sleep. 1 2 3 4 5
55 The increasing number of competitions makes me nervous. 1 2 3 4 5
56 Any interference in friendship with my friend ( opposite sex ) 1 2 3 4 5
disturbs me.
57* I have faith I will earn well. 5 4 3 2 1
58 Spending time with my friend (opposite sex),leaves my 1 2 3 4 5
important tasks incomplete.
59 I feel my future is not good. 1 2 3 4 5
60 I feel like killing myself. 1 2 3 4 5
61 I worry that I am not able to take out proper time for study. 1 2 3 4 5
62 It disturbs me that my family does not appreciate my capabilities. 1 2 3 4 5
63 I feel that my life is useless. 1 2 3 4 5
64 I am disturbed my important work is postponed. 1 2 3 4 5
65 My parents’ desire to push me, gives me great pain. 1 2 3 4 5
66 Teachers’ behavior angers me. 1 2 3 4 5
67 I worry my parents do not have time for me. 1 2 3 4 5
68 I worry if my friend ( opposite sex ) pays attention to others. 1 2 3 4 5
69 I feel nervous in accepting any work that involves responsibility. 1 2 3 4 5
70 I am easily hurt by others. 1 2 3 4 5
71 I fear I might remain unemployed. 1 2 3 4 5
 72* My parents’ expectations give me strength. 5 4 3 2 1
73 I worry there is a lot of work and very less time. 1 2 3 4 5
74 I am anxious that I don’t have the latest mobile. 1 2 3 4 5
75 I shout at others. 1 2 3 4 5
76* I think positively. 5 4 3 2 1
77 I worry about being a part of the cut-throat world.. 1 2 3 4 5
78 Increasing expectations of my friend (opposite sex) worries me. 1 2 3 4 5
79 I do not feel hungry. 1 2 3 4 5
80 I have an upset stomach. 1 2 3 4 5
81 Not talking to my friend (opposite sex ) for a long time makes 1 2 3 4 5
me tense.
82* I know that my future is bright. 5 4 3 2 1
83 Due to nervousness, my palms are wet in winters. 1 2 3 4 5
84 I fear my friend ( opposite sex ) might deceive me. 1 2 3 4 5
85 I feel nervous in completing work fast. 1 2 3 4 5
86 I am worried I am not able to adjust with my environment. 1 2 3 4 5
87* I do not worry what will happen in the future. 5 4 3 2 1
88 I worry whether I will get a good job even after studying so 1 2 3 4 5
much.
89 To reduce nervousness, I indulge in bad habits. 1 2 3 4 5
90 I am worried I might not earn well in my job. 1 2 3 4 5
91 I get anxious unnecessarily. 1 2 3 4 5
92 I feel others look down on me because I am useless. 1 2 3 4 5
93 I am disturbed that others might make fun of me. 1 2 3 4 5
94 I feel disturbed with others’ progress. 1 2 3 4 5
95 I yearn for luxuries. 1 2 3 4 5
96 I often like to remain alone. 1 2 3 4 5
97* I sleep well. 5 4 3 2 1
The findings of table 4.6 present the 97 item anxiety scale, with scoring code and the negative items.
The negative items were scored in the reverse.

*Negative items were : 18,21,27,32,51,57,72,76, 82,87 and 97 = 11

PHASE II (Quantitative Analysis)

Phase II, of the study was quantitative in nature. It was carried out in two stages:

 In Stage 1 the 97- item anxiety scale data was analyzed. It had two steps.

 In Stage 2 the 50- item (remaining after Stage I) anxiety scale data, was analyzed. It had
five steps.

The two stages, covered the second objective :

Objective 2. To find out the reliability and validity of the anxiety scale for undergraduate
students.

STAGE 1

Analysis of 97-Item Anxiety Scale

After the framing of the anxiety scale, it was administered to 203 (refer Chpt. III, Table 3.4, pg. 96
) undergraduate students of SHIATS and A.U. The data obtained was evaluated for the psychometric
properties of the constructed scale.

Step 5

Item analysis of 97 item scale :

 Descriptives

 Item Discimination Index :

 Item Total Correlation

Difficulty Index was not considered as this was an anxiety scale.

Firstly, the descriptives of the 97 – item scale were evaluated through SPSS.

Table 4.7 Descriptives

Items Mean S.D.

1 I am worried that without source, I won’t get a job. 1 2.1823 1.18626
2 I often worry about the future. 2.2562 1.07326
3 I am worried that I am unable to decide what to study. 2.5369 1.16991
4 I often feel suffocated. 2 1.0768 0.92255
5 I fear possible misfortunes. 2.4877 1.19139
6 I am often tense. 2.4384 1.11688
7 I hesitate in talking to strangers. 2.6700 1.27599
8 I can put my mind to any work. 3 1.0400 0.98458
9 My important work is hindered because I think too 2.2956 1.10373
much.
10 From where to get money for today’s costly living, 2.7537 1.32322
worries me.
11 I worry about my appearance. 3.3005 1.31381
12 I often have negative thoughts. 4 2.1084 1.06151
13 The desire to obtain everything fast, disturbs me. 2.5320 1.29840
14 I feel alone in a crowd. 2.2414 1.07899
15 I do not like being compared to my classmates. 2.2906 1.03850
16 Even small things make me cry. 2.2808 1.15826
17 I am in great anxiety that problems might never leave 2.9409 1.39179
me.
18 I am not nervous about examinations. 5 1.6697 0.96331
19 I worry for money to buy costly gifts for my friend 6 1.7438 1.02809
(opposite sex).
20 I am afraid I will be unsuccessful. 2.7586 1.27266
21 I make friends easily. 2.2906 1.04799
22 I fear serious diseases. 2.5271 1.27931
23 Sometimes I feel like crying a lot. 2.3448 1.13857
24 Due to restlessness I cannot sit in one place. 7 2.1527 1.10416
25 I get angry soon. 3.0197 1.32366
26 I feel nervous I might not be able to complete my work 2.6847 1.31598
on time.
27 I like being with people. 8 1.5123 0.72663
28 I am often disappointed with life. 9 1.9507 1.06592
29 I fear my friend(opposite sex) on getting a good job 10 1.7094 0.91598
might leave me.
30 The high cost of tuitions worries me. 2.3005 1.13598
31 My studies are a big burden for me. 2.5419 1.23159
32 I do not worry about getting a job. 3.6995 1.22408
33 I am worried jobs are less and jobseekers more. 3.1921 1.34147
34 I am often suffer with a feeling of inferiority. 11 1.9852 1.01707
35 I am disturbed my parents are against me. 12 1.5911 0.63294
36 I often feel like leaving everything and going far away. 2.8424 1.32186
37 I worry about looking smart. 2.2660 1.17658
38 I fear others might deceive me. 2.6108 1.22324
39 Doing many things at the same time makes me nervous. 2.3448 1.21023
40 I am in great anxiety when I get poor marks in a test. 2.3596 1.17892
41 I often bite my nails. 13 1.8674 1.19582
42 Even after studying hard, I feel all is useless. 14 1.0468 1.03025
43 I get irritated with my parents. 15 2.1823 1.16045
44 I am worried I do not have costly things like my friends. 16 1.6946 0.82025
45 I feel others do not like me. 3.2365 1.36188
46 I often do not like talking to others. 2.2709 1.17755
47 I feel all are looking at me alone. 2.2857 1.14630
48 I am not able to share even small things with my friends. 2.9606 1.39604
49 I am anxious about differences between my parents and 3.1626 1.30049
me.
50 I am unable to decide which subjects I should take. 2.3498 1.06745
51 I am always happy. 2.6749 1.17848
52 I am anxious to be in fashion. 17 2.1011 1.22103
53 I worry whether my family will accept my friend 2.3842 1.32387
(opposite sex ).
54 I am not able to sleep. 2.4039 1.22853
55 The increasing number of competitions makes me 2.3596 1.31396
nervous.
56 Any interference in my friendship with my friend 2.7389 1.41275
(opposite sex ) disturbs me.
57 I have faith I will earn well. 18 1.7031 1.11983

58 Spending time with my friend(opposite sex),leaves my 19 2.1724 1.14981

 important tasks incomplete.
59 I feel my future is not good. 20 1.9212 1.10072
60 I feel like killing myself. 21 1.5419 0.86858
61 I worry that I am not able to take out proper time for 2.7635 1.28327
study.
62 It disturbs me that my family does not appreciate my 22 1.8818 0.98785
capabilities.
63 I feel that my life is useless. 23 1.5419 0.85710
64 I am disturbed my important work is postponed. 2.4877 1.21606
65 My parents’ desire to push me, gives me great pain. 2.3103 1.18874
66 Teachers’ behavior angers me. 24 2.1281 1.08698
67 I worry my parents do not have time for me. 2.6059 1.24772
68 I worry if my friend ( opposite sex ) pays attention to 2.5222 1.29096
others.
69 I feel nervous in accepting any work that involves 25 2.0836 1.05592
responsibility.
70 I am easily hurt by others. 2.5369 1.27130
71 I fear I might remain unemployed. 26 2.2709 1.11270
72 My parents’ expectations give me strength. 27 2.0594 1.27289
73 I worry there is a lot of work and very less time. 2.4039 1.18338
74 I am anxious that I don’t have the latest mobile. 28 2.0690 1.22481
75 I shout at others. 3.1478 1.29272
76 I think positively. 29 1.7488 0.02326
77 I worry about being a part of the cut-throat world.. 30 2.1724 1.28002
78 Increasing expectations of my friend(opposite sex) 31 2.2404 1.33266
worries me.
79 I do not feel hungry. 2.6995 1.37637
80 I have an upset stomach. 32 1.9015 1.11255

81 Not talking to my friend (opposite sex ) for a long time 2.7931 1.32626
makes me tense.
82 I know that my future is bright. 33 2.0542 1.20725
83 Due to nervousness, my palms are wet in winters. 34 2.0690 1.29934
 84 I fear my friend ( opposite sex ) might deceive me. 3.3744 1.31546
85 I feel nervous in completing work fast. 35 2.1040 1.09911
86 I am worried I am not able to adjust with my 2.3596 1.18311
environment.
87 I do not worry what will happen in the future. 2.6059 1.28678
88 I worry whether I will get a good job even after studying 2.8424 1.29155
so much.
89 To reduce nervousness, I indulge in bad habits. 36 1.7438 1.09608
90 I am worried I might not earn well in my job. 2.3547 1.14853
91 I get anxious unnecessarily. 3.2118 1.29716
92 I feel others look down on me because I am useless. 37 1.7389 0.99423
93 I am disturbed that others might make fun of me. 2.7291 1.34256
94 I feel disturbed with others’ progress. 38 1.4483 0.62222
95 I yearn for luxuries. 2.4039 1.36592
96 I often like to remain alone. 2.4039 1.24182
97 I sleep well. 39 2.1921 1.24182
The findings of Table 4.7 present that the items whose mean value was less than 2.2 or above 4.0 or
S.D. was less than 1were left out. These items’ discriminating value was less. Since there was no
variation , these items would not be appropriate for measuring anxiety. The extreme cases were also
left out, as these were the answers that were the same. The items thus removed were:

1,4,8,9,12,14,18,19,24,27,28,29,34,35,41,42,43,44,52,57,58,59,60,62,63,66,69,71,72,74,76,77,
78,80,82,83,85,89,92,94,97 = 39

Items that were left after this analysis were:- 97 – 39 = 58.

Table 4.8 Anxiety Scale of 58 Items

Old Items
S.No.
2 I often worry about the future. 1
3 I am worried that I am unable to decide what to study. 2
5 I fear possible misfortunes. 3
6 I am often tense. 4
7 I hesitate in talking to strangers. 5
9 My important work is hindered because I think too much. 6
10 From where to get money for today’s costly living, worries me. 7
11 I worry about my appearance. 8
13 The desire to obtain everything fast, disturbs me. 9
14 I feel alone in a crowd. 10
15 I do not like being compared to my classmates. 11
16 Even small things make me cry. 12
17 I am in great anxiety that problems might never leave me. 13
20 I am afraid I will be unsuccessful. 14
21 I make friends easily. 15
22 I fear serious diseases. 16
23 Sometimes I feel like crying a lot. 17
25 I get angry soon. 18
26 I feel nervous I might not be able to complete my work on time. 19
30 The high cost of tuitions worries me. 20
31 My studies are a big burden for me. 21
32 I do not worry about getting a job. 22
33 I am worried jobs are less and jobseekers more. 23
36 I often feel like leaving everything and going far away. 24
37 I worry about looking smart. 25
38 I fear others might deceive me. 26
39 Doing many things at the same time makes me nervous. 27
40 I am in great anxiety when I get poor marks in a test. 28
45 I feel others do not like me. 29
46 I often do not like talking to others. 30
47 I feel all are looking at me alone. 31
48 I am not able to share even small things with my friends. 32
49 I am anxious about differences between my parents and me. 33
50 I am unable to decide which subjects I should take. 34
51 I am always happy. 35
53 I worry whether my family will accept my friend (opposite sex). 36
54 I am not able to sleep. 37
 55 The increasing number of competitions makes me nervous. 38
56 Any interference in friendship with my friend (opposite sex) disturbs me. 39
61 I worry that I am not able to take out proper time for study. 40
64 I am disturbed my important work is postponed. 41
65 My parents’ desire to push me, gives me great pain. 42
67 I worry my parents do not have time for me. 43
68 I worry if my friend (opposite sex) pays attention to someone else. 44
70 I am easily hurt by others. 45
73 I worry there is a lot of work and very less time. 46
75 I shout at others. 47
79 I do not feel hungry.. 48
81 Not talking to my friend (opposite sex ) for a long time makes me tense. 49
84 I fear my friend ( opposite sex ) might deceive me. 50
86 I am worried I am not able to adjust with my environment. 51
87 I do not worry what will happen in the future. 52
88 I worry whether I will get a good job even after studying so much. 53
90 I am worried I might not earn well in my job. 54
91 I get anxious unnecessarily. 55
93 I am disturbed that others might make fun of me. 56
95 I yearn for luxuries. 57
96 I often like to remain alone. 58
The findings of Table 4.8 present the 58 items that were left, after the analysis of the descriptives.

Along with the data, the students’ feedback was that some items were repetitive. So the scale of 58
items, was reviewed by experts. With their consent and consensus, four pairs of items were
identified, that were perceived to be repetitive by the students. The repetitive items were as follows:

Table 4.9 Repetitive Items

Items
9 My important work is hindered because I think too much.*
64 I am disturbed my important work is postponed.*
11 I worry about my appearance. #
37 I worry about looking smart. #
16 Even small things make me cry. +
23 Sometimes I feel like crying a lot. +
14 I feel alone in a crowd.~
96 I often like to remain alone.~
The findings of Table 4.9 present the four pairs of items that were perceived to be repetitive and the
four items that were removed. This was done with the consent and consensus of the experts. The
items removed were: 9, 14,23 and 37. Now the remaining items were: 58 – 4 = 54.

Table 4.10 Anxiety Scale of 54 items

Old Items
S.No.
2 I often worry about the future. 1
3 I am worried that I am unable to decide what to study. 2
5 I fear possible misfortunes. 3
6 I am often tense. 4
7 I hesitate in talking to strangers. 5
10 From where to get money for today’s costly living, worries me. 6
11 I worry about my appearance. 7
13 The desire to obtain everything fast, disturbs me. 8
15 I do not like being compared to my classmates. 9
16 Even small things make me cry. 10
17 I am in great anxiety that problems might never leave me. 11
20 I am afraid I will be unsuccessful. 12
21 I make friends easily. 13
22 I fear serious diseases. 14
25 I get angry soon. 15
26 I feel nervous I might not be able to complete my work on time. 16
30 The high cost of tuitions worries me. 17
31 My studies are a big burden for me. 18
32 I do not worry about getting a job. 19
33 I am worried jobs are less and jobseekers more. 20
36 I often feel like leaving everything and going far away. 21
38 I fear others might deceive me. 22
39 Doing many things at the same time makes me nervous. 23
40 I am in great anxiety when I get poor marks in a test. 24
45 I feel others do not like me. 25
46 I often do not like talking to others. 26
47 I feel all are looking at me alone. 27
48 I am not able to share even small things with my friends. 28
49 I am anxious about differences between my parents and me. 29
50 I am unable to decide which subjects I should take. 30
51 I am always happy. 31
53 I worry whether my family will accept my friend (opposite sex). 32
54 I am not able to sleep. 33
55 The increasing number of competitions makes me nervous. 34
56 Any interference in my friendship with my friend(opposite sex) disturbs me. 35
61 I worry that I am not able to take out proper time for study. 36
64 I am disturbed my important work is postponed. 37
65 My parents’ desire to push me, gives me great pain. 38
67 I worry my parents do not have time for me. 39
68 I worry if my friend ( opposite sex ) pays attention to someone else. 40
70 I am easily hurt by others. 41
73 I worry there is a lot of work and very less time. 42
75 I shout at others. 43
79 I do not feel hungry.. 44
81 Not talking to my friend (opposite sex ) for a long time makes me tense. 45
84 I fear my friend ( opposite sex ) might deceive me. 46
86 I am worried I am not able to adjust with my environment. 47
87 I do not worry what will happen in the future. 48
88 I worry whether I will get a good job even after studying so much. 49
90 I am worried I might not earn well in my job. 50
91 I get anxious unnecessarily. 51
93 I am disturbed that others might make fun of me. 52
95 I yearn for luxuries. 53
96 I often like to remain alone. 54
The findings of table 4.10 present the 54 items that were left after removing the 4 perceived
repetitive items.

Index of Discrimination

The index of discrimination was now calculated for further item analysis. This was done in two ways
: a test of significance between two proportions :- 27% higher and 27% lower groups and item total
correlation.

For the test of significance, two groups of data were formed. One for data (scores) below 123.00 and
the other for data (scores) above 161.92, i.e 27% lower and 27% higher, respectively, as follows :

Table 4.11 Quartile Group

N Valid 203

Missing 0
Percentiles 25 1.2200E2
27 1.2300E2
50 1.4400E2
73 1.6192E2
75 1.6200E2
The findings of Table 4.11 present the two groups i.e. below 123.00 score as Lower Group (27%
lower) and above 161.92 score as Higher Group (27 % higher).The data of these items was
considered for this analysis, as they showed the most variation.

The data analysis of the test of significance was as follows:

Table 4 .12 Item Discrimination Index

Items Quartile Mean t df Sig.(2-

Group tailed)
2 I often worry about 1 Lower group 1.6786 -5.253 109 0.0001
the future. 123 2.8727
Higher group
161.9
3 I am worried that I 2 Lower group 1.6429 -8.323 109 0.0001
am unable to 123 3.0364
decide what to Higher group
study. 161.9
5 I fear possible 3 Lower group 1.9464 -6.682 109 0.0001
misfortunes. 123 3.1636
Higher group
161.9
6 I am often tense. 4 Lower group 2.0357 -3.812 109 0.0001
123 2.8364
Higher group
161.9
7 I hesitate in talking 5 Lower group 1.8929 -5.347 109 0.0001
to strangers. 123 2.9636
Higher group
161.9
10 From where to get 6 Lower group 1.9821 -5.089 109 0.0001
money for today’s 123 3.1091
costly living, Higher group
worries me. 161.9
11 I worry about my 7 Lower group 2.1071 -4.762 109 0.0001
appearance. 123 3.1636
Higher group
161.9
13 The desire to 8 Lower group 2.3036 -10.349 109 0.0001
obtain everything 123 4.3091
fast, disturbs me. Higher group
161.9
15 I do not like being 9 Lower group 1.9286 -6.339 109 0.0001
 compared to my 123 3.3091
classmates. Higher group
161.9
16 Even small things 10 Lower group 1.7321 -6.632 109 0.0001
make me cry. 123 2.8909
Higher group
161.9
17 I am in great 11 Lower group 1.5357 -7.538 109 0.0001
anxiety that 123 3.0364
problems might Higher group
never leave me. 161.9
20 I am afraid I will 12 Lower group 2.1429 -5.679 109 0.0001
be unsuccessful. 123 3.5455
Higher group
161.9
21 I make friends 13 Lower group 3.1250 1.371 109 .173
easily. 123 2.7818 .173
Higher group
161.9
22 I fear serious 14 Lower group 1.7857 -5.241 109 0.0001
diseases. 123 2.6909
Higher group
161.9
25 I get angry soon. 15 Lower group 1.9643 -7.890 109 0.0001
123 3.9091
Higher group
161.9
26 I feel nervous I 16 Lower group 1.9821 -10.365 109 0.0001
might not be able 123 3.4182
to complete my Higher group
work on time. 161.9
30 The high cost of 17 Lower group 1.6607 -6.357 109 0.0001
tuitions worries 123 3.0909
 me. Higher group
161.9
31 My studies are a 18 Lower group 1.7500 -7.485 109 0.0001
big burden for me. 123 3.1818
Higher group
161.9
32 I do not worry 19 Lower group 3.8036 -1.231 109 .221
about getting a job. 123 4.0727 .221
Higher group
161.9
33 I am worried jobs 20 Lower group 2.4107 -8.041 109 0.0001
are less and 123 4.0545
jobseekers more. Higher group
161.9
36 I often feel like 21 Lower group 1.9286 -9.127 109 0.0001
leaving everything 123 3.6545
and going far away. Higher group
161.9
38 I fear others might 22 Lower group 2.0357 8.678 109 0.0001
deceive me. 123 3.1818
Higher group
161.9
39 Doing many things 23 Lower group 1.5536 -5.484 109 0.0001
at the same time 123 3.1091
makes me nervous. Higher group
161.9
40 I am in great 24 Lower group 1.7500 7.622 109 0.0001
anxiety when I get 123 3.1636
poor marks in a Higher group
test. 161.9
45 I feel others do not 25 Lower group 2.3036 7.622 109 0.0001
like me. 123 4.0000
Higher group
 161.9
46 I often do not like 26 Lower group 1.8036 5.250 109 0.0001
talking to others. 123 2.9273
Higher group
161.9
47 I feel all are 27 Lower group 1.7500 7.418 109 0.0001
looking at me 123 3.1818
alone. Higher group
161.9
48 I am not able to 28 Lower group 2.2321 6.619 109 0.0001
share even small 123 3.7636
things with my Higher group
friends. 161.9
49 I am anxious about 29 Lower group 3.6429 3.359 109 0.0001
differences 123 2.8364
between my Higher group
parents and me. 161.9
50 I am unable to 30 Lower group 1.8571 5.079 109 0.0001
decide which 123 2.7818
subjects I should Higher group
take. 161.9
51 I am always happy. 31 Lower group 2.7857 0.524 109 .602
123 2.9091 .602
Higher group
161.9
53 I worry whether 32 Lower group 1.8036 5.126 109 0.0001
my family will 123 2.9818
accept my friend ( Higher group
opposite sex ). 161.9
54 I am not able to 33 Lower group 1.6786 8.795 109 0.0001
sleep. 123 3.3455
Higher group
161.9
55 The increasing 34 Lower group 1.5357 6.828 109 0.0001
number of 123 2.9273
competitions Higher group
makes me nervous. 161.9
56 Any interference in 35 Lower group 2.1607 4.650 109 0.0001
my friendship with 123 3.3818
my friend(opposite Higher group
sex) disturbs me. 161.9
61 I worry that I am 36 Lower group 2.1250 6.695 109 0.0001
not able to take out 123 3.5636
proper time for Higher group
study. 161.9
64 I am disturbed my 37 Lower group 1.8214 6.781 109 0.0001
important work is 123 3.2000
postponed. Higher group
161.9
65 My parents’ desire 38 Lower group 1.6071 6.250 109 0.0001
to push me, gives 123 2.8182
me great pain. Higher group
161.9
67 I worry my parents 39 Lower group 1.6786 7.121 109 0.0001
do not have time 123 3.0727
for me. Higher group
161.9
68 I worry if my 40 Lower group 1.9821 5.066 109 0.0001
friend ( opposite 123 3.1636
sex ) pays attention Higher group
to someone else. 161.9
70 I am easily hurt by 41 Lower group 1.9821 4.001 109 0.0001
others. 123 2.8545
Higher group
161.9
73 I worry there is a 42 Lower group 1.6964 6.715 109 0.0001
 lot of work and 123 2.9819
very less time. Higher group
161.9
75 I shout at others. 43 Lower group 2.0536 11.250 109 0.0001
123 4.0545
Higher group
161.9
79 I do not feel 44 Lower group 1.4646 7.409 109 0.0001
hungry. 123 3.0000
Higher group
161.9
81 Not talking to my 45 Lower group 1.7679 7.246 109 0.0001
friend (opposite sex 123 3.327
) for a long time Higher group
makes me tense. 161.9
84 I fear my friend 46 Lower group 1.7857 7.076 109 0.0001
(opposite sex ) 123 3.3273
might deceive me. Higher group
161.9
86 I am worried I am 47 Lower group 2.1964 4.605 109 0.0001
not able to adjust 123 3.3091
with my Higher group
environment. 161.9
87 I do not worry what 48 Lower group 3.5714 0.740 109 .461
will happen in the 123 3.3818 .461
future. Higher group
161.9
88 I worry whether I 49 Lower group 1.5536 9.229 109 0.0001
will get a good job 123 3.2909
even after studying Higher group
so much. 161.9
90 I am worried I 50 Lower group 1.8571 7.148 109 0.0001
might not earn well 123 3.4182
 in my job. Higher group
161.9
91 I get anxious 51 Lower group 1.8571 3.919 109 0.0001
unnecessarily. 123 2.6364
Higher group
161.9
93 I am disturbed that 52 Lower group 2.4464 6.777 109 0.0001
others might make 123 3.8727
fun of me. Higher group
161.9
95 I yearn for luxuries. 53 Lower group 1.9286 6.795 109 0.0001
123 3.5273
Higher group
161.9
96 I often like to 54 Lower group 1.5357 7.465 109 0.0001
remain alone. 123 3.2545
Higher group
161.9
The findings of Table 4.12 present that on the basis of the t-test, 4 more items were removed as they
were not significant at the 0.01 level. In other words, these were the items that were not
significantly related to the other items and were not therefore measuring the dimensions framed, of
the construct – anxiety. They were items 21, 32, 51 and 87. The scale after the test of significance
was 54 – 4 = 50 items.

It was also seen that with this statistical analysis, all the negative statements/ items were also
removed. This was also the case with Sinha’s W-A Self- analysis form (scale).It is reported in the
scale’s manual, that the final scale consisted of all positive items, as all the negative items were
removed on data analysis (Sinha,1968 Pg.4).

The 50 item scale was also analyzed to calculate the correlation, by Pearson Correlation (1895).
Correlation is a measure of the extent to which two variables tend to vary together. Correlations are
measured as a coefficient (usually denoted as r) on a scale of +1 to -1, 'positive' if above zero,
'negative' if below. If two measures correlate very close to +1 (e.g. 0.97, a strong positive correlation)
we can assume that each measure is measuring the same thing, in this case anxiety. If the correlation
coefficient is nearer to -1 then we have two inversely related variables (a negative correlation).For
further item analysis, therefore, correlation of all the items was calculated as follows :

Table 4.13 Total Item Correlation

Items Total
2 Pearson Correlation I often worry about the future. 1 0.437**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
3 Pearson Correlation I am worried that I am unable to decide what to study. 2 0.554**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
5 Pearson Correlation I fear possible misfortunes. 3 0.360**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
6 Pearson Correlation I am often tense. 4 0.310**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
7 Pearson Correlation I hesitate in talking to strangers. 5 0.390**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
10 Pearson Correlation From where to get money for today’s costly living, 6 0.363**
Sig.(2-tailed) worries me. 0.0001
11 Pearson Correlation I worry about my appearance. 7 0.311**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
13 Pearson Correlation The desire to obtain everything fast, disturbs me. 8 0.548**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
15 Pearson Correlation I do not like being compared to my classmates. 9 0.478**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
16 Pearson Correlation Even small things make me cry. 10 0.499**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
17 Pearson Correlation I am in great anxiety that problems might never leave 11 0.483**
Sig.(2-tailed) me. 0.0001
20 Pearson Correlation I am afraid I will be unsuccessful. 12 0.401**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
22 Pearson Correlation I fear serious diseases. 13 0.401**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
25 Pearson Correlation I get angry soon. 14 0.577**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
26 Pearson Correlation I feel nervous I might not be able to complete my 15 0.462**
Sig.(2-tailed) work on time. 0.0001
30 Pearson Correlation The high cost of tuitions worries me. 16 0.517**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
31 Pearson Correlation My studies are a big burden for me. 17 0.483**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
33 Pearson Correlation I am worried jobs are less and jobseekers more. 18 0.433**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
36 Pearson Correlation I often feel like leaving everything and going far 19 0.481**
Sig.(2-tailed) away. 0.0001
38 Pearson Correlation I fear others might deceive me. 20 0.408**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
39 Pearson Correlation Doing many things at the same time makes me 21 0.548**
Sig.(2-tailed) nervous. 0.0001
40 Pearson Correlation I am in great anxiety when I get poor marks in a test. 22 0.472**
Sig.(2-tailed) .000
45 Pearson Correlation I feel others do not like me. 23 0.513**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
46 Pearson Correlation I often do not like talking to others. 24 0.382**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
47 Pearson Correlation I feel all are looking at me alone. 25 0.506**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
48 Pearson Correlation I am not able to share even small things with my 26 0.487**
Sig.(2-tailed) friends. 0.0001
49 Pearson Correlation I am anxious about differences between my parents 27 0.244**
Sig.(2-tailed) and me. 0.0001
50 Pearson Correlation I am unable to decide which subjects I should take. 28 0.389**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
53 Pearson Correlation I worry whether my family will accept my friend ( 29 0.365**
Sig.(2-tailed) opposite sex ). 0.0001
54 Pearson Correlation I am not able to sleep. 30 0.551**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
55 Pearson Correlation The increasing number of competitions makes me 31 0.452**
 Sig.(2-tailed) nervous. 0.0001
56 Pearson Correlation Any interference in my friendship with my 32 0.341**
Sig.(2-tailed) friend(opposite sex) disturbs me. 0.0001
61 Pearson Correlation I worry that I am not able to take out proper time for 33 0.470**
Sig.(2-tailed) study. 0.0001
64 Pearson Correlation I am disturbed my important work is postponed. 34 0.477**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
65 Pearson Correlation My parents’ desire to push me, gives me great pain. 35 0.390**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
67 Pearson Correlation I worry my parents do not have time for me. 36 0.470**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
68 Pearson Correlation I worry if my friend ( opposite sex ) pays attention to 37 0.332**
Sig.(2-tailed) someone else. 0.0001
70 Pearson Correlation I worry there is a lot of work and very less time. 38 0.305**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
73 Pearson Correlation I shout at others. 39 0.414**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
75 Pearson Correlation I do not feel hungry.. 40 0.611**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
79 Pearson Correlation Not talking to my friend (opposite sex ) for a long 41 0.474**
Sig.(2-tailed) time makes me tense. 0.0001
81 Pearson Correlation I fear my friend ( opposite sex ) might deceive me. 42 0.482**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
84 Pearson Correlation I am worried I am not able to adjust with my 43 0.428**
Sig.(2-tailed) environment. 0.0001
86 Pearson Correlation I do not worry what will happen in the future. 44 0.371**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
88 Pearson Correlation I am worried I might not earn well in my job. 45 0.569**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
90 Pearson Correlation I get anxious unnecessarily. 46 0.497**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
91 Pearson Correlation I am disturbed that others might make fun of me. 47 0.304**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
93 Pearson Correlation I yearn for luxuries. 48 0.401**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
95 Pearson Correlation I often like to remain alone. 49 0.498**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
96 Pearson Correlation I worry there is a lot of work and very less time. 50 0.497**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001
The findings of Table 4.13 present that ** correlation was high and significant, at the 0.01 level. So
all the items were retained, as they were all correlated.

After the item analysis, the remaining 50 item anxiety scale was as follows :

Table 4.14 Remaining 50 Items Scale after the Item Analysis

Old S.No Items .

2 I worry about the future. 1
3 I am worried that I am unable to decide what to study. 2
5 I fear possible misfortunes. 3
6 I am often tense. 4
7 I hesitate in talking to strangers. 5
10 From where to get money for today’s costly living, worries me. 6
11 I worry about my appearance. 7
13 The desire to obtain everything fast, disturbs me. 8
15 I do not like being compared to my classmates. 9
16 Even small things make me cry. 10
17 I am in anxiety that problems might never leave me. 11
20 I feel afraid I will be unsuccessful. 12
22 I fear serious diseases. 13
25 I get angry soon. 14
26 I feel nervous I might not be able to complete my work on time. 15
30 The high cost of coaching worries me a lot. 16
31 My studies are a big burden for me. 17
33 I am worried that jobs are less and jobseekers more. 18
36 I feel like leaving everything and going far away. 19
38 I worry that others might deceive me. 20
39 Doing many things at the same time, makes me nervous. 21
40 I am in anxiety when I get poor marks in a test. 22
45 I feel that people do not like me. 23
46 I do not like talking to others. 24
47 I feel that all are looking at me alone. 25
48 I am not able to share even small things with my friends. 26
49 I am tense that there are differences between my parents and me. 27
50 I am unable to decide which subjects I should take. 28
53 I worry whether my family will accept my friend (opposite sex). 29
54 I am not able to sleep. 30
55 The increasing number of competitions makes me nervous. 31
56 Any interference in my friendship with my friend (opposite sex) disturbs me. 32
61 I worry that I am not able to take out proper time for study. 33
64 I am disturbed that my important work is postponed. 34
65 My parents’ desire to push me, gives me great pain. 35
67 I worry my parents do not have time for me. 36
68 I am disturbed if my friend (opposite sex) pays attention to someone else. 37
70 I am easily hurt by others. 38
73 I worry that there is a lot of work and very less time. 39
75 I shout at others. 40
79 I do not feel hungry.. 41
81 Not talking to my friend (opposite sex) for a long time makes me tense. 42
84 I fear that my friend (opposite sex) might deceive me. 43
86 I am worried I am not able to adjust with my environment. 44
88 I worry whether I will get a good job even after studying so much. 45
90 I am worried I might not earn well in my job. 46
91 I get anxious unnecessarily. 47
93 I am disturbed that others might make fun of me. 48
95 I yearn for luxuries. 49
96 I like to remain alone. 50
Table 4.14 presents the 50 – item scale after the item analysis.

Step 6
Reliability of the remaining (50-item) anxiety scale :

 Cronbach’s Alpha (1951)

 Split -Half

In statistical terms, reliability is the extent to which a test produces consistent results when the same
person is measured several times. So, after reducing the 97 – item scale to a 50 – item scale (through
item analysis), the reliability of this scale was now was calculated through Cronbach’s Alpha (1951)
and the Split – Half Coefficient. These are measures that help to measure the internal consistency or
homogeneity of the test.

Table: 4.15 Cronbach’s Alpha & Split – Half Coefficient

Cronbach’s Alpha Part 1 Value 0.835

No. of Items 25a
Part 2 Value 0.860
No. of Items 25b
Total N of Items 50
Split – Half Coefficient 0.940
Cronbach’s Alpha 0.900
The findings of Table 4.15 present the value of Split- Half Coefficient being 0.940. Cronbach’s Alpha
for each half was: Part 1 = 0.835, Part 2 = 0.860. The value of overall Cronbach’s Alpha was 0.900.
All the values were high, showing that reliability of the scale is high.

Nunnally (1970, 1978), also provided a widely accepted rule of thumb that alpha should be at least .7
for a scale to demonstrate internal consistency. (Spector pg.32,1992).

After the item analysis and reliability of the scale of the 97 item scale, the total number of items in
the dimensions of the remaining 50 item scale were :

Table : 4.16 Total No. of Items in Dimensions

Dimensions
1 Competitive Environment 12
2 Modern Societal Pressure 13
3 Worry about the Future 10
4 Psychological Manifestations 15
 Total 50
Table 4.16 presents that in the remaining 50 item scale, there were 12 items of competitive
environment, 13 items of modern societal pressure, 10 of Worry about the Future and 15 of
psychological manifestations.

At the end of the analysis of the preliminary anxiety scale, the dimension of each item of the
remaining 50 item scale (according to the theoretical perspective of the data of the open-ended
questionnaire), was as follows:

Table 4.17 Dimension of each item (remaining 50 item scale)

S.No Items Factors

1 worry about the future. 3 Worry about the Future
2 I am worried that I am unable to decide what 1 Competitive Environment
to study.
3 I fear possible misfortunes. 3 Worry about the Future
4 I am often tense. 4 Psychological Manifestations
5 I hesitate in talking to strangers. 4 Psychological Manifestations
6 From where to get money for today’s costly 3 Worry about the Future
living, worries me.
7 I worry about my appearance. 2 Modern Societal Pressure
8 The desire to obtain everything fast, disturbs 2 Modern Societal Pressure
me.
9 I do not like being compared to my 1 Competitive Environment
classmates.
10 Even small things make me cry. 4 Psychological Manifestations
11 I am in anxiety that problems might never 3 Worry about the Future
leave me.
12 I feel afraid I will be unsuccessful. 3 Worry about the Future
13 I fear serious diseases. 4 Psychological Manifestations
14 I get angry soon. 4 Psychological Manifestations
15 I feel nervous I might not be able to complete 3 Worry about the Future
my work on time.
16 The high cost of coaching and worries me a 1 Competitive Environment
 lot.
17 My studies are a big burden for me. 1 Competitive Environment
18 I am worried that jobs are less and jobseekers 1 Competitive Environment
more.
19 I feel like leaving everything and going far 2 Modern Societal Pressure
away.
21 Doing many things at the same time, makes 2 Modern Societal Pressure
me nervous.
22 I am in anxiety when I get poor marks in a 1 Competitive Environment
test.
23 I feel that people do not like me. 4 Psychological Manifestations
24 I often do not like talking to others. 4 Psychological Manifestations
25 I feel that all are looking at me alone. 4 Psychological Manifestations
26 I am not able to share even small things with 4 Psychological Manifestations
my friends.
27 I am tense that there are differences between 1 Competitive Environment
my parents and me.
28 I am unable to decide which subjects I should 1 Competitive Environment
take.
29 I worry whether my family will accept my 2 Modern Societal Pressure
friend(opposite sex).
30 I am not able to sleep. 4 Psychological Manifestations
31 The increasing number of competitions makes 1 Competitive Environment
me nervous.
32 Any interference in my friendship with my 2 Modern Societal Pressure
friend(opposite sex)disturbs me.
33 I worry that I am not able to take out proper 1 Competitive Environment
time for study.
34 I am disturbed my important work is 2 Modern Societal Pressure
postponed.
35 My parents’ desire to push me, gives me great 1 Competitive Environment
pain.
36 I worry my parents do not have time for me. 1 Competitive Environment
 37 I am disturbed if my friend(opposite sex) pays 2 Modern Societal Pressure
attention to someone else.
38 I am easily hurt by others. 4 Psychological Manifestations
39 I worry that there is a lot of work and very less 2 Modern Societal Pressure
time.
40 I shout at others. 4 Psychological Manifestations
41 I do not feel hungry.. 4 Psychological Manifestations
42 Not talking to my friend(opposite sex) for a 2 Modern Societal Pressure
long time makes me tense.
43 I fear that my friend(opposite sex) might 2 Modern Societal Pressure
deceive me.
44 I am worried I am not able to adjust with my 2 Modern Societal Pressure
environment.
45 I worry whether I will get a good job even 3 Worry about the Future
after studying so much.
46 I am worried I might not earn well in my job. 3 Worry about the Future
47 I get anxious unnecessarily. 4 Psychological Manifestations
48 I am disturbed that others might make fun of 3 Worry about the Future
me.
49 I yearn for luxuries. 2 Modern Societal Pressure
50 I like to remain alone. 4 Psychological Manifestations
The findings of Table 4.17 present the dimensions of each item, of the remaining 50 items in the
scale.

The correlation between the different dimensions was now calculated and was as follows:

Table 4.18 Correlation between Dimensions (remaining 50-Item Scale)

Competitive Psychological Social Pressure Worry about Future

Competitive 1 0.459** 0.457** 0.598**
Psychological - 1 0.682** 0.581**
Social Pressure - - 1 0.615**
Worry about - - 1
Future
The findings of Table 4.18 present the correlations between the preconceived dimensions of anxiety
based on theoretical perspective : ** Correlation was significant at the 0.01 level ( 2 – tailed). The
correlation of Competitive Environment with : Psychological Manifestations was 0.459,with Social
Pressure was 0.457 and with Worry about the Future was 0.598. The correlation of Psychological
Manifestations with Social Pressure was 0.682 and with Worry about the Future was 0.581. The
Correlation of Social Pressure with Worry about the Future was 0.615.

This shows that the dimensions of anxiety are positively correlated with each other and there is
significant relationship among them. In today’s competitive society, the competitive environment
increases psychological anxiety, creates social pressure and also tends to establish worry about the
future in the youth, for their future expectations, future life and actions. Psychological characteristics
of anxiety increases social pressure and worry about the future. Another aspect is that social
pressure may increase the worry about the future in society. Also, there is development of
irrational thought of insecurity for their expected future consequences.

STAGE 2

Analysis of 50-Item Anxiety Scale

The remaining 50 item scale was now administered on a larger sample of 826 (refer Chpt. III, Table
3.1, pg.90, Table 3.2,pg.91) students, of SHIATS and A.U. 400 were from SHIATS (123 boys and
277 girls). 426 students were from A.U.(143 boys and 283 girls). The data thus collected, was again
analyzed to evaluate its psychometric properties, using the SPSS. The same procedure was followed,
as for the 97 item scale.

The data collected from the above, was analyzed through item analysis, reliability, validity and factor
analysis. After factor analysis, the dimensions identified through it were finally operationally
redefined. On the basis of these dimensions, anxiety was also finally operationally redefined.
Thus, the final anxiety scale for undergraduate students was framed. The procedure followed was:

Step 7

Item analysis of the constructed 50 item scale :

a) Descriptives

b) Item Discimination Index :

 Item Total Correlation

  Test of Significance

Difficulty Index was not considered as this was an anxiety scale.

Firstly, the descriptives of the 50 – item scale were evaluated, as given in the following table :

Table 4.19 Descriptives

Items Mean S.D. Items Mean S.D.

1 2.2893 1.22887 26 2.3293 1.14332
2 2.3123 1.09401 27 2.9976 1.39436
3 2.5642 1.19448 28 2.4225 1.09740
4 2.5291 1.21196 29 2.3995 1.32306
5 2.4310 1.12091 30 2.4540 1.23325
6 2.7458 1.28516 31 2.3923 1.31698
7 2.8075 1.33321 32 2.7506 1.40243
8 3.3475 1.30792 33 2.7772 1.27113
9 2.6162 1.32909 34 2.5545 1.21208
10 2.3148 1.07656 35 2.3814 1.20447
11 2.3305 1.16970 36 2.6719 1.25340
12 2.8971 1.31668 37 2.5387 1.28736
13 2.3015 1.08317 38 2.5690 1.27092
14 2.5424 1.29100 39 2.4600 1.22459
15 3.0448 1.34630 40 3.1877 1.29984
16 2.7240 1.31244 41 2.3002 1.32370
17 2.3765 1.16822 42 2.6743 1.34272
18 2.5920 1.22969 43 2.6913 1.36816
19 3.2603 1.32163 44 2.7966 1.31372
20 2.8971 1.31668 45 2.4443 1.20802
21 2.6671 1.23163 46 2.6332 1.27819
22 2.4031 1.22437 47 2.3923 1.17701
23 2.4346 1.21753 48 3.2216 1.28037
24 3.2567 1.34100 49 2.7845 1.33468
25 2.2942 1.18757 50 2.4310 1.34415
The findings of table 4.19 present that none of the items were removed as their mean values were
above 2.2 and below 4.0.Therefore all were considered as discriminating and retained.

For further item analysis, item total correlation was calculated as given in the table below:

Table 4.20 Item Total Correlation

Items Total Items t Scale Full

1 Pearson Correlation 0.431** 11 Pearson Correlation 0.502**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001 Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
 N 826
2 Pearson Correlation 0.507**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
3 Pearson Correlation 0.361**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
4 Pearson Correlation 0.318**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
5 Pearson Correlation 0.410**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
6 Pearson Correlation 0.382**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
N 826
12 Pearson Correlation 0.519**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
13 Pearson Correlation 0.393**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
14 Pearson Correlation 0.516**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
15 Pearson Correlation 0.576**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
16 Pearson Correlation 0.484**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826

7 Pearson Correlation 0.313** 17 Pearson Correlation 0.526**

Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001 Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826 N 826
8 Pearson Correlation 0.507** 18 Pearson Correlation 0.436**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001 Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826 N 826
9 Pearson Correlation 0.453** 19 Pearson Correlation 0.413**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001 Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826 N 826
10 Pearson Correlation 0.487** 20 Pearson Correlation 0.519**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001 Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826 N 826
21 Pearson Correlation 0.431** 32 Pearson Correlation 0.308**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001 Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826 N 826
22 Pearson Correlation 0.549** 33 Pearson Correlation 0.446**
 Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
23 Pearson Correlation 0.482**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
24 Pearson Correlation 0.499**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
25 Pearson Correlation 0.367**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
26 Pearson Correlation 0.514**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
27 Pearson Correlation 0.476**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
28 Pearson Correlation 0.385**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
29 Pearson Correlation 0.348**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
30 Pearson Correlation 0.562**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
31 Pearson Correlation 0.430**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
43 Pearson Correlation 0.403**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
34 Pearson Correlation 0.484**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
35 Pearson Correlation 0.378**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
36 Pearson Correlation 0.487**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
37 Pearson Correlation 0.309**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
38 Pearson Correlation 0.341**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
39 Pearson Correlation 0.422**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
40 Pearson Correlation 0.577**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
41 Pearson Correlation 0.468**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
42 Pearson Correlation 0.511**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
47 Pearson Correlation 0.361**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826
44 Pearson Correlation 0.374** 48 Pearson Correlation 0.403**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001 Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826 N 826
45 Pearson Correlation 0.537** 49 Pearson Correlation 0.477**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001 Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826 N 826
46 Pearson Correlation 0.520** 50 Pearson Correlation 0.469**
Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001 Sig. ( 2- tailed ) 0.0001
N 826 N 826
The findings of Table 4.20 present that ** correlation was high and significant, at the 0.01 level. So
all the items were retained, as they were all correlated.

After the above analysis, two groups of data were formed. One for data (scores) below 113.00 (N =
235) and the other for data (scores) above 150.00 (N = 282), as follows :

Table 4. 21 Quartile Group

N Valid 826
Percentiles 27 113.000
73 150.0001
The findings of Table 4.21 present the two groups that were identified, i.e. below 113.00 score as
Lower Group (27% lower) and above 150.00 score as Higher Group (27 % higher). The data of these
items alone was considered for this analysis, as they showed the most variation and were appropriate
for inclusion in the scale being constructed.

With the formation of the two groups of data (scores), the t-test or test of significance was calculated
as follows :

Table : 4.22 Item Discrimination Index

Items Quartile Mean t f Sig.(2-
Group tailed)
1. Lower group 1.7447 -10.996 457 0.0001
113 2.9464
Higher group
150
2. Lower group 1.6553 -18.152 457 0.0001
113 3.1250
Higher group
224
3. Lower group 1.9872 -12.058 457 0.0001
113 3.1384
Higher group
224
4. Lower group 2.0936 -8.002 457 0.0001
113 2.9196
Higher group
224
5. Lower group 1.9362 -11.647 457 0.0001
113 3.0670
Higher group
224
6. Lower group 2.0894 -10.227 457 0.0001
113 3.2009
Higher group
224
7. Lower group 2.2340 -8.516 457 0.0001
113 3.2277
Higher group
224
8. Lower group 2.4553 -17.504 457 0.0001
113 4.2366
Higher group
 224
9. Lower group 1.8723 -13.367 457 0.0001
113 3.2991
Higher group
224
10. Lower group 1.7489 -13.449 457 0.0001
113 2.9554
Higher group
224
11. Lower group 1.5404 -15.344 457 0.0001
113 2.9955
Higher group
224
12. Lower group 1.9660 -18.505 457 0.0001
113 3.7009
Higher group
224
13. Lower group 1.8255 -10.486 457 0.0001
113 2.7321
Higher group
224
14. Lower group 1.7021 -17.588 457 0.0001
113 3.2946
Higher group
224
15. Lower group 2.0426 -18.989 457 0.0001
113 3.8750
Higher group
224
16. Lower group 1.9787 -12.753 457 0.0001
113 3.3973
Higher group
224
17. Lower group 1.6298 -16.303 457 0.0001
113 3.1116
Higher group
224
18. Lower group 1.8298 -14.721 457 0.0001
113 3.2277
Higher group
224
19. Lower group 2.5957 -13.616 457 0.0001
113 4.0089
Higher group
224
20. Lower group 1.9660 -18.505 457 0.0001
113 3.7009
Higher group
224
21. Lower group 2.0766 -10.926 457 0.0001
113 3.2098
Higher group
224
22. Lower group 1.5957 -17.988 457 0.0001
113 3.2143
Higher group
224
23. Lower group 1.8596 -16.921 457 0.0001
113 3.3839
Higher group
224
24. Lower group 2.4213 -14.003 457 0.0001
113 3.9688
Higher group
224
25. Lower group 1.8468 -10.130 457 0.0001
 113 2.9375
Higher group
224
26. Lower group 1.7277 -14.735 457 0.0001
113 3.1205
Higher group
224
27. Lower group 2.1915 -15.700 457 0.0001
113 3.8616
Higher group
224
28. Lower group 1.8723 -10.383 457 0.0001
113 2.8482
Higher group
224
29. Lower group 1.8170 -9.796 457 0.0001
113 2.9643
Higher group
224
30. Lower group 1.7362 -17.538 457 0.0001
113 3.3839
Higher group
224
31. Lower group 1.6340 -12.594 457 0.0001
113 2.9509
Higher group
224
32. Lower group 2.2809 -7.521 457 0.0001
113 3.2589
Higher group
224
33. Lower group 2.0511 -15.367 457 0.0001
113 3.5982
 Higher group
224
34. Lower group 1.8426 -14.278 457 0.0001
113 3.2366
Higher group
224
35. Lower group 1.6979 -12.875 457 0.0001
113 2.9464
Higher group
224
36. Lower group 1.6936 -16.578 457 0.0001
113 3.2500
Higher group
224
37. Lower group 2.0681 -8.655 457 0.0001
113 3.0759
Higher group
224
38. Lower group 1.9489 -9.128 457 0.0001
113 2.9062
Higher group
224
39. Lower group 1.7830 -12.625 457 0.0001
113 3.0848
Higher group
224
40. Lower group 2.1106 -19.520 457 0.0001
113 3.9866
Higher group
224
41. Lower group 1.5574 -15.164 457 0.0001
113 3.1295
Higher group
 224
42. Lower group 1.7064 -15.601 457 0.0001
113 3.3438
Higher group
224
43. Lower group 1.8681 -12.311 457 0.0001
113 3.2411
Higher group
224
44. Lower group 2.1915 -9.811 457 0.0001
235 3.3438
Higher group
224
45. Lower group 1.6553 -16.536 457 0.0001
235 3.2768
Higher group
224
46. Lower group 1.8936 -13.987 457 0.0001
235 3.4107
Higher group
224
47. Lower group 1.8255 -9.744 457 0.0001
235 2.7946
Higher group
224
48. Lower group 2.4979 -11.984 457 0.0001
235 3.7812
Higher group
224
49. Lower group 2.0426 -12.044 457 0.0001
235 3.4330
Higher group
224
 50. Lower group 1.6511 -14.318 457 0.0001
235 3.2411
Higher group
224
The findings of Table 4.22 present that all the items were significant at the 0.01 level, so all were
retained. So, after item analysis, it was found that all the items were discriminating.

Step 8

Reliability of the 50 Item Scale

After item analysis of the 50 item scale, its reliability was calculated through :

 Cronbach’s Alpha (1951) and Split – Half Coefficient – for internal reliability

 Test-Retest – for external reliability

In statistical terms, reliability is the extent to which a test produces consistent results when the same
person is measured several times. Firstly, Cronbach’s Alpha (1951) was calculated as follows:

Table 4.23 Cronbach’s Alpha and Split – Half Coefficient

Cronbach’s Alpha Part 1 Value 0.829

N of Items 25a
Part 2 Value 0.860
N of Items 25b
Total N of Items 50
Split –Half Coefficient 0.881
Cronbach’s Alpha 0.890
The findings of Table 4.23 present the reliability statistics of the anxiety scale. It can be seen that the
internal consistency of the items is high, as Cronbach’s Alpha is 0.860. The correlation of the
items, is positive and high. Hence it can be said that the scale is highly reliable.

Test – Retest

Another test for reliability is the test- retest reliability. Essentially, there are two types of reliability:
(1) stability over time and (2) internal consistency. Stability over time is conventionally measured via
test-retest reliability. Test-retest reliability, which can also be called external reliability, is well
known and intuitively makes sense: essentially we test the same thing on two separate occasions and
measure the extent to which we obtain the same results. Test-retest reliability, therefore, involves
testing the same people twice and calculating the correlation between the two sets of scores.

"Test-retest reliability, if a test is to be of any value, either in practice or in establishing theory, must
be high. A correlation of 0.8 is a minimum figure. The subjects should be of a large and
representative sample of the population for whom the test is intended. Samples should comprise at
least 100 subjects." (Kline,2000). The test- retest interval in this study was 2 weeks. The sample
consisted of 173 students (refer Chpt.III, Table 3.5, pg. 99), of which, 85 students were from
SHIATS and 88 students were from A.U.

The evaluation of the test-retest data was done as follows:

Table 4.24 Test – Retest

Test 1 Test 2

TEST 1 Pearson Correlation 1.000 0.958**

Sig. ( 2- tailed) 0.0001

N 173 173

TEST 2 Pearson Correlation 0.958** 1.000

Sig. ( 2- tailed) 0.0001

N 173 173

The findings of Table 4.24 present that the correlation of the two scores obtained in both tests – test 1
and test 2 are highly correlated. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2- tailed). "High
reliability, both test-retest and internal consistency, is essential for the validity of tests." (Kline, 2000,
13).

Step 9

Validity of the 50 item scale

Even if a test produces extremely consistent measures, that is, it is highly reliable, we may not be
sure that it is measuring the characteristic that we intended. There must be some characteristic that it
measures (otherwise it could not be reliable) but we may be measuring a characteristic that correlates
with the intended characteristic or we may even be measuring something quite unrelated. So, this
Scale 1 (Anxiety Scale for Undergraduate Students), was administered with three other scales, to
check its validity. These scales were:

Janet Taylor’s Manifest Anxiety Inventory (1953) – Scale 2

Zung’s Anxiety Inventory (1971) –Scale 3

Sinha’s Anxiety Test (1968) –Scale 4

Table 4.25 Correlation with Other Anxiety Measures

Spearman’s rho Scale 1 Scale 2 Scale 3 Scale 4

Sum
Scale 1 Correlation Coefficient 1.000 0.818** 0.788** 0.268**
Sum Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
N 826 826 826 823
Scale 2 Correlation Coefficient 0.818** 1.000 0.646** 0.257**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
N 826 826 826 823
Scale 3 Correlation Coefficient 0.788** .646** 1.000 0.217**
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001 .000 0.0001
N 826 826 826 823
Scale 4 Correlation Coefficient 0.268** .257** 0.217** 1.000
Sig.(2-tailed) 0.0001 .000 0.0001
N 823 823 823 823
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The findings of Table 4.25 present that all the scales, are significantly correlated with each other, at
the 0.01 level. So the newly constructed scale measures the same construct as the other 3
standardized scales i.e. anxiety. The constructed scale of anxiety, can, therefore, measure the levels
of anxiety in the undergraduate population.

Step 10

Factor Analysis of 50- Item Scale

After item analysis, and finding out the reliability and validity of the anxiety scale for undergraduate
students, its factor analysis was done, to find out the dimensions (factors) and the items that came
under them, through SPSS.

Factor analysis resulted in 15 factors, out of which, 5 factors had less than 3 items, so to best
represent and interpret the items, the expert panel was consulted. With their consent and consensus, a
five factor solution was found to be the best.

Hinkin et al, (pg.11, 1997), had also stated that the number of factors to be retained depends on both
underlying theory and empirical results. There are no specific rules for retaining items, however.
Eigenvalues greater than 1 (Kaiser criterion (1960)) or a scree plot of the percentage of variance
explained (Cattell, 1966), are commonly used to determine the number of factors to retain,.... The
objective is to identify those items that most clearly represent the content domain of the underlying
construct.

Spector (1992), also opined that the basic idea of factor analysis is to reduce a number of items to a
smaller number of underlying groups of items called factors….. Factor analysis derives its factors by
analyzing the pattern of covariation (or correlation) among items. Groups of items that tend to
interrelate with one another more strongly than they relate to other groups of items will tend to form
factors….. Two major questions must be addressed with a factor analysis: (a) the number of factors
that best represent the items and (b) the interpretation of the factors. Although factor analysis is a
mathematical procedure, the answer to these two questions falls in the realm of subjective judgment
as much as in the realm of statistical decision rules.

Firstly, the communalities were calculated.

Table 4.26 Communalities

Items Initial Extraction Items Initial Extraction

1 1.000 0.351 26 1.000 0.345
2 1.000 0.466 27 1.000 0.504
3 1.000 0.278 28 1.000 0.330
4 1.000 0.174 29 1.000 0.433
5 1.000 0.223 30 1.000 0.450
6 1.000 0.254 31 1.000 0.335
7 1.000 0.335 32 1.000 0.538
8 1.000 0.372 33 1.000 0.303
9 1.000 0.347 34 1.000 0.329
10 1.000 0.423 35 1.000 0.418
11 1.000 0.429 36 1.000 0.384
12 1.000 0.732 37 1.000 0.503
13 1.000 0.198 38 1.000 0.205
14 1.000 0.309 39 1.000 0.319
15 1.000 0.568 40 1.000 0.392
16 1.000 0.292 41 1.000 0.423
17 1.000 0.377 42 1.000 0.392
18 1.000 0.565 43 1.000 0.574
19 1.000 0.250 44 1.000 0.228
20 1.000 0.732 45 1.000 0.347
21 1.000 0.408 46 1.000 0.382
22 1.000 0.404 47 1.000 0.307
23 1.000 0.352 48 1.000 0.299
 24 1.000 0.346 49 1.000 0.488
25 1.000 0.340 50 1.000 0.296
The findings of Table 4.26 present the communalities of the scale, when 5 factors were extracted.
The highest communality value is 0.732 ( item 20), the next is 0.574 ( item 43) and the lowest is
0.174 (item4). Since the values were low, an important decision was the number of factors to extract.
By Kaiser’s (1960) criterion, 4 factors to be extracted if variables are less than 30 and communalities
are greater than 0.7 or sample exceeds 250 and average communality is greater than 0.6 , then all the
factors with eigenvalues above 1, are to be retained. If none of these apply, a scree plot can be used
when the sample size is large (300 or more). So, the scree plot was used to decide the number of
dimensions to be selected, five in this case, as shown below:

Fig. 4.1 Scree Plot showing 5 dimensions

The findings of figure 4.1 present the scree plot showing 5 dimensions, after which there is a
straight line without any variation.

The consent and consensus of the experts was that the above scree plot,best supported the 5- factor
solution.

Total Variance Explained

The total variance explained table lists the eigenvalues associated with each linear component
(factor) before extraction, and after rotation extraction.
Table 4.27 Total Variance Explained (Final Study)

Component Initial Eigenvalues Rotation Sum Of Squared Loadings

Total % 0f Cumulative Total % 0f Cumulative
Variance % Variance %
1. 10.327 20.653 20.653 4.679 9.358 9.358
2. 2.722 5.445 26.098 4.404 8.807 18.165
3. 2.291 4.582 30.680 3.807 7.614 25.780
4. 1.891 3.783 34.463 3.117 6.233 32.013
5. 1.783 3.565 38.028 3.007 6.015 38.028
6. 1.539 3.077 41.105
7. 1.486 2.973 44.078
8. 1.446 2.893 46.971
9. 1.316 2.632 49.603
10. 1.271 2.541 52.145
11. 1.212 2.424 54.569
12. 1.168 2.335 56.904
13. 1.125 2.249 59.153
14. 1.052 2.104 61.258
15. 1.041 2.081 63.339
16. 0.973 1.947 65.286
17. 0.954 1.908 67.194
18. 0.918 1.836 69.030
19. 0.877 1.754 70.784
20. 0.856 1.712 72.496
21. 0.781 1.561 74.057
22. 0.761 1.522 75.580
23. 0.727 1.453 77.033
24. 0.702 1.403 78.436
25. 0.681 1.363 79.799
26. 0.653 1.306 81.105
27. 0.627 1.254 82.359
28. 0.623 1.246 83.605
29. 0.617 1.235 84.839
30. 0.554 1.107 85.946
31. 0.547 1.094 87.041
32. 0.540 1.080 88.121
33. 0.488 0.976 89.097
34. 0.481 0.961 90.058
35. 0.459 0.918 90.977
36. 0.453 0.906 91.883
37. 0.412 0.824 92.708
38. 0.408 0.815 93.523
39. 0.383 0.767 94.290
40. 0.375 0.750 95.039
41. 0.351 0.702 95.741
42. 0.335 0.670 96.411
43. 0.319 0.637 97.048
44. 0.285 0.569 97.618
45. 0.279 0.559 98.176
46. 0.251 0.502 98.678
47. 0.245 0.489 99.168
48. 0.226 0.451 99.619
49. 0.190 0.381 100.00
50. 2.560 5.126 100.00
The findings of Table 4.27 presents that the eigenvalues of each factor represent the variance
explained by that particular linear component. Numerically, there are 15 factors that have eigenvalue
more than 1, but they had less than three items under them, so they were discarded. With the consent
of the experts, all interpretable factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 were extracted. This resulted
in 5 factors. According to Spector(1992), in factor-analysis subjective judgment is necessary to
determine the number of factors and their interpretation

Together the 5 factors explained 38.028% of the variance. A factor analysis of TMAS, in a study of
graduate students found that 18 factors had eigenvalues over 1.0 but chose to extract four
interpretable factors. These factors, however, explained only 22.6% of the common variance.Studies
by Khan (1970), by O’Connor et al.(1956) and by Moore et al.(1984), all reported five-factor
solutions (McDowell, pg. 280, 2006).
Factor 1 explains 20.653% of the total variance. So the first few factors explain relatively large
amounts of variance (esp. factor 1), whereas subsequent factors explain only small amounts of
variance. In the final part of the table, in the columns under’ Rotation Sum of Squared Loadings’, the
eigenvalues of the factors after rotation are displayed. Rotation has the effect of optimizing the factor
structure.

One consequence of this is that the relative importance of the 5 factors is equalized. Before rotation
factor 1 accounted for considerably more variance than the remaining 4 (20.653%, 5.445%, 4.582%,
3.783% and 3.565%). However after extraction factor 1 accounts for only 9.358% of variance, while
the remaining 4 factors account for 8.807%, 7.614%, 6.233% and 6.015%, respectively.

To find out the factor loadings or items in each factor, further analysis was done, through the un-
rotated and rotated component matrixes, as follows :

Table 4.28 Un - Rotated Factor - Matrix

Item Component
1 2 3 4 5
1 0.439 -0.334
2 0.530
3 0.374
4 0.309
5 0.415
6 0.369
7 0.490
8 0.509
9 0.458
10 0.503 -0.310
11 0.523 -0.302
12 0.528 0.583 -0.318
13 0.400
14 0.527
15 0.589 0.303 -0.355
16 0.482
17 0.542
18 0.428 0.592
19 0.405
20 0.528 0.583 -0.318
21 0.428 0.445
22 0.564
23 0.484
24 0.495
25 0.368 -0.342
26 0.530
27 0.474 -0.430
28 0.384
29 0.317 0.363 0.432
30 0.570 -0.345
31 0.423
32 0.470 0.482
33 0.447
34 0.486
35 0.369 0.518
36 0.492
37 0.463 0.443
38 0.330
39 0.432
40 0.583
41 0.470 -0.314
42 0.507
43 0.369 0.417
44 0.365
45 0.552
46 0.534
47 0.352 -0.353
48 0.396 0.322
49 0.464 0.446
 50 0.461
The findings of Table 4.28 present the factor loadings of the extracted 5 factors. The un-rotated
matrix above shows that most of the items are loaded onto the first factor.

So to facilitate the interpretation of the factors and the items contained in them, the rotated matrix is
the logical solution. The interpreting of factors can be improved through rotation, as it maximizes the
loading of each variable on one of the extracted factors, while minimizing the loading on all other
factors. Rotated Component Matrix or rotated factor matrix, is a matrix of the factor loadings of each
variable onto each factor.

This matrix contains the same information as the component matrix except that it is calculated after
rotation. Firstly, factor loadings less than 0.3 have not been displayed because in the analysis they
were asked to be suppressed. According to Spector (1992), a variable is said to ''load'' on that factor
for which it has a high loading. A minimum value of about .30 to .35 is required to consider that an
item loads on any factor…. One difficulty with the factor-analysis procedure is that subjective
judgment is necessary to determine the number of factors and their interpretation Secondly, the
variables are listed in order of size of their factor loadings as we asked for the output to be sorted by
size.

Table 4.29 Rotated Component Matrix

Items Components
1 2 3 4 5
1. 0.452
2. 0.392 0.495
3. 0.373
4. 0.325
5. 0.395
6. 0.393
7. 0.567
8. 0.364 0.442
9. 0.501
10. 0.582
11. 0.370 0.504
12. 0.808
13. 0.371
14. 0.373 0.341
15. 0.695
16. 0.353 0.325
17. 0.391 0.316
18. 0.720
19. 0.397
20. 0.808
21. 0.589
22. 0.369 0.428
23. 0.551
24. 0.403 0.310
0.515
25. 0.410 0.322
26. .393 0.508
27. 0.467 0.318
28. 0.365
29. 0.510
30. 0.379
31. 0.719
32. 0.464
33. 0.454
34. 0.577
35. 0.530
36. 0.692
37. 0.361
38. 0.313 0.317 0.340
39. 0.361 0.310
40. 0.568
41. 0.383 0.414
42. 0.734
43. 0.402
 44. 0.375 0.392
45. 0.482
46. 0.482
47. 0.468
48. 0.425
49. 0.319 0.584
50. 0.336 0.315
The findings of table 4.29 present the factor loadings in the rotated matrix. Before rotation, most
variables loaded highly onto the first factor and the remaining factors did not really get a look in. So
the rotation of the factor structure has clarified things considerably. There are 5 factors that were
extracted.

Step 11

Dimensions Identified

Next step is to look at the content of the statements that load onto the same factor, to try to identify
common themes. A new dimension was identified by the final statistical analysis. This was the
relationship with the opposite sex. The experts were consulted and with their consent and consensus,
this dimension was accepted. Their view was that this aspect of the life of the youth, has become a
very prominent cause of anxiety, today. This could be because of the open society values that have
become a part of Indian society. This is also the result of globalization, especially due to the internet.
Items relating to this theme, had initially been put under the modern societal pressure dimension.
Today, the lifestyle of the youth, their interaction, their materialistic attitude – all lead to anxiety.

Sinha’s Anxiety Scale (1968), covered areas like-health, appearance and injury; ambition; family
anxieties; anxieties of friendship and love; social relations and approval; worries about future;
worries about civilization, war, virtue; guilt and shame; physical and psychological manifestations
and psychological manifestations.

Gjerde (1993), says that just as all young adults, undergraduate students need to cope not only with
psychological and psychosocial changes that are connected to the development of an autonomous
personal life but also with the academic and social demands that they encounter in university studies
in their preparation for professional careers. Therefore, the period of undergraduate education is a
sensitive period in an individual’s life span, and this period is regarded by many as important for
developing systems and intervention methods that may prevent or reduce mental problems.
Wolf (1994), Supe (1998), Foster and Spencer (2003) and Schneider (2007), have also reported that
academic reasons like enormous syllabus, the difficulty of the curriculum, long studying hours, and
emotional factors like lack of peer support, competitive environment, rigid authoritative and non
encouraging faculty, lack of recreational activities, staying away from home, financial problems,
uncertain future, cultural and minority issues, mismatch between capability and expectation are some
reasons of stress and anxiety among medical and engineering students.

Lowe and Reynolds (2005), examined the Adult Manifest Anxiety Scale-College Version (AMAS-
C), on a sample of 943 college students. Values obtained for its five factors- Psychological Anxiety,
Social Concerns/Stress, Test Anxiety, Worry/Oversensitivity, and Lie, were similar across gender
and provide support for the existence of the AMAS-C scales for college women and men.

According to Downey (2008), students also have test anxiety, performance anxiety and choice
anxiety. With so many options, students in the present era are faced with greater choice, more
competition and less time to consider their options or seek out the right advice which many a time
leads to anxiety.

The total number of items in the new dimensions are shown in the table below :

Table 4.30 Total No. of Items in the New Dimensions

Dimensions Items
1 Psychological Manifestations 15
2 Worry about the Future 10
3 Competitive Environment 12
4 Societal Pressure 08
5 Friendship with the Opposite Sex 05
Total 50
The findings of Table 4.30 present that out of the total 50 items, no. of items in the Dimensions,
were:- Psychological Manifestations – 15, Worry about the Future -10, Competitive Environment -
12, Societal Pressure -8 and Friendship with the Opposite Sex -5.

The different items in each dimension were as follows :

Table 4.31 Factor 1 - Psychological Manifestations

S.No. Items
 1 4 I am often tense.
2 5 I hesitate in talking to strangers.
3 10 Even small things make me cry.
4 13 I fear serious diseases.
5 14 I get angry soon.
6 23 I feel that people do not like me.
7 24 I often do not like talking to others.
8 25 I feel that all are looking at me alone.
9 26 I am not able to share even small things with my friends.
10 30 I am not able to sleep.
11 38 I worry that others might deceive me.
12 40 I shout at others.
13 41 I do not feel hungry..
14 47 I get anxious unnecessarily.
15 50 I often like to remain alone.
The findings of Table 4.31 present the 15 items that show the psychological symptoms resulting from
a feeling of loneliness leading to lack of self- confidence.

Table 4.32 Factor 2 – Worry about the Future

S.No Items
1 1 I often worry about the future.
2 3 I fear possible misfortunes.
3 6 From where to get money for today’s costly living, worries me.
4 11 I am in great anxiety that problems might never leave me.
5 12 I feel afraid I will be unsuccessful.
6 15 I feel nervous I might not be able to complete my work on time.
7 20 I worry that others might deceive me.
8 45 I worry whether I will get a good job even after studying so
much.
9 46 I am worried I might not earn well in my job.
10 48 I am disturbed that others might make fun of me.
The findings of Table 4.32 present the 10 items that show anxiety about insecurity regarding the
future and of being unsuccessful.
Table 4.33 Factor 3 –Competitive Environment

S.No. Items
1 2 I am worried that I am unable to decide what to study.
2 9 I do not like being compared to my classmates.
3 16 The high cost of coaching worries me.
4 17 My studies are a big burden for me.
5 18 I am very worried that jobs are less and jobseekers more.
6 22 I am in great anxiety when I get poor marks in a test.
7 27 I am tense that there are differences between my parents and me.
8 28 I am unable to decide which subjects I should take.
9 31 The increasing number of competitions makes me nervous.
10 33 I worry that I am not able to take out proper time for study.
11 35 My parents’ desire to push me, gives me great pain.
12 36 I worry my parents do not have time for me.
The findings of Table 4.33 present the 12 items that pertain to the anxiety due to competition in
academics i.e. studies and jobs. This burden of competition is increased because of parent’s pressure.

Table 4.34 Factor 4 - Societal Pressure

S.No. Items
1 7 I worry about my appearance.
2 8 The desire to obtain everything fast, disturbs me.
3 19 I often feel like leaving everything and going far away.
4 21 Doing many things at the same time, makes me nervous.
5 34 I am disturbed my important work is postponed.
6 39 I worry that there is a lot of work and very less time.
7 44 I am worried I am not able to adjust with my environment.
8 49 I yearn for luxuries.
The findings of Table 4.34 present the 8 items, that show the anxiety about outward appearance,
society and material luxuries.

Table 4.35 Factor 5 – Friendship with the Opposite Sex

S.No. Items
 1 29 I worry whether my family will accept my friend (opposite sex).
2 32 Any interference in my friendship with my friend (opposite sex)
disturbs me.
3 37 I am disturbed if my friend (opposite sex) pays attention to
someone else.
4 42 Not talking to my friend (opposite sex) for a long time makes me
tense.
5 43 I fear that my friend (opposite sex) might deceive me.
The findings of Table 4.35 present the five items that show the anxiety regarding friendship with the
opposite sex.

PHASE III (Quantitative Analysis)

The third phase of the study covered the third objective :

Objective 3. To standardize the Anxiety Scale for Undergraduate Students.

Step 12

Conversion of raw scores into z-scores

For the calculation of norms, z-scores were computed for each raw score.

Table 4.36 Raw scores converted into z-scores

S.No. Raw Z Score S.No. Raw Z Score S.No. Raw Z Score

Score Score Score
1 66 -2.31991 38 115 -0.57735 75 153 0.77402
2 67 -2.28435 39 116 -0.54179 76 154 0.80958
3 71 -2.1421 40 117 -0.50623 77 155 0.84515
4 73 -2.07098 41 118 0.47066 78 156 0.88071
5 78 -1.89316 42 119 -0.4351 79 157 0.91627
6 79 -1.8576 43 120 -0.39954 80 158 0.95183
7 80 -1.82204 44 121 -0.36398 81 159 0.9874
8 81 -1.78648 45 122 0.32841 82 160 1.02296
9 82 -1.75091 46 123 -0.29285 83 161 1.05852
10 84 -1.67979 47 124 -0.25729 84 162 1.09408
11 85 -1.64423 48 126 -0.18616 85 163 1.12965
12 87 -1.5731 49 127 -0.1506 86 164 1.16521
13 88 -1.53754 50 128 -0.11504 87 165 1.20077
14 89 1.50198 51 129 -0.07948 88 166 1.23633
15 90 -1.46641 52 130 -0.04391 89 167 1.2719
16 91 -1.43085 53 131 -0.00835 90 168 1.30746
17 93 -1.35973 54 132 0.02721 91 169 1.34302
18 94 -1.32416 55 133 0.06277 92 170 1.37858
19 95 -1.2886 56 134 0.09833 93 171 1.41415
20 96 -1.25304 57 135 0.1339 94 172 1.44971
21 97 1.21748 58 136 0.16946 95 173 1.48527
22 98 -1.18191 59 137 0.20502 96 175 1.5564
23 99 -1.14635 60 138 0.24058 97 176 1.59196
24 100 -1.11079 61 139 0.27615 98 178 1.66308
25 101 -1.07523 62 140 0.31171 99 179 1.69865
26 103 -1.0041 63 141 0.34727 100 181 1.76977
27 104 -0.96854 64 142 0.38283 101 185 1.91202
28 105 -0.93298 65 143 0.4184 102 186 1.94758
29 106 0.89741 66 144 0.45396 103 189 2.05427
30 107 -0.86185 67 145 0.48952 104 192 2.16096
31 108 -0.82629 68 146 0.52508 105 193 2.19652
32 109 -0.79073 69 147 0.56065 106 194 2.23208
33 110 -0.75516 70 148 0.59621 107 201 2.48102
34 111 -0.7196 71 149 0.63177 108 203 2.55214
35 112 -0.68404 72 150 0.66733 109 213 2.90777
36 113 -0.64848 73 151 0.7029
37 114 -0.61291 74 152 0.73846
The findings of Table 4.36 present the z - score of each raw score, of each undergraduate student.

Step 13

Determination of Norms
After calculating the z-scores for all the raw scores, the range of z-scores were divided into three
levels, according to their corresponding raw scores, as follows :

Table 4.37 Norms for Interpretation of z-scores

S.No. Range of raw scores Range of z- scores Level of Anxiety

1 144 and above +0.51 and above High Anxiety
2 104 to 143 - 0.50 to + 0.50 Normal Anxiety
3 103and below -0.51 and below Low Anxiety
The findings of Table 4.37 present that all the undergraduate students having score 144 or above
had high anxiety. The students who had scores between 104 to 143, had normal anxiety. Students
who scored 103 and below, had low anxiety.

The ones with high anxiety, required to be given guidance and counseling. Also. Intervention must
also be planned for them, so that this high anxiety did not affect their mental or physical health. It
might also effect their academic performance and social behavior. The students with low anxiety,
needed attention and supervision, if their low anxiety made them sluggish, careless and gave rise to
the tendency of being irresponsible.

Step 14

Levels of Anxiety in the Sample

The frequencies of each raw score were evaluated. From this data, the number of undergraduate
students having different levels of anxiety in the sample, were tabulated.

Table 4.38 Frequencies of each Raw Score

Score Frequency Score Frequency Score Frequency

66 3 115 5 153 7
67 3 116 8 154 5
71 3 117 11 155 12
73 7 118 1 156 12
78 10 119 6 157 4
79 6 120 14 158 10
80 5 121 11 159 23
81 1 122 10 160 16
 82 3 123 14 161 9
84 15 124 9 162 8
85 1 126 1 163 1
87 3 127 11 164 5
88 9 128 1 165 9
89 2 129 7 166 5
90 16 130 19 167 4
91 3 131 4 168 4
93 6 132 13 169 5
94 3 133 6 170 10
95 1 134 5 171 14
96 3 135 10 172 12
97 13 136 19 173 15
98 4 137 9 175 3
99 4 138 13 176 7
100 6 139 6 178 5
101 6 140 21 179 12
103 3 141 9 181 12
104 13 142 25 185 4
105 7 143 13 186 2
106 16 144 12 189 3
107 14 145 7 192 3
108 5 146 22 193 5
109 3 147 9 194 1
110 9 148 10 201 1
111 11 149 14 203 3
112 4 150 12 213 1
113 14 151 15
114 14 152 3
The findings of Table 4.38 present the frequency of the total score of each undergraduate student.
The highest score was = 213. The lowest score was = 66. The score with the highest frequency was
142 (25 students had this score). At the higher end, scores 192 to 213, had only 14 students
obtaining them.
From this data, the number of undergraduate students having different levels of anxiety was tabulated
as given in the table below :

Table 4.39 Different Levels of Anxiety in the Sample

S.No. Levels of Anxiety No. of Students %

1 High Anxiety 199 24.09
2 Normal Anxiety 496 60.05
3 Low Anxiety 131 15.86
The findings of Table 4.39 present, the different levels of anxiety present in the sample taken for this
study.199 undergraduate students showed high anxiety and constituted 24.09% of the total
population. 496 students had normal anxiety and comprised 60.05 % of the total population.131
students i.e. 15.86% showed low anxiety. The 199 students showing high anxiety require attention,
guidance and counseling. Appropriate interventions need to be formulated, so that their anxiety level
does not ham them mentally and physically. Their academic performance and social behaviour can
also be affected. The normal anxiety students need to be motivated and helped so that their level of
anxiety, remains the same. The students who were identified with low anxiety, require intervention,
only if their level of anxiety , leads to sluggishness, carelessness or irresponsibility.

Sahoo and Khess (2010) found that the lifetime prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress among
adolescents and young adults around the world is currently estimated to range from 5% to 70%.In
their cross sectional study to determine prevalence of current depressive, anxiety, and stress-related
symptoms on a Dimensional and Categorical basis among young adults in Ranchi city of India, the
findings included, anxiety in 24.4%, and stress in 20%. Clinical depression was present in 12.1%
and generalized anxiety disorder in 19.0%.

The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) data shows more than one quarter (26 per
cent) of the 16-24 age group experience a mental health disorder in a 12-month period – the highest
incidence of any age group. Anxiety disorders are the most common, followed by substance use
disorders and then affective disorders (Wang et al, 2013).

Significant number of students reported having psychological problem in form of Depression,

Anxiety and Stress… Score does not differ significantly over 8 week’s period, probably suggestive of
stability of the emotional disturbance detected by DASS. Initial and yearly repeated screening of
students during medical study is worthwhile. Positive for Depression (15%), Anxiety (26%) and
Stress (9.6%) among the students is significantly much higher than in the general population (
Anderson and Masur,1989; Mehta et al, 2013).

Fig.4. 2 Showing the levels of anxiety

600
496
500
400
high
300
199 normal
200 131
low
100
0

Figure 4.2 presents that 199 undergraduate students had high anxiety, 496 had normal anxiety and
131 had low anxiety.

The above findings show that the undergraduate student population in higher education, does have a
fairly large share of students suffering from high anxiety (almost one-fourth) and a sizeable number
have low anxiety. The 199 students showing high anxiety require attention, guidance and
counselling. Appropriate interventions need to be formulated, so that their anxiety level does not
harm them mentally and physically.

Their academic performance and social behaviour can also be affected. The normal anxiety students
need to be motivated and helped so that their level of anxiety, remains the same. The students who
were identified with low anxiety, require regular intervention, if their level of anxiety, leads to
sluggishness, carelessness or irresponsibility.
 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Chapter V

Summary and Conclusion

Summary

Introduction

Anxiety is a normal human emotion. In moderation, anxiety stimulates and acts as a motivator..
Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional,
and behavioral components (Seligman et al. 2001). These components combine to create an
unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with uneasiness, apprehension, fear, or worry. Anxiety
is a generalized mood condition that can often occur without an identifiable triggering stimulus. As
such, it is distinguished from fear, which occurs in the presence of an observed threat. Additionally,
fear is related to the specific behaviors of escape and avoidance, whereas anxiety is the result of
threats that are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable (Ohman, 2000).

Another view is that anxiety is ''a future-oriented mood state in which one is ready or
prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming negative events” (Barlow,2000),suggesting that it is a
distinction between future vs. present dangers that divides anxiety and fear. Anxiety is considered to
be a normal reaction to stress. It may help a person to deal with a difficult situation, for example at
work or at school, by prompting one to cope with it. When anxiety becomes excessive, it may fall
under the classification of an anxiety disorder. The intensity and reasoning behind anxiety determines
whether it is considered a normal or abnormal reaction. (Viyas et al., 2008).

Need of the Study

In the digital and fast-paced life of today, the most affected and threatened are the youth. Anxiety
effects their mental and physical health. Since their education and health is at stake and they are the
immediate future generation, it has become very important, to know their level of anxiety.
A review of the tests of anxiety showed that in India, they are either adaptations of foreign tests or
they measure some particular type of anxiety – like academic anxiety, death anxiety, job anxiety etc.
Durganand Sinha(1968), constructed the first test in India to measure the level of anxiety in
university students, in Allahabad. Three decades later, he reviewed anxiety tests including his own
test and found that no serious effort had been made either to review his test or construct other tests
for the university student population. No Likert type scale had been constructed to measure the level
of anxiety, especially of graduates, who are in the transitionary period from the protected life of
school to higher education. So, to bridge this gap and study the anxiety level of present day students,
the need arose to construct an anxiety test for them. The change in the academic and social
environment of students, it was felt, would throw light on the state of anxiety, as it is experienced
today.
Statement of the Problem : ‘Development of an Anxiety Scale for Undergraduate Students’.
Objectives:
1. To develop an anxiety scale for undergraduate students.
2. To find out the reliability and validity of the anxiety scale for undergraduate students.
3. To standardize the anxiety scale for undergraduate students
Operational definitions of terms used
Anxiety:
‘Anxiety is an unpleasant feeling, caused due to the competitive environment, societal pressure,
friendship with the opposite sex, worry about the future and the resultant psychological
manifestations, in the individual’.

Scale : A tool consisting of items under different dimensions, to measure the anxiety
levels of students.
Students: Students of first year regular courses, studying in the main campuses.
University: Central University of Allahabad ( A.U.) and Sam Higginbottom Institute of
Agriculture, Technology and Sciences (SHIATS), Naini, Allahabad.

Delimitation of the Study

The study was carried out in Allahabad only.
Research Methodology

Area of the Study: The study was conducted in Allahabad.

Research Design: The present study belongs to the category of descriptive field survey type of
research.

Population: All first year undergraduate students of regular degree courses, studying in the main
campuses of Central University of Allahabad and SHIATS, Naini.
Sample : 826 first year students were taken as the sample from SHIATS and A.U. There were 400
students from SHIATS (123 boys and 277 girls). 426 students of A.U. (266 boys and 560 girls)
participated in the study.

Sampling Type: Purposive Sampling

Method of Scale Construction

Procedure : The study was conducted in three phases. Each phase was further divided into steps.

PHASE I (Qualitative Analysis)

The first phase of the study, was qualitative in nature. It covered the first objective :

Objective 1. To develop an anxiety scale for undergraduate students.

The above objective was fulfilled through the following steps:

Step 1

Exploring the views of undergraduate students, about anxiety.

To find out the views and understanding of undergraduate students, about the construct anxiety, an
open – ended questionnaire was developed, to elicit written descriptive data.. This questionnaire
consisted of the following questions:-

4. What do you know about anxiety ?

5. Today why do you think students are anxious or feel anxiety?

6. What do people do when they are in anxiety ?

This questionnaire was administered on a sample of 210 students.

Step 2

Generating pool of Items

The next step was to create an item pool, so after collecting the answer sheets , the responses to each
question were analyzed with the help of experts :

 On the basis of the analysis, items were generated.

  The items were framed keeping in mind, Edward’s (1967) informal criteria of framing items.

 Items under similar themes were grouped together.

Thus a pool of items was created.

Step 3

Identifying Dimensions

 Items under similar themes were grouped together.

 Dimensions were identified.

 Extreme behaviors were avoided.

 Dimensions with less than 3 items were rejected.

 The term anxiety was defined.

 Each dimension was defined.

 Finally a pool of 97 items was created.

Step 4

Construction of Items

With the 97 items finally selected, a 5-point Likert scale was created.

PHASE II (Quantitative Analysis)

Phase II, of the study was quantitative in nature. It was carried out in two stages:

 In Stage 1 the 97- item anxiety scale data was analyzed. It had two steps.

 In Stage 2 the (final) 50- item anxiety scale data was analyzed. It had five steps.

The two stages, covered the second objective :

Objective 2.To find out the reliability and validity of the anxiety scale for undergraduate
students.

STAGE 1
 Analysis of 97-Item Anxiety Scale

The constructed scale of 97 items was now administered on a sample of 203 students

Step 5

Item Analysis of the 97 item scale

The data obtained was evaluated for the psychometric properties of the constructed scale, though the
following:

 Descriptives – This resulted in removing 39 items. So now the scale consisted of 58 items.
On the feedback of students and resultant expert consent and consensus, 4 more items were
removed. The scale was now a 54 item scale.

 Discimination Index :

(iii)t-test – On the basis of the t-test,4 more items were removed, resulting in a 50 item scale.

(iv) Correlation- No item was removed, as all were significant at the 0.01 level.

Difficulty Index was not considered as this was an anxiety scale.

Step 6

Reliability of the remaining 50-item anxiety scale :

Cronbach’s Alpha (1951) = 0. 900.

Split- Half = 0.940

STAGE 2

Analysis of 50-Item Anxiety Scale

For further analysis of the finally constructed 50 item scale, it was administered on
a sample of 826 students, 400 from SHIATS and 426 from A.U.The data thus
collected was analysed:

Step 7
Item analysis of the constructed 50 item scale :

 Descriptives

 Discimination Index :

(v) t-test

(vi) Correlation

No item was removed through the above analysis ,as all the items were found to be significant.

Step 8

Reliability of the 50 Item Scale

After item analysis of the 50 item scale, its reliability was calculated through :

 Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.890

 Split – Half Coefficient = 0.881

 Test-Retest – This was calculated on a sample of 173 students, 85 from SHIATS and 88
from A.U. The correlation obtained was = 0.958.

Step 9

Validity of the 50 item scale

So, this Scale 1 (Anxiety Scale for Undergraduate Students), was administered with three other
scales, to check its validity. These scales were :

Janet Taylor’s Manifest Anxiety Inventory ( 1953) – Scale 2

Zung’s Anxiety Inventory (1971) –Scale 3

Sinha’s Anxiety Test ( 1968) –Scale 4

The correlation between all the tests, was found significant at the 0.01 level.

Step 10

Factor Analysis of 50- Item Scale

After item analysis, and finding out the reliability and validity of the anxiety scale for undergraduate
students, its factor analysis was done, to find out the dimensions (factors) and the items that came
under them, through SPSS.

The factor analysis resulted in 15 factors, out of which, 5 factors had less than 3 items, so to best
represent and interpret the items, the expert panel was consulted. With their consent and consensus, a
five factor solution was found to be the best. A Scree Plot was drawn, which showed that the 5 –
factor solution was most appropriate.

Step 11

Dimensions Identified

The factor loadings from the rotated component matrix, resulted in the following factors/dimensions
and items in each of them:

1.Psychological Manifestations = 15

2.Worry about the Future = 10

3.Competitive Environment = 12

4.Societal Pressure = 08

5.Friendship with the Opposite Sex = 05

Total = 50

A new dimension was identified- that of friendship with the opposite sex.

PHASE III (Quantitative Analysis)

The third phase of the study covered the third objective :

Objective 3. To standardize the Anxiety Scale for Undergraduate Students.

Step 12

Conversion of raw scores into z-scores - For the calculation of norms, z-scores were computed for
each raw score.

Step 13

Determination of Norms
After calculating the z-scores for all the raw scores, the range of z-scores were divided into three
levels, according to their corresponding raw scores.

Step 14

Levels of Anxiety in the Sample

The frequencies of each raw score were evaluated. From this data, the number of undergraduate
students having different levels of anxiety in the sample, were tabulated.

Findings of the Study

1. The constructed Anxiety Scale of Undergraduate Students, having 50 items ( N = 826 ), was
highly reliable.

2. Inter- item correlation was high as- Cronbach Alpha was 0.890 and Split – Half Coefficient
was 0.881.

3. Item –total Correlation was significant at the 0.01 level.

4. Test-retest reliability was 0.958.

5. Validity was high as the coefficient was significant at the 0.01 level, with 3 other
standardized scales of anxiety, viz. Taylor’s Manifest Anxiety Scale, Zung’s Anxiety Scale
and Sinha’s Anxiety Scale.

6. Factor analysis identified 5 factors-.Psychological Manifestations (15 items), Worry about the
Future (10 items),Competitive Environment (12 items), Societal Pressure (08 items) and
Friendship with the Opposite Sex (05 items).

7. Norms (using z-scores), revealed that-

i. 199 students experienced high anxiety, i.e. 24.09%

ii. 496students experienced normal anxiety, i.e. 60.05%.

iii. 131 students experienced low anxiety, i.e. 15.86%..

Delimitation of the Study

1. The study was carried out in Allahabad only.

Educational Implications of the Study:

Findings of the present study indicate that a fairly large number(about one-fourth) of undergraduate
university students, experience high anxiety in diverse areas like studies, job,

career, society, friendship with the opposite sex and about the future, so –

1. Through proper guidance and counseling, of the undergraduate students, the area their anxiety
should be found out, to find solutions to their problems.

2. There should be adequate and proper co-curricular and extra curricular activities, to provide
respite from the humdrum curriculum.

3. The teachers should create a relaxed, educative atmosphere, that does not put pressure on the
students.

4. The university administration should also help create a peaceful atmosphere on the campus.

5. The parents of the students, should have harmony at home and a warm and caring relationship
among the family members.

6. This study will be helpful in using interventions to reduce the students’ anxiety, must begin
from the time they enter higher education.

7. The study will give direction, as to how to make useful orientation programmes, that make
students aware of situations they might encounter, which, if not handled wisely, might lead to
difficulties, leading to anxiety.

8. The study will contribute to framing the content of workshops, seminars and conferences to
educate the students to use the internet, mobiles, applications provided by digital services, etc.
judiciously, to protect themselves from anxiety prone situations.

9. The study will be helpful in making the students realize the value of Yoga and physical
excercises. They are like fuel for the body machine, so must be regularly indulged in, under
proper supervision, of educators.

10. The study also shows the urgency of other interventions like music therapy and spending time
in hobbies, to get rid of unwanted anxiety. These faculties may be provided in the campus.
 11. From the present study, it s concluded that the students’ anxiety can degrade their academic
performance, therefore, their apprehensions about - jobs, career, friends and the future-need be
cared for through their education.

12. The study reveals that universities need to attend to this problem, not only of high anxiety, but
also of low anxiety also. The latter results in students taking risks without bothering for
consequences, being irresponsible, careless and sluggish.

13. The study will contribute to enhance the teaching- learning process.

14. The study will contribute to the education system in dealing with the anxiety problems of
students.

15. The study will help in measuring the anxiety levels of students and help in identifying the
causes which may be studied and removed.

16. The study will help the students to be better students and citizens of the country and the world.

Suggestions for further Research:

1. The study can be on the basis of gender

2. This study was on graduate students only, so it may include postgraduates and other
levels in higher education

3. The study may be on school and primary children.

4. The study can be on the anxiety levels of teachers.

5. The parents of university and other levels of education can be done.

6. A comparison may be made of anxiety in open and other universities.

7. Cross- cultural studies of anxiety of Indian students and foreign can be done.

8. The study was limited to Allahabad only. It could be compared across districts.

9. The study can be in other states of India and a comparison can be done.

10. A large sample may be taken, to further study the variables and construct of anxiety.

11. A study of professional and non-professional youth may be done.

12. A study of anxiety of parents and the academic performance of their offsprings can be
done.

13. The anxiety scale may be administered in successive yrs. or different sessions and the
results compared.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aarona, Ragan E; Rineharta Kimberly L. and Ceballosa, Natalie Ann. (1994), ‘What
Connections Exist Between Panic Symptoms, Shyness, Type 1 Hypersensitivity, Anxiety
and Anxiety Sensitivity? Arts-Based Interventions to Reduce Anxiety Levels
Among College Students’, Anxiety, Stress and Coping: An International Journal Volume 7, Issue 1,
1994 pages 27-38 DOI: 10.1080/17533015.2010.481290

Ahlen, Johan; Breitholtz, Elisabeth; Barrett, Paula M. and Gallegos, Julia (2012) ‘School-based
Prevention of Anxiety and Depression: a Pilot Study in Sweden’, Advances in School Mental Health
Promotion,Vol.5, Issue 4, 2012,DOI: 10.1080/1754730X.2012.730352 pages 246-257 Published
online: 30 Oct 2012.

Ahmed, Zarina and Julius, Sheela Hemlatha (2015),’ Academic Performance, Resilience,
Depression, Anxiety and Stress among Women College Students’, Indian Journal of Positive
Psychology, Volume - 6 (2015), Issue – 4, Pg .367-370

Aktekin, M1; Karaman, T.; Senol, YY; Erdem, S.; Erengin H and Akaydi M.(2001),’Anxiety,
Depression and Stressful Life Events among Medical Students: A Prospective Study in Antalya’,
Turkey.’Med Educ. 2001 Jan;35(1):12-7.

Alexander, Sandra J. and Harrison, Allyson G.(2013),’Cognitive Responses to Stress, Depression

and Anxiety and their Relationship to ADHD Symptoms in First Year Psychology Students’, Journal
of Attention Disorders, 17 (1),29-37, 2013, Sage Publications.

Al-Gelban, Khalid S. (2007), ‘Depression, Anxiety and Stress among Saudi Adolescent School
Boys’, doi: 10.1177/1466424007070492 Perspectives in Public Health January 2007 vol. 127 no.
1 33-37.

Ali, Muhammad Shabbir and Mohsin, Muhammad Naeem., (2013), ‘Test Anxiety Inventory
(TAI): Factor Analysis and Psychometric Properties’, IOSR Journal Of Humanities and Social
Science (IOSR-JHSS)Volume 8, Issue 1 (Jan. - Feb. 2013), PP 73-81.

Ambrose, Belinda and Rholes, William S. (1993), ‘Automatic Cognitions and the Symptoms of
Depression and Anxiety in Children and Adolescents: an Examination of the Content-Specific
Hypothesis’, Cognitive Therapy and Research. ;17:153–171.).
Anastasi, A., and Urbina, S. (1998). ‘Psychological Testing’, 7th edition, Prentice-Hall
International. Upper Saddle River, New Jersy.

Anderson, K.O.and Masur F.T. (1989),‘ Psychological Preparation for Invasive Medical and
Dental Procedure’, Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 1989; 6: 1- 40.

Ansari, Z. A. (1983). Study habits and attitudes of students.NIP, Islamabad.

Arezou, Asghari; Rusnani, Abdul Kadir; Habibah, Elias. and Maznah, Baba.(2012),’Test
Anxiety and its Related Concepts: A Brief Review’,GESJ: Education Science and Psychology
2012|No.3(22) ISSN 1512-1801 4.

Asberga, Kia.,(2013) ‘Hostility/Anger as a Mediator Between College Students’ Emotion

Regulation Abilities and Symptoms of Depression, Social Anxiety, and Generalized Anxiety’, DOI:
10.1080/00223980.2012.715601, pages 469-490, Published online: 18 Jul 2013.

Asthana, Bipin.( 2011),’Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education’ Agrawal

Publications, Agra, Twelfth Edition.

Aydin, S. (2008). ‘An Investigation on Language Anxiety and Fear of Negative Evaluation Among
Turkish EFL Learners’. Asian EFL Journal. 30(1), 421-444.

Bakhla,A K; Sinha,P; Sharan, R.; Binay, Y; Verma, V. and Chaudhary, S. (2013),’Anxiety in

School Students: Role of Parenting and Gender’,Indian Psychiatry Journal,2013:22;131-7.

Baloglu, Mustafa ; Abbasi, Amir andMasten, William G.(2007),’ A Cross-Cultural Comparison

Of Anxiety Among College Students’, College Student Journal, Issue 4, Vol. 41, Dec. 2007.

Banga,Chaman Lal, (2014),’Academic Anxiety Among High School Students in Relation to

Different Social Categories’, International Multidisciplinary e- Journal,Vol. III, Issue III, pgs.73-
87,March,2014.

Bar-Haim, Yair ; Lamy, Dominique ;Pergamin,Lee ; Bakermans- Kranenburg, Marian and

Ijzendoorn, Marinus H Van, (2007)’ Threat- Related Attentional Bias in Anxious and Non anxious
Individuals : A Meta-Analytic Study’, Psychological Bulletin, 2007,Vol. 133, No. 1, pp. 1-24.

Barinder, M.(1985),’A Study of General Anxiety and Test Anxiety with reference to the
Environmental Factors and Extraversion- Introversion of Delhi Students’, Ph.D. Edu., Del. U., 1985,
Fourth Survey of Research in Education, New Delhi. NCERT.
Barlow, David H. (2000),’Unravelling the Mysteries of Anxiety and its Disorders from the
Perspective of Emotion Theory’, American Psychologist,55 911):1247-63.

Barnes,Laura L.B.; Harp, Diane and Jung, WooSik (2002).’Reliability Generalizations of Scores
on the Spielberger State- Trait Anxiety Inventory’ ,Educational and Psychological Measurement,
Vol. 62 No. 4, August 2002 603-618 © 2002 Sage Publications.

Baskin, D. and Simari, C G., (1981), ‘Anxiety The Appropriate Treatment for Diverse
Experimental States’ ,Indian Journal of Psychology, 1981, 56, 9 -22.

Bazmi, Inam (2007),’Anxiety and Depression among Students of a Medical College in Saudi
Arabia’.Int J Health Sci (Qassim) 2007 Jul;1(2):295-300.

Bean, Kenneth. L (1953),’Construction of Educational and Personnel Tests’, McGraw Hill.

Bech P, Kastrup M, Rafaelsen OJ. (1986) ‘Minicompendium of Rating Scales for States of
Anxiety, Depression, Mania, and Schizophrenia, with Corresponding DSM-III Syndromes’,.Acta
Psychiatr and Sc. 1986;73(suppl326):1–37.

Beck, A.T. (1972) 'The Phenomena of Depression: A Synthesis', in Offer and Freeman (1972), pp.
136-58.

Beck, AT; Epstein, N; Brown, G;et al. (1988) ‘An Inventory For Measuring Clinical Anxiety:
Psychometric Properties’. J Consult Clin Psychol 1988;56:893–897.

Becker-Schmidt (1982), ‘Regina. Reality and Ambivalence replete with Contradictions, Women’s
Work Experience in Factory and Family’,1982, Dahn Udkast, Vol. 10 (2), 164-168.

Bedewy, Dalia and Gabriel, Adel (2013), ‘The Development and Psychometric Assessment of a
Scale to Measure the Severity of Examination Anxiety Among Undergraduate University Students’,
International Journal of Educational Psychology, 2(1), 81-104.

Best, John W. and Kahn, James V. (1989)’ Research in Education’, Sixth Edition, Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd. ,New Delhi.

Bhamani, S., and Hussain, N. (2012), ‘Social Anxiety in Higher Education Learning Context: Scale
Construction And Reliability’. Golden Research Thoughts, 2(5).

Bhansali, Reena. and Trivets, Kunjan (2008), ‘Is Academic Anxiety Gender Specific?: A
Comparative Study’, Journal of Social Sciences, New Delhi. Vol.17, No.1, July 2008. pp.1-3.
Bharati, Jaya (2016), ‘Anxiety among U.P. Board Students in Uttar Pradesh, India’, The
International Journal of Indian Psychology ISSN 2348-5396 (e) | ISSN: 2349-3429(p) Volume 3,
Issue 2, No.5.Jan.-March, 2016.

Bhargava, Sushma (1989), ‘A Psychological Study of Anxiety and Conflicts in Relation to Rigidity,
Flexibility and Level of Aspiration’, Ph.D. Psy. Agra University, Pg.870, Fifth Survey of Research n
Education, New Delhi, NCERT.

Binswanger, L (1963).,’Being in the World’,( Trans. J. Needleman),New York: Basic Books Inc.

Bitsikaa, Vicki and Sharpleyb, Christopher F. (2012), ‘Comorbidity Of Anxiety-Depression

Among Australian University Students: Implications For Student Counsellors’ DOI:
10.1080/03069885.2012.701271, pages 385-394 Published online: 05 Jul 2012.

Blanchard, R.J. and Blanchard, D.C. (1990),’An Etho -Experimental Analysis of Defence, Fear
and Anxiety’ in McNaughton N. and Andrews G. (Eds.) ‘Anxiety, Otago Univ. Press.

Blankstein, Kirk R.;.Flettb, Gordon L; Watson, C; Mark S. and Koledin , Spomenka

(2007),‘Test Anxiety, Self-Evaluative Worry, and Sleep Disturbance in College Students’, DOI:
10.1080/08917779008248752, pages 193-204,Received: 23 May 1990, Published online: 29 May
2007.

Bodas, Jaee and Ollendick, Thomas H.(2005),’ Test Anxiety : A Cross- Cultural
Perspective’,Clinical Child and Family Review, 04/ 2005, 8 (1), 6-88.

Boss, M. (1962) 'Anxiety, Guilt and Psychotherapeutic Liberation' Review of Existential Psychology
and Psychiatry, Vol 11, no.3, Sept.

Bostick, Sharon L. (1992). ‘The Development and Validation of the Library Anxiety Scale’,
ProQuest Dissertations.

Bowlby, J. (1973),’Attachment and Loss: Vol. II. Separation, Anxiety and Anger’, N Y: Basic
Books.

Brown, Lorraine (2008),’Language and Anxiety: An Ethnographic Study of International

Postgraduate Students’, Evaluation and Research in Education, 21:2,75 -95. DOI:
10.1080/09500790802152167, pages 75-95, Published online: 19 Dec 2008.
Brown, W. (1910). ‘Some Experimental Results in the Correlation of Mental Abilities’. British
Journal of Psychology, 3, 296–322.

Byrant FB, Yarnold PR, Michelson E.(1999),‘Statistical Methodology: VIII. Using Confirmatory
Factor Analysis (CFA) in Emergency Medicine Research’, Academic Emergency Medicine,
1999;6(1):54-66.

Byron, Kris and Khazanchi, Shalini. (2011),’A Meta-Analytic Investigation of the Relationship of
State and Trait Anxiety to Performance on Figural and Verbal Creative Tasks’,Pers Soc Psychol Bull
Feb. vol. 37 no. 2 269-283,doi: 10.1177/0146167210392788.

Carmel, S. and Bernstein, J., (1990),’ Trait Anxiety, Sense of Coherence and Medical School
Stressors: Observations at Three Stages’, Anxiety Research, 3, 51-60.

Carruth, Emily; Taylor, Nadine and Spear, Debra. (2009),’The Influence of Aerobic Exercise on
State Anxiety in College Students’, SDSU Journal of Undergraduate Research, South Dakota
University, Vol. 7.

Cassady. Jerrell and Johnson, Ronald E. (2002),’Cognitive Test Anxiety and Academic
Performance’, Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27, 270–295.

Castaneda, A., Boyd, R., Palermo, M. and Palermo D. S. ( 1956). ‘The Children’s Form of the
Manifest Anxiety Scale’ Child Development, 27(3), pp. 317-326,Sep. 1956.

Cattell R B. (1966)‘The Scree Test for the Number of Factors’, Multivariate Behavioral Research
;1(2):245-76.

Cattell, R. B. and Scheier, I.H (1961),’ The Meaning and Measurement of Neuroticism and
Anxiety’, New York, Ronald Press.

Cattell, R B. and Sheier, I H. (1963), ‘Handbook for the IPAT Anxiety Scale’, 2nd ed. Institute for
Personality and Ability Testing; Champaign (IL): 1963.

Chadha, N.K. (1982) ‘Stress, Anxiety and Performance’, Asian Journal of Psychology and
Education, 9(2), 16-21.

Chatterjee, S; Mukherjee, M.; Chakraborty, S.N. and Hasan, M.K. (1976),’Effect of Sex,
Urbanisation and Caste on Anxiety’, Journal of Psychological Researches, 20 (2), 5-58.
Chaturvedi, S.C. (1981),’Effects of State/Trait Anxiety and Field Independence upon Cognitive
Competence’, Ph.D. Edu., Utkal U., 1981, Research in Psychology of Education-Abstracts, Third
Survey of Research in Education, New Delhi, NCERT.

Chua, S.L. ;Chen, D. and Wong, A.F.L. (1999),’Computer anxiety and its correlates: A Meta
Analysis. Computer Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety’, Review Of
Educational Research , Spring 1988 Vol. 58 No. 147-77.

Clark, Lee Anna and Watson, David (1991),’Tripartite Model Of Anxiety And Depression:
Psychometric Evidence And Taxonomic Implications’. J Abnorm Psychol 1991;100: 316–336.

Clark, Lee Anna and Watson, David (1995).,’Constructing Validity : Basic Issues in Objective
Scale Development’, Psychological Assessment ,Sept. Vol. 7, No. 3.

Clements, Andrea D and Bailey, Beth A., (2010) ‘The Relationship between Temperament and
Anxiety Phase I in the Development of a Risk Screening Model to Predict Stress-Related Health
Problems’, Journal of Health Psychology, May 2010 vol15 no 1 515-525

Collins English Dictionary, (2003). William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd - 2003 - 6th Ed.

Collins, Sabrina; Woolfson, Lisa Marks and Durkin, Kevin. (2013),‘Effects on Coping Skills and
Anxiety of a Universal School-Based Mental Health Intervention delivered in Scottish Primary
Schools’, Published online before print January 3, 2013, doi:10.1177/0143034312469157 School
Psychology International February 2014 vol. 35 no. 1 85-100.

Cronbach, L. (1951), ‘Coefficient Alpha and the Internal Structure of Tests’. Psychometrika, 16,
297‐ 334.

Cui, Jingjing (2011), ‘Research on High School Students’ English Learning Anxiety’, Journal of
Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 2, No. 4 , pp. 875 -880, July 2011.

Cullari, S ( Ed. 1998),’Foundations of Clinical Psychology’, Boston : Allyn and Bacon.

Dagaur, B.S.(1988),’Relationship Between Neuroticism, Anxiety and Creative Thinking in The

Context of Extraversion, Psychotism and Sex’, Indian Educational Review, Vol. 23,(2):15-31.

Dama, Nicholas T. Van; . Grosbc, Daniel F.; Earleywinea, Mitch and Antonyde, Martin
M., (2011) ‘Establishing A Trait Anxiety Threshold That Signals Likelihood Of Anxiety Disorders’,
DOI: 10.1080/10615806.2011.631525, pages 70-86, Published online: 17 Nov 2011.
Damera, Diana E. and Melendresa, Lauren T.,(2011) ’ Tackling Test Anxiety”: A Group
for College Students’,DOI:10.1080/01933922.2011.586016page163-177,Published online: 08 Jun
2011.

DASS - Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (1994),-DSM-IV, 4th ed.
Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.

Deb, Sibnath; Chatterjee, Pooja and Walsh, Kerryann. (2010),’Anxiety Among High School
Students In India : Comparisons Across Gender, School Type, Social Strata and Perceptions Of
Quality Time With Parents’, Australian Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology,
Vol.10, 2010,pp. 18 – 31.

Depreeuw , Eric A M. (1984) ‘A Profile Of The Test-Anxious Student’, Article first published
online: 29 APR 2008 DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.1984.tb01430.x International Review of Applied
Psychology Volume 33, Issue 2, pages 221–232, April 1984.

Devi, Girish B.,(1969)’A Study of Anxiety in Men and Women- College Studies’, Psychological
Studies,Vol.14(1), 35-38,1969.

Devine, Amy ; Fawcett, Kayleigh; Szucs, Denes and Dowker, Ann. (2012),’Gender Differences in
Mathematics Anxiety and the Relation to Mathematics Performance while Controlling for Test
Anxiety’ ,Behavioral and Brain Functions 2012, 8:33
http://www.behavioralandbrainfunctions.com/content/8/1/33.

Dillbeck, Michael C.(2006) ,’The Effect of the Transcendental Meditation Technique on Anxiety
Level, Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 33,Issue 4, pgs.1076-1078,Oct.1977, first published
online Feb. 2006.

Dobmeier , Robert A; Hernandez, Thomas J; Barrell, G. Randi; Burke, Donalle M.; Hann,
Crystal M. ; Luce, B. David; Catlin-Rakoski, Stephanie J.; Rowe, Janine M. and Siclare,
Monica. (2011),’ Student Knowledge of Signs, Risk Factors and Resources for Depression, Anxiety,
Sleep Disorders and other Mental Health Problems on Campus ’, CSPA-NYS Journal of Student
Affairs, Vol. 11, Issue 1, 2011.

Dollard, J. and Miller, E.W. (1950),’Personality and Psychotherapy’, New York: McGraw Hill.

Downey,J.(2008,), ‘Premium Choice Anxiety’, In Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Retrieved

August 17, 2012, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety.
Dubli, K. (1986), Retention of Various Types of Materials under Various Cue Situations in Relation
to Anxiety-Level and Personality Characteristics, Ph.D. Psy., RSU, 1986,Fourth Survey of Research
in Education, New Delhi, NCERT.

Durlak, Joseph A. and Wells, Anne M. (1997) ’ Primary Prevention Mental Health Programs for
Children and Adolescents: A Meta-Analytic Review’, American Journal of Community Psychology,
Vol. 25, No. 2, 1997.

Dutt, Sunil (1989),’The Effect of Problem-Solving Strategies on the Problem Solving Ability in
Science of High School Students, in relation to Anxiety level, cognitive Style and Intelligence’,
Ph.D., Edu. Punjab Univ. Fifth Survey of Educational Research.1988-92, Cognitive Processes, Chief
Editor M.B. Buch, pg.985-986.

Dvorak- Bertsch, Jeremy D; Curtin, John J; Rubinstein, Tal J and Newman, Joseph P
(2010).‘Anxiety Moderates the Interplay Between Cognitive and Affective Processing’, doi:
10.1177/0033688210373640 RELC Journal August 2010 vol. 41 no. 2 183-200.

Dwivedi, Neeta. and Gunthey, Ravi. (2005) Influence of Medium of Instruction on Level of
Academic Anxiety Among School Students, Edutracks, Vol.5(4),December 31-32.

Edward, A.L. (1967). ‘Techniques Of Attitude Scale Construction’. Vakils, Feffer and Simons Inc,
New York.

Einbindera, Susan Dana (2014).,‘Reducing Research Anxiety Among MSW Student’, DOI:
10.1080/08841233.2013.863263 pages 2-16, Published online: 30 Jan 2014

Embsea, Nathaniel von der and Hassona, Ramzi, (2012) ‘Test Anxiety and High-Stakes Test
Performance Between School Settings: Implications for Educator's’, DOI:,
10.1080/1045988X.2011.633285 ,pages,180-187, Published online: 30 Apr 2012.

Endler NS. (1975) ‘A Person-Situation Inter-Action Model For Anxiety’. In: Spielberger CD,
Sarason IG, eds. Stress and Anxiety,Vol. 1.Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing,1975:145–164.

Endler, NS; Edwards. JM, and Vitelli R. Endler (1991a),’ Multidimensional Anxiety Scales:
Manual,’1st ed. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

Endler, Norman S.; Edwards, Jean M.; Vitellic, Romeo and Parkerd, James D.A
(2007),’AssessmentofStateandTrait Anxiety:EndlerMultidimensional Anxiety Scales’,DOI:10.1080/0
8917778908249322., pages1-14, Received: 17 Mar 1989, Published online: 29 May.
Endler, NS and Kocovski, NL (2001), ‘State and Trait Anxiety Revisited’. Anx Disord 15:231–245.

Erktin, Emine (2000), STAR Participation and Contributions, STAR Newsletter, November 2000.

Eysenck, H (1957),’The Dynamics of Anxiety and Hysteria’,NY: Praeger.

Eysenck, M W.(1988),’Trait Anxiety and Stress’. In Handbook of Life Stress, Cognition and Health.
S. Fisher and J. Reason (Eds.),NY and London: Wiley.

Eysenck, H. J. (1997), ‘Personality And Experimental Psychology: The Unification Of Psychology

And The Possibility Of A Paradigm’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1224–1237.

Fernández-Castillo, A. and Caurcel, M. J. (2015), ‘State Test-Anxiety, Selective Attention and

Concentration in University Students’, International Journal of Psych, 50: 265–271.
doi: 10.1002/ijop.12092.

Fisher, W.F.(1970),’Theories of Anxiety’, NY and London: Harper and Row.

Flanders, N. A. and Simon A., (1969)’Teacher Effectiveness’, in R.L. Ebel(Ed.), Encyclopedia of

Educational Research’,(4th ed.),New York, Macmillan.

Floyd, Frank J. and Widaman, Keith F. (1995),’Factor Analysis in the Development and
Refinement of Clinical Assessment Instruments’, Psychological Assessment, Vol. 7, No. 3,286-299.

Ford, Harriett., (2009)‘Norm – Referenced Testing’, Derived Scores, Reviewing the Adequacy of a
Norm Group, Strengths and Weaknesses of Norm-Referenced Tests’, The Status of Norm-Referenced
Testing, updated Dec.23, 2009.

Foster, C. and Spencer, L. (2003), ‘Are Undergraduate Engineering Students at Greater Risk or
Heart Disease than other Undergraduate Students?’, Journal of Engineering Education, 92(1), 73-77.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2003.tb00740.x

Freud, S. (1917),’Introductory Lectures 011 Psychoanalysis (1975)’, In The Standard Edition of the
Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, London: Hogarth Press.

Freud, S. (1923). ‘The Ego And The Id’., S.E., 19:12-66.

Freud, S. (1924), ‘Infantile Organization Of Libido: Supplement Theory Sexuality’, Int. J.

Psychoanalysis., 5:125-129.
Freud, S. (1926), ‘Inhibitions Symptoms and Anxiety, 1975’. In The Standard Edition of the
Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, London: Hogarth Press.

Fromm-Reichmann, F. (1956), ‘Personal Communication’.

Fullagar, Clive J; Sovern , Heather S and Knight, Patrick A, (2013) ‘Challenge/Skill Balance,
Flow, and Performance Anxiety’, Article first published online: 12 APR 2012 DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-
0597.2012.00494.x © 2012 The Authors. Applied Psychology: An International Review © 2012
International Association of Applied Psychology Volume 62, Issue 2, pages 236–259, April 2013.

Furr,R.Michael (2010).,‘Scale Construction and Psychometrics for Social and Personality

Psychology’, Chpt. 2- ‘Core Principles, Best Practices, and an Overview of Scale Construction ‘, 00-
Furr-4149-Prelims.indd 3 11/10/2010 5:18:13 PM, Sage Publications.

Fydrich T, Dowdall D and Chambless DL. (1992), ‘Reliability and Validity of the Beck Anxiety
Inventor’,. J Anx Disord 1992;6:55–61.

Ganguli, HC (2000), ‘Epidemiological Findings On Prevalence Of Mental Disorders In India,’

Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 2000; 42(1), 14-20.

Ganihar, N. N. and Wajiha, A. H. (2009), ‘Factors Affecting Academic Achievement of IX

Standard Students in Mathematics’, Journal of Educational Studies, Allahabad. Vol.6, No.1, pp.16-
23.

Ghaderi, A.R., Venkatesh Kumar, G., and Sampath Kumar (2009)., ‘Depression, Anxiety and
Stress among the Indian and Iranian Students’,© Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied
Psychology, January 2009, Vol. 35, No.1, 33-37.

Gjerde, P F (1993), ‘Depressive Symptoms In Young Adults: A Developmental Perspective On

Gender Differences’, In: Funder DC, Parke DR, Tomilinson- Keasey CA, Widaman K (eds),’
Studying Lives Through Time’, American Psychological Association, Washington DC., pp. 255–288.

Gliem, Joseph A. and Gliem, Rosemary R.,(2003), ‘Adult, Continuing, and Community Education
Calculating, Interpreting, and reporting Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Coefficient for Likert-Type
Scales’, Midwest Research to Practice Conference.

Goldstein, K. (1939),’The Organism, a Holistic Approach to Biology’,New York: American Books.

Gray, J. A. (1982), ‘The Neuropsychology of Anxiety: An Enquiry into the Functions of the Septo-
Hippocampal System’, Oxford University Press.

Gray, J. A. (1987).’The Psychology Of Fear And Stress’, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gray, J. A. and McNaughton, N. (1996). ‘Comparison Between The Behavioural Effect Of Septal
And Hippocampal Lesions: A Review’, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 7, 119–88.

Grinker, Roy R. (1959), ’Anxiety as a Significant Variable for a Unified Theory of Human
Behavior’,Ama Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1 (5),pp. 537-546.

Guttman, L. (1945), A basis for analysing test-retest reliability. Psychometrika,

10,255‐282.Patterns’, Psychological Bulletin, 1988;103(2):265-75.

Gyanoni, T.C. (1984), ‘Frustration Reactions as Functions of Achievement Motivation and Anxiety
at Different Age Levels’, Ph.D. Edu., Agra U., 1984,Fourth Survey of Research in Education, New
Delhi,NCERT.

Hamilton M. (1969) ‘Diagnosis and Rating Of Anxiety,’ Br J Psychiatry 1969; Special Publication
#3:76–79.

Han,Hae-Ra,’(2009) Measuring Anxiety in Children: A Methodological Review of the

Literature’,Asian Nursing Research , June 2009 ,Vol. 3, No 2.

Harrigan, Jinni; Wilson, Kate and Rosenthal, Robert.(2004), ‘Detecting State and Trait Anxiety
from Auditory and Visual Cues: A Meta-Analysis’ Pers Soc Psychol Bull Jan 2004 Vol. 30, No. 1,
56-66.
Hassani, Samira and Rajab, Azizah (2014), ‘Review of Current Developments in Reading Anxiety,
First Language Reading and Second Language Proficiency in Association with Second or Foreign
Language Reading Comprehension’, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol. 4,
No. 9(1); July 2014.

Hawkins, John N and Tanaka, Yoshiro.,(1992) ‘Japanese Education: A Context for Test Anxiety’
Anxiety, Stress and Coping: An 'International Journal Volume 5, Issue 3, pp 195-203, 1992

Hedl , John J. Jr. (2008) ‘A Factor Analytic Study of the Test Anxiety Inventory’, Article first
published online: 29 APR 2008 DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.1984.tb01435.x International Review of
Applied Psychology Volume 33, Issue 2, pages 267–283, April 1984 Database: Psyc INFO [ Journal
Article ]
Hemamalini. H.C., (March,2011), ‘Anxiety and Academic Achievement of High.School Students
of Mysore City’. Journal of Community Guidance and Research, Vol 28(1). 0970-1346..

Hembree, R. (1988).’Correlates, Causes, And Treatment Of Test Anxiety’,Review of Educational

Research, 58,47–77.

Hinkin, Timothy R; Tracey, J. Bruce and Enz, Cathy A.(1997)’Scale Construction : Developing
Reliable and Valid Measurement Instruments’, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, Sage
Publications, 21 (1),100-120.

Hocevar, Dennis and Eid El-Zahhar , Nabi(1988) ‘ Arousability, Trait Anxiety And The Worry
And Emotionality Components Of Test Anxiety’, Anxiety Research, Anxiety, Stress and Coping,
Vol.1, Issue 2, pp 99- 113, 1988.,

Hopko, Derek R; Mahadevan, Rajan; Bare, Robert L. and Hunt, Melissa K, (2003),‘The
Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (AMAS): Construction, Validity, and Reliability’, Assessment,
2003; 10; 178.

Horney, K. (1964),’Neurosis and Human Growth: The Struggle Towards Self- Realisation’, N.
York: W.W. Norton.

Horn JL.(1965),‘A Rationale And Test For The Number Of Factors In Factor
Analysis’,Psychometrika, 30(2):179-85. Costello and Osborne, 2005.

Horwitz, E. K.; Horwitz, M. B. and Cope, J. (1986),’Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety’, The
Modern Language Journal,Vol. 70,No. 2 (Summer,1986),pp. 125-132.

Hundal, P.S. and Kaur, S.(1972),’ Study of Cattell’s Anxiety Scale Questionnaire’, Indian Journal
of Psychological Research, 18, 41 -45.

Hurd, Stella and Xiao, Junhong.(2001), ‘Anxiety and Affective Control Among Distance Language
Learners in China and the UK’, doi: 10.1177/097133360101300103 Psychology Developing Societies
March 2001 Vol. 13, No. 1, 51-69.

Ibrahim, Abdul Rehman I.(1998),’Changes in Level of Anxiety and Academic Performance of

College Students’, Ilorin Journal of Education,Vol. 18, Sept. 1998, pgs. 103-111. ISSN 0189-6636.

Item Discrimination Indices, www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt163a.htm.’ Item Discrimination Indices’.

Izard, C.E.(1977),’Human Emotions’, NY and London: Plenum Press.

Izard, C. (1987),‘Perspectives on Emotional Development’,Handbook of Infant Development.

Izard, C.E.(1991),’The Psychology of Emotions’, NY and London: Plenum Press.

Jacobs, Keith W. and Suess, James F.(1975),’Effects of Four Psychological Primary Colors on
Anxiety State’, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 41, 207-210.

Jansen, Kate L.; Motleya, Rebecca and Hovey, Joseph (2009) .,’Anxiety, Depression
and Students’ Religiosity’, DOI:, 10.1080/13674670903352837, pages 267-271, Accepted: 21 Sept..
2009, Published online: 11 Nov 2009

Johanson, George A and Brooks, Gordon P (2010).,‘Initial Scale Development: Sample Size for
Pilot Studies’, Educational and Psychological Measurement 70(3) 394 –400 © 2010 SAGE
Publications DOI: 10.1177/0013164409355692 http://epm.sagepub.co

Joycea, Aaron W.; Rossa, Michael J.; Wala, Jillon S. Vander and Austina, Chammie C.,(2009)
‘College Students' Preferences for Psychotherapy Across Depression, Anxiety, Relationship, and
Academic Problems’, DOI:, 10.1080/87568220902794150, pages 212-226, Published online: 18 Jun
2009.

Julian, Laura J.(2011),’Measures of Anxiety, State – Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) , Beck
Anxiety Inventory (BAI) and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale- Anxiety (HADS-A)’,Arthritis
Care and Research, Vol. 63, No. S11, Nov. 2011, pp S467 – S472.

Kaiser H F (1960).’The Application Of Electronic Computers To Factor Analysis’,.Educational and

Psychological Measurement. 1960;20:141-51.

Kao, Po-Chi and Craige, Philip (2010), ‘Foreign Language Anxiety and English Achievement in
Taiwanese Undergraduate English-Major Students: An Empirical Study’, Received 27 June 2010;
accepted 7 October 2010.

Kannan, B.; Muthumanickam, A. and Chandrasekaran, S.(2012), ‘Computer Anxiety among

Higher Secondary Students’, International Journal of Development Research,Vol.2, Issue,4,pp.1008-
1011, April, 2012.

Kaplan, R M and Saccuzzo, D P. (2001),’Psychological testing: Principles, Applications and

Issues’, Wordsworth and Thompson.
Karjanto, N. and Yong, S. T. (2015) ‘Test Anxiety In Mathematics Among Early Undergraduate
Students In A British University In Malaysia’, European Journal of Engineering Education 31st July
2015.

Kaur, Deepika (1991),’A Study of the Effects of Test Anxiety, Belief in Control of Reinforcement
and Intelligence on Intellectual Achievement of Two School Populations’, Ph.D,Psy. Panjab
University, Fifth Survey of Research in Education, New Delhi, NCERT.

Kazmi, Syeda Farhana (2013), ‘Anxiety as Predictor of Aspiration among Academic Achievers’,
The Online Journal of New Horizons in Education, Volume 3, Issue 4.

Kelley, T. L. (1939), ‘The Selection Of Upper And Lower Groups For The Validation Of Test
Items’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 30, 17-24

Khan, S B. (1970), ‘Dimensions Of Manifest Anxiety And Their Relationship To College

Achievement’, J Consult Clin Psychol 1970;35:223–228.

Khan, S.R. (2014),’A Shorter Version of Sinha’s W.A. Self Analysis Form’, National Library Of
Educational and Psychological Test (NLEPT),Catalogue Of Tests, Department of Educational
Psychology and Foundations of Education National Council of Educational Research and Training
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi- 110016, S.No.3, Pg. 111.

Khanna, Shivakshy (1989).,’Life Stress, Anxiety and Depression in Working and Non- Working
Women: A Study of Moderators’, P.hD. Dept. of Psychology, H.P. Univ. Shimla.

Kim, J., and Mueller, C. W. (1978), ’Factor Analysis Statistical Methods and Practical Issues’.
Sage University Paper Series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, 07-014. Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage.

Kiran, U.(1983), ‘Anxiety, Task Complexity and Sex as Related to Verbally Expressed Preferences
and Problem Solving Performance’, Ph.D. Psy., Agra U., 1983, Research In Psychology Of
Education-Abstract .

Kierkegaard, Soren (1844),’The Concept of Anxiety’,Transl. Thomte R., Princeton, Princeton

University Press, 1980.

Klein ,M. and Rivere, J (1964).,’Love, Hate and Separation’, New York, W. W. Norton.
Kleinert, Jens (2002), ‘An Approach To Sport Injury Trait Anxiety: Scale Construction and
Structure Analysis’ European Journal of Sport Science, Volume 2, Issue 3, 2002.

Kline P (2000), ‘The Handbook of Psychometric Testing’ (2nd ed.). London, UK: Routledge.

Koul, Lokesh (2003),’Methodology of Educational Research’, Third Revised and Enlarged

Edition,Second Reprnt,2003,Vikas Publshng House,Pvt. Ltd.,New Delhi, 110014.

Krishna, Ravi M.(2004), Examination System- Taylor’s Anxiety Test-adapted by B.N.

Singh,Pg.89,DiscoveryPublishingHouse, https://books.google.co.in/books?isbn=1259026078,
retrieved 6.49 a.m.20.4.16.

Kumar, A. (2014),’Indian Adaptation of Sarason’s General Anxiety Scale for School

Children,1982’, National Library Of Educational and Psychological Test (NLEPT),Catalogue Of
Tests, Department of Educational Psychology and Foundations of Education National Council of
Educational Research and Training Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi- 110016, S.No. 222, Code:
NTL-1740, Pg.33.

Kumar, T. Shantha (2015), ‘How Anxiety and Depression can affect the Perceptual Process of
Human Life? Exploring Human Values With Nature as a Secure Base and Focussing on Healthy lfe
with Yoga and Meditation( An Empirical View of Himalayan Region)’, The International Journal of
Indian Psychology, Volume 3, Issue 1, No.8.

Kumaraswamy, Narasappa (2013), ‘Academic Stress, Anxiety and Depression among College
Students- A Brief Review’, International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities Vol. 5, No. 1
(2013), pp. 135-143.

Kumari, Archana and Jain, Jagriti (2014), ‘Examination Stress And Anxiety: A Study Of College
Students’, Global Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, Volume 4, Issue 01 December 2014.

Latha KS, Sahana M, Mariella D, Subbannayya K, Asha K.(2013),‘Factors Related to Life

satisfaction, Meaning of life, Religiosity and Death Anxiety in Health Care Staff and Students: A
cross Sectional Study from India’,Online J Health Allied Scs. 2013;12(2):7. Available at URL:
http://www.ojhas.org/issue46/2013-2-7.html.

Laing, R.D. (1961) ‘Self and Others’, Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Lal, Gurbaksh (2014),’Vocational Anxiety Scale’, National Library Of Educational and

Psychological Test (NLEPT),Catalogue Of Tests, Department of Educational Psychology and
Foundations of Education National Council of Educational Research and Training Sri Aurobindo
Marg, New Delhi- 110016, S.No.46, Pg.113.

Lazarus, R.S.(1991),’Emotion and Adaptation’, NY and Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lazarus, R. S., Averill, J. R., Opton, E. M. Jr. (1970), ‘Toward a Cognitive Theory of Emotions’,
In ‘Feelings and Emotions’, ed. M. Arnold, pp. 207-32. New York: Academic.

Leea , Scott W.(2012)’An Exploratory Study of Library Anxiety in Developmental

Education Students’, DOI:, 10.1080/02763915.2012.726806, pages 67-87, Published online: 09 Nov.

Legum, Harry L.; Schmitt, Brian K.; Pointer, Michelle P.; Muray, Roland.; O’Bryant, Beverly;
Owens-Southall, Mary and Jeter-Twilley, Rhonda (2013),’The relationship between
Undergraduate and Graduate Students’Statistical Anxiety,Wory Levels and Thei Coping Skills Based
on Age and Gender’,The American Association of Behavioural and Social Sciences Journal, Vol.17.

Levitt, Eugene E (1967), ‘The Psychology of Anxiety’, New York: Bobbs-Merill, pp. 200.

Li, Huijun and Prevatt, Frances. (2008), ‘Fears and Related Anxieties in Chinese High School
Students’, School Psychology International, Feb vo l29 no1 89-104.

Li, Huijun and Zhang, Ying. (2008),‘Factors Predicting Rural Chinese Adolescents' Anxieties,
Fears and Depression’, School Psychology International July 2008 Vol 29, No. 3 376-384.

Lian, Lim Hooi and Budin, Mardziah B T (2014),’ Investigating the Relationship between English
Language Anxiety and the Achievement of School based Oral English Test among Malaysian Form
Four Students’, International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, Vol. 2,No.
1, 67-79.

Likert, Rensis. (1932),’ A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes’, Archives of Psychology,
140 : 1-55.

Liveranta, Gabrielle I; Hofmanna, Stefan G. and Litzb, Brett T.(2004) ‘Coping

and anxiety in college students after the September 11th terrorist attacks’ Anxiety, Stress and Coping:
An International Journal, Volume, 17, Issue 2, 2004, pages 127-139.

Livneh, H and Redding, C A. (1986),‘A Factor Analytic Study Of Manifest Anxiety: A Trans-
Situational, Trans-Temporal Investigation’, J Psychol 1986;120:253–263.
Loke, Stephen W and Lowe,(2013) ‘Examination of the Psychometric Properties of the
Environmental School Transition Anxiety Scale’, Published online before print February 7, 2013,
doi:10.1177/0734282912472860 Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment October 2013 vol. 31 no.
5 459-468.

Lovibond, S.H. and Lovibond, P.F. (1995).’Manual for the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scales’,
(2nd Ed) Sydney: Psychology Foundation. Depression and Anxiety Scale (DASS).

Lowe, Patricia A. and Reynolds, Cecil R. (2005),’ Factor Structure Of AMAS-C Scores Across
Gender among Students in Collegiate Settings’, Educational and Psychological
Measurement, August 2005, Vol. 65, No. 4, 687-708.
Lowe, Patricia A; Peyton, Vicki and Reynolds, Cecil R. (2007), ‘Test Score Stability and the
Relationship of Adult Manifest Anxiety Scale–College Version Scores to External Variables Among
Graduate Students’, Journal of Psycho Educational Assessment, Volume 25 Number 1, March 2007
69-81, © 2007 Sage Publications.

Ma (2003). ‘The Causal Ordering Of Mathematics Anxiety And Mathematics Achievement: A

Longitudinal Panel Analysis’, Journal of Adolescence, 27(2), 165-179. Retrieved October 28, 2004,
from Elsevier Science Direct database.

Mahabeer, M and Bhana, K.(1984),’The Relationship between Religion, Religiosity and Death
Anxiety among Indian Adolescents’, South African Journal of Psychology, 14, 7-9.

Mahmood, Sadia and Khatoon,Tahira. (2011),’Development and validation of the Mathematics

Anxiety Scale for Secondary and Senior Secondary School Students’, British Journal of Arts and
Social Sciences,ISSN:2046-9578, Vol. 2, No. 2.

Malhotra, Taruna and Sabharwal, Sheena (2013),’Anxiety and Mental Health of Adolescents : A
Study’,International Educational E-Journal, (Quarterly), ISSN 2277-2456, Volume-II, Issue III,
July- Aug- Sept.

Malik, R.K. (1978)’A Study of Self-Disclosure,Self-Acceptance and Anxiety among College

Students’,Ph.D. Psy.,Agra Univ. Abstract No.1550, pg.1367,Research in Higher Educaton, Fourth
Survey of Research in Education,1983-88,Vol. II, Chief Editor M.B.Buch.

Mandler, G (1972).,’Helplessness: Theory and Research in Anxiety’, in C. D. Spielberger (Ed.),

‘Anxiety: current trends in Theory and Research’, New York; Academic Press.
Mandler, G.(1984),’Mind and Body’, NY and London: W.W. Norton and Co.

Marshall, J C. and Hales, L W. (1972),’Essentials of Testing’, Addison Wesley,Californa, U.S.A.

Martin, David (1961).,’A Sociology of English Religion’,London; SCM Press.Martin, F.

(1998).Handy Board Documentation. Technical Report, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MIT
Media Laboratory: Learning and Common Sense.

Martin, Andrew J. And Marsh, Herbert W.(2006),’Academic Resilience and its Psychological
and Emotional Correlates: A Construct Validity Approach’, Psychology in the Schools,Vol.43,Issue
3, pgs.267-281,March 2006.

Mary, Revina Ann; Marslin, Gregory; Frankln, Gregory and Sheeba, Caroline J. (2014), ‘Test
Anxiety Levels of Board Exam Going Students in Tamil Nadu, India’, BioMed Research
International, Volume 2014, Article ID 578323, 9 pages.

Mathison, Majorie A (1977)., ‘Curricular Interventions and Programming Innovations for the
Reduction of Mathematics Anxiety’, Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American
Psychological Association (San Francisco, California, August 26-30).

Mathur, Sarita (1989), ‘Autonomic Responses to Musical Stimuli as a Function of Sex and Anxiety
Level’, Ph.D., Psy. University of Jodhpur, pg .903-904, Psychology of Education, Fifth Survey of
Educational Research, Chief Editor M.B. Buch.

May, R (1950)., ’The Meaning of Anxiety’, New York; Ronald Press.

McDowell, Ian (2006), ‘Measuring Health: A Guide to Rating Scales and Questionnaires’, Third
Edition, Copyright © 2006, Oxford University Press, Inc.

McLeod, Bryce D.; Wood, Jeffrey J. and Weisz, John R (2007) ‘Examining the Association
between Parenting and Childhood Anxiety: A Meta-Analysis’, Clinical Psychology Review 27 (2007)
155–172.

McWhorter, Linda and Gil-Rivas, Virginia (2013) ‘The Effect of Brief Functional Relaxation
on College Students’ Needle Anxiety During Injected Vaccinations’, DOI: 10.1080
/07448481.2013.867862 Published online: 07 Dec 2013.

Mehta, Prakash ; Thekdi, Komal ; Rokad, Milan ; Patel, Kamlesh ; Bhadu, Amit and Sorani,
Pragna (2013),’Exploratory Study to access Anxiety, Depression and Stress among Medical
Students, Freshly Starting their Medical Education in a Medical College’, Scholars Journal of
Applied Medical Sciences, 1 (6) : 819 -822.

Mellon, Constance (1986), ‘Library Anxiety: A Grounded Theory and its Development’, College &
Research Libraries Journal, 47 (2), pp. 160–165.

Misra, R., and McKean, M. (2000).’College Students’ Academic Stress and Its Relation to Their
Anxiety, Time Management, and Leisure Satisfaction’,. American Journal of Health Studies, 16, 41-
51.

Mizrachi, Diane (2009)’Library Anxiety’, Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences, Third
Edition, DOI: 10.1081/E-ELIS3-120043093, Published: 09 Dec.

Mizrachi, Diane and Shohamb, Snunith, (2004) ’Computer Attitudes And Library Anxiety Among
Undergraduates: A Study Of Israeli B.Ed Students’, International Information and Library
Review,36 (1),29-30,2004.

Mji, A. and Mwambakana, J. (2008), ‘Is Mathematics Anxiety a Factor?: First-Year University
Students provide Answers’, Africa Education Review, Volume 5, Issue 1, 2008,pages 20-29.
Published online: 14 Oct 2008.

Mohanty, C.(1985), ‘Effects of State-Trait Anxiety on Classroom Learning and Personal Adjustment
of Elementary School Pupils’, Ph.D. Edu., Utkal U., 1985, Research in Psychology of Education-
Abstracts.

Mokashi, Malavika V. (2007),’Correlates of Anxiety and Scholastic Achievement of Residential

Students’, Thesis , Dept. of Human Development, College of Rural Home Science, Dharwad, Univ.
of Agricultural Sciences, July,2007.

Moore, P.N.; Kinsman, R.A. and Dirks, J.F. (1984),‘Subscales to the Taylor Manifest Anxiety
Scale in Three Chronically ill Populations’, J Clin Psychol 1984;40:1431–1433.

Mowrer, O. H.’ (1939) A stimulus-response analysis and its role as a reinforcing agent.
Psychological Review, 46: 553-565.

Mowrer, O.H.(1953),’A Stimulus Response Analysis of Anxiety and its Role as a Reinforcing
Agent’, In Readings in Learning, L.M. Stolurow (Ed.) Englewood Cliffs, NJ.:Prentice Hall.
Narania, Meenakshi and Singh,Vijay (2014),’To Measure and Compare the Academic Anxiety
and Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students- A Gender Difference’, International
Journal of Innovative Research and Studies, Feb., Vol. 3, Issue 2.

Narula, Ramesh; Chaudhary, Varsha; Narula, Kusum and Narayan, Ram (2011), ‘Depression,
Anxiety and Stress Reduction in Medical Education: Humor as an Intervention’, Online Journal of
Health and Allied Sciences, Volume 10, Issue 1; Jan-Mar 2011.

Nepali, Preeti (1989), Audience Effect in Sex, Audience Anxiety and Nature of the Tasks’, Ph.D.
Psy. Jodhpur.

Nijbawan (1972).Test Anxiety of School Children in Anup Sud (2001).Test Anxiety Research in
India: Twentieth Century in Retrospect. Psychology & Developing Societies, 13(1), 51-69.

Nijhawan, H.K. (1972), ‘Anxiety in School Children’, New Delhi: Wiley-Eastern.

Nixon, G.F. and Steffeck, J.C. (1977), ‘Reliability of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory’, Psychol
Rep 1977;40:357–358.

Nunnally, J. C. (1970). ‘Introduction to Psychological Measurement’, New York: McGraw Hill.

Nunnally, J.C. (1978).’ Psychometric Theory’, (2nd ed.). NY: McGraw-Hill.

O’Connor, J.P; Lorr, M. and Stafford, J.W.(1956), ‘Some Patterns of Manifest Anxiety’, J Clin
Psychol 1956, 12:160–165.

Ohman, Arne (2000),’Fear and Anxiety: Evolutionary,Cognitive and Clinical Perspectives’, in

Lewis, Michael and Haviland- Jones, Jeannette M.. ‘Handbook of the Emotions,’(Eds.) NY and
London: The Guildford Press.

Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. (2004),’Academic Procrastination and Statistics Anxiety’,Assessment

and Evaluation in Higher Education, Vol. 29,No. 1.

Pacheco-Unguetti, A. P.; Acosta, A.; Callejas, A. and Lupiáñez, J. (2010). ‘Attention and
Anxiety: Different Attentional Functioning Under State and Trait Anxiety’, Psychological Science,
21(2), 298–304.

Pant, Gaurav; Bera, T. K. and Shete, Sanjay Uddhav (2013), ‘Yoga For Controlling Examination
Anxiety, Depression and Academic Stress among Students Appearing for Indian Board
Examination’, International Journal of Recent Scientific Research Vol. 4, Issue, 8, pp.1216- 1219,
August, 2013.
Patel, Mehulkumar Kantilal (2013) ‘Construction And Standardization Of Anxiety Measurement
Test For Students Of Standard 11th and 12Tth of Anand District’, Acme International Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research, Vol -I , Issue II, Feb.

Pather, S and Uys, C.S (2008),’ Using Scale Reduction Techniques For Improved Quality Of
Survey Information’, South African Journal of Information Management, Vol. 10 (3), Sept. 2008.
Pavlov, I. P. (1927a). ‘Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the
Cerebral Corte’,. Translated and Edited by G. V. Anrep.
Pavlov, I.P. (1927b), ‘Conditioned Reflexes and Psychiatry’, Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes,
Vols. 1 and 2, trans. and ed. W.H. Gantt (New York: International Publishers).

Pearson, Karl (1895), ‘Notes on Regression and Inheritance in the Case of Two
Parents’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 58 : 240–242,20 June,1985.

Peters, Michael A. (2015), ‘Anxieties Of Knowing: Academic Pathologies, Critical Philosophy And
The Culture Of Self’, http://wwwaddletonacademic publishers.com/contents-kc/657-volume-3-6-
2015/2673-anxieties-of-knowing-academic-pathologies-critical-philosophy-and-the-culture-of-self.
Retrieved 7.27 p.m.23.12.15.

Popova, Maria. (2013),’Kierkgaard on Anxiety and Creativity’,Brainpickings. www.

brainpickings.org/2013/06/19/Kierkgaard-on-anxiety-and-creativity.

Powers D. E. (2001), ‘Test Anxiety And Test Performance: Comparing Paper-Based And Computer-
Adaptive Versions Of The Graduate Record Examination’, (GRE©) General Test Journal of
Educational Computing Research, 24, 249–273.

Purandare, V.M. (1984), ‘Anxiety and Strategies in Serial Verbal Learning’, Ph.D. Psy., Poona U.,
1984, Research In Psychology Of Education-Abstracts.

Putwain , David William. (2009), ‘Situated and Contextual Features of Test Anxiety in UK
Adolescent Students’, School Psychology International, Feb. 2009, Vol. 30, No. 1 56-74.

Rastogi, A.(1982),‘The Development of an Anxiety Scale: State, Trait and Free- Floating’,Ph.D.,
Psy. BHU 1982, Third Survey of Research in Education, 1978 – 83, Tests and Measurements,
Abstracts, pp 500-501.
Ratanasiripong, Paul ; Sverduk, Kevin ; Prince, Judy and Hayashino, Diane
(2012).,’Biofeedback and Counseling for Stress and Anxiety Among College Students’,Journal of
College Student Development, Volume 53, Number 5, September/October, pp. 742-749.

Reiss S.(1997) ‘Trait Anxiety: It’s Not What You Think It Is’, J Anx Disord,11:201–214.

Reynolds, C. R. (1985) 'Multitrait Validation Of The Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale
For Children Ofhigh Intelligence’. Psychological Reports, 56, 402.

Reynolds, C. R., and Richmond, B. O. (1978). ‘What I Think And Feel: A Revised Measure Of
Children’s Manifest Anxiety’, Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 271-280.

Reynolds, C. R., Richmond, B. O., and Lowe, P. A. (2003a), ‘The Adult Manifest Anxiety Scale–
Adult Version (AMAS-A).’ Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

Reynolds, C. R., Richmond, B. O., and Lowe, P. A. (2003b) ‘The Adult Manifest Anxiety Scale–
College Version (AMAS-C)’, Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

Reynolds, C. R., Richmond, B. O., and Lowe, P. A. (2003c) ‘The Adult Manifest Anxiety Scale–
Elderly Version(AMAS-E)’, Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

Reynolds, C. R., Richmond, B. O., and Lowe, P. A. (2003d) ‘The Adult Manifest Anxiety Scale
Manual’, Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

Richardson, F. C., and Suinn, R. M. (1972) ‘The Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale: Psychometric
Data’, Journal of Counseling Psychology, 19, 551-554.

Richardson, F. C., and Woolfolk, R. L. (1980) ‘ Mathematics Anxiety’, in I. G. Sarason (Ed.),’Test

Anxiety: Theory, Research and Application’, pp. 271-288, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Rogers, C R. (1951),’Client Centered Therapy’,Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.

Roy Priya P; Sailesh, Kumar Sai and Doshi, M A. (2015) ‘Depression, Anxiety and Stress Among
First Year Undergraduate Medical Students’, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical
Sciences, 5(45), 2015, 37-38

Rummel, R.J. (1970),’Understanding Factor Analysis’, summary of his ‘Applied Factor Analysis’,
1970.
Russell, Richard K. and Wise, Fred (1976), ’Treatment Of Speech Anxiety By Cue-Controlled
Relaxation And Desensitization With Professional And Paraprofessional Counselors’, Journal of
Counseling Psychology, Vol 23(6), Nov 1976, 583-586.

Sahin, Mehmet; Caliskan, Serap and Dilek, Ufuk (2015), ‘Development and Validation of the
Physics Anxiety Rating Scale,’ International Journal of Environmental and Science Education,
Volume 10, Issue 2 (April 2015), pp. 183-200.

Sahoo, S. and Khess, C R (2010).,’Prevalence of Depression, Anxiety and Stress among Young
Male Adults in India; A Dimensional and Categorical Diagnosis- Based Study’, Journal of Nervous
Mental Disorders, 2010, Dec.

Saleem, Tamkeen; Gul, Seema and Saleem, Shemaila (2015), ‘Death Anxiety Scale; Translation
and Validation In Patients with Cardiovascular Disease’, The Professional Medical Journal,
2015;22(6):723-732.

Sam, Hong Kian; Othman, Abang Ekhsan Abang and Nordin, Zaimuarifuddin Shukri
(2005),’Computer Self-Efficaacy, Computer Anxiety and Attitudes towards the Internet; A Study
among Undergradates in Unimas’,Educational Technology and Society, 8 (4),205-219.

Sarason, I G.( 1972),’Experimental Approaches to Test Anxiety: Attention and the Uses of
Information’, in C.D.Spielberger (Eds.),’Anxiety: Current Trends in Theory and Research’, (Vol.
2),New York: Academic, 1972.

Satapathy, Maheshwar (2009).,’Psychological Tests developed for Children in India : A Review of

Recent Trends in Research, Practice and Application’, Shyam, Radhey and Khan, Azizuddin
edited,’Clinical Child Psychology’, Kalpaz Publications, Delhi.

Satre, Jean Paul, (1972) ‘Psychology of the Imagination’ (1972) transl. Bernard Frechtman,
Methuen, London.

Schalling, D (1978).,’The Role of Heart Rate Increase for Coping with Pain as related to
Impulsivity’,Unpublished Manuscript, Univ. of Stockholm. Cited by Hare as Note 8.
Schneider, L. (2007), ‘Perceived Stress Among Engineering Students’, Retrieved from
http://asee.morrisville.edu/pdf/Schneider%202 007-%20Student%20perceived%20stress.pdf.
Seligman, Laura D. and Ollendck, Thomas H.(2011), ‘Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for
Anxiety Disorders in Youth’, Child Adolescent Psychiatry Clin. N. Am. 2011, April,20(2): 217-238.
Sehnaz, Begum (2015)., ‘A study on the level of test anxiety of B.A. 2nd Semester Students of
Provincialised colleges of Nalbari Town in Relation to their academic Achievement’, Research
Journal of Educational Sciences , Vol. 3(5), 10-13, June 2015.

Shabani, Mohammad Bagher (2012).’ Levels and Sources of Language Anxiety and Fear of
Negative Evaluation among Iranian EFL Learners’, Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2,
No. 11, pp. 2378-2383, November.

Sharma, J.N. (1982),’Adolescence GEIST-Interests as Determined by Personality Factors, Anxiety

and Sex’, Ph.D. Psy., Agra U.P., Research In Psychology Of Education-Abstracts .

Sheriff, Fatin Hani Mohd and Yoong, Chong Yew(2015), ‘Development Of The Music
Performance Anxiety Scale’, International Journal of Academic Research and Reflection Vol. 3, No.
2, 2015.

Shibli, Naveed; Nawaz, Naila; Ameen, Nazima; Fatima, Sehrish; Khan, Hafiza Sadia and Ain,
Quratul (2015), ‘The Effects of Anxiety on Achievement and Performance: A College Study’,
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 5, Issue 6, June 1 ISSN
2250-3153.

Siddique, C. M. and D’Arcy, Carl. (1984), ‘Adolescence, Stress and Psychological Well- Being’,
Journal of Youth and Adolescence,Vol. 13, No. 6.

Singh, Arun Kumar.( 2010),’Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural

Sciences’, Published by Bharati Bhawan ( Publishers and Distributors),New Delhi, Reprint of 2010.

Singh, A.K. (2014),’Academic Academic Scale for Children’, ’National Library Of Educational
and Psychological Test (NLEPT),Catalogue Of Tests, Department of Educational Psychology and
Foundations of Education National Council of Educational Research and Training Sri Aurobindo
Marg, New Delhi- 110016, S.No.223,Code: NTL-1741, Pg.33.

Singh, A.K. and Gupta, A.S. (1986),’Manual for Academic Anxiety Scale for Children’,Agra,
National Psychological Corporation.

Singh, B.K. (1984), ‘A Psychological Study of the Patterns of Personality Variables of Rural and
Urban College Students of Agra Region’, Ph.D. Psy., Agra U., 1984, 436 Research In Psychology Of
Education-Abstracts.
Singh, Indoo and Jha, Ajeya (2013),’ Anxiety, Optimism and Academic Achievement among
Students of Private Medical and Engineering Colleges: A Comparative Study’, Journal of
Educational and Developmental Psychology; Vol. 3, No. 1; ISSN 1927-0526 E-ISSN 1927-0534
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education.

Singh, S.K. (1983), ‘Social Conformity-An Investigation Into Some Personality Correlates (Need
Achievement, Need Affiliation, Dominance, Extraversion, Neuroticism, Anxiety)’, Ph.D. Psy., Agra
U., 1983, Research In Psychology Of Education-Abstract- 441.

Singravelu, S (2011),’Mathematics Anxiety Scale: Construction, Validity and Reliability’,

Educational Quest- An International Journal of Education and Applied Social Sciences ,Vol. 2,Issue
3,355-358.

Sinha, A.K.P.(2014),’Sinha’s Comprehensive Anxiety Test’, National Library Of Educational and

Psychological Test (NLEPT),Catalogue Of Tests, Department of Educational Psychology and
Foundations of Education National Council of Educational Research and Training Sri Aurobindo
Marg, New Delhi- 110016, S.No.37.Code:NTL-265,Pg.24.

Sinha,A.K.P. and Sinha, L.N.K.(1955),’Manual for Sinha’s Comprehensive Anxiety Test’,

Chaurasia Electric Press,Agra.

Sinha, Durganand. (1961), ‘Development of two Anxiety Scales’, Manas, 1- 10.

Sinha, Durganand. (1968), Manual for Sinha W.A.Self- Analysis Form ( Anxiety Scale),Rupa
Psychological Corporation, Varanasi.

Sinha, Durganand (2014) , “Sinha Anxiety Scale’, National Library Of Educational and
Psychological Test (NLEPT),Catalogue Of Tests, Department of Educational Psychology and
Foundations of Education National Council of Educational Research and Training Sri Aurobindo
Marg, New Delhi- 110016, S.No.17, Code No. NTL-154, Pg.23

Sinha, Durganand. (1992),’Sinha’s Anxiety Test Three Decades After’, Journal of Personality and
Clinical Studies, 8(1)s, 1-6.

Smith, Ronald E.; . Smolla, Frank L. and Schutzb , Robert W (2007a). ‘Measurement And
Correlates Of Sport-Specific Cognitive And Somatic Trait Anxiety: The Sport Anxiety Scale’,
DOI:,10.1080/08917779008248733, pages 263-280, Received: 14 Jul 1989, Published online: 29
May 2007.
Smith, Carol Klose; Peterson, Fred D.; Degenhard, Brain F. and Johnson, Jane C
(2007b).,'Depression, Anxiety and perceived hassles among Entering Medical Students’, Psychology,
Health and Medicine ,Jan. 2007, 12(1), 31-39.

Spearman, Charles, C. (1910, ‘Correlation Calculated from Faulty Data’, British Journal of
Psychology, 3, 271–295.

Spector, Paul E. (1992),’ Summated Rating Scale Construction : An Introduction’, Sage University
Papers Series, Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences ; No. 07-082 Sage Publications, Inc.

Spielberger, C. D. (1966) ‘Anxiety as an Emotional State. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety:

Current Trends in Theory and Research (Vol. 1, pp. 23-49). New York: Academic Press.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-657401-2.50009-5

Spielberger, C D. (1971),’Trait- State Anxiety and Motor Behavior’, Journal of Motor Behavior,3,
265-279.

Spielberger, C.D. (1972 ). ‘Anxiety: Current Trends In Research’, London: Academic Press.

Spielberger, C D. (1975),’Anxiety :State- Trait Process’, in C D Spielberger (Ed.) Stress and

Anxiety,Vol. 1, Washington Hemisphere.

Spielberger, C. D. (1980),’Test Anxiety Inventory’, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Spielberger, C. D. (1983).Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI).Palo Alto, CA:
Consulting Psychologists Press.

Spielberger CD (1985), ‘Assessment Of State And Trait Anxiety: Conceptual And Methodological
Issues’, South Psychol, 2:6–16.

Spielberger, C. D. (1989). State-Trait Anxiety Inventory: Bibliography (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA:
Consulting Psychologists Press.

Spielberger, C.D. (2014),’State- Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children’, National Library Of
Educational and Psychological Test (NLEPT),Catalogue Of Tests, Department of Educational
Psychology and Foundations of Education National Council of Educational Research and Training
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi- 110016, S.No.51, Code:NTL-594,700, Pg.88.

Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., and Lushene, R. D. (1970).Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory.Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., and Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual
for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Spielberger, C. D., Sharma,S. and Singh, M., (1973),’ Development of Hindi Edition of State –
Trait Anxiety Inventory’,Indian Journal of Psychology, 48, 11-20

Spielberger, Charles D. and Smith, Lou H. (1966),’Anxiety (drive), stress, and serial-position
effects in serial-verbal learning’, Journal of Experimental Psychology 72 (4):589.

Sridevi, K V (2013), ‘A Study of Relationship among General Anxiety, Test Anxiety and Academic
Achievement of Higher Secondary Students’, Journal of Education and Practice, Vol.4, No.1, 2013.

Srivastava, A.K., (1977),’Construction and Standardization of a Job Anxiety Scale’, Indian Journal
of Industrial Relations,Vol 30, No. 1, July, pp 73-84.

Staats A.W, Eifert G.H. (1990) ‘The Paradigmatic Behaviorism Theory Of Emotions: Basis For
Unification’. Clinical Psychology Review. 10, 539-566.

Strongman (1995),’Theories of Anxiety’,New Zealand Journal of Psychology,Vol. 24, No. 2 Dec.

1995.

Sud, Anup (2001)’ Test Anxiety Research in India: Twentieth Century in Retrospect’,Psychology
Developing Societies March,Vol.13, No.1, 51-69,
Sullivan, H.S. (1953), ‘The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry’ ,N.Y. : Norton.
Supe, A. N. (1998), ‘A Study Of Stress In Medical Students At Seth GS Medical College’, Journal
of Postgraduate Medicine, 44(1), 1- 6.

Swami, Priyakant M.(1989),”A Study of the Anxiety, Self-Concept and Intelligence of Orphan
Students Living n Orphanages, as Compared to Normal Students’, Ph.D. Edu. Saurashtra Univ.
Tartakovsky , Margarita (2008) .,‘Depression and Anxiety Among College Students’, M.S. Psych
Central August 27, 2008, News Archive, The JED Foundation.
Taylor, Janet. (1953),’ A Personality Scale of Manifest Anxiety’, Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 48, 285-290.

Taylor, Janet (1956), Drive Theory and Manifest Anxiety. Psychol Bull 1956;53:303–320.

Teh, Choon Khim: Ngo,Choon Wei: Zulkifli, Rashidatul Aniyah Binti: Vellaswamy, Rammiya
and Suresh, Kelvin (2015),’ Depression, Anxiety and Stress among Undergraduate Students: A
Cross Sectional Study’, Open Journal of Epidemiology,2015, 5, 260-268Published Online November
2015 in Sci Res.

Thakur, G. P. and Thakur, M. (1984),’Manual for Thakur’s Death Anxiety Scale’, Rupa
Psychological Centre, Varanasi.

The American Heritage ® Dictionary, (2009), Published on May 11, 2009 by Robertderu
Sorensen.

The Encyclopedia of Psychology (Vols. 1 – 8) (2000), edited by Alan E. Kazdin, New York: Oxford
University Press/American Psychological Association, 2000.

The Oxford Companion to the Mind (2006), Publisher: Oxford University Press, Print Publication
Date: 2004 Print ISBN-13: 9780198662242 Published online: 2006.

Thompson, Amy S and Lee, Junkyu. (2012),‘Anxiety and EFL: Does Multilingualism
Matter?’,International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 01/2012;
DOI: 10.1080/13670050.2012.713322.

Thompson, B (2004), ‘Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis: Understanding Concepts and
Applications’, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2004.

Thompson B and Daniel LG (1996). Factor analytic evidence for the construct validity of scores: A
historical overview and some guidelines. Educational and Psychological Measurement.
1996;56(2):197-208.

Tillich, Paul (1961),’Existentialism and Psychotherapy’, Existential Psychology and Psychiatry, 1,8-
16.

Townsend, Michael A R. and Mahoney, Peggy (1980),’Humor and Anxiety: Effects on Class Test
Performance’, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association (64th, Boston, MA, April 7-11,1980).

Trujillo, K.M., and Hadfield, O.D. (1999).Tracing the Roots of Mathematics Anxiety through In-
depth Interviews with Pre-service Elementary Teachers’, College Student Journal, 33(2), 219-232.
Retrieved August 9, 2004, from http :// first search. oclc. org/ images /WSPL /wsppdf1 /HTML/
03829 /0I583 /0SM. HTM.
Twenge, Jean M. (2000),’The Age of Anxiety? Birth Cohort Change in Anxiety and Neuroticism,
1952-1993’,Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 79, No.6,1007-1021.

Vazalwar, Chandrashekhar. (2011), ‘Effect Of Anxiety On Reading Comprehension In English’,

International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research Vol.1 Issue 7, November 2011, ISSN 2231
5780.

Vazalwar, C. and Yadav, R. (2005), ‘Tracing out the Relationship of Reading Comprehension in
English with Respect to Anxiety, Socio-Economic Status and School Environment’, Ram-Eesh
Journal of Education, Vol. 2(1), 27-31.

Vianaa, Andres G.; Gratza, Kim L. and Bierman, Karen L. (2013), ‘Clustering of
Temperamental and Cognitive Risk Factors for Anxiety in a College Sample of Late Adolescents’,
Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, Volume 26, Issue 4, 2013.

Vitasari, Prima; Wahab, Muhammad Nubli Abdul; Othman, Ahmad and Awang, Muhammad
Ghani (2010).,’ A Research for Identifying Study Anxiety Sources of Amon University Students’,
International Education Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2, May.

Viyas, J.N. and Ahuja, N. (2008),’Text Book of Post Graduate Psychiatry’,Vol. I, Jaypee Brothers
Medical Publisher, New Delhi,197-199, 249-261, 783.

Wang, Sara; Lee, Susan and Wahid, Zahra Tasha (2013), co-authored- ‘Australian Medical
Students’ Association, University Student Mental Health: The Australian Context’, Student Mental
Health and Wellbeing Committee Report, Sept. 2013.

Watson, J.B. (1925), ‘Behaviorism’, New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. 180-190.

Webster's College Dictionary (2010), © Random House.

Weems, Carl F.; . Costaa, Natalie M; Dehona, Christopher and Bermanb, Steven L., (2004)
'Paul Tillich's theory of Existential Anxiety: A Preliminary Conceptual and Empirical Examination’,
DOI:, 10.1080/10615800412331318616 , pages 383-399, Accepted: 25 May 2004, Published
online: 25 Jan 2007.

Williams, Brett; Brown, Ted and Onsman, Andrys (2010),’Exploratory Factor Analysis: A five-
step guide for Novices, Journal of Emergency Primary Health Care (JEPHC), Vol. 8, Issue 3, 2010 -
Article 990399, Australasian Journal of Paramedicine, Vol. 8, Issue 3, Article 1, 2012.
Wolf, T. M. (1994), ‘Stress, Coping And Health: Enhancing Well-Being During Medical School’,
Medical Education, 28, 8-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.1994.tb02679.x. Young, Arlene
Shorter (2011)’First Time International College Students’ Level of Anxiety in Relationship to
Awareness of their Learning – Style Preferences’, Journal of International Students, Fall, 2011, V0l.
1, Issue 2, 43.

Zeidnera, Moshe and Shechterb, Mordechai (2007),’Reduction of Test Anxiety: A First Attempt
to Economic Evaluation’, DOI: 10.1080/10615809408248390,pages 1-18, Received: 19 Nov 1993,
Published online: 29 May 2007.

Zeidner, Moshe, (1988),‘Test Anxiety, The State of the Art’, ISBN b0-306-45729-6, 1988, Plenum
Press, New York,10013, U.S.A.

Zung (1971), adapted from Zung WWK- ‘A Rating Instrument for Anxiety Disorders’,
Psychosomatics, XII: 371-379.

Zung , W.W.K. (1974) The Measurement of Affects: Depression and Anxiety. Mod Probl
Pharmacopsychiatry 7:170–188.

Zung, W.W.K. (1980), ‘How Normal is Anxiety?’ Kalamazoo, MI: The Upjohn Company.

Zung, W.W.K. and Cavenar, J.O. Jr.(1980) ‘Assessment Scales and Techniques’, in: Kutash I. L.
and Schlesinger L B, eds. Handbook on Stress and Anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1980:348–
363.
APPENDIX
 Appendix

ANXIETY SCALE FOR UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS

A survey research is being conducted on the problems of youth. You need not write your name in the
answer sheet if you do not wish to. Please read these statements very carefully and then indicate
whether you strongly disagree, disagree, are undecided, agree or strongly agree and answer sincerely
according to your personal feelings. No answer is right or wrong. Do not leave any statement
unanswered. Your answers will be kept strictly confidential and used only for research purposes.
Your cooperation will help in knowing your problems. Thank you.
1.Name ...........................................................
2.Age ................
3.Gender Male\ Female
5.Institution.............................................................................................
A- Strongly Disagree B- Disagree C- Undecided D- Agree E- Strongly Agree
A B C D E

1 I worry about the future.

2 I am worried that I am unable to decide what to study.

3 I fear possible misfortunes.

4 I am often tense.

5 I hesitate in talking to strangers.

6 From where to get money for today’s costly living, worries me.

7 I worry about my appearance.

8 The desire to obtain everything fast, disturbs me.

9 I do not like being compared to my classmates.

10 Even small things make me cry.

11 I am in anxiety that problems might never leave me.

12 I feel afraid I will be unsuccessful.

13 I fear serious diseases.

14 I get angry soon.

15 I feel nervous I might not be able to complete my work on time.

16 The high cost of coaching worries me a lot.

17 My studies are a big burden for me.

18 I am worried that jobs are less and jobseekers more.

19 I feel like leaving everything and going far away.

20 I worry that others might deceive me.

21 Doing many things at the same time, makes me nervous.

22 I am in anxiety when I get poor marks in a test.

23 I feel that people do not like me.

24 I do not like talking to others.

25 I feel that all are looking at me alone.

26 I am not able to share even small things with my friends.

27 I am tense that there are differences between my parents and me.

28 I am unable to decide which subjects I should take.

29 I worry whether my family will accept my friend (opposite

sex).
30 I am not able to sleep.

31 The increasing number of competitions makes me nervous.

32 Any interference in my friendship with my friend (opposite

sex) disturbs me.
33 I worry that I am not able to take out proper time for study.

34 Due to anxiety my important work is postponed.

35 My parents’ desire to push me, gives me great pain.

36 I worry my parents do not have time for me.

37 I am disturbed if my friend(opposite sex)pays attention to

someone else.
38 I am easily hurt by others.

39 I worry that there is a lot of work and very less time.

40 I shout at others.

41 I do not feel hungry.

42 Not talking to my friend (opposite sex) for a long time makes me

tense.
43 I fear that my friend (opposite sex) might deceive me.

44 I am worried I am not able to adjust with my environment.

45 I worry whether I will get a good job even after studying so

much.
46 I am worried I might not earn well in my job.

47 I get more excited than is necessary.

48 I am disturbed others might make fun of me.

49 I yearn for luxuries.

50 I like to remain alone.