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construction
NPN transistor
construction
FORWARD & REVERSE BIASED
(a) The majority carriers in the emitter p-type material are holes (c) The base-
emitter junction is forward biased to the majority carriers and the holes cross the
junction and appear in the base region (c) The base region is very thin and is only
lightly doped with electrons so although some electron-hole pairs are formed, many
holes are left in the base region (d) The base-collector junction is reverse biased
to electrons in the base region and holes in the collector region, but forward
biased to holes in the base region; these holes are attracted by the negative
potential at the collector terminal (e) A large proportion of the holes in the base
region cross the base collector junction into the collector region, creating a
collector current; conventional current flow is in the direction of hole movement.
(a) The majority carriers in the n-type emitter material are electrons (c) The
base-emitter junction is forward biased to these majority carriers and electrons
cross the junction and appear in the base region (c) The base region is very thin
and only lightly doped with holes, so some recombination with holes occurs but many
electrons are left in the base region (d) The base-collector junction is reverse
biased to holes in the base region and electrons in the collector region, but is
forward biased to electrons in the base region; these electrons are attracted by
the positive potential at the collector terminal (e) A large proportion of the
electrons in the base region cross the base collector junction into the collector
region, creating a collector current.
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
Any sufficient source of DC current may be used to turn the transistor on, and that
source of current need only be a fraction of the amount of current needed
Construction Stage
Operation
• The base of the NPN transistor must be positive with respect to the emitter, •
And the collector must be more positive than the base.
Operation
Biasing
Biasing
METER CHECK OF A TRANSISTOR
Testing of Transistor
• TESTING A TRANSISTOR to determine if it is good or bad can be done with an
ohmmeter or transistor tester or by the substitution method. • PRECAUTIONS should
be taken when working with transistors since they are susceptible to damage by
electrical overloads, heat, humidity, and radiation. • TRANSISTOR LEAD
IDENTIFICATION plays an important part in transistor maintenance because before a
transistor can be tested or replaced, its leads must be identified. Since there is
NO standard method of identifying transistor leads, check some typical lead
identification schemes or a transistor manual before attempting to replace a
transistor.
Multimeter without diode check
Meter readings will be exactly opposite, of course, for an NPN transistor, with
both PN junctions facing the other way
If a multimeter with a “Diode Check" function is used in this test, it will be
found that the emitter-base junction possesses a slightly greater forward voltage
drop than the collector-base junction. This forward voltage difference is due to
the disparity in doping concentration between the emitter and collector regions of
the transistor: the emitter is a much more heavily doped piece of semiconductor
material than the collector, causing its junction with the base to produce a higher
forward voltage drop.
Using multimeter with “Diode Check”, the data obtained: Meter Meter Meter Meter
Meter Meter touching touching touching touching touching touching wire wire wire
wire wire wire 1 1 1 1 2 2 (+) and 2 (-): (-) and 2 (+): (+) and 3 (-): (-) and 3
(+): (+) and 3 (-): (-) and 3 (+): "OL" "OL" 0.655 volts* "OL" 0.621 volts* "OL"
TRANSISTOR RATINGS
Saturation voltages Ideally, a saturated transistor acts as a closed switch contact
between collector and emitter, dropping zero voltage at full collector current.
Both the signal source and the load share the base lead as a common connection
point
Gain
• The term hfe used in place of b. The terms hfe and b are equivalent and may be
used interchangeably. This is because "hfe" means: h = hybrid (meaning mixture) f =
forward current transfer ratio e = common emitter configuration The resistance gain
of the common emitter can be found in a method similar to the one used for finding
beta: • Once the resistance gain is known, the voltage gain is easy to calculate
since it is equal to the current gain multiplied by the resistance gain (E = bR). •
And, the power gain is equal to the voltage gain multiplied by the current gain b
(P = bE).
Example: Measurements at several points of interest using oscilloscope
COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER
Both the signal source and the load share the emitter lead as a common connection
point
Example: Measurements at several points of interest using oscilloscope
COMMON-COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER
Both the signal source and the load share the collector lead as a common connection
point
Example: Measurements at several points of interest using oscilloscope
Transistor's Characteristic Curves
When a transistor is in the fully-off state (like an open switch), it is said to be
cutoff.
Class A operation can only be obtained when the transistor spends its entire time
in the active mode, never reaching either cutoff or saturation
CLASS B AMPLIFIER
Class B operation is the transistor spent half its time in active mode and the
other half in cutoff with the input voltage too low (or even of the wrong
polarity!) to forward-bias its base-emitter junction.
Class Input and Output
• FIDELITY and EFFICIENCY are two terms used in conjunction with amplifiers.
Fidelity is the faithful reproduction of a signal, while Efficiency is the ratio of
output signal power compared to the total input power. The class A amplifier has
the highest degree of fidelity, but the class C amplifier has the highest
efficiency.
• •
•
Typical Configurationa class A amplifier • This illustration is
configured as a common emitter using fixed bias. From this, you should be able to
conclude the following: • • • • Because of its fixed bias, the amplifier is
thermally unstable. Because of its class A operation, the amplifier has low
efficiency but good fidelity. Because it is configured as a common emitter, the
amplifier has good voltage, current, and power gain. In conclusion, the type of
bias, class of operation, and circuit configuration are all clues to the function
and possible application of the amplifier.
Example
• If the input current (IB) in a common emitter changes from 75 mA to 100 mA and
the output current (IC) changes from 1.5 mA to 2.6 mA, the current gain (b) will be
44. • This simply means that a change in base current produces a change in
collector current which is 44 times as large.
Amplifier Rating
• Because amplifiers have the ability to increase the magnitude of an input signal,
it is useful to be able to rate an amplifier's amplifying ability in terms of an
output/input ratio. • The technical term for an amplifier's output/input magnitude
ratio is gain. • As a ratio of equal units (power out / power in, voltage out /
voltage in, or current out / current in), gain is naturally a unitless measurement.
• Mathematically, gain is symbolized by the capital letter “A”.
Example
• If an amplifier takes in an AC voltage signal measuring 2 volts RMS and outputs
an AC voltage of 30 volts RMS, it has an AC voltage gain of 30 divided by 2, or 15:
• If an amplifier with an AC current gain of 3.5 is given an AC input signal of 28
mA RMS, the output will be 3.5 times 28 mA, or 98 mA:
Rating…
• Amplifiers often amplify changes or variations in input signal magnitude (AC) at
a different ratio than steady input signal magnitudes (DC).
Rating
Multistage Amplifier
• If multiple amplifiers are staged, their respective gains form an overall gain
equal to the product (multiplication) of the individual gains. (Figure below)