Ce2071 - Repair and Rehablitation of Structures (For Viii - Semester)

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CE2071 – REPAIR AND REHABLITATION OF STRUCTURES

(FOR VIII – SEMESTER)
UNIT – II
SERVICEABILITY AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Compiled by,
R.SURYA, M.E (Structures),

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SIR VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
VIRUDHUNAGAR
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
UNIT – II
SERVICEABILITY AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Quality assurance for concrete construction, concrete properties- strength,

permeability, thermal properties and cracking – Effects due to climate, temperature,
chemicals, corrosion – design and construction errors – Effects of cover thickness and
cracking.
INTRODUCTION
• Maintenance of standards of quality of manufactured goods
• It is a management system
• It increases the confidence that a material used in construction
NEED FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE

• To promote next generating scheme
• For reputation & professional satisfaction
• Quality of work for future sales
• To procure future contracts
• Trouble free use & low maintenance cost
• Good performance & appearance
DESIGN FAULTS IN CONCTERE CONSTRUCTION
• Misinterpretation of the client’s needs
• Lack of good communication between members of the design team
• Misinterpretation of design standards or codes of practice
• Use of incorrect or out-of-date data
• Imprecise specification
CONSTRUCTION FAULTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

• Misinterpretation of design drawings or specifications
• Lack of effective communication with suppliers & subcontractors
• Inadequate on-site supervision
• Poor workmanship due to inadequate skills
• Failure to understand the design principles
REASONS FOR POOR QUALITY CONSTRUCTION
• Poor materials
• Poor architectural or structural design
• Poor detailing of reinforcement
• Poor workmanship
• Cement content – It should be minimum of 300 kg per cubic meter of

concrete
• Excess water to cement ratio – It should not exceed about 50% of the weight
of cement.
• Inadequate compaction of concrete
• Inadequate curing of concrete
• Inadequate cover to reinforcement
• poor or no supervision
• Lack of technical knowledge of the building contractor and his supervising

team
• Poor maintenance
PREMATURE DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE

• Freezing & thawing
• Aggressive chemical exposure
• Abrasion
• Corrosion of steel
• Chemical reactions of aggregates
MECHANISMS IN A QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
• ORGANIZATION: definition of responsibilities & relationships for the total

construction project.
• AUDITING: the ability to demonstrate that the tasks defined under

responsibilities are continually being executed according to stated methods.
• REVIEWING: continuous checks on process methods & action procedures

adopted if stated requirements are not being met.
• FEEDBACK: elucidation in measurable terms of causes of errors that

generate defects, in order that processes can be changed so as to reduce
nonconformance.
COMPONENTS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE

• STANDARDS : to define important criteria, method of assessment, level of
acceptance
• PRODUCTION CONTROL: done by each of the parties to conform to its own

quality stds.
• COMPLIANCE CONTROL : applied to materials, structural & non-structural

members inspection records
• TASKS & RESPONSIBILITIES : for each activity – each parties need to be

established
• GUARANTEES FOR USERS
•
CONCRETE PROPERTIES
STRENGTH
The strength is usually specified as characteristic strength which is the
strength determined by testing at a fixed age samples of concrete.
1.Compressive Strength:
Three types of test specimen
Cube:150mm X 150mm or 100mm X 100mm
Cylinder: 150mm dia and 300mm ht
Prism: 100mmX100mmX500mm
Test specimen are cast, cured & tested as per standards.
Compressive strengths given by different specimens for the same concrete mix
are different
(fck)cy = 0.8(fck)cube
ft = t/(a+bt) * f28
a=4.7,b=0.833
2.Flexural Strength
• Determination of this test is essential to estimate the load at which the

concrete member may crack.
• Specimen size:150X150X700mm over 600mm span

100X100X500mm over 400mm span
Flexural Strength=0.7(fck)1/2
Results are affected by
• Size of the specimen
• Casting
• Curing
• Moisture conditions
• Rate of loading
• Manner of loading
3.Tensile strength:
• Splitting tensile strength:
Direct compressive force is applied to a concrete specimen in such a way that the
specimen fails due to tensile stresses induced in the specimen.
σsp = 2P/(П*d*l)
Factors affecting strength of concrete
• Size of the test specimen
• Size of aggregate & type of aggregate
• Support conditions of the specimen
• Moisture conditions
• Types of testing machine
• Type of cement
• Degree of compaction
• Type of curing & temp of curing
• Nature of loading
Permeability of Concrete
Permeability is the property that governs the rate of flow of a fluid through the
concrete. The rate of flow is higher when the permeability is higher.
Permeability of Concrete affects its Durability:
The durability of concrete has proven to be a formidable obstacle in the service life
of new and existing structures.
The durability of concrete is a function of permeability. Permeability is governed by
the capillary pores in the cement paste. Pores that are too large will result in a high
permeability, while pores that are small will result in a low permeability.
The objective of this research is to study the permeability of concrete as the water-
to-cement ratio is changed. For this investigation, the AutoClam device will be used
to explore the permeability of different water-to-cement ratios respectively.
Results presented in this investigation will provide valuable knowledge of the
durability of concrete. Current research and or tests will study any relationships
between water permeability and the water-cement ratio of the concrete mix.
Our ultimate goal will be to show/prove an inverse relationship between water
permeability and concrete water-to-cement ratio. The test results show that by
increasing or decreasing of water-to-cement ratio and curing time, the permeability
of concrete changes.
The AutoClam was successful in measuring the permeability of concrete used for
this research. In the future the AutoClam can be tested side by side with a 16' head
of water and or the Rapid Chloride.
CONCRETE PERMEABILITY:Concrete durability depends largely on the ease (or

difficulty) with which fluids (water, carbon dioxide, oxygen) in the form of liquid or
gas can migrate through the hardened concrete mass. Concrete is a porous material.
Therefore, moisture movement can occur by flow, diffusion, or sorption. We are
concerned with all three, but generally the overall potential for moisture and ion
ingress in concrete by these three modes is referred to as its permeability.
CONCRETE POROSITY
Found on several ways, the water is the most important fluid on nature.
Among its properties, is noticeable the capacity to penetrate in small pores or
cracks, and the capacity of dissolve a large amount of substances.
Several researches refer and attest the great importance of the water
molecule on the concrete structure, especially on the first ages, caused by the
cement hydration and consequent hardness of the concrete.
However, the presence of water after the hardness of the concrete and after
the reduction, or the ceasing of the hydration reactions, may cause the
deterioration of the concrete or of the steel bar present on the structure.
The water take action as a direct agent (lixiviation) or transporting noxious
substances, such as chloride ions, sulfate ions and acid, or components that
can activate and propel many chemical reactions that speed up the
degradation process of the matrix, proportioning this way a substantial
reduction of the durability and the use life of the concrete and reinforced
concrete structures.
The permeability of the water is the most important factor to esteem the
durability under the most diverse conditions of service of a structure. The
permeability regulates the speed of aggressive water penetration for inside
of the concrete besides controlling the movement of the water during the ice-
thaw process.
Therefore concrete must be projected and manufactured for the environment
to which it goes to be displayed, because the permeability is related to the
porosity that varies in accordance to the composition of the concrete, its
factor water cement, its age and even though with its form of launching.
In this paper, will be evaluated permeability and the compressive strength of
the concrete with different compositions, water cement factor and ages,
making possible to generate correlation curves, suggesting a standard of
reference and analysis of the permeability in function of some variable of the
concrete.
The aspect of properly consolidated, quality, hardened concrete that affects

its permeability is the nature of the hardened cement paste itself and, as well,
the nature of the interfacial zone between concrete “macro components”,
(i.e.: aggregates, reinforcing materials, fibers) and its cement paste structure.
The paste-aggregate interfacial zone is known to be different from the
cement paste mass in general. It is usually more porous, richer in Ca(OH)2
(calcium hydroxide), and is more prone to micro cracking than the rest of the
paste matrix.
The interfacial zone is normally in the order of 50 um in thickness, and can

occupy 30 - 50% of the total volume of cement paste in concrete. In
comparison to the bulk hydrated cement paste, the paste-aggregate
interfacial zone is weaker, more soluble, and can be a least resistant path for
migrating moisture and other harmful substances.
It should be noted that although aggregates are porous, their pores are
normally discontinuous in a concrete matrix, being completely enveloped by
cement paste. Discrete voids or pores in concrete, including entrained air
bubbles that are discontinuous similarly do not contribute significantly to
concrete permeability.
Concrete porosity is usually expressed in terms of percentage by volume of
concrete. It is the interconnectivity of pores, rather that total porosity that
determines a concrete’s permeability.
A concrete with a high proportion of disconnected pores may be less
permeable that a concrete with a much smaller proportion of connected, or
continuous pores. With greater particularity, it is the overall nature of the
matrix pore structure that ultimately affects its permeability, sorptivity, and
diffusivity.
The size, distribution, interconnectivity, shape, and tortuosity of pores are all
determining factors in the overall permeability of a concrete matrix.
Water-proof or water-tight Portland cement concrete is not a real possibility.
Instead, our goal in design and formulation of durable concrete mixes is to
slow and minimize the potential for, and rate of, moisture ingress and
movement.
METHODS OF DETERMINING OF PERMEABILITY:
Reinforced and pre-stressed concrete structures are commonly used in
the construction of roadways, bridges, buildings, pre-cast concrete
elements and the like. Such concrete structures generally comprise
reinforced steel embedments such as rods, mesh or cables which are
enclosed in formed concrete.
It has been found that such concrete structures tend to deteriorate, with
cracking and spalling of the concrete, when corrosive ions permeate the
concrete and cause the reinforcing steel to corrode.
The corrosion products of the reinforcing steel have a larger volume than
the original steel and, therefore, create internal pressures in the concrete
structure that causes it to crack and spall.
A related problem is the carbonation of the concrete structure.
Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, from the
exhaust of an internal combustion engine or the atmosphere, permeate
the concrete and react with the hydrated cement compounds forming
calcium carbonate.
This tends to neutralize the alkaline environment surrounding the steel
embedment, making the steel vulnerable to corrosion if moisture and
oxygen are available.
Unwanted excessive permeability can occur in all concrete because of
poor mix design, e.g., excessive water content, lack of fines or excessive
air entrapment, or because of inadequate or inconsistent consolidation or
due to poor finishing of the concrete.
In addition to being susceptible to corrosion of the steel embedment’s,
concrete having a high permeability tends to have a lower compressive
and tensile strength and lessened durability and abrasion resistance than
concretes of low permeability.
Corrosion problems also arise because of water and chloride ions leakage
through joints in the concrete. Leakage through joints, as opposed to
permeation through the concrete matrix, can occur in caulked joints such
as flexible joints located between slabs of concrete.
Leakage can also occur in cold joints which are joints between portions
of a concrete structure which are cast at different times so that the
concrete matrix loses continuity.
In evaluating the permeability characteristics of concrete and masonry, there

are three main elements which determine the overall permeability of the
structure. These are:
(1) Leakage through joints and cracks,
(2) Surface permeability,
(3) Matrix permeability. Where there are joints and cracks in the
structure, these may be the major sources of liquid and ion penetration
into the structure and may dominate any measure of the overall
permeability of a structure.
In continuous, undamaged concrete, the surface permeability may be the
limiting factor in the overall liquid and ion permeability, for example, in a
low density concrete having a properly applied sealer. In other concrete
structures, the matrix permeability may be the limiting factor, for
example, in a high density concrete with a poor finish.
SIZE SCALES TO REMEMBER
It seems common for people to confuse size scales with respect to movement of
water and other elements through concrete. In order to better define and delineate
this movement let us review the size scales through which movement occurs.
CAPILLARY PORE SCALE:

At the smallest scale water may move into concrete through interconnected
capillary porosity. Capillary pores are essentially a residue of the originally water
filled spaces in the fresh concrete. This scale is important with respect to durability
(protection) of concrete as it is the path by which water and other aggressive ions
penetrate into the concrete matrix, resulting in such durability problems as
reinforcing steel corrosion.
Figure 1: Capillary Pore in hydrated cement paste

Figure 2: Micro cracks around aggregate particles after 60 days of
sustained load at 65% of the 28 d compressive strength
MICRO-CRACK AND TRANSITION ZONE SCALE: Somewhat larger but of similar
magnitude to capillary pores are micro-cracks and transition zones. Micro-
cracks may be formed due to internal thermal and shrinkage forces or stress due
to external loads. The transition zone is a weak permeable layer that occurs
around aggregate particles. This scale is also of importance with respect to
movement of water and other aggressive chemicals within the concrete matrix
and thus is important from a durability standpoint as well.
Figure 3: Illustration of the transition zone
MACRO SCALE: On the largest scale water or chemicals may move through
cracks, rock pockets, construction joints and other large defects or joints in the
concrete structure. This scale of flow is of primary importance with respect to
“waterproofing” and involves keeping water out or in.
MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT
One of the primary roles of all systems (even decorative coatings) is the
control of the movement of water and aggressive chemicals, whether this is
by keeping water in, out, off, or even letting it through.
A review is, therefore, in order of the scientific terms used to define these
movements. Foremost is an understanding of the difference between
porosity and permeability.
Porosity is the amount of holes and permeability is how well the holes are
connected. More specifically, the porosity is the volume of voids expressed as
a percentage of the total volume of a material
WATER FLOW AND WATER PERMEABILITY
Permeability is a broader term than porosity. The ability of liquid water,

under pressure, to flow through porous materials is permeability and is
described by the permeability coefficient.
This coefficient is commonly referred to as the D’Arcy’s coefficient. The
equation used to calculate the D’Arcy’s coefficient is as follows:
Q=K.A.Ahl
where: K = water permeability or D’Arcy’s coefficient (m/s) Q = flow rate
through the sample (m3/s) A = cross section area of sample (m2) Ah = water
pressure differential across the samples (m) l = sample length (m)
EFFECTSOFPERMEABILITY
WATER PERMEABILITY
In OPC concrete during compaction water movement takes place
resulting in water reaching the place around aggregates and
creating a weak interface zone along with calcium hydroxide.
Micro cracks develop here, interconnecting the pores and creating
channels for the movement of moisture. In HVFAC, water content,
bleeding and collection of weak layer around aggregates are low,
resulting in a strong interface bond with no or minimum micro
cracks. Additional products of hydration due to reactive silica
refine the pores also.
Water permeability is therefore brought down. The permeability
in the three cases of fly ash absorption is given below as per DIN.
CHLORIDE PERMEABILITY
One of the adverse effects of permeability is chloride ion ingress into the
concrete which is responsible for chloride induced corrosion.
The total charge passing the concrete specimen , measured in Coulombs
should be less than 2000 in a good concrete from the point
CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT
Corrosion of steel reinforcing bars inevitably weakens concrete members,
reducing load bearing capacity and safety factors.
In extreme cases failure of reinforced concrete members can occur, partly
because of loss of strength due to corrosion of the reinforcement itself, and
partly because of the breaking up of the concrete surrounding the
reinforcement.
When steel reinforcements corrodes, the corrosion product occupies more

than three times the volume of the original steel, exerting great disruptive
tensile stress on the surrounding conrete, leading to further cracking, more
weather access and further corrosion.
In mild cases rust staining occurs, in more serious cases, severe spalling of
concrete may occur and ultimately concrete members may fail completely.
In normal circumstances uncoated steel reinforcing bars give satisfactory
service provided the following requirements are maintained:
The design provides for adequate concrete cover over the steel
reinforcement.
Precise placement of reinforcement is maintained.
Uniformly high quality concrete is used.
CARBONATION RESISTANCE.
Galvanized reinforcement is better able to resist the effects of carbonation
because of the much wider range of pH (to about 8) over which the zinc
coating remains passivity.
Since black steel typically depassivates when the pH of concrete drops below
about 11.5, it is apparent that as the carbonation 'front' moves past a
galvanized rebar, little or no effect will occur until the concrete adjacent to
the reinforcement is almost completely neutralized.
CHLORIDE TOLERANCE.
Though zinc can be depassivated and attacked in the presence of chloride
ions, the tolerance of galvanized reinforcement to chloride depassivation is
substantially higher than that of black steel.
In a survey of a number of long-serving marine structures `The performance
of galvanized reinforcement in high chloride environments? Field study
reports.' International Corrosion Forum, NACE, Houston], galvanized bars
were shown to have been exposed to chloride contents as high as 2.2 per cent
(by approximately weight of cement) over periods of 10-20 years, with less
than 10 per cent loss of original coating thickness and no record of failure.
This should be compared to chloride levels in the range of 0.2-0.3 per cent by
weight of cement leading to severe corrosion of black steel in similar
circumstances.
METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT IN PERMEABILITY

EFFECT OF POZZOLAN ON POROSITY / PERMEABILITY:
Experts have widely agreed for decades that the use of pozzolana, or
supplementary cementing materials, can reduce concrete
permeability by 7 to 10 times. In particular the mechanism of
pozzolana in this role can be viewed as having two principal aspects.
First, the use of a quality pozzolana will result in a denser pore
structure in the cement paste matrix. Second, the chemical reaction of
lime crystals to form binders has a direct effect of increased paste
density, reduced porosity over time, and will enhance the matrix
chemical resistance to many aggressive species.
EFFECT OF POWERPOZZ HRM ON POROSITY
The effect of High Reactivity Metkaolin in this regard is pronounced.
The engineered particle size of HRM serves as an effective micro-
packing additive.
Its average particle size being approximately one order of magnitude
smaller than the average cement particle, it will serve to fill the
interstitial spaces between cement grains, thus physically tightening
the particle arrangement. The alteration of lime is in a way a removal
by substitution reaction, where calcium hydroxide crystals are reacted
by HRM, in the presence of moisture, to form durable binding products
such as calcium silicate and calcium aluminate hydrates.
The physical and chemical effect of HRM is of particular significance
with regard to the paste-aggregate interfacial zones mentioned
previously.
CHLORIDE ION PERMEABILITY
The resistance of HRM concrete to chloride-ion penetration is significantly
higher than plain OPC of Fly Ash concrete, and similar to that of silica fume
concrete.
Thermal Properties:
Thermal Conductivity:
It is measure of the ability of concrete to conduct heat.
o The structural concrete of normal aggregate conduct heat more than light
weight concrete.
Lower the water content of the mix, the higher the conductivity.
It can be calculated from the conductivity of the coarse aggregate, the mix
proportions and the conductivity of the mortar.
K=Km(2M-M2) + (KmKa(1-M)2)/(KaM+Km(1-M))
Ka – Conductivity of aggregate
Km - Conductivity of mortar
M = 1-(1-p)1/3
p – Volume of mortar per unit volume of concrete
Unit : WM-1K-1
Thermal Diffusivity:
It is a measure of the rate at which temp change within the mass takes place.
D=K/(cρ)
Where,
K- Thermal conductivity
D- Thermal diffusivity
C- Specific heat
ρ – Density of concrete
Specific heat gives the heat capacity of concrete.
Coefficient of thermal expansion varies from 9E-6 to 12E-6 per oC
CRACKING
It can be defined as a separation of the individual components of concrete
resulting in a discontinuous material.
Classification of cracks:
A/c to location:
 Bond cracks,
 Mortar cracks,
 Aggregate cracks
Based on their width:
 Fine: <0.1mm
 Thin:0.1 to 0.3mm
 Medium: 0.3 to 0.7mm
 Wide: 0.7 to 2mm
 Very wide:>2mm
Depending upon their effects:
 Class I - Cracks leading to structural failure

 Class II - Cracks causing corrosion
 Class III - Cracks affecting function
 Class IV - Cracks affecting appearance
Cracks may be only at the surface or may extend to more than one layer. It
may be straight, toothed, stepped, map pattern.
Occurrence of closely spaced fine cracks at surface is called ‘crazing’.
Thermal properties of concrete.

The three important thermal properties of concrete are,
Thermal conductivity of concrete.
Co-efficient of thermal expansion and
Fire resistance.
Thermal character of concrete:

The process of hydration of cements materials releases heat which raises the
temperature of concrete. This heat mush eventually be lost to the
atmosphere and the cone temperature has to reach equilibrium with a long
term atmosphere Conditions.
The atmospheric gradients may occur or develop in the concrete as the internal
temperature is raised above the surface temperature of the concrete
member. This surface temperature is dependent on the material in contract.
The resulting temperature will produce tensions in the surface and may be
stiffness to cause cracking.
The second effect operates as the mean temperature of the member is remaining
move that of connecting members and the subsequent cooling will induce
tensions.
Thermal conductivity of concrete:

Thermal conductivity of heat is the ability o the materials to conduct heat.
Heat is defined as the ratio of the ratio of the flow of heat to the atmospheric
gradient and this thermal conductivity is measured in Jules per second per
square meter.
The thermal conductivity of heat depend the composition with respect to the type of
aggregate amount of ass and moisture continent.
When the concrete is saturated the conductivity ranges from 1.4 and 3.6 m/sec.
The thermal conductivity various more rapidly in light wt one than heavy or
normal wt concrete.
Thermal expansion of concrete:

Coefficient of thermal expansion of cone is an important property which affects the
stability and durability at different temperature conditions.
As the con is made up of two phases material namely paste and agg paste which has
dissimilar thermal con efficient but the coefficient of cone is a resultant of
these two phases.
In general form the coefficient of thermal expansion of cone is a function of the
quantity of aggregate in the mix and the coefficient of thermal expansion of
agg byitself.
Fire resistance:
Even cone is not a refractory material but a good combustible and has a good fire
resisting properties.
Fire resistance of concrete is determined by three factors.
The capacity of cone itself to with stand heat.
The subsequent action of water without losing strength unduly without cracking or
spelling.
And the conductivity of the concrete to heat and coefficient of thermal expansion of
concrete.
Action of fire on (concrete) steel:

The fire introduces high temperature gradients and as a result of it, the surface
layers extent to separate and spall off from the cooler interior.
The heating of reinforcement aggravate the expansion both laterally and
longitudinally of the reinforcement base resulting in loss of bond and loss of
strength of reinforcement.
Fire resistance on concrete:

Fire on cone building damages the cone as well as steel reinforcement, causing
disintegration of the cone and buckling of steel.
The temperature gradient is extreme 30 to 40oc on the outer face and above 800 oC
on the interface (near the source of fire).
In the initial stage (half an hour) as the heat inside builds up, some aggregate.
Expand suddenly, spelling the adjacent concrete. Moisture in concrete
rapidly changes to steam, causing localized bursting of small pieces of cone.
Extreme heat near the sources of fire causes spalling rapidly expanding cone
surfaces.
In the next 30 minutes a temperature inside reaches 400oC, the cement matrix
converts to QuickTime causing disintegration of concrete. The reinforcing
steel loses the ensile capacity at such temperature. Deflection of beams and
slab increases beyond this limit.
Beyond one hour of fire, as the concrete disintegrates, the exposed steel expands,
more rapidly than the surrounding concrete causing buckling, loss of bond to
adjacent concrete
The thermal conductivity of any concrete can be calculated from
K = Km (2m-m2)+km k2 (1-m)2 / K2M +Km (1-m)

K = conductivity of aggregate
Km = conductivity of motor
Thermal effects on concrete:
Effect of temperature on concrete.
Similar to other materials, cone expands with increase in temperature and contract
with decrease in temperature. The range of variation in temperature varies from
localities to localities, season to season and day to day.
The objectionable cracks may occur in cone due to contraction combined with the
effect of shrinkage.
Occasionally large and harmful stress may develop due to deformation because
temperature changes.
The coefficient of thermal expansion of contraction depends on the type and
quantity of cement, aggregate, relative humidity and sizes of section.
Excess water in concrete evaporates due to heat and setting of cone occurs. The loss
of moisture to evaporation causes the cement paste matrix to contract,
leading to shrinkage stress and shrine erecting.
A 6m long slab may shrink 3mm to 5mm along its length called “drying shrinkage”.
If the slab is supported at both its ends stress build up due to shrinkage drying may
exceed the tensile strength of concrete, resulting in a 3mm to 5mm wide
crack.
However if the cone is properly reinforced at regular intervals, the shrinkage stress
are distributed along the length of slab, resulting uniformly spaced fine
cracks.
Concrete at high temperature:

In some industrial application such as aluminum plants and brick works the cone
may be occasionally or frequently subjected to temperatures. These temperatures
are likely to be applied linearly.
Generally with and rather a long period.
Similarly jet aircraft and vertical take aircraft may subject the payment to very high
temperature.
Heat may affect concrete and as a result of,
The removal of evaporable water.
The removal of combined water.
Alteration of cement paste.
Disruption (of beam) from disparity of expansion and resulting thermal stresses.
Alteration of aggregate.
Change of the bond bet aggregate and paste.
Other effects on cone due to temperature.

Cycles of temperature can have a progressive effect on the reduction of strength
even longer curing did not improve the loss.
Tensile strength of cone is more effect by heat than its com strength.
During rapid rise and fall of temperature the response of cone is affected by the
interaction of thermal expansion, drying thermal incompatibility and enhanced
every
at high temperature.
If the heating is sufficiently rapid, high stresses can be included; hence failure and
instability may result.
Effects of steel at high temperature:

The influence of temperature on steel appears as a change in yield stress, ultimate
strength and modules of elasticity.
The changes depend on the type of steel and are greater in cold-weathered steel.
The strength of hot-rolled steel bars are not reduced if the temperature does not
reach to 300oC. But at temperature of 500-600oC the yield stress is reduced to the
order of the working stress and the elastic modules is reduced by one-third.
Bars heated to this temperature virtually recover their normal temperature.
Bars heated to 800oC have a lower residual strength after cooling to room
temperature.
Pre-stressing wire and stand starts to lose strength at 150oC and may have only
50% of its room temperature strength when heated to about 400oC.
Behavior of fire:
Failure in a fire occurs either through the spread of fire from the compartment or
through structural failure of a member or assembly of members.
Structural failure of a member most frequently occurs when the temperature of the
steel reduces the yield stress to the working stress.
The length of time of this fire occurs depend upon the severity of fire, the thermal
conductivity of the protecting concrete and weather spalling of the protection

covers.
Effect of temperature on concrete.

 Similar to other materials, cone expands with increase in temperature and
contract
with decrease in temperature. The range of variation in temperature varies from
localities to localities, season to season and day to day.
The objectionable cracks may occur in cone due to contraction combined with the
effect of shrinkage.
Occasionally large and harmful stress may develop due to deformation because
temperature changes.
The coefficient of thermal expansion of contraction depends on the type and
quantity of cement, aggregate, relative humidity and sizes of section.

Concrete at high temperature:
In some industrial application such as aluminum plants and brick works the cone
may be occasionally or frequently subjected to temperatures. These temperatures
are likely to be applied linearly.
Generally with and rather a long period.
Similarly jet aircraft and vertical take aircraft may subject the payment to very
high
temperature.
Heat may affect concrete and as a result of,
The removal of evaporable water.
The removal of combined water.
Alteration of cement paste.
Disruption (of beam) from disparity of expansion and resulting thermal stresses.
Alteration of aggregate.
Change of the bond bet aggregate and paste.
Other effects on cone due to temperature.
Cycles of temperature can have a progressive effect on the reduction of strength
even longer curing did not improve the loss.
Tensile strength of cone is more effect by heat than its com strength.
During rapid rise and fall of temperature the response of cone is affected by the
interaction of thermal expansion, drying thermal incompatibility and enhanced
every
at high temperature.
If the heating is sufficiently rapid, high stresses can be included; hence failure and
instability may result.
Effects of steel at high temperature:
The influence of temperature on steel appears as a change in yield stress, ultimate
strength and modules of elasticity.
The changes depend on the type of steel and are greater in cold-weathered steel.
The strength of hot-rolled steel bars are not reduced if the temperature does not
reach to 300oC. But at temperature of 500-600oC the yield stress is reduced to the
order of the working stress and the elastic modules is reduced by one-third.
Bars heated to this temperature virtually recover their normal temperature.
Bars heated to 800oC have a lower residual strength after cooling to room
temperature.
Pre-stressing wire and stand starts to lose strength at 150oC and may have only
50% of its room temperature strength when heated to about 400oC.
Behavior of fire:
Failure in a fire occurs either through the spread of fire from the compartment or
through structural failure of a member or assembly of members.
Structural failure of a member most frequently occurs when the temperature of
the
steel reduces the yield stress to the working stress.
The length of time of this fire occurs depend upon the severity of fire, the thermal
conductivity of the protecting concrete and weather spalling of the protection
covers.
VARIOUS CORROSION PROTECTION METHODS.
Methods of corrosion protection:
Corrosion inhibitors.
Corrosion resisting steels.
Coatings for steel and,
Cathode protection.
Corrosion inhibitors.
Corrosion inhibitor is an admixture that is used in concrete to prevent the metal
embedded in cone from corroding.
TYPES OF INHIBITORS:
Anodic inhibitors: (alkalis, phosphates, chromates, nitrates, benzoates).
Anodic inhibitors function by decreasing the reaction at the anode.
 They may react with the existent corrosion product to form an extremely
insoluble
Adherent coating on the metal surface.
 Organic inhibitors replace water at site on the inner plate, thus decrease
corrosion.
Cathode inhibitors (calcium carbonate):
Aluminum oxide and magnesium oxide.
Cathode inhibitors act to stifle the cathode reaction.
They are generally less effective since they do not form films on the anode.
MIXED INHIBITORS:
A mixed inhibitors may affect both and cathode processes.
DANGEROUS AND SAFE INHIBITORS:
A safe inhibitor is defined as one which reduces the total corrosion with out in
erecting area; while dangerous inhibitors produce increased rates can be due to the
lack of sufficient inhibitors to prevent complete protection or the presence of
crevices into which the inhibitor does not rapidly diffuse.
Anodic inhibitors are generally dangerous except sodium benzoate.
Cathode inhibitors are generally safe, but since sulphate is an exception.
CLASSIFICATION OF INHIBITORS:
Somewhat a different classification based on the actions of such as,
Barrier layer formation.
Neutralization and,
Savaging.
These represent processes by way of which the passivation is achieved it is
interested to note that the barrier layer formation is generally best achieved by
simply completely coating steel with a well curved low water cement paste which
needs to extra admixture at all.
CORROSION RESISTING STEEL:
In mid steel, the corrosion is not sufficiently or corrosion is not sufficiently or
significantly affected by composing, grade or level or stresses. Hence substitute
steels for corrosion resistance will have a significantly different compaction.
Based on some atmosphere, corrosion weathering, steels of correct type were
tested in concrete. They did not perform well in most content containing chloride it
is observed that the weathering steel corrode in similar concrete to those can
corrosion at high yield strength steel. Although the total amount of corrosion less
than would occur on high yield steel under similar conditions, deep localized pitting
developed, which could be more structurally weakened.
Stainless steel pipe has been used special applications especially as flames in
precast members, but generally not expect use as a substitute for wild steel any
case, stainless steel should not concrete involving under corrosion resistant.
Stainless steels contains relatively lower content of chloride levels, there was a
based in a delayed time to cracking relative to that for high strength steels, but this
was offset by irregular pitting corrosion. Very high corrosion resistance was shown
by austenitic stainless steels in all the environments in which they were tested, but
the observation of some very high pitting in the preserve of chlorides lead to the
warming the corrosion susceptibility was not evaluated in the test programme.
COATING OF STEEL:
Coatings are sometimes considered as for mild steel is to be embedded in concrete
exposed to advise corrosive condition.
There are both benefits and disadvantages to their use and any benefit can only be
optimized by carefully considering the specific job. The more obvious of those
considerations are,
Do the expected service life and structure exposure warrant coating of the steel.
If coating is desirable, is a field of job read or may the coating be applied prior to
fabrications of the reinforcing, for the structure.
Do transportation and subsequent lubrication pose a significant danger to the
coating.
In view of the exposure conditions, is the choice of coating dictated by these
condition rather than adoption of other measures.
GROUPS OF COATING:
ORGANIC COATING:
Organic coatings include coal tar enamel epoxy, asphalt, chlorinated rubber, vinyl,
phenolic, neoprene and methane.
Out of these, epoxy group is appeared to have the best potential for use.
EPOXY COATINGS:
Epoxy coatings provided excellent corrosion protection of prestressing steel.

The epoxies are wear resistance.
Epoxies are used to protect the steel reinforcing bars embedded in concrete of
bridge. Decks from rapid corrosion. This corrosion is caused by the chlorides ions
from the most commonly applied deicing salts, sodium chloride and calcium
chloride.
Results obtained from epoxy and polyvinyl chloride coatings, if properly applied
could be expected to adequately protect steel reinforcing bass from corrosion.
However only the epoxy coated bars had acceptable bond and creep
characteristics when embedded in concrete.
The power epoxy coatings overall performed better than the liquid epoxies and
four
epoxy coatings were identified as promoting materials to be used on reinforcing
steel bass embedded in concrete of experienced bridges.
The epoxy coat acts (as) to isolate the steel bass from contact with oxygen,
moisture and chloride. However, at damaged point on the cost corrosion may
commence such damage exists on the bar coupled to uncoated steel the
performance of such bar is still considered to be satisfactory, but not as good as
when all bar is coated.
The slab specimen showed little differ on crack width, spacing, deflections or
ultimate strength for coated and un-coat bar. The slab containing epoxy-coated bar
generally failed to flexure rather than in bond at approximately 4% lower loads than
with uncoated bar.
The beam specimen in which (flexural type loads here applied to the reinforcing
bar
splitting occurred along the reinforcing bass, but failure was primarily by either pull
out or yielding of the embedded steel.
Organic coatings other than epoxy have occasionally been used. In Germany PVC
has been used on welded wire fabric.
METALLIC COATING:
Metallic coatings re capable of providing protections to the black steel on one of
two
ways.
Metals with a more negative corrosion potential than steel such as zinc, and
cadmium, provide sacrificial protection to the steel embedded in concrete, although
the development of passivating products on the coating is of significance in the
longer time steels and alloys with a less negative corrosion potential (more able)
than the bar steel, such as nickel and stainless steel, protect the reinforcement only
as long as the coating is un broken since the bar steel is anodic to the coating. The
steel is protected by such metals simply by encapsulation.
Metallic coating is limited to galvanizing material.

 Coating of metals under mass exposure conditions, as in the presence of
conditions
zinc coating does not always provide increased protection.
Cadmium suffers from a cost disadvantage when compared to zinc and the
derivatives are slightly toxic.
OTHER COATINGS:
Zinc coating.
Zinc coating is used where longer life protection is desired than can be provide by
usual methods of coating it is not a permanent protection, however and in moist,
tropical climates the galvanized coating itself is usually protected with a goodquality
paint. Galvanizing is also useful for subaqueous exposure, where it gives
fairly good protection.
For structural work, it is customary to specify zinc coating by the hot-dip process
(galvanizing), because the resulting coating is thicker than that applied by there
processes such as the radioing, electroplating or spraying.
CATHODIC PROTECTION:
Corrosion in equals environments or in damp soil is primarily electro chemical in
nature and is due is a current passing from anodic areas of the metal into solution
and returning to the metal at cathode areas. This type of corrosion can be
prevented by impressing a countercurrent on the metal in a sufficient amount to
neutralize the aggressive electric currents.
Cathode protection, which consists of the electrical connections of the soon finial
anode to the structure to be protected, serves this function by neutralizing the
corroding current and forming layers of insoluble reaction products on the new
cathode areas.
In structural applications, cathode application of buried steel (pipe or piling) for
protection of the submerged portions of mass structure such as piling and bracing
for protecting lock and gates, for the interior of water tanks and for the exterior of
burried tanks.
Cathode protection however will not prevent corrosion of structure unless the metal
to
be protected is sorrows by an electrolyte such a swatter or damp soil and is
ineffective
in protecting structural elements above the water line or in very dry soil in cathode
protection, the effects of the induced currents on adjacent structures may be
damaged
unless they are adequately bonded to the new system or other means of protections
are provided.
PART – A
TWO MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWERS
1. Define Quality Assurance.

Quality assurance scheme is a management system, which increases confidence
that a material, product or service will conform to specified requirements, policies,
designated responsibilities and requirements to the owner.
2. What is the need for quality assurance?

The QA involved with the construction and use of a concrete structures are
concerned that the quality of necessary to give good performance throughout its intended
life is attained.
3. What are the causes of faults?

i. Mis – interpretation of the client needs
ii. Lack of good communication between members of the design team.
iii. Production of and reference to inadequate and imprecise specifications
iv. Mis – interpretation of design standards or codes of practices.
v. Use of incorrect or out – of – date data.
4. Define the term “Strength of concrete”.

The strength of concrete is its resistance to rupture. It may be measured in a
number of ways, such as strength in compression, in tension , in shear or flexure. All
these indicate strength with reference to a particular method of testing.
The compressive strength of concrete is usually determined by testing cubes of
cylinders, made in lab or field or cores drilled from hardened concrete at site, or from the
non-destructive testing of the specimen or actual structures.
5. Write a short note on Thermal Conductivity.
This measures the ability of material to conduct heat. Thermal conductivity is

measured in joules per second per square meter of area of body when the temperature
difference is 1oC per meter thickness of the body.
6. What is mean by Thermal Diffusivity?

Diffusivity represents the rate at which temperature changes within the concrete
mass. Diffusivity is simply related to the conductivity by the following
Diffusivity = Conductivity / Cρ
Where C is the specific heat , and ρ is the density of concrete. The range of
diffusivity of concrete is between 0.002 to 0.006 m2/h.
7. What is mean by specific Heat?

It is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass
of material by one degree centigrade.
8. Define Co – efficient of Thermal expansion.

Co-efficient of thermal expansion is defined as the change in unit length per
degree change of temperature. In concrete it depends upon the nix proportions.
9. Write a short note on Cracking.

Cracking will occur whenever the tensile strain, to which the concrete is
subjected, exceeds the tensile strain capacity of the concrete. The tensile strain capacity
of concrete varies with the age and rate of application of strain.
10. How the cracks are classified?

Cracks may be classified in terms of their effects.
i. Those cracks which indicate immediate structural distress
ii. Those cracks which may lead in the long run to a reduction of safety,
through corrosion of steel.
iii. Cracks which lead to malfunction of the structure as evidence
PART – B
SIXTEEN MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Explain Briefly the assessment procedure for evaluating damaged structure.

2. Explain in brief Causes of Deterioration.
3. What is quality assurance in concrete construction? Discuss Quality assurance of
concrete construction.

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CE2071 – REPAIR AND REHABLITATION OF STRUCTURES

SERVICEABILITY AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

R.SURYA, M.E (Structures),

Quality assurance for concrete construction, concrete properties- strength,

• It increases the confidence that a material used in construction

NEED FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE

• For reputation & professional satisfaction

• Quality of work for future sales

• To procure future contracts

• Trouble free use & low maintenance cost

• Good performance & appearance

DESIGN FAULTS IN CONCTERE CONSTRUCTION

• Misinterpretation of the client’s needs

• Lack of good communication between members of the design team

• Misinterpretation of design standards or codes of practice

• Use of incorrect or out-of-date data

CONSTRUCTION FAULTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

• Lack of effective communication with suppliers & subcontractors

• Inadequate on-site supervision

• Poor workmanship due to inadequate skills

• Failure to understand the design principles

REASONS FOR POOR QUALITY CONSTRUCTION

• Poor architectural or structural design

• Poor detailing of reinforcement

• Cement content – It should be minimum of 300 kg per cubic meter of

• Inadequate compaction of concrete

• Inadequate curing of concrete

• Inadequate cover to reinforcement

• Lack of technical knowledge of the building contractor and his supervising

PREMATURE DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE

• Aggressive chemical exposure

• Chemical reactions of aggregates

MECHANISMS IN A QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

• ORGANIZATION: definition of responsibilities & relationships for the total

• AUDITING: the ability to demonstrate that the tasks defined under

• REVIEWING: continuous checks on process methods & action procedures

• FEEDBACK: elucidation in measurable terms of causes of errors that

COMPONENTS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE

• PRODUCTION CONTROL: done by each of the parties to conform to its own

• COMPLIANCE CONTROL : applied to materials, structural & non-structural

• TASKS & RESPONSIBILITIES : for each activity – each parties need to be

• GUARANTEES FOR USERS

Three types of test specimen

Cube:150mm X 150mm or 100mm X 100mm

Cylinder: 150mm dia and 300mm ht

Test specimen are cast, cured & tested as per standards.

• Determination of this test is essential to estimate the load at which the

• Specimen size:150X150X700mm over 600mm span

Results are affected by

• Size of the specimen

• Size of the test specimen

• Size of aggregate & type of aggregate

• Support conditions of the specimen

• Types of testing machine

• Type of curing & temp of curing

Permeability of Concrete affects its Durability:

CONCRETE PERMEABILITY:Concrete durability depends largely on the ease (or

The aspect of properly consolidated, quality, hardened concrete that affects

The interfacial zone is normally in the order of 50 um in thickness, and can

In evaluating the permeability characteristics of concrete and masonry, there

CAPILLARY PORE SCALE: