Understanding Nursing Research Building an Evidence Based Practice 5th Edition Burns Test Bank

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Burns: Understanding Nursing Research, 5th Edition

Chapter 03: Introduction to the Qualitative Research Process

Test Bank

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. The components of rigor in qualitative research are:

a. availability, bias, and significance.
b. openness and adherence to the philosophical orientation.
c. predicting, confidentiality, and anonymity.
d. sampling, partitioning, and setting.
ANS: B
In qualitative research, rigor is associated with openness, scrupulous adherence to a
philosophical perspective, thoroughness in collecting data, and consideration of all the
data in the subjective theory development phase.
Availability, bias, and significance are not key terms related to rigor. In qualitative
research, rigor is associated with openness, scrupulous adherence to a philosophical
perspective, thoroughness in collecting data, and consideration of all the data in the
subjective theory development phase.
Predicting, confidentiality, and anonymity are important in research. Prediction is
associated with quantitative research. Confidentiality and anonymity are important
considerations in any human subjects’ research. In qualitative research, rigor is associated
with openness, scrupulous adherence to a philosophical perspective, thoroughness in
collecting data, and consideration of all the data in the subjective theory development
phase.
Sampling, partitioning, and setting are not key terms related to rigor. In qualitative
research, rigor is associated with openness, scrupulous adherence to a philosophical
perspective, thoroughness in collecting data, and consideration of all the data in the
subjective theory development phase.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 75

2. The following research steps could be found in which type of qualitative research?
• Identification of the culture to be studied
• Gaining entrance
• Cultural immersion
• Acquiring informants
• Theory development
a. Ethnographic
b. Grounded theory
c. Historical
d. Phenomenological
ANS: A

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 Test Bank 3-2

Ethnographic research was developed by anthropologists as a mechanism for studying

cultures.
Grounded theory research is an inductive technique that emerged from the discipline of
sociology. Ethnographic research was developed by anthropologists as a mechanism for
studying cultures.
Historical research examines events of the past. Ethnographic research was developed by
anthropologists as a mechanism for studying cultures.
Phenomenological research describes experiences as they are lived. Ethnographic
research was developed by anthropologists as a mechanism for studying cultures.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 85

3. A key factor in qualitative research is:

a. confidentiality.
b. internal validity.
c. random sampling.
d. researcher-participant relationship.
ANS: D
The researcher-participant relationship in qualitative research affects the data collected
and its interpretation. The researcher must have the support and confidence of the
informant to complete the research.
Confidentiality is important in both qualitative and quantitative research studies. The
researcher-participant relationship in qualitative research affects the data collected and its
interpretation. The researcher must have the support and confidence of the informant to
complete the research.
Internal validity is not a key factor in qualitative research as it is in quantitative research.
The researcher-participant relationship in qualitative research affects the data collected
and its interpretation. The researcher must have the support and confidence of the
informant to complete the research.
Random sampling methods are not used in qualitative research. The
researcher-participant relationship in qualitative research affects the data collected and its
interpretation. The researcher must have the support and confidence of the informant to
complete the research.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 84

4. The purpose of phenomenological research is to:

a. describe experiences as they are lived.
b. examine events of the past.
c. observe and document interactions within a culture.
d. study phenomena that contribute to theory development.
ANS: A
Phenomenological research attempts to capture the “lived experience” of study
participants.
Historical research examines events of the past. Phenomenological research attempts to
capture the “lived experience” of study participants.

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Ethnographers observe and document interactions within a culture. Phenomenological

research attempts to capture the “lived experience” of study participants.
Grounded theory is the study of phenomena that contribute to theory development.
Phenomenological research attempts to capture the “lived experience” of study
participants.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 76

5. The purpose of grounded theory research is to:

a. describe experiences as they are lived.
b. examine events of the past.
c. observe and document interactions within a culture.
d. study phenomena that contribute to theory development.
ANS: D
Grounded theory develops theory directly from the research data.
Phenomenological research attempts to capture the “lived experience” of study
participants. Grounded theory develops theory directly from the research data.
Historical research examines events of the past. Grounded theory develops theory directly
from the research data.
Ethnographers observe and document interactions within a culture. Grounded theory
develops theory directly from the research data.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 77

6. The purpose of ethnographic research is to:

a. describe experiences as they are lived.
b. examine events of the past.
c. observe and document interactions within a culture.
d. study phenomena that contribute to theory development.
ANS: C
Ethnographic research was developed by anthropologists as a mechanism for studying
cultures.
Phenomenological research attempts to capture the “lived experience” of study
participants. Ethnographic research was developed by anthropologists as a mechanism for
studying cultures.
Historical research examines events of the past. Ethnographic research was developed by
anthropologists as a mechanism for studying cultures.
Grounded theory develops theory directly from the research data. Ethnographic research
was developed by anthropologists as a mechanism for studying cultures.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 79

7. The following research steps could be found in which type of qualitative research?
Formulating an idea
Developing research questions
Developing an inventory of sources

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Clarifying validity and reliability of sources

a. Ethnographic
b. Grounded theory
c. Historical
d. Phenomenological
ANS: C
In historical research, after the topic is clearly defined, the research will identify the
questions to be examined, develop an inventory of sources, and clarify the validity and
reliability of these sources.
Ethnographic research was developed by anthropologists as a mechanism for studying
cultures. It describes a culture by looking at its characteristics. In historical research, after
the topic is clearly defined, the research will identify the questions to be examined,
develop an inventory of sources, and clarify the validity and reliability of these sources.
Grounded theory develops theory directly from the research data. In historical research,
after the topic is clearly defined, the research will identify the questions to be examined,
develop an inventory of sources, and clarify the validity and reliability of these sources.
Phenomenological research attempts to capture the “lived experience” of study
participants. In historical research, after the topic is clearly defined, the research will
identify the questions to be examined, develop an inventory of sources, and clarify the
validity and reliability of these sources.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 82

8. Which of the following is true about qualitative research?

a. A priori categories are established for analysis purposes.
b. Data are usually collected in a laboratory setting.
c. Focus is on studying the “whole.”
d. Intuition and abstraction are suppressed.
ANS: C
Qualitative research focuses on understanding the whole, which is consistent with the
holistic philosophy of nursing.
Generally the plan for analysis occurs after the data are collected. Qualitative research
focuses on understanding the whole, which is consistent with the holistic philosophy of
nursing.
More often than not, data are collected in naturalistic settings. Qualitative research
focuses on understanding the whole, which is consistent with the holistic philosophy of
nursing.
The researcher often uses intuition while collecting data and must be able to abstract
when analyzing it. Qualitative research focuses on understanding the whole, which is
consistent with the holistic philosophy of nursing.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 73

9. Data for qualitative studies are:

a. based on words rather than numbers.
b. easy and straightforward to interpret.

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c. gathered quickly from large numbers of people.

d. precisely analyzed on a computer.
ANS: A
In each approach to qualitative research, the purpose is to examine meaning, and the unit
of analysis is a word or phrase instead of a numerical value.
Data are neither easy nor straightforward to interpret. In each approach to qualitative
research, the purpose is to examine meaning, and the unit of analysis is a word or phrase
instead of a numerical value.
Qualitative data collection often takes a long time and must be conducted individually. In
each approach to qualitative research, the purpose is to examine meaning, and the unit of
analysis is a word or phrase instead of a numerical value.
Although computer programs are available to assist with analysis, many researchers still
find them cumbersome and incomplete. In each approach to qualitative research, the
purpose is to examine meaning, and the unit of analysis is a word or phrase instead of a
numerical value.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 94

10. Which of the following methods would be most reasonable to use if a researcher is
interested in finding out what it is like to live with a person who has a terminal illness?
a. Experimental methods
b. Forced-choice questionnaires
c. Phenomenological approach
d. Structured interviews
ANS: C
Phenomenology attempts to capture experiences as they are lived.
Experimental methods would not tend to answer this research question. Phenomenology
attempts to capture experiences as they are lived.
Although some information might be obtained, forced-choice answers would not allow
participants to “tell their story” and express what it is really like to live with a terminal
illness. Phenomenology attempts to capture experiences as they are lived.
Structured interviews may provide some useful information, but would not allow
participants to fully express their opinions of what it is like to live with a terminal illness.
Phenomenology attempts to capture experiences as they are lived.

DIF: Cognitive level: Application REF: p. 76

11. Which approach to generating knowledge is most represented by qualitative research?

a. Deductive logic
b. Inductive logic
c. Tradition
d. Trial and error
ANS: B
Qualitative research involves putting pieces together perceptually to make wholes.

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 Test Bank 3-6

Deductive logic is more closely associated with quantitative research. Qualitative

research involves putting pieces together perceptually to make wholes.
Tradition is simply “what we’ve always done.” Qualitative research involves putting
pieces together perceptually to make wholes.
Trial and error does not provide a consistent basis for generating knowledge. Qualitative
research involves putting pieces together perceptually to make wholes.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 77

12. External criticism of documents used in historical research asks which of the following
questions?
a. Are the documents real or fraudulent?
b. Are the eyewitnesses who provided the information still living?
c. Is the document well known?
d. Is the information in the document interesting?
ANS: A
External criticism determines the validity of source material.
Although it might be useful to know whether or not the writers of the document are living,
this does not relate to external criticism. External criticism determines the validity of
source material.
If the document is well known, the researcher might have more information about it, but
in and of itself that does not provide external criticism. External criticism determines the
validity of source material.
Whether the document is interesting is up to the researcher and the needs of the study.
External criticism determines the validity of source material.

DIF: Cognitive level: Application REF: p. 82

13. Qualitative research is based on which of the following?

a. A philosophy that all phenomena have antecedent causes
b. Logical positivist paradigm
c. Objective reality
d. The belief that multiple “truths” and “realities” exist
ANS: D
Qualitative approaches embrace the belief that there is not a single reality. Reality is
different for each person and changes over time.
This is not a basis for qualitative research. Qualitative approaches embrace the belief that
there is not a single reality. Reality is different for each person and changes over time.
Logical positivist paradigm is connected to quantitative research. Qualitative approaches
embrace the belief that there is not a single reality. Reality is different for each person
and changes over time.
This is a belief of quantitative researchers. Qualitative approaches embrace the belief that
there is not a single reality. Reality is different for each person and changes over time.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 73

Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

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14. Which of the following is a characteristic of phenomenological research methodology?

a. Bracketing
b. Comparison
c. Control
d. Objectivity
ANS: A
In some phenomenological research, critical thinking leads to bracketing. Bracketing is
suspending or laying aside what the researcher knows about the experience being studied.
Phenomenologists operate with the belief that each person’s experience is unique and
must be experienced rather than studied. In some phenomenological research, critical
thinking leads to bracketing. Bracketing is suspending or laying aside what the researcher
knows about the experience being studied.
Control is a part of quantitative research methodologies. In some phenomenological
research, critical thinking leads to bracketing. Bracketing is suspending or laying aside
what the researcher knows about the experience being studied.
Phenomenological research is a subjective method. In some phenomenological research,
critical thinking leads to bracketing. Bracketing is suspending or laying aside what the
researcher knows about the experience being studied.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 96

15. Data collection in many types of qualitative studies is considered complete when:
a. the researcher reaches a point of where no new information is collected and
theoretical ideas seem complete.
b. more than 15 subjects have provided information.
c. the researcher cannot find any additional potential subjects who fit the criteria for
the study.
d. the researcher runs out of time or resources.
ANS: A
The decision to stop seeking new subjects is made when the researcher ceases learning
new information or theoretical ideas seem complete.
There is no “magic” number of subjects in a qualitative study. The decision to stop
seeking new subjects is made when the researcher ceases learning new information or
theoretical ideas seem complete.
If a saturation point has not been reached, then it is necessary that the researcher continue
to find subjects who fit the study’s criteria. The decision to stop seeking new subjects is
made when the researcher ceases learning new information or theoretical ideas seem
complete.
Running out of time or resources is not an acceptable reason for ceasing data collection.
The decision to stop seeking new subjects is made when the researcher ceases learning
new information or theoretical ideas seem complete.

DIF: Cognitive level: Application REF: p. 84

16. Analysis of data in qualitative studies attempts to:

a. identify common themes and patterns.

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b. separate personal perceptions from environmental context.

c. support a single perception of reality.
d. verify information from previous studies.
ANS: A
During data analysis, the qualitative researcher attaches meaning to elements of the data;
classification of things, persons, events, and properties are initiated. Regularities are
noted.
According to the philosophical stance of qualitative researchers, separating personal
perceptions from the environmental context would not be possible or desirable. During
data analysis, the qualitative researcher attaches meaning to elements of the data;
classification of things, persons, events, and properties are initiated. Regularities are
noted.
Qualitative researchers believe that there are multiple perceptions of reality. During data
analysis, the qualitative researcher attaches meaning to elements of the data;
classification of things, persons, events, and properties are initiated. Regularities are
noted.
As a result of the nature of qualitative research, there is no attempt to verify information
in previous studies as part of the analysis of data. During data analysis, the qualitative
researcher attaches meaning to elements of the data; classification of things, persons,
events, and properties are initiated. Regularities are noted.

DIF: Cognitive level: Application REF: p. 94

17. Ethnographic research focuses on:

a. gathering data about lived experiences of individuals.
b. trying to understand cultures from an emic perspective.
c. the use of etic perspectives in studying individual human behavior.
d. the use of techniques of bracketing and intuiting.
ANS: B
The emic approach involves studying behaviors from within a culture.
Phenomenological research attempts to capture the “lived experience” of study
participants. The emic approach involves studying behaviors from within a culture.
The etic perspective studies behaviors from outside the culture and examines similarities
and differences across cultures. (The emic approach involves studying behaviors from
within a culture.) The ethnographic approach looks at groups, not individual behaviors.
Bracketing and intuiting are techniques used rather than the focus of a study. The emic
approach involves studying behaviors from within a culture.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 79

18. The grounded theory method is concerned with:

a. developing theories and hypotheses.
b. establishing an emic perspective of research.
c. providing validity checks for constructs.
d. testing theories and hypotheses.

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 Test Bank 3-9

ANS: A
Theory developed from grounded theory research is “grounded” in the data from which it
was derived.
An emic perception of research is part of an ethnographic perspective. Theory developed
from grounded theory research is “grounded” in the data from which it was derived.
Validity checks for constructs are not the concern of grounded theory research. Theory
developed from grounded theory research is “grounded” in the data from which it was
derived.

Because the data are the basis for the theory, they usually do not need to be tested.
Theory developed from grounded theory research is “grounded” in the data from which it
was derived.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 77

19. The main reason for not including qualitative studies in reviews for evidence-based
practice is:
a. that it is difficult to evaluate qualitative studies.
b. that many topics do not have qualitative studies available.
c. the lack of rigor in qualitative research.
d. that there are not enough qualitative researchers.
ANS: A
The main reason for the exclusion of qualitative studies in the review of literature for
evidence-based practice is that the criteria for judging the quality of such studies are not
well documented.
This is a true statement, but not the reason for lack of inclusion of all qualitative studies.
The main reason for the exclusion of qualitative studies in the review of literature for
evidence-based practice is that the criteria for judging the quality of such studies are not
well documented.
There is rigor in qualitative studies; it is just different from quantitative ones. The main
reason for the exclusion of qualitative studies in the review of literature for
evidence-based practice is that the criteria for judging the quality of such studies are not
well documented.
Although this may be true depending on one’s opinion, it is not the reason that qualitative
studies are not included. The main reason for the exclusion of qualitative studies in the
review of literature for evidence-based practice is that the criteria for judging the quality
of such studies are not well documented.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 74

20. There are many different approaches to qualitative research. What is one common thread
that is evident in all types?
a. All come out of a sociological tradition.
b. Each type of qualitative research looks at the “lived experience” of the subjects.
c. The process in each kind is a little like working a puzzle and putting pieces
together to make it whole.
d. They are all seeking to make sense of historical events.

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 Test Bank 3-10

ANS: C
The reasoning process used in qualitative research involves perceptually putting pieces
together to make them whole.
Qualitative research comes from traditions of many different disciplines. The reasoning
process used in qualitative research involves perceptually putting pieces together to make
them whole.
Phenomenological, a type of qualitative research, describes experiences as they are lived.
The reasoning process used in qualitative research involves perceptually putting pieces
together to make them whole.
Historical research meets this definition, but it is not the goal of all qualitative research.
The reasoning process used in qualitative research involves perceptually putting pieces
together to make them whole.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 73

21. A qualitative researcher might use which of the following statements to describe the rigor
in a proposed study?
a. “After the data are collected, strict adherence to approved analysis will be
conducted, objectivity will be maintained, and findings will be reported
accurately.”
b. “I have carefully researched all literature on this topic and am planning consistent,
thorough analysis of the data, collected from as many subjects as it takes to reach
saturation.”
c. “My sample size alone demonstrates the rigor applied to this study.”
d. “My study is based on solid theory and, when completed, will lead to a deeper
understanding of this topic.”
ANS: B
The researcher of a qualitative problem applies rigor to the study, just as a quantitative
researcher would. The methods are different and not concrete, but findings help gain
insights into many problems related to nursing.
The statement “After the data are collected, strict adherence to approved analysis will be
conducted, objectivity will be maintained, and findings will be reported accurately” is
much more likely to come from a quantitative researcher because often qualitative
researchers must use the data to help drive the analysis. The researcher of a qualitative
problem applies rigor to the study, just as a quantitative researcher would. The methods
are different and not concrete, but findings help gain insights into many problems related
to nursing.
Sample size is not a particular concern of the qualitative researcher and does not
guarantee a study’s usefulness. The researcher of a qualitative problem applies rigor to
the study, just as a quantitative researcher would. The methods are different and not
concrete, but findings help gain insights into many problems related to nursing.

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 Test Bank 3-11

The researcher who states “My study is based on solid theory and, when completed, will
lead to a deeper understanding of this topic” does appear to be describing a qualitative
study, but is offering less evidence of rigor than the researcher’s response in answer A.
The researcher of a qualitative problem applies rigor to the study, just as a quantitative
researcher would. The methods are different and not concrete, but findings help gain
insights into many problems related to nursing.

DIF: Cognitive level: Synthesis REF: p. 75

22. A phenomenological research question might be which of the following?

a. How do different cultures adapt to breast-feeding multiple infants?
b. How many mothers of twins elect to breast-feed their infants?
c. What is it like to breast-feed twins?
d. What past events have led many women to avoid breast-feeding?
ANS: C
Phenomenological research attempts to capture the “lived experience” of study
participants, which in this case is the experience of breast-feeding twins.
Ethnographers observe and document interactions within a culture. Phenomenological
research attempts to capture the “lived experience” of study participants, which in this
case is the experience of breast-feeding twins.
“How many mothers of twins elect to breast-feed their infants?” is a quantitative research
question. Phenomenological research attempts to capture the “lived experience” of study
participants, which in this case is the experience of breast-feeding twins.
This would be a question for historical research. Phenomenological research attempts to
capture the “lived experience” of study participants, which in this case is the experience
of breast-feeding twins.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 76

23. Which type of qualitative research is the most controversial?

a. Ethnographic research
b. Grounded theory research
c. Historical research
d. Phenomenological research
ANS: D
Grounded theory comes from sociology, ethnographic research comes out of the
discipline of anthropology, and historical research examines events of the past. Because
each of these has more tradition than phenomenological research, it is the most
controversial of the four approaches.
Ethnographers observe and document interactions within a culture. Grounded theory
comes from sociology, ethnographic research comes out of the discipline of anthropology,
and historical research examines events of the past. Because each of these has more
tradition than phenomenological research, it is the most controversial of the four
approaches.

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 Test Bank 3-12

Grounded theory develops theory directly from the research data. Grounded theory comes
from sociology, ethnographic research comes out of the discipline of anthropology, and
historical research examines events of the past. Because each of these has more tradition
than phenomenological research, it is the most controversial of the four approaches.
Historical research examines events of the past. Grounded theory comes from sociology,
ethnographic research comes out of the discipline of anthropology, and historical research
examines events of the past. Because each of these has more tradition than
phenomenological research, it is the most controversial of the four approaches.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 76

24. Why would the Hermeneutic approach be of interest to nursing researchers? The
Hermeneutic approach:
a. is a type of phenomenological research introduced by Heidegger.
b. is the most easily understood of the qualitative approaches.
c. seeks to increase the understanding of human nature.
d. was used to interpret Biblical texts.
ANS: C
Hermeneutics seeks to look at the social and historical influences through textual analysis
and increases the understanding of human nature.
Although the Hermeneutic approach is a type of phenomenological research, it would not
be the reason why some nurses are embracing this method. It describes a culture by
looking at its characteristics. Hermeneutics seeks to look at the social and historical
influences through textual analysis and increases the understanding of human nature.
Hermeneutics seeks to look at the social and historical influences through textual analysis
and increases the understanding of human nature.
Although the Hermeneutic approach was used to interpret Biblical texts, it would not be
the reason why some nurses are embracing this method. Hermeneutics seeks to look at
the social and historical influences through textual analysis and increases the
understanding of human nature.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 76

25. Which of the following is true about grounded theory research?

a. A portion of the technique came from the discipline of philosophy.
b. It is most like ethnographic research.
c. There is an attempt to discover the true meaning of symbols and objects.
d. This type of research has its roots in the data from which it was derived.
ANS: D
This type of research has its roots in the data from which it was derived. Phenomena
based in reality are investigated to find connections between variables and create
middle-range theories.
Grounded theory comes from the discipline of sociology.
It is most like phenomenological research.

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Grounded theory is based upon symbolic interactionalism, in which a person’s self-image

in a particular role is based on the perception that person has of what others think of her
or him in that role.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 77

26. If a researcher is looking for answers to the question “How can I make something happen
in a new way?” what kind of research is being conducted?
a. Ethnographic research
b. Grounded theory research
c. Historical research
d. Phenomenological research
ANS: B
This question is the focus of the intervention mode of grounded theory research.
Ethnographic research works at developing a “portrait” of the people in a certain location
or situation.
Historical research explores the roots of situations and where things began.
Phenomenological research seeks to explore the lived experience of humans.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 77

27. Which of the following would literally result in a written portrait of the study population?
a. Descriptive research
b. Ethnographic research
c. Phenomenological approach
d. Structured interviews
ANS: B
The word “ethnographic” means “portrait of a people.”
Descriptive data collection methods would not tend to answer this research question. The
word “ethnographic” means “portrait of a people.”
Although discovering the “lived experience” of what it is like to be in a certain culture
would be useful information, phenomenology does not create a portrait of the culture.
The word “ethnographic” means “portrait of a people.”
Structured interviews may provide some useful information, but would not necessarily
result in a verbal “portrait” of the culture because the subjects would not have told their
own story. The word “ethnographic” means “portrait of a people.”

DIF: Cognitive level: Application REF: p. 79

28. A study investigating how nurses in the health care system looked on medication errors
was conducted using the ethnographic approach. Why was this approach particularly
appropriate for this study?
a. It asked the nurses what it was like for them when they made a medication error.
b. It explored the theoretical basis of medication administration and medication
errors.
c. It improved understanding of how nurses within the hospital define or redefine

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medication errors.
d. Looking at the history of medication errors helps shed light on current practice.
ANS: C
The ethnographic approach looks at phenomena within a certain culture, in this case the
hospital, and seeks to describe how that culture deals with the subject of interest.
Finding out what making a medication error is like for each individual nurse is a
phenomenological approach. The ethnographic approach looks at phenomena within a
certain culture, in this case the hospital, and seeks to describe how that culture deals with
the subject of interest.
Grounded theory is described here, but it is also a questionable statement. The
ethnographic approach looks at phenomena within a certain culture, in this case the
hospital, and seeks to describe how that culture deals with the subject of interest.
This description indicates a historical approach rather than an ethnographic one. The
ethnographic approach looks at phenomena within a certain culture, in this case the
hospital, and seeks to describe how that culture deals with the subject of interest.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 79

29. According to a study of nurses and medication errors using the ethnographic approach,
what are nurses doing when “error” is redefined?
a. Creating a unique definition of error, specific to that particular person
b. Deciding not to report medication errors
c. Determining that the incident did not really happen as stated
d. Eliminating guilt regarding the incident
ANS: D
By redefining what a medication error means, no guilt is associated with an incident if it
can be excluded from that definition.
The researcher found that most nurses agreed with the criteria for redefinition.
The nurse continues to follow professional guidelines requiring that medication errors be
reported.
It is the perception that the incident is negative that is being challenged, not that the error
occurred.

DIF: Cognitive level: Application REF: pp. 77-78

30. What are the chief merits of historical research?

a. Development of new interventions to continued concerns
b. Enforcing an already-present level of self-understanding
c. Information on new ways of doing things
d. Knowledge of how things should be done
ANS: A

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 Test Bank 3-15

Goals of historical research are increased self-understanding and a better understanding

of one’s profession. Historians assume that “there is nothing new under the sun,” so do
not look for new ways, but use history to discover lessons learned. Rather than describe
particulars of a process, it seeks to discover new answers to old questions. Qualitative
approaches embrace the belief that there is not a single reality. Reality is different for
each person and changes over time.
One goal of historical research is increased self-understanding.
Historians assume that “there is nothing new under the sun,” so do not look for new ways,
but use history to discover lessons learned.
Historians assume that “there is nothing new under the sun,” so do not look for new ways,
but use history to discover lessons learned.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 81

31. Which of the following is the strongest argument in favor of historical research in
nursing?
a. All professions are characterized by knowledge of the history.
b. It is a method well suited to nurse researchers.
c. Nurses need to know their roots.
d. There needs to be a historical base on which to build.
ANS: A
The most important reason for developing the historical base in nursing is that having one
is one of the criteria of a profession. Although nurses may benefit from knowing their
roots and having a base does give something to build on, the struggle for the status of a
profession is something that has been part of nursing history, and putting the question to
rest is a long-term goal.
The most important reason for developing the historical base in nursing is that having one
is one of the criteria of a profession. Although nurses may benefit from knowing their
roots and having a base does give something to build on, the struggle for the status of a
profession is something that has been part of nursing history, and putting the question to
rest is a long-term goal.
The most important reason for developing the historical base in nursing is that having one
is one of the criteria of a profession. Although nurses may benefit from knowing their
roots and having a base does give something to build on, the struggle for the status of a
profession is something that has been part of nursing history, and putting the question to
rest is a long-term goal.
The most important reason for developing the historical base in nursing is that having one
is one of the criteria of a profession. Although nurses may benefit from knowing their
roots and having a base does give something to build on, the struggle for the status of a
profession is something that has been part of nursing history, and putting the question to
rest is a long-term goal.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 81

32. How does a qualitative historical researcher determine validity and reliability? The
researcher:

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 Test Bank 3-16

a. determines that theoretical saturation is reached with as many primary sources as

possible and secondary sources on a limited basis.
b. does not need to be concerned with validity and reliability.
c. finds as many sources as possible on the topic and does not exclude any of them.
d. uses references written about the subject by qualified experts to help ensure
validity and reliability.
ANS: A
The validity and reliability concerns in historical research are related to the sources from
which data are collected. The most valued source of data is a primary source, or original
works written by a person who actually experienced the event.
This is an untrue statement. Although terms may vary in different types of research, in
historical research, the sources from which data are collected are important indicators of
validity and reliability. The validity and reliability concerns in historical research are
related to the sources from which data are collected. The most valued source of data is a
primary source.
Validity and reliability mean that the researcher has evaluated the sources used in the
study and discarded ones not determined accurate. The validity and reliability concerns in
historical research are related to the sources from which data are collected. The most
valued source of data is a primary source.
Using another person’s opinion or interpretation about the subject is not as useful as
using something written from the initial source. Secondary sources are not as valued as
primary ones. The validity and reliability concerns in historical research are related to the
sources from which data are collected. The most valued source of data is a primary
source.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 82

33. How does a researcher know if data are from a primary source? The researcher:
a. checks with other researchers for their opinion and goes with the majority.
b. identifies where the data were found and uses geographic proximity to other
primary sources as support.
c. tries to identify common themes and patterns.
d. thoroughly evaluates the data with all means available to determine its status as a
primary source.
ANS: D
The well-prepared researcher scrutinizes, criticizes, and analyzes before even accepting
that it has been written by the subject of research.
This is not the process used, although experts in the field may be one source of
information used by the researcher to make the decision. During data analysis, the
qualitative researcher attaches meaning to elements of the data; classification of things,
persons, events, and properties are initiated. Regularities are noted.
Identifying where the data were found may be important to an overall understanding of
their source, but would only be one piece of information used. During data analysis, the
qualitative researcher attaches meaning to elements of the data; classification of things,
persons, events, and properties are initiated. Regularities are noted.

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 Test Bank 3-17

This may be something the researcher ultimately does with the data, but it is not the
method of determining a primary source. During data analysis, the qualitative researcher
attaches meaning to elements of the data; classification of things, persons, events, and
properties are initiated. Regularities are noted.

DIF: Cognitive level: Application REF: p. 82

34. Verifying handwriting or determining the age of paper a document was written on is part
of establishing:
a. accurate data collection.
b. external criticism.
c. internal criticism.
d. cultural influences of the time period.
ANS: B
External criticism is used to determine the validity of source material. The researcher
needs to know where, when, why, and by whom a document was written. This may
involve verifying the handwriting or determining the age of the paper on which it was
written.
The document itself would be the data. External criticism is used to determine the
validity of source material. The researcher needs to know where, when, why, and by
whom a document was written. This may involve verifying the handwriting or
determining the age of the paper on which it was written.
Internal criticism is an examination of the reliability of the document. External criticism
is used to determine the validity of source material. The researcher needs to know where,
when, why, and by whom a document was written. This may involve verifying the
handwriting or determining the age of the paper on which it was written.
The age of paper will probably not be a good guide to the cultural influences, although it
may give a small insight into the era. External criticism is used to determine the validity
of source material. The researcher needs to know where, when, why, and by whom a
document was written. This may involve verifying the handwriting or determining the
age of the paper on which it was written.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 95

35. Which type of research uses a unique method of reporting data?

a. Ethnographic
b. Grounded theory
c. Historical
d. Phenomenological
ANS: C
Historical research reports do not follow the traditional formalized style that is
characteristic of much research.
Reports of ethnographic research follow the traditional style. Historical research reports
do not follow the traditional formalized style that is characteristic of much research.

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 Test Bank 3-18

Reports of grounded theory research follow the traditional style. Historical research
reports do not follow the traditional formalized style that is characteristic of much
research.
Reports of phenomenological research follow the traditional style. Historical research
reports do not follow the traditional formalized style that is characteristic of much
research.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 81

36. Which of the following components of a research study is unique to qualitative research
methodology?
a. Designing the study according to protocols
b. Gathering data
c. Selection of participants
d. Stating the problem or question
ANS: C
In qualitative research, subjects are referred to as participants because the researcher and
participants cooperatively carry out the study.
Both kinds of research design the study according to established procedures. In
qualitative research, subjects are referred to as participants because the researcher and
participants cooperatively carry out the study.
Both kinds of research gather data. In qualitative research, subjects are referred to as
participants because the researcher and participants cooperatively carry out the study.
Both kinds of research state the research problem or question. In qualitative research,
subjects are referred to as participants because the researcher and participants
cooperatively carry out the study.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 94

37. Which of the following statements regarding subjects in qualitative research shows the
difference in the sample compared with samples in quantitative research? In qualitative
research the:
a. participants are fully informed as to the goals of the study.
b. relationship between researcher and participant is much closer.
c. researcher needs more participants in a study because there is more subjectivity.
d. researcher selects a random sample from a smaller population than is used in a
quantitative study.
ANS: B
The researcher must have the support and confidence of the participants to complete the
research.
Informed consent is part of any research, qualitative included. The researcher must have
the support and confidence of the participants to complete the research.
Qualitative studies usually have fewer participants than quantitative ones because there is
more data collected from each one and the goals of the study are different. The researcher
must have the support and confidence of the participants complete the research.

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 Test Bank 3-19

Most qualitative researchers do not obtain random samples for use in their studies. The
researcher must have the support and confidence of the participants to complete the
research.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 84

38. Which of the following is not a common data collection method in qualitative research?
a. Examining written text
b. Interviewing participants
c. Observing participants
d. Obtaining written surveys
ANS: D
Survey research is a type of quantitative research. Data collection methods in qualitative
research include observing participants, interviewing participants, and examining written
text.
Examining written data is a method of data collection used in qualitative research. Survey
research is a type of quantitative research. Data collection methods in qualitative research
include observing participants, interviewing participants, and examining written text.
Interviewing participants is a method of data collection used in qualitative research.
Survey research is a type of quantitative research. Data collection methods in qualitative
research include observing participants, interviewing participants, and examining written
text.
Observing participants is a method of data collection used in qualitative research. Survey
research is a type of quantitative research. Data collection methods in qualitative research
include observing participants, interviewing participants, and examining written text.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 85

39. Which of the following should the qualitative researcher pay attention to as part of
observation?
a. Focusing only on what is directly happening to the participant.
b. Focusing solely on the unexpected events in the participant’s life.
c. General overview of the participant’s routine.
d. Personal reactions to the situation.
ANS: D
The qualitative researcher must pay attention to the details of the participant’s routines.
The researcher can use personal reactions to the situation to help add perspective on the
data and assist in determining their validity.
The qualitative researcher must pay attention to all that is happening with the participant
so as to understand fully the phenomenon under study within the context of the
participant.
The qualitative researcher must pay attention to the details of the participant’s routines.
Unexpected events and how the participants react to them are important pieces of
information.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 88

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 Test Bank 3-20

40. Which type of qualitative researcher is likely to use film, videotapes, or photographs to
collect data?
a. Ethnographic
b. Grounded theory
c. Historical
d. Phenomenologist
ANS: C
Historians may observe film, videotapes, photographs, or artistic representations of
historical events.
Ethnographers observe and document interactions within a culture. Historians may
observe film, videotapes, photographs, or artistic representations of historical events.
Grounded theory develops theory directly from the research data. Historians may observe
film, videotapes, photographs, or artistic representations of historical events.
Phenomenological research attempts to capture the “lived experience” of study
participants. Historians may observe film, videotapes, photographs, or artistic
representations of historical events.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: pp. 81-82

41. A qualitative researcher is discussing data gathering with one participant in a study about
women who have experienced significant loss in their lives. They set up a series of
interviews and plan to meet in the participant’s home. The researcher expects to develop
a mutual understanding on the topic with the participant. Before leaving the participant,
the researcher supplies a list of questions that will be asked so the participant can be
prepared to answer them fully. Which of the behaviors in this scenario is atypical of
qualitative research?
a. Data gathering occurring over several visits
b. Expecting a professional relationship to develop
c. Giving the participant a list of questions before the interview
d. Meeting with the participant ahead of time
ANS: C
Although the researcher defines the focus, there is no fixed sequence of questions. The
questions addressed in interviews tend to change as the researcher gains insights from
previous interviews and observations.
Rather than occurring at a single point in time, dialogue between researcher and
participant may continue at intervals across weeks or months. Although the researcher
defines the focus, there is no fixed sequence of questions. The questions addressed in
interviews tend to change as the researcher gains insights from previous interviews and
observations.
The interview is performed so that a deep, mutual understanding is achieved. Although
the researcher defines the focus, there is no fixed sequence of questions. The questions
addressed in interviews tend to change as the researcher gains insights from previous
interviews and observations.

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 Test Bank 3-21

It is not unusual for the researcher to meet with the participant to explain a bit about the
study and plan for interview(s). Although the researcher defines the focus, there is no
fixed sequence of questions. The questions addressed in interviews tend to change as the
researcher gains insights from previous interviews and observations.

DIF: Cognitive level: Synthesis REF: p. 85

42. Why would a researcher use written documents from participants when interviews are
possible?
a. Often the text comes from the transcription of taped (verbal) interviews.
b. Researchers find text information easier to analyze than transcribed taped
interviews.
c. Text information is easier to collect.
d. Written information replaces verbal accounts.
ANS: A
To qualitative researchers, text is considered a rich source of data. Participants may be
asked to keep journals, write brief responses to questions, or simply write about a topic.
Text from previously written sources and transcriptions from interviews may be used.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 85

43. Which of the following is true about qualitative data analysis?

a. Data analysis occurs in three stages: description, analysis, and interpretation.
b. Data are usually collected and analyzed item by item.
c. Methodology is clearly described in most research reports.
d. There is a very different order for data handling than in quantitative research.
ANS: A
Data analysis occurs in three stages: description, analysis, and interpretation. Although
these stages always take place, they are often not fully described in reports of qualitative
research, so readers do not necessarily have a clear picture of the process.
More often than not, data are all collected and then analyzed. Data analysis occurs in
three stages: description, analysis, and interpretation. Although these stages always take
place, they are often not fully described in reports of qualitative research, so readers do
not necessarily have a clear picture of the process.
The researcher often glosses over portions of the analysis. Data analysis occurs in three
stages: description, analysis, and interpretation. Although these stages always take place,
they are often not fully described in reports of qualitative research, so readers do not
necessarily have a clear picture of the process.
Actually the order of dealing with the data is much the same as with quantitative data.
Data analysis occurs in three stages: description, analysis, and interpretation. Although
these stages always take place, they are often not fully described in reports of qualitative
research, so readers do not necessarily have a clear picture of the process.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 93

44. Coding for qualitative studies:

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Test Bank 3-22

a. allows the data to be retrieved by category.

b. consists of changing the text into numerical groupings.
c. is facilitated by the fact that data are collected in an organized fashion.
d. prepares the data for analysis on a computer.
ANS: A
Coding is a method of indexing or identifying categories in the data. These categories
receive a code that is entered into the computer and can be retrieved later for further
analysis.
Data in qualitative studies are not changed into numbers for analysis. Coding is a method
of indexing or identifying categories in the data. These categories receive a code that is
entered into the computer and can be retrieved later for further analysis.
Data are often collected in a sporadic fashion and do not fall together quickly. Coding is a
method of indexing or identifying categories in the data. These categories receive a code
that is entered into the computer and can be retrieved later for further analysis.
Although computer programs are available to assist with analysis, they do not often
analyze the data as in quantitative studies. Coding is a method of indexing or identifying
categories in the data. These categories receive a code that is entered into the computer
and can be retrieved later for further analysis.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: pp. 94-95

45. Which of the following would be most accurate in describing the data analysis process in
qualitative research?
a. Data are carefully maintained as they are first collected.
b. Data are checked for accuracy and then coded for computer analysis.
c. Participants provide information that is transcribed for researcher use.
d. The main emphasis in analysis is to extract themes and patterns in the data.
ANS: D
The job in data analysis of qualitative data is to get a picture of the topic. Themes and
patterns are extracted from the data collected, and “sense” is made of pieces by putting
them into a whole.
The data are coded and analyzed in such a way that they are actually extended beyond the
original format. The job in data analysis of qualitative data is to get a picture of the topic.
Themes and patterns are extracted from the data collected, and “sense” is made of pieces
by putting them into a whole.
Data are not analyzed by the computer in the same way as they are in quantitative
research. The job in data analysis of qualitative data is to get a picture of the topic.
Themes and patterns are extracted from the data collected, and “sense” is made of pieces
by putting them into a whole.
Although this is true, it is not the data analysis phase of the study. The job in data
analysis of qualitative data is to get a picture of the topic. Themes and patterns are
extracted from the data collected, and “sense” is made of pieces by putting them into a
whole.

DIF: Cognitive level: Application REF: p. 95

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More news on internet:
Acoustics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of all mechanical
waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound,
ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an
acoustician while someone working in the field of acoustics technology may be
called an acoustical engineer. The application of acoustics is present in almost all
aspects of modern society with the most obvious being the audio and noise control
industries.

Hearing is one of the most crucial means of survival in the animal world, and
speech is one of the most distinctive characteristics of human development and
culture. Accordingly, the science of acoustics spreads across many facets of human
society—music, medicine, architecture, industrial production, warfare and more.
Likewise, animal species such as songbirds and frogs use sound and hearing as a
key element of mating rituals or marking territories. Art, craft, science and
technology have provoked one another to advance the whole, as in many other
fields of knowledge. Robert Bruce Lindsay's 'Wheel of Acoustics' is a well
accepted overview of the various fields in acoustics.[1]

The word "acoustic" is derived from the Greek word ἀκουστικός (akoustikos),
meaning "of or for hearing, ready to hear"[2] and that from ἀκουστός (akoustos),
"heard, audible",[3] which in turn derives from the verb ἀκούω (akouo), "I
hear".[4]

The Latin synonym is "sonic", after which the term sonics used to be a synonym
for acoustics[5] and later a branch of acoustics.[6] Frequencies above and below
the audible range are called "ultrasonic" and "infrasonic", respectively.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Early research in acoustics
1.2 Age of Enlightenment and onward
2 Fundamental concepts of acoustics
2.1 Definition
2.2 Wave propagation: pressure levels
2.3 Wave propagation: frequency
2.4 Transduction in acoustics
3 Acoustician
3.1 Education
4 Subdisciplines
4.1 Archaeoacoustics
4.2 Aeroacoustics
4.3 Acoustic signal processing
4.4 Architectural acoustics
4.5 Bioacoustics
4.6 Electroacoustics
4.7 Environmental noise and soundscapes
4.8 Musical acoustics
4.9 Psychoacoustics
4.10 Speech
4.11 Ultrasonics
4.12 Underwater acoustics
4.13 Vibration and dynamics
5 Professional societies
6 Academic journals
7 See also
8 Notes and references
9 Further reading
10 External links
History
Early research in acoustics

The fundamental and the first 6 overtones of a vibrating string. The earliest records
of the study of this phenomenon are attributed to the philosopher Pythagoras in the
6th century BC.
In the 6th century BC, the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras wanted to know
why some combinations of musical sounds seemed more beautiful than others, and
he found answers in terms of numerical ratios representing the harmonic overtone
series on a string. He is reputed to have observed that when the lengths of vibrating
strings are expressible as ratios of integers (e.g. 2 to 3, 3 to 4), the tones produced
will be harmonious, and the smaller the integers the more harmonious the sounds.
If, for example, a string of a certain length would sound particularly harmonious
with a string of twice the length (other factors being equal). In modern parlance, if
a string sounds the note C when plucked, a string twice as long will sound a C an
octave lower. In one system of musical tuning, the tones in between are then given
by 16:9 for D, 8:5 for E, 3:2 for F, 4:3 for G, 6:5 for A, and 16:15 for B, in
ascending order.[7]

Aristotle (384–322 BC) understood that sound consisted of compressions and

rarefactions of air which "falls upon and strikes the air which is next to it...",[8] a
very good expression of the nature of wave motion.

In about 20 BC, the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius wrote a treatise on the
acoustic properties of theaters including discussion of interference, echoes, and
reverberation—the beginnings of architectural acoustics.[9] In Book V of his De
architectura (The Ten Books of Architecture) Vitruvius describes sound as a wave
comparable to a water wave extended to three dimensions, which, when interrupted
by obstructions, would flow back and break up following waves. He described the
ascending seats in ancient theaters as designed to prevent this deterioration of
sound and also recommended bronze vessels of appropriate sizes be placed in
theaters to resonate with the fourth, fifth and so on, up to the double octave, in
order to resonate with the more desirable, harmonious notes.[10][11][12]

During the Islamic golden age, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973-1048) is believed to
postulated that the speed of sound was much slower than the speed of
light.[13][14]

Principles of acoustics have been applied since ancient times : A Roman theatre in
the city of Amman.
The physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly during and
after the Scientific Revolution. Mainly Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) but also Marin
Mersenne (1588–1648), independently, discovered the complete laws of vibrating
strings (completing what Pythagoras and Pythagoreans had started 2000 years
earlier). Galileo wrote "Waves are produced by the vibrations of a sonorous body,
which spread through the air, bringing to the tympanum of the ear a stimulus which
the mind interprets as sound", a remarkable statement that points to the beginnings
of physiological and psychological acoustics. Experimental measurements of the
speed of sound in air were carried out successfully between 1630 and 1680 by a
number of investigators, prominently Mersenne. Meanwhile, Newton (1642–1727)
derived the relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone of physical
acoustics (Principia, 1687).

Age of Enlightenment and onward

The eighteenth century saw major advances in acoustics as mathematicians applied
the new techniques of calculus to elaborate theories of sound wave propagation. In
the nineteenth century the major figures of mathematical acoustics were Helmholtz
in Germany, who consolidated the field of physiological acoustics, and Lord
Rayleigh in England, who combined the previous knowledge with his own copious
contributions to the field in his monumental work The Theory of Sound (1877).
Also in the 19th century, Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy
between electricity and acoustics.

The twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large

body of scientific knowledge that was by then in place. The first such application
was Sabine’s groundbreaking work in architectural acoustics, and many others
followed. Underwater acoustics was used for detecting submarines in the first
World War. Sound recording and the telephone played important roles in a global
transformation of society. Sound measurement and analysis reached new levels of
accuracy and sophistication through the use of electronics and computing. The
ultrasonic frequency range enabled wholly new kinds of application in medicine
and industry. New kinds of transducers (generators and receivers of acoustic
energy) were invented and put to use.

Fundamental concepts of acoustics

Jay Pritzker Pavilion

At Jay Pritzker Pavilion, a LARES system is combined with a zoned sound

reinforcement system, both suspended on an overhead steel trellis, to synthesize an
indoor acoustic environment outdoors.
Definition
Acoustics is defined by ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013 as "(a) Science of sound, including
its production, transmission, and effects, including biological and psychological
effects. (b) Those qualities of a room that, together, determine its character with
respect to auditory effects."

The study of acoustics revolves around the generation, propagation and reception
of mechanical waves and vibrations.
The fundamental acoustical process
The steps shown in the above diagram can be found in any acoustical event or
process. There are many kinds of cause, both natural and volitional. There are
many kinds of transduction process that convert energy from some other form into
sonic energy, producing a sound wave. There is one fundamental equation that
describes sound wave propagation, the acoustic wave equation, but the phenomena
that emerge from it are varied and often complex. The wave carries energy
throughout the propagating medium. Eventually this energy is transduced again
into other forms, in ways that again may be natural and/or volitionally contrived.
The final effect may be purely physical or it may reach far into the biological or
volitional domains. The five basic steps are found equally well whether we are
talking about an earthquake, a submarine using sonar to locate its foe, or a band
playing in a rock concert.

The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within
the domain of physical acoustics. In fluids, sound propagates primarily as a
pressure wave. In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms including
longitudinal waves, transverse waves and surface waves.

Acoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave and
how the wave interacts with the environment. This interaction can be described as
either a diffraction, interference or a reflection or a mix of the three. If several
media are present, a refraction can also occur. Transduction processes are also of
special importance to acoustics.

Wave propagation: pressure levels

Main article: Sound pressure

Spectrogram of a young girl saying "oh, no"

In fluids such as air and water, sound waves propagate as disturbances in the
ambient pressure level. While this disturbance is usually small, it is still noticeable
to the human ear. The smallest sound that a person can hear, known as the
threshold of hearing, is nine orders of magnitude smaller than the ambient
pressure. The loudness of these disturbances is related to the sound pressure level
(SPL) which is measured on a logarithmic scale in decibels.

Wave propagation: frequency

Physicists and acoustic engineers tend to discuss sound pressure levels in terms of
frequencies, partly because this is how our ears interpret sound. What we
experience as "higher pitched" or "lower pitched" sounds are pressure vibrations
having a higher or lower number of cycles per second. In a common technique of
acoustic measurement, acoustic signals are sampled in time, and then presented in
more meaningful forms such as octave bands or time frequency plots. Both of
these popular methods are used to analyze sound and better understand the acoustic
phenomenon.

The entire spectrum can be divided into three sections: audio, ultrasonic, and
infrasonic. The audio range falls between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. This range is
important because its frequencies can be detected by the human ear. This range has
a number of applications, including speech communication and music. The
ultrasonic range refers to the very high frequencies: 20,000 Hz and higher. This
range has shorter wavelengths which allow better resolution in imaging
technologies. Medical applications such as ultrasonography and elastography rely
on the ultrasonic frequency range. On the other end of the spectrum, the lowest
frequencies are known as the infrasonic range. These frequencies can be used to
study geological phenomena such as earthquakes.

Analytic instruments such as the spectrum analyzer facilitate visualization and

measurement of acoustic signals and their properties. The spectrogram produced
by such an instrument is a graphical display of the time varying pressure level and
frequency profiles which give a specific acoustic signal its defining character.

Transduction in acoustics
An inexpensive low fidelity 3.5 inch driver, typically found in small radios
A transducer is a device for converting one form of energy into another. In an
electroacoustic context, this means converting sound energy into electrical energy
(or vice versa). Electroacoustic transducers include loudspeakers, microphones,
hydrophones and sonar projectors. These devices convert a sound pressure wave to
or from an electric signal. The most widely used transduction principles are
electromagnetism, electrostatics and piezoelectricity.

The transducers in most common loudspeakers (e.g. woofers and tweeters), are
electromagnetic devices that generate waves using a suspended diaphragm driven
by an electromagnetic voice coil, sending off pressure waves. Electret microphones
and condenser microphones employ electrostatics—as the sound wave strikes the
microphone's diaphragm, it moves and induces a voltage change. The ultrasonic
systems used in medical ultrasonography employ piezoelectric transducers. These
are made from special ceramics in which mechanical vibrations and electrical
fields are interlinked through a property of the material itself.

Acoustician
An acoustician is an expert in the science of sound.[15]

Education
There are many types of acoustician, but they usually have a Bachelor's degree or
higher qualification. Some possess a degree in acoustics, while others enter the
discipline via studies in fields such as physics or engineering. Much work in
acoustics requires a good grounding in Mathematics and science. Many acoustic
scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to
advance our knowledge of the perception (e.g. hearing, psychoacoustics or
neurophysiology) of speech, music and noise. Other acoustic scientists advance
understanding of how sound is affected as it moves through environments, e.g.
Underwater acoustics, Architectural acoustics or Structural acoustics. Others areas
of work are listed under subdisciplines below. Acoustic scientists work in
government, university and private industry laboratories. Many go on to work in
Acoustical Engineering. Some positions, such as Faculty (academic staff) require a
Doctor of Philosophy.

Subdisciplines
These subdisciplines are a slightly modified list from the PACS (Physics and
Astronomy Classification Scheme) coding used by the Acoustical Society of
America.[16]

Archaeoacoustics
Main article: Archaeoacoustics

The Divje Babe flute

Archaeoacoustics is the study of sound within archaeology. This typically involves
studying the acoustics of archaeological sites and artefacts.[17]

Aeroacoustics
Main article: Aeroacoustics
Aeroacoustics is the study of noise generated by air movement, for instance via
turbulence, and the movement of sound through the fluid air. This knowledge is
applied in acoustical engineering to study how to quieten aircraft. Aeroacoustics is
important to understanding how wind musical instruments work.[18]

Acoustic signal processing

See also: Audio signal processing
Acoustic signal processing is the electronic manipulation of acoustic signals.
Applications include: active noise control; design for hearing aids or cochlear
implants; echo cancellation; music information retrieval, and perceptual coding
(e.g. MP3 or Opus).[19]
Architectural acoustics
Main article: Architectural acoustics

Symphony Hall Boston where auditorium acoustics began

Architectural acoustics (also known as building acoustics) involves the scientific
understanding of how to achieve a good sound within a building.[20] It typically
involves the study of speech intelligibility, speech privacy, music quality, and
vibration reduction in the built environment.[21]

Bioacoustics
Main article: Bioacoustics
Bioacoustics is the scientific study of the hearing and calls of animal calls, as well
as how animals are affected by the acoustic and sounds of their habitat.[22]

Electroacoustics
See also: Audio Engineering and Sound reinforcement system
This subdiscipline is concerned with the recording, manipulation and reproduction
of audio using electronics.[23] This might include products such as mobile phones,
large scale public address systems or virtual reality systems in research
laboratories.

Environmental noise and soundscapes

Main article: Environmental noise
See also: Noise pollution and Noise control
Environmental acoustics is concerned with noise and vibration caused by
railways,[24] road traffic, aircraft, industrial equipment and recreational
activities.[25] The main aim of these studies is to reduce levels of environmental
noise and vibration. Research work now also has a focus on the positive use of
sound in urban environments: soundscapes and tranquility.[26]
Musical acoustics
Main article: Musical acoustics

The primary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch
resolution.
Musical acoustics is the study of the physics of acoustic instruments; the audio
signal processing used in electronic music; the computer analysis of music and
composition, and the perception and cognitive neuroscience of music.[27]

Psychoacoustics
Main article: Psychoacoustics
Psychoacoustics explains how humans respond to sounds.[28]

Speech
Main article: Speech
Acousticians study the production, processing and perception of speech. Speech
recognition and Speech synthesis are two important areas of speech processing
using computers. The subject also overlaps with the disciplines of physics,
physiology, psychology, and linguistics.[29]

Ultrasonics
Main article: Ultrasound

Ultrasound image of a fetus in the womb, viewed at 12 weeks of pregnancy

(bidimensional-scan)
Ultrasonics deals with sounds at frequencies too high to be heard by humans.
Specialisms include medical ultrasonics (including medical ultrasonography),
sonochemistry, material characterisation and underwater acoustics (Sonar).[30]

Underwater acoustics
Main article: Underwater acoustics
Underwater acoustics is the scientific study of natural and man-made sounds
underwater. Applications include sonar to locate submarines, underwater
communication by whales, climate change monitoring by measuring sea
temperatures acoustically, sonic weapons,[31] and marine bioacoustics.[32]

Vibration and dynamics

Main article: Vibration
This is the study of how mechanical systems vibrate and interact with their
surroundings. Applications might include: ground vibrations from railways;
vibration isolation to reduce vibration in operating theatres; studying how vibration
can damage health (vibration white finger); vibration control to protect a building
from earthquakes, or measuring how structure-borne sound moves through
buildings.[33]

Professional societies
The Acoustical Society of America (ASA)
The European Acoustics Association (EAA)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Institute of Acoustics (IoA UK)
The Audio Engineering Society (AES)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Noise Control and Acoustics Division
(ASME-NCAD)
International Commission for Acoustics (ICA)
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Aeroacoustics (AIAA)
International Computer Music Association (ICMA)
Academic journals
Main category: Acoustics journals
Acta Acustica united with Acustica
Applied Acoustics
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (JASA)
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Express Letters (JASA-EL)
Journal of the Audio Engineering Society
Journal of Sound and Vibration (JSV)
Journal of Vibration and Acoustics American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Ultrasonics (journal)