Biology

for Cambridge O Level

Answer Book

Phil Bradfield

I
Published by
PEAK PUBLISHING LIMITED
London
UK

© Peak Publishing Limited 2016

Text © Phil Bradfield 2016

First published 2016

ISBN: 1 845222 16 4

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Printed in Pakistan

II
 Contents

1 Cell structure and organisation .................................................................... 2

2 Diffusion and osmosis .................................................................................. 3

3 Enzymes ....................................................................................................... 5

4 Plant Nutrition .............................................................................................. 6

5 Animal Nutrition .......................................................................................... 8

6 Transport in Flowering Plants ..................................................................... 9

7 Transport in humans .................................................................................. 10

8 Respiration ................................................................................................. 12

9 Excretion .................................................................................................... 14

10 Homeostasis ............................................................................................... 15

11 Coordination and response ........................................................................ 16

12 Support, movement and locomotion ......................................................... 19

13 The use and abuse of drugs ....................................................................... 20

14 Microorganisms and biotechnology .......................................................... 21

15 The relationships of organisms with one another and with the

environment .............................................................................................. 23

16 Development of organisms and the continuity of life ................................ 25

17 Inheritance ................................................................................................. 27

1
 Chapter 1: Cell structure and organisation

Self – Assessment Answers

1. b
2. a
3. d
4. B
5. d
6. C
7. a) A = cytoplasm B = nucleus C = chloroplast D = sap vacuole E = cell wall
b) A: living material of the cell (many functions)
B: controls the activities of the cytoplasm
C: absorbs light during photosynthesis
D: store of solutes / sugars, ions etc.
E: maintains the shape of the cell / allows cell to be turgid
c)
Structure Root hair cell Xylem vessel Red blood cell
A   

B   
C   
D   
E   
8. a) Carbohydrate in plant cell walls. Maintains the shape of the cell.
b) Green pigment in chloroplasts. Absorbs light during photosynthesis.
c) Woody material in some plant cell walls/xylem vessels. Supports the vessel/prevents
collapse/supports the plant.
d) Red pigment in red blood cells. Transports oxygen from lungs to tissues.
9. a) Breaking down food and absorbing the (soluble) products into the blood.
b) Any three, e.g. oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, intestine.
c) Any two of: respiratory, circulatory, excretory, nervous, endocrine, reproductive.
d) Correct function and two organs, e.g.
(Circulatory system) transport of materials around body.
Heart/arteries/veins.
(Nervous system) coordination/sending messages. Brain/spinal cord/nerves.
10. a) Clear, clean drawing lines Drawing is reasonable shape and proportions Labels: cell
wall, cytoplasm, nucleus (cell membrane and sap vacuole not visible).
b) Correct calculation, from drawing size/photo size.
c) Iodine (solution) / methylene blue (solution).
d) Cut open an onion and separate some of the leaves. Make a small square cut in the
inner surface of one of the leaves. Using forceps peel off the thin inner epidermis of
the leaf. Place the epidermis on a drop of water on a clean microscope slide. Add a

2
 drop of stain. Gently lower a cover slip onto the specimen. Use a piece of filter paper
to soak up any excess solution.

Chapter 2: Diffusion and osmosis

Self – Assessment Answers

1. b
2. c
3. d
4. A
5. a
6. C
7. c
8. b
9.
Feature Diffusion Osmosis Active transport
Movement is due to kinetic
  
energy of the particles
Movement requires energy from
  
cell respiration
Movement occurs down a
  
concentration gradient

10. a) A: No cells visible

B: Red cells with normal (biconcave disc) appearance
C: Red cells shrunken, with crinkly edges (crenated)
b) Solution B.
c) The water potential of solution A is higher than the water potential inside the cells.
The cells absorb water by osmosis, and burst.
The water potential of solution B is the same as the water potential inside the cells.
There is no net movement of water in or out of the cells by osmosis, so they maintain
their normal appearance.
The water potential of solution C is lower than the water potential inside the cells. The
cells lose water by osmosis, and shrink.
d) There are no intact cells left in tube A. The clear solution is red from the contents of
the cells after they have burst (due to the haemoglobin released).
Tubes B and C both contain intact cells.
11. a) From X to Y
b) Osmosis
c) Drawing should show a label line clearly ending on the position of the cell membrane,
just beneath the cell wall.
3
 Alternatively – the membrane around the sap vacuole (tonoplast) is also correct.
d) Diffusion
12. a) At X, movement of the sodium ions is from low to high concentrations, i.e. against a
concentration gradient. The method must be active transport.
b) At Y, movement of the sodium ions is from high to low concentrations, i.e. down a
concentration gradient. The movement is by diffusion.
c) The folds increase the surface area, which enables a faster rate of diffusion.
13. a)
10.0 × ×
8.0 ×
6.0
4.0
×
% change in mass

2.0
0.0

0 0.1
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
−2.0
Concentration of sucrose
solution/mol per dm3 ×
−4.0
−6.0
−8.0 × ×
−10.0

b) 0.35 mol per dm3 (where the curve crosses the X-axis)
c) Sucrose solution of concentration 0.5 mol per dm3 has a lower water potential than
the contents of the potato cells. Water leaves the cells by osmosis, causing a decrease
in mass of the tissue.
d) Both these solutions are (very) hypotonic to the contents of the potato cells. The cells
gain water by osmosis. When the cells become fully turgid, they can take in no more
water, and their mass remains constant.
e) There are several possibilities, e.g.
● Use several pieces of potato at each concentration of sucrose solution (find an
average value of mass change at each concentration.)
● Repeat with intermediate concentrations of sucrose solution (0.25, 0.45 mol per
dm3 etc.)
● Cut each piece of potato into smaller slices to increase the surface area for
osmosis.

4
 Chapter 3: Enzymes

Self – Assessment Answers

1. d
2. b
3. a
4. a
5. c
6. a) 70°C
b) At 50°C the molecules of substrate and enzyme have more kinetic energy than at
20°C, so they move around faster and collide more often. Therefore enzyme-substrate
collisions are more likely to result in a reaction.
c) At 90°C the high temperature damages the structure of the enzyme molecule,
including that of its active site, so that it can no longer bind with the substrate,
decreasing the rate of reaction. This is called denaturing.
7. a) 40 cm3
b) 30 cm3
c) The curve at 40°C should be drawn to the left of the curve in Figure 3.11, with a
steeper slope, but reaching the same maximum value. The higher temperature
increases the rate of reaction, but the same amount of product (volume of gas) is
produced, in a shorter time interval.
8. a) Iodine (solution)
b) The colour changes from yellow to blue-black.
c) 0.35
×
0.3 ×
Rate of reaction / arbitrary units

× ×
0.25

0.2

0.15
×
0.1 ×

0.05 ×
×
0
2 4 6 8 10
pH
d) pH = 5
e) The optimum pH for most human enzymes is 7. This means that the two types of
amylase must be chemically different, since they are differently affected by changes in
pH.
f) At this extreme of pH the very acidic conditions cause the enzyme to be denatured, so
it does not catalyse the reaction.
5
 g) Modifications should include:
● Repeat the experiment using different concentrations of amylase, such as 0.1%,
0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5% etc.
● Use 5 cm3 of pH = 5 buffer (i.e. the optimum pH) in all tubes
● Keep all other variables constant: temperature (20°C), concentration of starch
suspension, volume of starch suspension (5 cm3) volume of amylase solution (1 cm3)

Chapter 4: Plant Nutrition

Self – Assessment Answers

1. a
2. d
3. A
4. c
5. B
6. c
7. d
8. a
9. a) Respiration
b) With increasing light intensity the rate of photosynthesis increases, so more carbon
dioxide is absorbed by the leaf.
c) Another factor is limiting the rate of photosynthesis – carbon dioxide concentration or
temperature.
10. a) Place the leaf in boiling water for 30 seconds. Transfer the leaf to a tube of ethanol and
boil until the leaf is decolourised. Remove the leaf and wash in cold water. Spread the
leaf out on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution.
b) Yellow-brown to blue-black.
c) Areas with starch should be those outside the area covered by the foil, plus the area of
the triangular hole.
d) Storage of carbohydrate.
11. a) Part of the leaf Function
Epidermis Reduces water loss / protects against disease-causing organisms

Stomata Allow entry and exit of carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapour

Palisade mesophyll Main site of photosynthesis

Spongy mesophyll Photosynthesis and gas exchange between the cells and the air spaces

Xylem Transport of water and mineral ions

Phloem Transport of sugars and other products of photosynthesis

6
 b) Many chloroplasts for photosynthesis / thin cell walls so light can easily enter them /
vertical arrangement of cells (only one cell wall for light to cross).
c) Spongy mesophyll cells have fewer chloroplasts / more rounded shape / less densely
packed / not arranged vertically / surrounded by air spaces.
12. The first carbohydrate produced by photosynthesis is the sugar sucrose. This substance is a
‘single sugar’ or monosaccharide. It can be converted into other carbohydrates, such as the
polysaccharide cellulose, which is the main component of plant cell walls. Carbohydrates
consist of three elements: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Proteins contain two further
elements nitrogen and sulfur, which are obtained from the soil.
13. a) Independent variable = light intensity, dependent variable = rate of photosynthesis.
b) To supply carbon dioxide (for photosynthesis).
c)
100

90 × × ×
×
80 ×
Rate of photosynthesis /

60
bubbles per minute

50 ×

40 ×
30
×
20

10 ×

0 ×
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Light intensity / arbitrary units

d) 51 bubbles per minute (approx.)

e) Over the range 0-5 units of light intensity the rate of photosynthesis increases linearly
with increasing light intensity, from 0 to 77 bubbles per minute. (The slope of the curve
is constant).
f) Above 5 units of light intensity the increase in the rate of photosynthesis starts to level
off (the slope of the curve decreases). Above 7 units of light intensity the rate remains
constant at about 90 bubbles per minute (the slope of the curve is zero).
g) Between 0-5 units, light intensity is the limiting factor affecting the rate of
photosynthesis. It is the factor, which, if increased, affects the rate. Above 5 units
light intensity is no longer a limiting factor – some other factor is limiting the rate of
photosynthesis.
h) Between 0 and 5 units of light intensity there would be no difference in the curve.
Above 5 units the curve would level off at a higher rate of photosynthesis (above 90
bubbles per minute).
i) Bubbles may vary in size. The gas in the bubbles may not be pure oxygen (so bubble
rate may not be a good indicator of the rate of photosynthesis).

7
 j) There are several possibilities. The more obvious ones are:
● Collect the gas and measure the volume produced per minute
● Analyse the gas for its oxygen content
● Carry out replicates at each light intensity
● Carry out bubble counts at intermediate levels of light intensity.

Chapter 5: Animal Nutrition

Self – Assessment Answers

1. c
2. B
3. a
4. c
5. d
6. b
7. b
8. c
9. d
10. c
11. a
12. D
13.
Enzyme Substrate Products
amylase starch maltose
maltase maltose glucose
pepsin protein peptides
lipase lipid fatty acids and glycerol

14. a) Starch – add iodine solution, colour change from yellow-brown to blue-black.
Protein – add biuret solution. Violet (mauve) solution formed.
Lipid – dissolve in ethanol and pour into water. White emulsion formed.
b) i) Saliva is secreted in the mouth, containing the enzyme amylase. Amylase breaks
down starch in the bread into maltose. Mechanical digestion takes place – chewing
by the teeth. Saliva also moistens the food.
ii) In the stomach the enzyme pepsin is secreted, which breaks down protein in the
bread into peptides (short chains of amino acids).
iii) In the duodenum bile is secreted from the liver. Bile emulsifies lipids in the bread.
Pancreatic juice is added, which contains three enzymes: amylase (same reaction
as in the mouth); lipase, which digests lipids into fatty acids and glycerol; and
trypsin, which breaks down proteins into peptides.
15. (Diagram similar to Figure 5.20.)
When the circular muscles contract and the longitudinal muscles relax, the diameter of
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 the gut becomes narrower. If this happens behind the food it will squeeze the food along
the lumen. Rhythmic contractions and relaxations produce the wave known as peristalsis,
which pushes the food along the length of the gut.
16. a) (Diagram similar to the villus shown in Figure 5.23.)
b) i) The epithelial cells on the outside of the villus produce various enzymes that
complete the digestion of food.
ii) Glucose is absorbed through the epithelium and into the network of capillaries in
the middle of the villus. Absorption is by active transport.
iii) Fatty acids and glycerol enter the lacteal in the middle of the villus and are
transported through the lymphatic system into the blood.
17. a) 37°C is body temperature, which is likely to be the optimum temperature for the
enzyme.
b) Pepsin digested the albumen, producing peptides (short chains of amino acids).
c) A control is a part of the experiment that is set up to minimise the effects of variables
other than the one under test, which in this case is the action of the pepsin. The
conditions in tube 2 are exactly the same as in tube 1, except that there is no pepsin in
the second tube.
d) The lower temperature in tube 3 meant that the reaction took longer, due to the lower
kinetic energy of the reactant and enzyme molecules.
e) The optimum pH for pepsin is low (about 2) so in alkaline conditions there is little or no
pepsin activity.
f) The acid is present to kill any bacteria in the food, preventing food poisoning.
g) Acid is neutralised by alkaline juices from the pancreas juice and bile.

Chapter 6: Transport in Flowering Plants

Self – Assessment Answers

1. c
2. C
3. b
4. A
5. D
6. A
7. d
8. a
9. At the leaves, water evaporates from the mesophyll cells, in the process called
transpiration. This draws water up through the plant, in a movement called the
transpiration stream. Water travels through the xylem in specialised cells called vessels
which have cell walls thickened with lignin. Xylem forms a continuous pathway through the
plant, from the roots to the leaves. The other transport tissue is phloem, which together
with xylem forms structures in the stem known as vascular bundles. This second transport
tissue contains living cells called sieve tubes, which carry the products of photosynthesis to
different parts of the plant, in a process known as translocation.
9
10. a) A = epidermis, B = root hair, C = cortex, D = xylem, E = phloem
b) The root hair cell contains a higher concentration of solutes than the soil water, so
it has a lower water potential. Water therefore enters the root hair from the soil by
osmosis.
c) The cortex cells actively transport ions into the xylem, lowering the water potential in
the xylem vessels. Water follows by osmosis.
d) Diagram should show vascular bundles arranged in a peripheral ring around the stem.
Labels to include xylem, phloem and vascular bundle.
e) (Description of the method in Activity 6.1.)
11. a) Palisade mesophyll
b) Any suitable examples, such as roots, stems, flowers, buds, young leaves, tubers, bulbs
etc.
c) Water evaporates from the mesophyll cells in the leaf into the air spaces in the spongy
mesophyll. It then diffuses out through the stomata in the lower epidermis.
12. a) The diagram should be large, with clear lines and correct proportions. Labels should
include three from: epidermal cell, stoma, guard cell, chloroplast.
b) The magnification depends on the size of the drawing, and is calculated from the
equation:
length of guard cell (X) in drawing / μm
Magnification =
25 μm
c) Loss of water vapour is controlled by the opening and closing of stomata, which is
brought about by changes in shape of the guard cells. On the side of each cell next
to the stoma, the guard cell wall is thickened and less flexible. When water enters
the guard cells by osmosis, the cells become turgid and bend outwards in a C-shape,
opening up the stoma between the cells. Conversely, when water leaves the guard cells
and they become flaccid, they straighten and close the stoma.

Chapter 7: Transport in humans

Self – Assessment Answers

1. b
2. d
3. c
4. B
5. A
6. C
7. b
8. a
9. d
10. b
11. a) i) muscle ii) coronary artery
b) K – vena cava, L – aorta, M – pulmonary vein

10
 c) i) Valves labelled correctly – semilunar valves at bases of aorta and pulmonary artery,
bicuspid valve between left atrium and left ventricle, tricuspid valve between right
atrium and right ventricle.
ii) Arrows drawn correctly – arrow shown from left atrium to left ventricle and out
through the aorta, second arrow from right atrium to right ventricle and out of the
heart via the pulmonary artery.
d) a → c → d → b
12. a) i) Red blood cells contain the pigment haemoglobin. In the lungs where the
concentration of oxygen is high the haemoglobin combines with the oxygen,
forming oxyhaemoglobin. In the tissues, where oxygen is at a low concentration,
oxyhaemoglobin dissociates and gives up its oxygen, supplying the tissues with
oxygen for respiration. Carbon dioxide is produced by respiring tissues, and passes
into the blood by diffusion. Most carbon dioxide is carried as hydrogencarbonate
ions in the plasma, with smaller amounts as carbon dioxide gas in solution, or
combined with haemoglobin in the red cells. The blood carries the carbon dioxide
to the lungs, where it is eliminated from the body.
ii) There are two main ways the blood defends the body against pathogens –
phagocytosis and antibody production. Phagocytes produce pseudopodia, which
surround a bacterium and engulf it, enclosing the microorganism in a vacuole
inside the cell. The phagocyte then secretes digestive enzymes into the vacuole,
which break down the bacterium. Lymphocytes detect foreign antigens on a
bacterium or virus and make antibodies, which are secreted into the blood plasma.
The antibodies stick to the surface antigens on the pathogen, and destroy it in
a variety of ways, such as neutralising bacterial toxins, causing a bacterium to
burst, ‘labelling’ bacteria or clumping them together so that they are more easily
dealt with by phagocytes. Some lymphocytes develop into memory cells, which
remain in the body for many years and provide immunity to a pathogen if a second
infection occurs.
b) Fats from animal sources such as meat, cheese and other dairy products are
particularly high in saturated fat. A diet that is rich in fat, especially saturated fat,
raises blood cholesterol. Cholesterol is a lipid substance that combines with other
fatty substances in the blood and can form a blockage in a coronary artery, called an
atheroma, reducing blood flow to the heart muscle. Atheromas can result in various
heart complaints, such as angina and heart attacks.
13. a) (Any five differences)
Arteries Veins
Small lumen Large lumen
Thick wall Thin wall
Wall contains much muscle and elastic Wall contains less muscle and elastic tissue
tissue
No valves, except at start of pulmonary Valves present throughout veins
artery and aorta
Carry blood away from heart Carry blood towards heart
Blood pressure high Blood pressure low
Contain oxygenated blood (except Contain deoxygenated blood (except
pulmonary artery) pulmonary vein)

11
 b) The walls of a capillary are made of a single layer of flattened epithelial cells. The walls
of the capillaries are leaky, so that blood pressure forces fluid from the blood plasma
out of the capillaries, forming the tissue fluid. Nutrients such as glucose and amino
acids, as well as oxygen, can diffuse out of the blood in the capillaries into the tissue
fluid, and from there into the body cells. Excretory waste products produced by the
cells such as urea and carbon dioxide can diffuse in the opposite direction, from the
cells into the blood in the capillaries.
14. a) 25.0 ÷ 5.0 = 5 times.
b) An increase in heart rate and an increase in stroke volume.
c) At rest: 0.8
5.0
× 100 = 16%
During exercise: 20.0 25.0
× 100 = 80%
d) The walls of blood vessels (arterioles) leading to these organs can constrict or dilate to
vary the volume of blood passing through them.
e) The brain needs a constant supply of blood to provide oxygen and nutrients for the
brain cells to function correctly.
15. a) P = white blood cell / phagocyte; Q = red blood cell; X = plasma.
b) Platelets; blood clotting.
c)
white blood cell

phagocyte

d) Magnification = width of drawing

width of cell
(both widths must be in the same units)
30 mm
For example, if drawing width is 30 mm, magnification = 0.015 mm
= x 2000
e) The biconcave disc shape of the red blood cell provides a large surface area to volume
ratio, which allows more oxygen to diffuse into the cell. The flattened disc shape
means that there is only a short distance for the oxygen to diffuse to the middle of the
cell. Red cells have no nucleus, and contain haemoglobin, which combines with oxygen
and transports it around the body.

Chapter 8: Respiration

Self – Assessment Answers

1. b
2. a
3. c
4. c
5. D
6. d
7. A
12
8. c
9. a) A unicellular fungus.
b) glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ some energy)
C6H12O → 2C6H5OH + 2CO2 (+ some energy)
c) Manufacture of bread and alcoholic drinks (wine/beer).
10. a) P = larynx, Q = bronchus, R = intercostal muscles, S = diaphragm.
b) Air passing over the larynx causes the vocal cords to vibrate, producing sound.
c) R and S.
d) Cells lining the trachea secrete a sticky fluid called mucus, which traps bacteria. Other
cells are covered with cilia, which beat backwards and forwards in a coordinated way,
pushing the mucus and bacteria up the airway in the direction of the mouth, where it
is swallowed.
11.
Inhalation Exhalation
external intercostal muscles contract relax
internal intercostal muscles relax contract
ribs move down and inwards move down and inwards
diaphragm contracts and flattens relaxes and assumes a dome
shape
volume of thoracic cavity increases decreases
pressure in thoracic cavity decreases increases
volume of air in the lungs increases decreases

12. a) ● Alveoli provide a large surface area for efficient diffusion of oxygen and carbon
dioxide
● There is a short distance through the thin alveolus wall and the surrounding
capillary wall for the rapid diffusion of respiratory gases between the air in the
alveoli and the blood
● There is an intimate capillary network surrounding the alveolus, with a continuous
blood supply to maintain diffusion gradients for the gases
b) Carbon dioxide is mainly present as hydrogencarbonate ions in deoxygenated blood.
The hydrogencarbonate ions are converted into carbon dioxide, which diffuses out
through the capillary walls, across the alveolar walls and into the fluid lining the
alveolus. From there it diffuses into the space in the alveolus, and expelled from the
lungs during exhalation.
c) (Description/diagram of apparatus shown in Figure 8.3). Gently breathe in and out
through the rubber tube. Air is drawn in through the indicator solution in one boiling
tube and pass out through the solution in the second tube. The indicator that has
exhaled air passing through it will change colour first.
13. a) Tidal volume = 500 cm3.
b) Six complete breaths are shown in 30 seconds, which = 12 breaths / minute.
c) Total volume of air breathed per minute = tidal volume x number of breaths
= (500 x 12) cm3 = 6000 cm3 = 6 cm3.
13
 d) i) The volume increased (by 500 cm3).
ii) The external intercostal muscles contracted, moving the ribs upwards and
outwards. The diaphragm muscles contracted, lowering the diaphragm. The
volume of the chest increased, lowering the pressure inside the chest cavity and
drawing air into the lungs.
e) The line should show an increase in the tidal volume and an increase in the frequency
of breaths compared with that at rest
14. a) glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O (+ energy)
b) Soda lime (or sodium hydroxide / potassium hydroxide).
c) Carbon dioxide produced by the maggots is absorbed by the soda lime. The maggots
use up oxygen in respiration, which decreases the volume of gas in the respirometer
and draws the coloured liquid along the capillary tube towards the seeds. The rate of
movement of the liquid is a measure of the rate of respiration of the seeds.
d) An identical respirometer but with glass beads in place of the maggots.

Chapter 9: Excretion

Self – Assessment Answers

1. c
2. a
3. b
4. d
5. b
6. c
7. a) Excretion is the removal of the waste products of metabolism from the body.
b) In the capillaries surrounding the alveoli of the lungs, hydrogencarbonate ions in the
plasma are converted back into carbon dioxide, which then diffuses across the capillary
wall and through the wall of the alveolus. The carbon dioxide diffuses into the air space
in the middle of the alveolus, and is expelled from the lungs during exhalation.
c) In light plants carry out photosynthesis and oxygen is a waste product of this process.
8. a) A = kidney, B = ureter, C = urethra.
b) X = aorta, Y = (right) renal vein.
c) Blood in Y (renal vein) contains less urea (and other nitrogenous waste products), more
carbon dioxide and less oxygen than the blood in X (aorta). (It may also have different
concentrations of water and salts, depending on the levels in the blood.)
d) In the wall of the urethra close to the bladder is a sphincter muscle. This is a ring-like
muscle, which contracts to close off the outlet from the bladder.
9. a) A urine sample would contain no protein, no glucose, more urea and more ammonia
than the sample of plasma.
b) The process is deamination. Amino acids are broken down into a carbohydrate and
ammonia. The ammonia is combined with carbon dioxide to make urea.

14
10. The kidney machine, or renal dialysis machine, filters the patient’s blood to remove urea
and other waste products, along with excess water and salts.
Arterial blood is taken from the patient’s arm and pumped through the dialyser. The
filtered blood is returned to a vein. The filter in a dialyser consists of a dialysis membrane.
This is partially permeable – it has holes that are large enough to allow small molecules to
pass through, but will not allow the passage of larger molecules such as proteins, or the
passage of blood cells.
Modern kidney machines use dialysers containing many narrow tubes made of dialysis
membrane. Blood flows through the tubes and dialysing fluid flows around the outside of
the tubes, in the opposite direction. Unwanted solutes pass through the membrane from
the blood to the dialysis fluid.
Dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of glucose and salts as blood, but no urea. As
the patient’s blood flows past the membrane, urea, along with any excess salts and water,
diffuses through the holes in the membrane into the dialysis fluid, while cells and proteins
are retained in the blood. There is urea in the blood but not in the fresh dialysis fluid,
so there is a steep concentration gradient for diffusion of the urea. However there is no
concentration gradient for diffusion of glucose, which remains in the blood.
The dialysis fluid is constantly replaced with fresh solution and the ‘used’ fluid removed, so
that after several hours the patient’s blood is ‘cleaned’ of waste and the correct water and
salt balance achieved.

Chapter 10: Homeostasis

Self – Assessment Answers

1. c
2. b
3. d
4. d
5. c
6. a
7. a) P = sweat gland; Q = hair erector muscle; R = capillaries; X = epidermis.
b) When the body temperature rises, the sweat glands increase their secretion of sweat.
The Sweat passes out of the sweat gland through a pore onto the surface of the skin,
where it evaporates. The heat to evaporate the sweat is supplied by the body, cooling
the surface. When the body temperature falls, little sweat is produced, so there is no
cooling effect.
c) Melanin absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun, preventing it from causing
mutations to DNA.

15
8.
Hot environment Cold environment
Blood flow Vasodilation increases blood flow (Vasoconstriction reduces blood
to surface capillaries, so that more flow to surface capillaries, so that
heat is lost from the skin surface less heat is lost from the skin
surface)
Sweating Secretion of sweat increases. Secretion of sweat decreases.
More heat is taken from the skin in Less heat is taken from the skin in
evaporating the sweat evaporating the sweat
Hairs in skin Erector muscles relax, allowing Erector muscles contract, pulling
hairs to lie flat, so there is no hairs upright. Hairs trap an
insulating layer of air next to the insulating layer of air next to the
skin skin
Shivering Shivering (rapid contraction and Shivering (rapid contraction and
relaxation of muscle) does not relaxation of muscle) occurs,
occur generating heat
Metabolism The rate of metabolism in organs The rate of metabolism in organs
such as the liver and muscles such as the liver and muscles
decreases, generating less heat increases, generating more heat

9. a) Cover one beaker with a layer of cotton wool and secure it in place using the rubber
bands. Using the measuring cylinder, measure out the same volume of hot water
from a kettle into the two beakers. Cover each beaker with a lid. Measure the
starting temperature of the water in each beaker using the thermometer. Repeat the
measurements of temperature at five-minute intervals.
b) The temperature of the water in the insulated beaker will fall more slowly than the
water in the beaker without insulation.
c) i) Repeat the investigation and find an average of the results.
ii) Use two thermometers, leave one in each beaker throughout the investigation.
d) i) Body temperature is 37°C, lower than that of the hot water from the kettle.
ii) The model is different in many respects – insulation in the skin is fat, not cotton
wool, the body is not shaped like a beaker (any sensible difference).

Chapter 11: Coordination and response

Self – Assessment Answers

1. A
2. c
3. b
4. A
5. D
6. c
7. b
16
8. B
9. d
10. c
11. a) i) medulla
ii) cerebellum
iii) cerebrum
b) Patient A: the motor area of the cerebrum
Patient B: the part of the cerebrum concerned with memory
12. a) i) Light intensity is detected by nerve endings in the retina, and transmitted to the
brain via the optic nerve. In the brain impulses are passed to motor neurones,
which pass out of the brain via a different nerve to the iris muscles. In bright light,
circular muscles of the iris contract, constricting the pupil and reducing the amount
of light entering the eye. In dim light, radial muscles in the iris contract, dilating the
pupil and allowing more light to enter the eye.
ii) The response is a reflex because it is involuntary – not initiated by the brain.
iii) The reflex allows the correct intensity of light to fall on the retina in order to
produce an image, and too much light would damage the retina.
b) Light entering the eye is refracted by the cornea and passes through the pupil. It is
further refracted by the lens, which focuses the light rays onto the retina. In the retina,
light-sensitive cells called rods and cones convert the light into nerve impulses, which
pass out via the optic nerve to the brain.
c) Clouding of the lens means that less light will be able to pass through it and reach the
retina. The image will be blurred, and the person will have difficulty in seeing clearly
(particularly in dim light). Intensity of colours will be decreased.
13. a) A = sensory neurone, B = relay neurone, C = motor neurone.
b) The sensory neurone carries impulses from the pain receptor to the spinal cord. The
relay neurone receives impulses (via synapses) from the sensory neurone and passes
them to the motor neurone. The motor neurone sends impulses out to the muscle
fibres, causing them to contract.
c) P = grey matter, Q = white matter.
d) i) The person would neither move the arm nor be able to feel the pain (since both
the route to the motor neurone and to the brain are blocked).
ii) The person could feel the pain, but the reflex would not work to move their arm
(the route to the motor neurone is blocked, but not neurones in the spinal cord
leading to the brain).

17
14.
Nervous system Endocrine system

Form in which information electrical signals (also

is carried chemical across synapses)
Route by which By neurones In the blood
information is transmitted
Speed of response (fast or (Usually) fast (Usually) slow
slow)
Response short-lived or Short-lived Mostly longer-lasting
longer-lasting
Effect localised or (Usually) localised Sometimes affects one
widespread target organ, but often
widespread
Response voluntary or Voluntary or involuntary Involuntary
involuntary

15. a) 80 mg per 100 cm3 of blood (approximately).

b) Approximately 1.5 hours (after ingesting the glucose).
c) Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose into cells from the blood. It stimulates cells of
the liver and muscles to convert glucose into glycogen, and increases the oxidation of
glucose by tissue respiration.
d) The concentration of glucose in the blood of patient Q is always higher than that in
the normal person, for example it starts at 180 mg per 100 cm3 of blood, compared
with the 80 mg per 100 cm3 in the normal person. Patient Q’s blood glucose rises
more rapidly, reaching a maximum of 360 mg per 100 cm3 after 1 hour. After this time,
the level in patient Q falls more slowly than in the normal patient, and is still 220 mg
per 100 at 6.5 hours, while that of the normal patient has returned to 80 mg per 100
after 3 hours.
e) Patient Q may be producing some insulin (but less than normal). She will excrete some
glucose in her urine, and some will be oxidised by cell respiration.
16. a)
Student number of correct responses
finger tip back of hand palm of hand back of neck

A 10 8 9 5
B 10 8 7 6
C 9 7 8 4
D 10 8 9 7
E 10 7 8 4
mean 9.8 7.6 8.2 5.2

18
 b) Ten replicate tests allow the calculation of a mean value and increases the reliability of
the results.
c) i) Most sensitive – finger tip. Least sensitive – back of neck.
ii) Some areas of the skin (e.g. the finger tips) have a higher concentration of touch
receptors.
d) Any suitable suggestions, such as:
● Test the skin in other areas of the body
● Repeat using the points at different distances apart (2 mm, 10 mm etc.)
● Increase the sample size.

Chapter 12: Support, movement and locomotion

Self – Assessment Answers

1. c
2. d
3. a
4. b
5. A
6.
Joint Bones meeting at the joint Type of joint Number of possible
planes of movement
elbow humerus meets radius and hinge one
ulna
shoulder scapula meets ball and socket three
humerus
hip pelvis meets femur ball and socket three

7. a) A = scapula, B = humerus, C = triceps, D = tendon, E = ligaments, F = biceps, G = radius,

H = ulna.
b) i) The tendon (D) connects the (triceps) muscle to the (ulna) bone. The tendon is
strong and inelastic, so that it doesn’t stretch when the muscle contracts to pull on
the bone.
ii) The ligaments (E) run from one bone to another across the elbow joint. They hold
the bones together at the joint, preventing them from dislocating.
c) Antagonistic muscles are pairs of muscles that work together to move a bone. When
one muscle contracts, the other relaxes, and vice versa.
d) The triceps muscle contracts and the biceps relaxes. Contraction of the triceps pulls on
the ulna, moving the arm to the extended position.

19
 Chapter 13: The use and abuse of drugs

Self – Assessment Answers

1. d
2. c
3. c
4. a
5. b
6. D
7. a) i) A drug is any externally administered substance that affects chemical reactions in
the body.
ii) Drug abuse means using a drug for a purpose other than that for which it is
normally prescribed.
b) A narcotic drug results in a powerful feeling of contentment and euphoria. A
depressant acts on the nervous system to slow down nervous communication and
reaction times. Tolerance means that the drug user needs to take more of the drug
to have the same effects. Addiction means that the user becomes psychologically
dependent on taking the drug, despite the adverse consequences.
c) Heroin addicts are unable to live without regularly taking the drug, and become
preoccupied with obtaining and using heroin, often turning to crime to fund the habit.
8. a) The airways leading to the lungs are protected by the secretion of mucus, which
traps dirt particles and bacteria. The mucus is removed by the beating of tiny hair-
like structures called cilia. Tar in cigarette smoke destroys these structures, so that
contaminants are not removed from the lungs. Long-term irritation of the airways
produces a disease called bronchitis, where the smoker develops a persistent cough
and difficulty in breathing. Tar also contains carcinogens, which can cause lung cancer.
When this happens, cells in the lungs divide out of control, producing a growth called a
tumour.
b) Many people now regard smoking as being no longer socially acceptable, because
of the unpleasant smell and irritation caused by tobacco smoke. There is also strong
evidence that passive smoking is harmful to the non-smoker, and can even increase
their risk of developing lung cancer.
9. a) An antibiotic is a substance that is produced by a microorganism, which kills or reduces
the growth of other microorganisms. It is used in medicine to treat bacterial infections.
b) Penicillin. It prevents the proper synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. This weakens the
wall, so that water enters the bacterial cells by osmosis and they burst. (Alternatively –
tetracycline). It kills bacteria by preventing them from synthesising proteins, including
enzymes.
10. a) The short-term effects of alcohol abuse include decreased mental functioning, and an
increase in reaction times; loss of muscular control, coordination and balance, slurred
speech and blurred vision, nausea and vomiting, and reduced self-control. Long-term
abuse leads to cirrhosis of the liver, and other diseases such as liver cancer, stomach
ulcers and cardiovascular (heart) disease. Alcoholism also causes a wide range of
psychological problems, including anxiety, depression and personality disorders.
20
 b) Alcohol abuse is associated with domestic violence, and crimes such as burglary and
assault. It can lead to the alcoholic becoming isolated from family and friends, and to
marriage problems and divorce.

Chapter 14: Microorganisms and biotechnology

Self – Assessment Answers

1. b
2. d
3. a
4. c
5. d
6. d
7. c
8.
Type of organism
Feature
mould yeast bacterium virus
Composed of hyphae    
Reproduce inside living cells    
Use saprotrophic nutrition    
Have a cell wall    
Form reproductive spores    

9. a) A diagram similar to Figure 14.7 is needed, with the labels asked for in the question.
b) Plasmids are small circular rings of DNA, present in the cytoplasm of a bacterium.
These carry some of the cell’s genes.
10. a) A cell grows until its length has doubled. In the cytoplasm, the single chromosome is
copied by a process called replication, and the two copies separate to opposite ends
of the cell. The cell membrane now folds inwards, forming a double layer across the
middle of the cell. Two new cell walls are made, in between the two membranes. The
two daughter cells then separate.
b)
Time / minutes Number of cells
0 1
20 2
40 4
60 8

80 16
100 32
120 64
140 128

21
 160 256
180 512
200 1024
220 2048
240 4096

After 4 hours there are 4096 cells.

c)
5000

4000 ×
Number of cells

3000

2000 ×

1000 ×
×
× ×
0× × × × × × ×
0 50
100 150 200 250
Time / hours
The graph shows a steep increase in the gradient of the curve (exponential).
11.

Milk is pasteurised by A starter culture The bacteria convert

heating to 71.7°C for containing lactic acid lactose sugar into
15-20 seconds. bacteria is added to lactic acid, which
the milk. lowers the pH of the
milk.

The solids are A substance called The milk separates

separated and rennet is added, into solids called
allowed to ripen which contains curds and a liquid
and mature into the an enzyme that called whey.
finished cheese. coagulates proteins in
the milk.

22
12. a) Very hot steam at a high pressure is passed through the fermenter to sterilise it.
b) The fermenter tank is surrounded by a water jacket. Cold water is passed through the
jacket, keeping the contents of the fermenter at the optimum temperature.
c) Sugars, a nitrogen source such ammonia or amino acids, and mineral ions (e.g.
magnesium, potassium, sulfate and phosphate).
d) The air supplies oxygen for the (aerobic) respiration of the Penicillium. The air is
filtered to prevent other microorganisms entering the fermenter from the outside and
contaminating the broth.
e) If the paddles stopped, the broth would not be stirred. The Penicillium would not be
mixed with the nutrients so well, so growth of the mould would be reduced.
f) The penicillin is extracted from the broth using a series of organic solvents. It is then
re-dissolved back into a solution of sodium hydrogencarbonate, and allowed to
crystallise out as the sodium salt of penicillin.

Chapter 15: The relationships of organisms with one another and with the
environment

Self – Assessment Answers

1. C
2. b
3. a
4. b
5. d
6. d
7. B
8. a
9. a
10. c
11. b
12. d
13. a)

large fish

humans
small fish
crabs zooplankton
worms
phytoplankton

mangrove leaves

23
 b) Any food chain with 4 trophic levels, e.g.
phytoplankton → zooplankton → small fish → large fish
c) Dead organisms are food for decomposers (fungi and bacteria). The decomposers
produce carbon dioxide by respiration, which can be used by the producers for
photosynthesis.
14. a) phytoplankton → copepods → krill → Antarctic cod → squid → Weddell seal
b) primary consumer and secondary consumer
c) Energy is lost by respiration of the copepods, and in excretory products and egestion.
d) In general the efficiency decreases – the % energy transfer is lower near the ends of
the food chains.
e) The producers in marine food chains (phytoplankton) have a higher productivity than
producers in terrestrial food chains. They are more efficient at trapping the Sun’s
energy than terrestrial plants, so there is more energy available at the start of the food
chain.
15. a) P = ammonium ions, Q = nitrate
b) X = decomposers / fungi and bacteria, Y = nitrifying bacteria
c) Uptake via root hairs, by active transport
d) By excretion (e.g. as urea) and by death and decomposition by decomposers, forming
ammonium ions.

16. a)

adult mosquito
(lives on land)

pupa eggs
(lives in water) (laid on water)

larva
(lives in water)

b) A vector is any organism that transmits pathogens from one host to another (in this
case the mosquito transmits the malaria parasite to humans).
c) Any three methods from:
● Spraying the insecticide on the water where the larvae live
● Draining marshes, ponds, lakes or any standing water
● Stocking lakes and ponds animals that feed on mosquito larvae
● Spraying a thin layer of oil onto the water where mosquitoes breed
17. a) carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour (or any other correct greenhouse gas)
b) (Answer should include a diagram similar to Figure 15.25.) Short wavelength infrared

24
 radiation from the Sun passes through the atmosphere, and is absorbed by the surface
of the Earth. The Earth radiates a longer wavelength infrared radiation, which is
absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. They re-emit the radiation, warming
the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth.
c) Without the greenhouse effect the Earth would be 33°C cooler – too low to sustain life.
d) If there are more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, they absorb and re-radiate
more infrared radiation, increasing the surface temperature of the Earth. The probable
cause is extra carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of fossil fuels.
18. a) An ecosystem is a community of living organisms, together with their non-living
environment.
b) The insecticide was probably applied to crops on land nearby, and entered the lake by
leaching or run-off.
c) The phytoplankton absorbed the insecticide from the lake water. When the
crustaceans fed on the phytoplankton, the insecticide was not broken down in their
bodies or excreted, but became concentrated in their tissues. When the fish ate the
crustaceans this process was repeated, and again when the bird ate the fish, so that
the insecticide built up in concentration along the food chain.

Chapter 16: Development of organisms and the continuity of life

Self – Assessment Answers

1. D
2. c
3. c
4. a
5. b
6. d
7. b
8. c
9. B
10. b
11. a
12. d
13. a) Tubers are formed by one parent plant and do not involve the fusion of gametes from
two parents.
b) Tubers are a result of cell division by mitosis, which results in cells that are genetically
identical.
c) The plant has flowers, which are the sex organs that produce gametes.
d) Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring. This is an advantage
when the environment is stable and the organism is well adapted. Sexual reproduction
produces offspring that show variation. If the environment changes, this variation may
allow new forms of the plant to be able to survive better.

25
14. a) P = stigma, Q = anther, R = ovule.
b) Brightly coloured petals, nectar, scent.
c) Answer should be a diagram similar to Figure 16.19.
d) Any four from:
● flower is small and green, with no brightly coloured petals
● no nectaries
● stamens dangle loosely outside the flower instead of being stiff and enclosed
within the flower
● feathery stigma, exposed outside the flower
● large amounts of small, smooth light pollen grains, instead of smaller amounts of
large, sticky or spiky pollen grains
15. a) Both fruits are wind-dispersed. One has hairs forming a ‘parachute’, the other is
shaped like a wing or helicopter blade. Both adaptations allow the fruits to carry their
seeds away from the parent plant.
b) Any two of the following methods of animal dispersal:
● Animals remove the fruits and carry them some distance away from the parent
plant. They eat the fruit and drop the seeds.
● Small seeds are eaten with the fruit, pass undigested through an animal’s gut and
out with the faeces.
● Seeds have dry pericarps with hooks, hairs or spikes that catch in an animal’s fur.
● Seeds are carried in mud on the feet of animals or birds.
(Alternatively methods of self-dispersal or dispersal by water may be described.)
c) If seeds all germinated and grew near the parent plant they would compete for
resources, such as water, light and minerals. Seed dispersal prevents overcrowding and
reduces competition for resources, as well as allowing plants to colonise new habitats.
d) The offspring would be different from the parent plants, because they are formed by
sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves meiosis to produce gametes, and
fertilisation. Both these processes result in genetic variation, which would produce
variation in the appearance of the offspring.
16. a) A = sperm duct, B = penis, C = urethra, D = prostate gland, E = testis, F = scrotum.
b) A carries sperm from the testes to the urethra during sexual intercourse. D secretes
a nutritive fluid that is added to the sperm, forming semen. F is a sac that holds the
testes outside the main body cavity. This maintains the temperature of the testes a
few degrees lower than the core body temperature, which is necessary for sperm
development.
c) E
17. a) oestrogen
b) day 14
c) Thickening prepares the lining of the uterus for implantation of a fertilised egg.
d) progesterone
e) The fetus is inside the amniotic sac, which secretes amniotic fluid. The fluid fills the
space between the amnion and the embryo. The fluid gives mechanical protection to
the developing embryo, reducing friction and acting as a shock absorber.
26
18. a) Any three from:
● sexual intercourse with an infected person
● blood-to-blood contact, e.g. when drug users share an infected needle or syringe
● across the placenta from an HIV-positive woman to the fetus, or at birth
● by breastfeeding, from an HIV-positive woman to her baby.
b) ● Using condoms – this barrier method of contraception greatly reduces the risk of
transmission of the virus. When condoms are used by a couple in which one person
is HIV-positive, the rate of HIV infection is less than 1% per year.
● Reducing the sharing of needles by drug users – drug users can be encouraged to
use sterile needles and syringes, e.g. by supplying these through needle-exchange
programmes.
● Supplying anti-viral drugs to pregnant women who are HIV-positive – treating the
mother with anti-viral medicines before the birth (and after birth giving these
medicines to the child) reduces the risk of transmission by up to 99%.
● Encouraging HIV-positive mothers to bottle-feed their babies – if bottle-feeding is
possible, it can prevent transmission of the virus through breast milk. Alternatively,
the mothers may be given anti-viral medicines during breastfeeding.
● Education programmes – educating people about HIV/AIDS, and promoting the
idea that they should keep to one sexual partner, as well as avoiding ‘high risk’
groups, such as prostitutes.
19. a) Boiling removes oxygen from the water.
b) The oil prevents oxygen entering the water from the air.
c) A = water, B = oxygen, C = a suitable temperature.
d) A control tube would contain peas on wet cotton wool, and the tube would be
maintained at room temperature (20°C).
e) Tube A = no germination, tube B = no germination, Tube C = no germination (or less
than in the control tube).

Chapter 17: Inheritance

Self – Assessment Answers

1. d
2. a
3. c
4. b
5. c
6. d
7. A
8. a
9. b
10. c

27
11. a) A gene is a unit of inheritance, consisting of a length of DNA in a chromosome. Each
gene determines a particular feature of an organism. Alleles are different forms of the
gene.
b) Each member of a homologous pair of chromosomes is identical in size (length).
Each carries genes in a fixed order, with genes for certain characteristics at the same
position on each of the pair. The alleles at a particular gene locus may be the same or
different in each member of the pair.
c) Each gene consists of a length of DNA that contains a set of instructions for making
a particular protein. (The code consists of a sequence of base pairs in the DNA
molecule).
12. a) Three.
b) Individual 4 has CF, yet neither of his parents is affected. If the allele for CF was
dominant, at least one of individual 4’s parents would have the allele, and suffer from
CF.
c) 1 = Aa, 4 = aa, 5 = Aa, 7 = Aa, 10 = aa
d) Parents’ genotypes: father (4) = aa, mother (5) = Aa
Probability that next child is affected = 0.5 (50%)

father’s gametes
(a) (a)
mother’s (A) Aa Aa
gametes normal normal
(a) aa aa
affected affected

e) i) Gene mutation is the mutation that affects a single gene, so that a new allele is
produced.
ii) CFTR is made of proteins.
iii) Experiments are carried out by using viruses as vectors.
13.
Cross Ratio of genotypes in F1 Ratio of phenotypes in F1
TT x TT all TT all tall
TT x Tt 1TT : 1Tt all tall
TT x tt all Tt all tall
Tt x Tt 1TT : 2Tt : 1tt 3 tall : 1 dwarf
Tt x tt 1Tt : 1tt 1 tall : 1 dwarf
tt x tt all tt all dwarf

28
14. a) A codominant gene is one in which both alleles are expressed in the phenotype of a
heterozygote.
b) Let allele for red = R and allele for white = W
i) Parents’ genotypes: RR x WW

gametes (R) (R)

(W) RW RW
roan roan
(W) RW RW
roan roan

ii) Parents’ genotypes: RR x RW

gametes (R) (R)

(R) RR RR
red red
(W) RW RW
roan roan

iii) Parents’ genotypes: RW x RW

gametes (R) (W)

(R) RR RW
red roan
(W) RW WW
roan white

15. a) Parents genotypes: man = HbSHbS woman = HbAHbS

eggs

(HbA) (HbS)

(HbS) HbAHbS carrier HbSHbS sickle cell

sperm

anaemia
(HbS) HbAHbS carrier HbSHbS sickle cell
anaemia

b) The parasite that causes malaria spends part of its life cycle inside red blood cells. The
red blood cells of carriers are mostly normal in appearance, but because they contain
about 40% abnormal haemoglobin, they are more delicate than normal red blood cells,
and are easily damaged. When the malaria parasite enters these cells they burst, and
the parasite is killed before it can develop any further. This interrupts the life cycle
of the parasite, so the person is less likely to develop the full signs and symptoms of
malaria.

29
 c) In areas where malaria is endemic, the heterozygote has an increased resistance to
the disease, so carriers of the allele are more likely to survive to reproduce, passing on
the allele to their offspring. This is called a selective advantage – natural selection acts
in favour of the phenotype, and maintains the sickle cell allele in the population.
A selection pressure is an environmental factor that produces differential mortality. In
this case the selection pressure is the presence of malaria.
d) The genotype homozygous for the normal allele (HbAHbA).
16. When myxomatosis was first used to kill the rabbits it was very effective, because they
had no gene for resistance to the disease. Soon strains of rabbits appeared that were less
likely to die from the disease. These carried a gene mutation that gave them resistance to
myxomatosis. The resistant rabbits had a strong selective advantage and survived to breed,
while the non-resistant rabbits were at a selective disadvantage, and more of these were
killed. The selection pressure is the presence of myxomatosis, and resistant rabbits are
better adapted to the environment (fitter) when the disease is present. This is an example
of survival of the fittest.
17. a) Step 1 = restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease); step 2 = DNA ligase.
b) The plasmid acts as a vector to transfer the human insulin gene into bacteria.
c) The transgenic bacteria are cultured in an industrial fermenter, where they can be
grown to produce insulin on a commercial scale.
d) The insulin is used to treat people with diabetes. This avoids the need to use insulin
from animal tissues, which is slightly different in structure from human insulin, and
does not give such good control of blood glucose levels in humans.

30
 Biology
for Cambridge O Level

Biology for Cambridge O Level has been written to provide up-to-date coverage of
the material required for the latest Cambridge International Examinations O Level
Biology syllabus.
Key features include:
• A comprehensive text covering the material needed for Cambridge O Level
Biology
• Full colour illustrations, engaging photographs and clear diagrams
• Learning objectives at the start of each chapter and chapter summaries to
draw together key points and help students review their learning
• Margin boxes containing extension material and additional points of interest
to develop students’ knowledge and understanding of the topics
• In-text boxes containing definitions and explaining key terms
• A full range of practical activities covering the requirements of the syllabus
• Self-assessment questions throughout the chapters to allow students to check
their understanding as they go along
• Cambridge O Level style practice questions at the end of each chapter, to
support revision
• A separate section of past Cambridge O Level questions

Dr Phil Bradfield is a highly experienced biology teacher and author of many

leading texts.

31