INTRODUCTION TO TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is a static (stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in

one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.
Transformer can thus raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease
or increase in current. It works on the principle of mutual induction between two circuits
linked by a common magnetic flux. It is made up of two separate inductive coils which are
electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance as shown in
figure XCXC

Figure XXCC
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Its principle of operation is based on what is called mutual inductance between two coils. The
two coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to the source of alternating
voltage, an alternating voltage is set up in the laminated core. A greater portion of this is
linked with the other coil (loss accounted for the reduction). The linked flux produces
mutually-induced e.m.f (according to Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction, 𝑒 =
𝑀 𝑑𝐼⁄𝑑𝑡). A closed path in the second coil causes a current to flow in it and thus electric
energy is transferred, purely magnetically, from the first coil to the second coil.
The first coil connected to the source of excitation is referred to as the Primary winding while
the other is called the secondary winding.
In summary, a transformer is said to be a device that
i. Transfer electric power from one circuit to the other
ii. Does so without a change in frequency, i.e the frequency is the same at both points
iii. Works on the principle of electromagnetic induction
iv. And under mutual inductance of two coils

TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
In the simplest form, a transformer consists of two coils having mutual inductance and
a laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and the steel core.
Other component parts are:

 A compartment for assembling core and the windings

 An insulating medium for the core and its windings from the container
 Bushing (either of porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor-type) for insulating and
bringing out the terminals of the windings from the tank.
TRANSFORMER CLASSIFICATIONS
A. BASED ON WINDING AROUND THE CORE
When classified based on construction, transformers are distinguished by the way the
primary and secondary coils are wound around the laminated core. The classifications
on this criterion are:
i. Core-type : here, the winding surrounds a considerable part of the core and
 ii. Shell-type: the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings.
B. BASED ON COOLING SYSTEM
Transformers are classified under this basis as:
i. Oil-filled self-cooled
ii. Oil-filled water-cooled and
iii. Air-blast type
Small and medium size distribution transformers (use majorly in distribution systems)
are mostly oil-filled self-cooled. These are built for outdoor duties, and as such
require no housing other than their own casing. They require only periodic inspection.

ELEMENTARY THEORY OF IDEAL TRANSFORMER

An ideal transformer is characterised by the following:
i. No winding Ohmic resistance losses
ii. No magnetic leakages
Summarised as no 𝐼 2 𝑅 and core losses
An ideal transformer is said to be made up of purely inductive coils wound on a loss-
free core. This is practically impossible to realize but for the purpose of study, we
investigate the actual real transformer from a step by step approach from the ideal
case.

For the ideal transformer shown in Figure XX, a sinusoidal alternating voltage 𝑉1 is
connected to the primary side and the secondary side is opened (not connected to any
load). The potential difference (between the primary and the opened secondary)
causes an alternating current to flow in the primary coil. The primary draws a
magnetising current 𝐼𝜇 (the coil is purely inductive and no loss). This current
magnetises the core, lags 𝑉1 by90° and produces an alternating flux 𝜃. The flux is
proportional to the impressed current from the source. The changing flux linked both
the primary and secondary coils. It thus produces self-induced e.m.f 𝐸1 (called back
e.m.f) on the primary - this induced e.m.f is in opposition to 𝑉1 but equal in magnitude
to it.
In the same vein, an e.m.f 𝐸2 is induced on the secondary side too known as mutually
induced e.m.f. its phase is in opposite phase to 𝐸1 and its magnitude proportional to
the rate of change of flux and the number of turns of the secondary winding.

E.M.F. EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Let 𝑁1 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑁2 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝐵𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
∅𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 (𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠) = 𝐵𝑚 × 𝐴
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 4 × 𝑓 × ∅𝑚 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)
Or
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 4 × 𝑓 × 𝐵𝑚 × 𝐴
If the flux is sinusoidal, the r.m.s. value of the induced e.m.f is obtained by
multiplying the average value by the form factor;
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Form factor = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 1.11
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛, 𝐸1
= 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 × 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝐸1 = 1.11 × 𝑁1 × 4 × 𝑓 × ∅𝑚
= 4.44 × 𝑓 × 𝑁1 × 𝐵𝑚 × 𝐴
The rms value of the secondary induced emf could similarly be written as
𝐸2 = 1.11 × 𝑁2 × 4 × 𝑓 × ∅𝑚
= 4.44 × 𝑓 × 𝑁2 × 𝐵𝑚 × 𝐴
From the two expressions;
e.m.f per turn in both primary and secondary side is given as :
𝐸1 𝐸2
= = 4.44 × 𝑓 × ∅𝑚
𝑁1 𝑁2
Therefore, in an ideal transformer on no load, 𝑉1 = 𝐸1 and 𝑉2 = 𝐸2 . Where 𝑉2 is
the terminal voltage. And input VA= output VA

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION RATIO

𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸1 𝑁2
= = = =𝐾
𝑁1 𝑁2 𝐸2 𝑁1
The constant K is known as the voltage transformation ratio.
i. If 𝑁2 > 𝑁1 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐾 > 1, the transformer is called step-up transformer
ii. If 𝑁2 < 𝑁1 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐾 < 1, the transformer is called step-up transformer
 WORKED EXAMPLES

1. The maximum flux density in the core of a 250/3000-Volts, 50Hz, single

phase transformer is 1.2W/m2. If the emf per turn is 8-volts, determine
i. Primary and secondary turns ii area of the core.
Solution
Given Parameters:
Flux density 𝐵 = 1.2𝑊/ 𝑚2; 𝐸1 = 250𝑉; 𝐸2 = 3000𝑉; 𝑓 = 50𝐻𝑧;
𝐸1 𝐸2
𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 , = =8
𝑁1 𝑁2
Using induced emf equation;
𝐸1 = 1.11 × 𝑁1 × 4 × 𝑓 × ∅𝑚
= 4.44 × 𝑓 × 𝑁1 × 𝐵𝑚 × 𝐴
𝐸1 250
i. Primary turns, 𝑁1 = 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 8 = 31.25 ≈ 31𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
2𝐸 3000
Secondary turns, 𝑁2 = 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 = = 375𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 8
𝐸1
ii. Area of the core, 𝐴 =
4.44×𝑓×𝑁1 ×𝐵𝑚
250
= 0.03𝑚2
4.44 × 50 × 31.25 × 1.2

2. The core of a 100-kva, 11000/550V,50Hz, 1-ph, core type transformer has a

cross-section of 20cmby 20cm. Find (i) the number of H.V. and L.V. turns per
phase and (ii) the emf per turn if the maximum core density is not to exceed
1.3 Tesla. Assume a stacking factor of 0.9. What will happen if its primary
voltage is increased by 10% on no load?
3. A single phase transformer has 500 turns in the primary and 1200 turns in the
secondary. The cross-sectional area of the core is 80 sq.cm. if the primary
winding is connected to a 50Hz supply at 500V, calculate (i) peak flux-density
and (ii) voltage induced in the secondary

TRANSFORMER TESTS
Two tests are required to determine the parameters of the equivalent circuit of a
transformer without actually loading the transformer physically. They are
i. Open-circuit test and
ii. Short-circuit test
These two tests are used to determine the following parameters of the equivalent
circuit of a transformer:
i. Equivalent resistance as referred to the primary (or secondary)
ii. Equivalent leakage reactance as referred to the primary(or secondary)
iii. Core-loss conductance ( or resistance )
iv. Magnetising susceptance (or reactance)
These tests are economical and convenient as they furnish the required information
without actually loading the transformer.
TRANSFORMER LOSSES
In a static transformer, there are no friction or windage losses. The only losses
occurring are:
i. Core or Iron loss: this include both hysteresis loss and eddy current loss
ii. Copper loss: this loss is due to the ohmic resistance of the transformer
windings.
EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
The efficiency of a transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as the
output divided by the input- the two measured in the same units (either watts or
kilowatts).
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝐶𝑢 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 = =
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 𝐶𝑢 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜂= = 1−
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡