Completion

HANDBOOK ON COMPLETION
&
WORKOVER FLUID
Institute of Oil and Gas Production Technology

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd
Panvel, Navi Mumbai, 410221
Contents
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Workover and completion fluid characteristics 1
1.2 Functions of Completion and work over fluid 2
2.0 Common fluid properties 5

2.1 Density 5
2.2 Solid content 5
2.3 Rheological properties 6
2.4 Viscosity 6
2.5 Yield point 7
2.6 Gel strength 9
3.0 Types of completion & workover fluid 10

3.1 Oil Base Fluid 10
3.2 Oil Emulsion Fluid 10
3.3 Water Base Fluids 11
3.4 Selection criteria of brine 13
3.5 Water base mud 18
3.6 Packer fluid & Casing packs 19
3.7 Plugs or pills 21
4.0 Workover fluid for sub-hydrostatic well 24

4.1 Circulating fluid 24
4.2 Particulate loaded circulating fluids 36
4.3 Loss control pill 37
4.4 Viscosified (polymer) pills 38
4.5 Non-circulating fluid 39
4.6 Selection of polymer pill 42
4.7 Loss control pills used in oil industry 47
5.0 Completion/workover fluid for HPHT wells 53

5.1 Formate brines 54
6.0 Displacement of mud with brines during completion 56
Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 0

1.0 Introduction:
A completion fluid is a fluid placed against the producing formation while

conducting operations such as killing, cleaning out, drilling in, plugging back,
controlling sand, or perforating. The fluids used in the well for completion
purposes could be drilling fluids, packer fluids, casing pack fluids, work over
fluids, special fluids (completion / fracturing/ treatment). Stability and corrosion
are important for packer fluids as they remain in the well for longer period;
The completion fluid must fulfill its primary objectives of minimizing formation
damage and maximizing production rate, while maintaining well control and
circulation‘ capacity. Temperature stability, compatibility with formation fluids,
corrosivity and personnel and environmental safety are other important factors
to consider.
The completion operation normally begins with drilling the pay zone that is
going to be produced. In practice, however, the completion fluid is the fluid
used to run in and set well equipment and when any production casing is
perforated. The chief functions of a completion fluid are therefore different
from those of a drilling mud. It must be chosen so as to optimize production
while at the same time ensuring safe operation.
Workover fluids are used during remedial work in producing wells, usually as an
attempt to enhance or prolong the economic life of the well. As the potential
for permanent damage is greater during completion and workover operations
than it is during drilling, the objective is to use a fluid that not only control the
formation pressure but also causes the least possible damage to the producing
zone.
1.1 Workover and completion fluid characteristics:
A good fluid should:

 Be sufficiently dense to control well pressures without being too heavy. This
reduces a large fluid loss to the formation. By staying close to formation
balance, overbalance losses are reduced.
 Be cost effective. Sometimes expensive fluids are necessary to prevent
damage in sensitive formations. There are occasions where less expensive
fluids will cause little or no harm. Past experience is valuable here.
 Be as free of solid particles as possible. Solids can plug perforations and
reduce production after a fracture or gravel pack job. The better fluids are
filtered or cleaned, and have few solids. Generally, fluids that are filtered to
2-4 microns, or 10-20 NTUs are thought to minimize formation damage,
allowing higher production rates. (NTU = Nephelometric Turbidity Unit, a
measure of fluid clarity.)

 Be non-corrosive, to prevent future expensive tubular goods failure and
fishing costs. Be stable. Stability is important if fluid is to be left in the hole for
an extended period of time. Fishing for stuck packers and tubing can be
expensive and might even lead to abandonment of the well before
production is completed. High temperature fluid stability is also desirable,
especially in deep hot wells.
1.2 Functions of Completion and work over fluid:
The functions of fluids used in remedial activities such as workover or

completions are standard. Fluids are important to the success of most remedial
jobs. They must be non-damaging to the producing formation and non-
hazardous to the equipment, personnel and to the environment. It is essential
that fluids be properly applied, controlled and monitored. Workover and
completion fluids range in weight from low density (gas) to high density
(liquids). Their basic functions follow.
 Transportation of wanted & unwanted materials into and out of the well:
 In order to perform many operations it is important to be able to circulate
materials both into and out of the wellbore. Certain materials are added
to perform an objective. Other materials, which may cause damage,
must be removed to keep the wellbore clean.
 Potentially damaging undesirable materials that may be circulated from
the wellbore include: cement, corrosive fluids, cuttings, debris, gravel,
gas, metals, old contaminated mud, plastics, sand, unused wet cement.
Equally necessary is the ability to circulate desirable material such as
acid, cement, gelled pills, plastic, gravel, fracture sand, sealers and other
fluids into the well.
 Accumulation of material in the wellbore may cause many problems,
including, sticking or failure of the pipestring, pipe plugging or bridging,
increased torque or drag, lost circulation, fill, perforation or formation
plugging and excessive equipment wear.
 Suspension of materials when circulation is stopped:
 If the fluid in use has high gel strength, it has good suspension capabilities
when circulation is stopped. This gel-like structure resists the sinking of
solids and cuttings until circulation can be resumed. This helps reduce the
amount of fill and minimizes sticking of tools, tubulars and wireline due to
the solids pulled down by gravity. However, during remedial operations
most of the trash removal can be done by reverse circulation at higher
velocity and in less time. Because this high suspension ability may not be
required, and because generally the higher the gel strength, the higher
the chances are to develop swab and surge pressures, in some instances
this can be a detriment to good workover practices. If the trash is too
heavy (e.g., metal cuttings) to be circulated up the string, a boot basket
may be used with normal circulation.

 Pressure control:
 We must assume that we could be exposed to formation pressure at any
time during a remedial activity. There are instances where work is
performed on a live well under pressure. However, many workover
activities require that the well be killed. It is therefore required that we
balance or overbalance the formation pressure to prevent well flow. This
is accomplished by the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the well. Fluids
may be adjusted or weighted as necessary to obtain a balanced
condition. If the fluid is too heavy losses to and formation damage may
occur.
 Lubrication and removal of heat:
 As the bit or mill and string turn in the hole, extreme heat is developed.
This heat must be absorbed by the fluid, cooling the assembly to prolong
bit or mill life, and preventing heat from weakening or damaging the
assembly. The fluid also acts as a medium to lubricate the metal-to-hole
contact to prevent excessive heat, wear or failure in these areas.
 Suitable medium for wireline tools, logging and perforating:
 A relatively large percentage of activity associated with workovers can
be performed by wireline. Here, the fluid used becomes of prime
importance to allow timely access to the wireline run equipment, such as
perforating guns, electric cased hole logs, plugs and packers, and also to
run other nipple seated devices.
 Allow safe downhole equipment run:
 A fluid that is not properly conditioned (e.g., thick and viscous) can
contribute to problems in circulating, and surge and swab problems when
tripping. Improper fluid types may lead to formation damage.
 Avoiding damage to producible formation:
 It is important that the fluid used does not cause permanent damage to
the productive zone by leaving silts, fines, sludge, gum or resins in the
formation. Formation erosion can occur if high pump rates are used. Fresh
water can cause a flow-blocking emulsion in some gas/oil producing
formations. Fluids with a high water loss may swell sensitive formations (skin
damage), leading to a decrease in productivity. The fluid should not
change the wetability of the reservoir sand or rock.
 Avoiding damage to downhole and surface equipment:
 Much consideration is given to fluids, such as packer fluids, that are left in
the hole. They must be non-settling and non-corrosive. The expected life
of the well usually dictates what type of fluid and additives are to be
mixed and left in the well. During remedial activities the packer fluid is
often altered, diluted or replaced. If the fluid is not properly treated, it can
become corrosive. This can jeopardize the expected life of seals and
equipment.
 Corrosive fluids can lead to failure of sealing elements on many types of
surface equipment. Sand-laden fluids can be abrasive, eroding and

cutting valves, swabs and other equipment in a short period if
recirculated.
 Avoiding damage to personnel and the environment:
 Often fluids used in remedial activities can be hazardous to personnel.
Acids, caustics, bromides, some chlorides and other chemicals can cause
serious burns. They can also be toxic and can cause visual and respiratory
problems. Care and proper safety clothing should be used when handling
and mixing these chemicals. Our environment is one of our most precious
resources. It can be damaged by fluids used in and produced from the
well. Regulatory bodies mandate and public concerns demand actions
to prevent and report spills. Safely haul and properly dispose of fluids used
on rigs.

2.0 Common fluid properties:
2.1 Density:
The density of a fluid is defined as mass per unit volume of the fluid. The
maximum, minimum & practical densities of major workover fluid systems are
given below in table-2.1:-
Fluid Approx. Approx. Practical

minimum maximum Maximum
Density Density Density
(ppg) Kg/m3) (ppg) Kg/m3 (ppg) Kg/m3
Oil 6.0 719 8.5 1018 8 958
Diesel Oil 7.0 839 7.0 839 7.0 839
Fresh Water 8.2 996 8.3 998 8.33 1000
Sea Water 8.4 1006 8.6 1030 8.5 1018
Brine (NaCl) 8.4 1006 10.0 1198 9.8 1174
Brine ( KCl) 8.3 995 9.8 1174 9.7 1162
Brine-
11.7 1402 15.1 1809 14.6 1750
(CaBr2)
Brine (CaCl2) 11.0 1318 11.6 1390 11.5 1378
2.2 Solid Content

In order to avoid formation damage, a work over fluid should ideally contain
no solid. Fig. 1 below shows plugging of sand stone (450-md brine permeability)
with salt-water fluids containing various sizes and concentration of solids.
Particles greater than 5-micron size causes significantly more plugging than
particles less than 2 microns size. In both cases plugging occurred within the
core pore channels. These larger particles can be removed by backflow or
treating with chemicals (acid etc.).

Fig-2.1: Permeability reduction in sand stone.
2.3 Rheological properties:
Rheology is the study of the flow of fluids, considered as the resistance to flow.
The measurement of the rheological properties is important for calculating
frictional pressure losses, determining the mud ability to lift cuttings and
cravings to surface and determining pressure changes in the well during a trip.
In oil field terminology the phrase ―flow properties‖ and the word ―viscosity‖ are
the expressions used to describe the behaviour of fluids in motion. Marsh funnel,
rotational viscometers are common measurement aids.
Marsh funnel gives only rate of flow and cannot quantify rheological properties.
Rotational viscometers, on the other hand are capable of measuring
rheological properties like plastic viscosity, yield point etc. viscous behaviour of
fluid is a function of two constituents: interparticle friction & interparticle
attraction.
2.4 Viscosity:
It is the property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to movement of

one layer of fluid over an adjacent layer.
Newton‘s equation of viscosity:
τ = μ dy/dx
Where: τ = shear stress between the layers
μ = coefficient of viscosity (dynamic)
dy/dx = Velocity gradient
The fluid, which follows Newton‘s law, is called as Newtonian fluid. Some fluids
that do not follow Newton‘s law of viscosity are termed as Non-Newtonian
fluids. In non-Newtonian fluid there is a non-linear relationship between
magnitude of applied shear stress and rate of angular deformation. In case of

plastic substance which is a non-Newtonian fluid, yield stress is to be exceeded
to cause a continuous deformation.
An ideal plastic has a definite yield stress and a constant linear relationship
between shear stress and rate of angular deformation. A thixotropic substance,
which is a non-Newtonian fluid, has a non-linear relationship between shear
stress and the rate of angular deformation, beyond an initial yield stress
Dynamic Viscosity, μ, is defined as the shear force, per unit area, (or shear
stress, τ), required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another
layer a unit distance away.
Force
 du
dy
 Area
Velocity 
Dis tan ce
: μ is expressed in poise, P where 10P = 1 kg /m/s

2.4.1 Kinematic vs Dynamic Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is defined as the dynamic viscosity divided by the density of

the fluid. Kinematic viscosity is the preferred unit when the shear stress and
shear rate of the fluid is influenced by the density.
Mathematically,

2.4.2 Absolute Viscosity
A term used interchangeably with viscosity to distinguish it from either

kinematic viscosity or commercial viscosity. Absolute viscosity is the ratio of
shear stress to shear rate. It is a fluid's internal resistance to flow. The common
unit of absolute viscosity is the poise. Absolute viscosity and kinematic
viscosity are expressed in fundamental units. Commercial viscosity such
as Saybolt viscosity is expressed in arbitrary units of time, usually seconds.
2.4.3 Apparent Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid measured at a given shear rate at a fixed temperature

for Non-Newtonian fluids.
2.5 Yield point
Yield point is the measurement of resistance to flow caused by the attractive

forces between particles in the fluid. Yield point is measured in pounds per 100
square feet.

2.5.1 Test equipment:
The Fann VG meters are direct reading rotational viscometers commonly used
in drill sites. The mud sample in cup is subjected to different rates of shear at
different speeds. It has fixed speeds of 100, 200, 300 and 600 rpm that are
switch selectable with the rpm knob. Plastic viscosity (PV) in centipoise can be
calculated by subtracting reading at 300 rpm from the value of600 rpm. The
Yield point Yp in lbs/100 sq.ft is obtained by subtracting PV from the value of300
rpm. Again another parameter Apparent viscosity AV by dividing reading at
600 rpm by 2.
In the case of pseudo plastic fluids where there is no true yield point, the
equation relating viscosity to shear () is related to rate of shear dv/dr through
power law:
 = K (dv/dr)n
Where ‗K‘ is the consistency index and ‗n‘ is flow behavior index
If n  1 it is pseudo plastic fluid,
If n = 1 it is Newtonian fluid and
If n  1 it is Dilatant fluid
Where effective viscosity increases with shear rate, the value of ‗K‘ is
determined by
K= 600 rpm reading / (1022)n and n= 3.32 log (600 rpm)/(300rpm reading)
Employing multi rotational viscometers ‗K‘& ‗n‘ values can be determined at
suitable rpms, which are more representative of the shear rates in the annulus.
Viscometers are available for estimating rheological parameters under
simulated conditions termed mud consistometers. For evaluating parameters at
shear rates prevailing at bit nozzle jets, capillary viscometers are used.

Fig-2.2: Fann VG Meter
2.6 Gel Strength

It is the ability of the fluid to develop a rigid gel structure when the fluid is not
moving or at rest. The shear stress is measured at low shear rate after a mud has
set for a period of time (10 seconds and 10 minutes in the standard API
procedure, although measurements after 30 minutes or 16 hours may also be
made). A definite area of rapture or sliding within the material is involved, and
force necessary to produce such sliding is determined in the measurement of
gel strength

3.0 Types of Completion / Workover fluid
3.1 Oil Base Fluid:
 Oil-base invert emulsions fluids are sometimes used as completion and
workover fluids. In these generally the Calcium Chloride brine is emulsified in
oil, so that the oil is the external or continuous phase.
 These fluids are minimally damaging to certain formations .The thin, low-
permeability filter cake also limits solids from invading the producing zone.
The filtrate is also oil, so that sensitive clays are not affected.
 Oil-base fluids are often formulated with acid-soluble bridging/weighting
agents so that any residual filter cake or solids can be acidized for removal.
It has lots of disadvantages :
 Corrosive if H2S or CO2 is present

 Fire hazardous and difficult to handle
 May not be compatible with the reservoir
3.2 Oil Emulsion Fluid:

Commonly used oil emulsion fluid in work over / completion operations is an oil
water emulsion. In this, oil is dispersed as small droplets in water. The water
phase may be fresh or salt water. To keep the emulsion stable, emulsifying
agent, such as starch, soap or organic colloids are used. Diesel is the most
commonly used oil phase. The advantage to use diesel to work over well is
that it is less damaging to the productive formation than other oils.
Water-in-oil emulsion fluids are sometimes used as completion and work over
fluids. Water in oil-emulsion is the opposite, or inverse of an oil-in water emulsion
and is therefore called an inverse emulsion fluid, water is dispersed as droplets
in oil. This type of emulsion is very unstable above 200 deg F and if it contains
lot of solids, the solids can cause formation damage.
Advantages:
 Excellent solids suspension and carrying properties, fluid loss control with very
low filtration rates, Inhibitive to formation clay hydration and dispersion and
temperature stability even over 500 0F (260 0C)..
 Do not cause water blocks.
 Very suitable for operating in H2S-CO2 environments.
 Preparation and storage is reasonably safe and easy.
 Suitable as a drill-in fluid in oil reservoirs.
Disadvantages:
 Particulate plugging of formation pores due to the presence of solid

particles ( bentonite, barite and other chemicals).

 Changes in wettability of rocks Due to the presence of emulsifiers and
surfactants
 Form emulsions in formation pores leading to emulsion blocks.
 Difficulties in the operation of downhole equipment ( setting and retrieving
packers, operation of sleeves, mandrels etc).
 Unsuitable for drilling and completing gas reservoirs due to formation of
emulsion blocks reducing gas productivity.
 Environmentally unsafe and having Handling problems
 Solids settle on the packer with time leading to difficulties during workovers.
 High cost.
3.3 Water Base Fluids:

3.3.1 Fresh Water
Low salinity water are occasionally used as drilling, work over and completion
fluid. Water is inexpensive, relatively accessible in most areas, and requires few
special additives. The primary disadvantage that often negates its use is the
clay dehydration type of formation damage that readily occurs with fresh
water filtrates.
3.3.2 Brine
They are the most commonly used fluids in completion and workover
operations. These brines are true solutions, meaning that they contain only
water and dissolved salts (ions), with no un-dissolved solids. Salt when dissolved
in water, yields clear brine as long as it is below saturation. They may be used
as single-salt brines or mixture of two or three different salt compounds.
Advantages of clear brines solution are;
 Solids-free
 Inhibitive
 Available in a wide density range.
 Capable of being reclaimed for reuse.
1) Single salt Brine
These brines are made with fresh water and one salt.
 Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl)

 It can formulate clear fluids to a density of 9.0 lb/gal.
 It is most often used (at 2 to 7%) in other clear-water completion fluids,
such as seawater, as a clay and shale stabilizer in gravel pack and
acidizing operations where its compatibility with hydrofluoric acid is a
benefit.

 Potassium Chloride (KCl)
 Excellent completion fluid for water sensitive formations.
 Clear fluids up to a density of 9.7 lb/gal can be prepared.
 Corrosion rates are reasonably low and can be reduced even more by
maintaining the pH between 7- 10 and using a corrosion inhibitor.
 Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

 The most commonly used brine.
 Maximum density possible is 10 ppg.
 Sodium Formate (NaCOOH)

 Alternative to chloride brines.
 Density up to 11.0 lb/gal can be achieved
 Better HSE characteristics than chloride and bromide brines.
 Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)

 Used to prepare clear fluids up to a density of 11.8 lb/gal. However at
higher densities there may be operating problem in winter because of
freezing of the solution. At a density of 11.6 ppg the freezing point of
CaCl2 brine is 44 deg F.
 Dissolution in water gives high heat and the amount of calcium chloride
required to obtain the desired density should be determined prior to
preparing the solution or density measurement must be made after
cooling.
 Dry salt must be added very slowly to prevent boiling.
 Care should be taken to ensure compatibility with reservoir fluids due to
the divalent calcium.
 The corrosivity is comparable to KCl brine and requires a corrosion
inhibitor.
 Sodium Bromide (NaBr)
 Used for density up to 12.8 lb/gal
 More expensive and used as an alternative to calcium base brines when
formation waters contain high concentrations of bicarbonate and
sulphate ions.
 Potassium Formate (KCOOH)

 It can give density up to 13.2 lb/gal.
 Alternative to chloride or bromide brines.
 Have better Health, Safety and Environmental (HSE) characteristics
compared to chloride and bromide brines.
 Show excellent thermal stabilization effects on natural polymers and the
potassium ion provides excellent clay stabilization and swelling inhibition
of shales.

 Calcium Bromide (CaBr2)
 Calcium bromide solutions can be prepared to a density of 15.5 lb/gal
 The 14.2 lb/gal CaBr2 has a TCT around 0°F (-18°C).
 Like calcium chloride, calcium bromide generates heat when dissolved in
water, similar precautions should be observed.
 Caesium Formate (CsCOOH)

 Caesium formate is being produced to a 19.7-lb/gal density
 Caesium formate also produces excellent thermal stabilization effects in
natural polymers, and provides clay stabilization and inhibits swelling of
shales.
 Formate-base brines have better Health, Safety and Environmental (HSE)
characteristics in comparison to chloride and bromide brines
2) Mixed Salt Brine

When the brine densities greater that 11.6 ppg are required, the use of two or
more salts is usually preferred instead of single salt due to economics.
 Calcium Chloride/ Calcium Bromide:

Most common two salt brine .The base ingredients of CaCl2/CaBr2 brine are
a calcium bromide solution of about 14.1 to 14.3 ppg. The pH range is 7.0 –
7.5.
 Zinc Bromide/Calcium Bromide:

Available as stock liquid weighing 19.2 lb/gal. It is very expensive and is
frequently blended with additional calcium bromide or calcium chloride for
greater flexibility and economics. The maximum density for zinc bromide
blends is 20.5 lb/gal. The discharge of zinc to the environment is often
restricted. Due to the high concentration of dissolved salts and the low pH,
zinc bromide brines must be handled with maximum safety precaution.
3.4 Selection Criteria of Brine
The brine based fluids are most favoured as completion and workover fluids.
Addition of various salts to fresh water has several beneficial effects. Salt will
increase the density of the fluid for greater hydrostatic pressure control without
increasing the solid concentration. In addition, salt in fresh water creates an
inhibited fluid that minimizes clay hydration and results in less formation
damage.
To select brine based workover/ completion fluid, following parameters should

essentially be considered;
 Fluid density

 Wellbore temperature.
 Crystallization temperature.
 Formation compatibility
 Corrosion control.
 Health, Safety and Environmental (HSE) characteristics.
 Economics.
 Suspended Solid
1) Fluid density
 The primary criterion for fluid selection.
 Should be equal or higher than the formation pressure except for
underbalanced pressure situations, where it should be enough only to
control the underbalanced portion of reservoir pressure.
 Commonly used overbalance levels are 200 psi for oil wells and 300 psi for
gas wells and are sufficient to control the entry of formation fluid under
swabbing situations.
 Balanced or underbalanced workover operations are ideal for prevention
of formation damage but should be performed with proper equipment.
2) Wellbore Temperature
 The density of a brine decreases as the temperature increases. Hence
bottom-hole temperature, both static and circulating, is an important
factor in selection of brine.
 Correction in density for temperature and pressure must be made for
avoiding well control problems.
 Temperature and the exposure time affects the stability of various
additives, corrosion rate etc. and may dictate the choice of additives
and corrosion inhibitors.
3) Crystallization Temperature.
 Crystallization point is the temperature at which salt crystals will begin to
fall out of solution given sufficient time and proper nucleating conditions.
 The precipitation of insoluble salts can cause a number of problems like
drop in fluid density, choking of lines and seizing of pump.
 Unlike water, brines do not expand during crystallization. Therefore, fluid
lines, valves or pump heads will not rupture as they can when water
freezes.
 Several salt blends can be formulated for a particular density, each
having a different crystallization temperature.
4) Formation Compatibility
 The compatibility of brines with the formation is another important issue for
selection of brine as incompatibility will lead to formation damage

resulting in loss of productivity. The filtrate characteristics should be
tailored to minimize formation damage considering
 Clay swelling
 Clay dispersion/fine migration
 Wettability change
 Emulsion formation
 Sludge formation
 Scaling tendencies
 Brine should have compatibility with formation rocks so as to prevent
swelling, deflocculating and/or migration of formation clays, especially in
―tight‖ high-clay sandstone.
 Some salts are better clay stabilizers than others, and can prevent clay
swelling and migration. NH4Cl (3%) or KCl (3%) are the two inhibitive salts
frequently used in seawater for workover operation.
5) Compatibility with formation water

 Brine should have compatibility with formation water. A incompatible
brine may result in the formation of scale.
 Scales are deposits of inorganic minerals and can form due to mixing
incompatible waters, solubility changes with temperature, solubility
changes with pressure and water evaporation.
 Most common cations responsible for scaling are multivalent cations such
as calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+) and iron (Fe3+).
 Brine should be checked for its compatibility with rock and formation
fluids prior to its use in field. The following laboratory tests can be used to
evaluate the compatibility of a clear fluid with a formation:
 Return permeability
 Formation water analysis
 Formation mineralogy
 Brine/water compatibility
6) Corrosion Control
 The brine should not cause much corrosion to tubular and down hole
equipment.
 Salt solutions are often highly corrosive. Dissolved oxygen is the primary
corrosive agent in sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride or bromide-brine
base completion fluids.
 The solubility of oxygen in these brines decreases as saturation with the
salt is approached.
 Even though initially it may contain dissolved oxygen, if the brine is not
circulated during the completion in a manner that will replenish the
dissolved oxygen, the corrosion rate will decrease as the oxygen is
depleted. Oxygen scavengers are not normally needed for brine fluids
that will not be circulated.

 High-density zinc bromide blends are used in very high-pressure situations
for well control. These brines have a low pH. Raising the pH would be
detrimental, causing precipitation. The acidity of the zinc can cause
severe corrosion, unless proper protection is provided with an appropriate
corrosion inhibitor.
 Most oilfield zinc bromide completion brines contain a thiocyanate (or
other sulfur-base) corrosion inhibitor that forms a protective film on the
surface of steel.
 In addition to the monetary cost associated with corrosion itself, soluble
iron resulting from the corrosion process can lead to formation damage
and will contaminate solid-free brine. If soluble iron comes in contact with
formation connate water, a precipitate may form, reducing effective
permeability.
7) Economics
Only one rule; the brine which is most economical, easily available and
meets the above requirements should be considered for use. The Reuse,
Recover, Recycle of these brines further improves the economics.
8) Suspended Solids
It is also critical to minimize the level of total suspended solids in the

completion/ workover fluid to minimize formation damage from suspended
solids. This damage is caused by plugging of pore channels by suspended
solids in the completion or work over fluid. This can be avoided by filtering
the brine through very fine filters. Mostly NTU values of brines are measured
because a brine which looks fairly clean by naked eyes may not be so clean
and solids as low as 500 ppm in the brine may choke the perforations. NTU as
low as possible is preferred and ess than 10 are most desirable. Brines should
be filtered for ensuring NTU within range. Filtration units should be installed for
circulating situations.
3.4.1 Viscosified Brines

 Viscosified brines are used where additional parameters like bridging,
suspension, fluid loss control etc are required.
 Specially designed brine/polymer systems can be classified into three major
types:
 Acid-soluble brine/polymer systems, usually sized calcium carbonates.
 Water-soluble brine/polymer systems, usually sized salt.
 Oil-soluble resin brine/polymer systems.

3.4.2 Viscosifying Agents
 Brines have a natural viscosity that depends on the concentration and types
of salts in the blend. Typical base brine viscosities can be found in Table
below:
Brine Density (ppg) Funnel Viscosity PV (cp)

(sec/qt)
NaCl 10 28
NaBr 12.5 27
CaCl2 11.6 34 9
CaBr2 14.2 31
CaCl2/CaBr2 15.1 52 40
CaBr2/ZnBr2 19.2 41 40
 The Yield Points (YP) of clear brines is very low. This reduces their ability to
carry or suspend solids.
 Viscosifying agents or polymers and high annular velocity are used to
overcome the low carrying capacity of brines and to control fluid losses to
the formation.
 Once the brine is circulated back to the surface, it can be processed and
filtered before being pumped back down the hole.
The most common polymers used as viscosifying agents are:

a. HEC
 This is a non-ionic, modified, high-molecular-weight, natural polymer and
has excellent brine viscosification property.
 Least damaging (if hydrated properly) and hence most favoured where
suspension properties are not of prime importance.
 It has excellent brine tolerance. Readily hydrate in most of the
commercial brines.
 It has excellent acid solubility.
 The suspension and filter loss properties are poor.
 Non-toxic and has good thermal stability. It has temperature stability of
135 deg C.
 Keeping in view the superior quality of HEC over other polymers, HEC is
considered to be suitable polymer for application in sub hydrostatic wells
for loss control.
b. Guargum

 This is again a non ionic natural polymer and has fair tolerance for brines.
It has very good viscosification ability.
 It has fair acid solubility.
 The suspension and filter loss properties are poor.
 It has temperature stability of 121 deg C.
c. XC Polymer
 This is an ionic, modified natural polymer. The brine viscosification property
are comparatively lower than HEC.
 It has fair brine tolerance.
 It has good acid solubility. It is also degraded by hypochlorite. It degrades
with time and temperature
 It gives excellent shear thinning properties.
 It has excellent low shear viscosity and gelation properties which most
other polymer lacks and this makes it an ideal choice where suspension
properties are required.
 It has temperature stability of 135 deg C and hence preferred over HEC
where formation temperatures are high.
d. CMC, Starch and PAC are the other polymers used for brine viscosification
3.4.3 Mixing Of Polymer:
When a water-soluble polymer is added to water, part of the polymer gets

partially hydrated and becomes semisolid called ―fish eyes‖. The size may vary
from few microns to several centimetres. Depending upon the process of
addition of polymer powder to brine, fish eyes of sizes from several microns to
several centimetres are formed. Microgels can be described as smaller fish
eyes and are generally of 10-100 micron size Careful addition will avoid the
formation of fish eyes. The fish eye formation can be avoided by following two
methods.
I. Prepare thick paste of HEC powder in a medium in which hydration of HEC

does not take place like alcohols, glycol, hydrocarbons etc. and then add
to brine.
II. Adjust PH of the brine to 5.5 - 6.0 by adding HCL or Citric acid. Add HEC and
mix for 15 minutes. After HEC powder is properly dispersed in brine, raise pH
of the of brine to 8.0 - 8.5 by adding sodium hydroxide at shear rate of
100/sec
3.5 Water base mud:

Water base muds are a combination of water clays and chemicals that are
sometimes used in completion and workover operation. Some water base
muds are, however, laden with solid and as a result, can cause extensive
formation damage by causing water loss and blocking pore spaces. These are

cost effective and easy to work with. Moreover water base muds make
controlling high pressure, high permeability gas wells much simpler.
Advantages:
 Excellent solids suspending and carrying properties, fluid loss control and
temperature stability.
 Low corrosivity.
 Easy and convenient to prepare and use
 Very economical and safe to handle. Low personal and environmental
toxicity.
Drawbacks:
 Causes particulate blocking of formation pores and channels.

 Formation clay hydration and dispersion blocking off formation channels.
 Changes in wettability of rocks due to the presence of surfactants,
emulsifiers and dispersants in the mud filtrate.
 Formation of emulsion and water blocks in the formation
 Perforation plugging leading to loss of productivity.
 Difficulties in the operation of downhole equipments
 Solids settle on the packer with time leading to difficult and costly workovers.
3.6 Packer fluid & Casing packs:

When a well is being completed, it is good practice to set a packer between
the tubing and the casing above the productive interval, and to fill the annulus
with a packer fluid. This procedure is simply a safety measure; when it is not
followed, the casing head is subjected to the full reservoir pressure in the case
of a dry gas well, and to the reservoir pressure less the column of liquid in the
annulus in the case of an oil well. The packer fluid also reduces the pressure
differential between the inside of the tubing and the annulus, and between the
outside of the casing and the annulus. The density of the packer fluid may or
may not be great enough for the column of liquid to balance the tubing
pressure at the bottom of the tubing, but even when it does so, there is a
pressure differential at shallower depths which increases with decrease in
depth.
3.6.1 Aqueous packer fluids:
 Aqueous drilling muds as packer fluids:
Water-based drilling muds that have been used to drill the well are often left
in the hole as packer fluids. Advantages are convenience and economy.
However, they suffer from the great disadvantage that they are inherently
corrosive. Tubing and casing in a producing well are subject to the same
reactions that corrode the drill pipe, but whereas in a drilling well, remedial

treatments can be applied as often as necessary, treating agents added to
a packer fluid must last indefinitely, and there is no assurance that they will
do so. Therefore, leaving a water-base drilling mud in the hole as a packer
fluid may result in development of casing or tubing leaks in the course of
time, and the practice is inadvisable except in wells where corrosive
conditions are mild. Also, the mud will solidify over time with temperature,
and workover costs can be extremely high.
 Low-solid packer fluids:
Low-solid packer fluids usually consist of a polymer viscosifier, a corrosion

inhibitor, and soluble salts for weight control. Bridging particles, filtration
control agents, and sealing materials (such as micronized cellulose) are
included if needed. These simple systems are easier to control than high-
solid drilling muds. There are no problems with high-temperature
degradation of lignosulfonates or clay minerals, and corrosion can be
inhibited by oil-wetting agents since the loss of inhibitor is greatly reduced by
the low solid content. One unfavorable characteristic is that the common
polymers used in casing packs, being pseudoplastic, have no real yield
point, and, with the exception of crosslinked xanthan gum, are not
thixotropic. Therefore, particulate solids will slowly settle, but there are so few
solids to settle-and no barite-that sedimentation seldom creates difficulties.
Another problem is that polymers are to various degrees unstable at
elevated temperatures. Long-term stability tests under anticipated
bottomhole temperatures should therefore be made on polymer fluids
before they are put in the well. Mayell and Steins (1973) describe a low-solid
packer fluid consisting of attapulgite clay in saturated sodium chloride, with
sodium chromate for inhibition of corrosion and sodium carbonate to raise
pH to 10.5. Field tests showed this fluid to have excellent high-temperature
stability.
 Clear Brines:
Clear brines may be used as packer fluids, but not as casing packs because
they lack filtration control. If they are rigorously filtered and do not become
contaminated with drilling mud left on the sides of the tubing or casing, they
are virtually solids-free, with all the attendant advantages. Various brines are
used as packer fluids, ranging from sea water up to zinc bromide and
cesium formate. The decision as to what type and density brine to use is
based on several factors, including pressure control, corrosion properties,
availability, and cost.
Brine properties:
The downhole density of brines, as with any fluid, increases with pressure and
decreases with temperature. The change can be predicted by means of a

model developed by Thomas et al. (1984). Since the effect of pressure is
comparatively small an approximate value of downhole density may be
obtained from changes in temperature (Schmidt et al. 1983). However,
particularly for critical work and in extremely high-density, expensive brines, it
is advisable to search the literature methods and include the pressure term
in the density correction calculation. Crystallization in surface facilities is
sometimes a problem in handling brines. At densities approaching
saturation, salts will crystallize out if the temperature falls below a certain
critical value, which depends on the composition of the brine (Milhone 1983;
Adams 1981; Poole1984; Hubbard1984). For example, a 14.8lb/gal (1.77SG)
CaC12/CaBr2 brine will crystallize if the temperature of the brine falls below
63°F (17.2°C). Mild crystallization results in deposition of crystals in the surface
tanks and lines, with lighter weight brine going downhole. Severe
crystallization may cause the entire brine volume to turn to slush or solidify
completely.
Oil-base packer fluids and casing packs:
Oil muds are noncorrosive and more thermally stable
Fluids left in the tubing casing annulus above the production packer are
termed packer fluid. The packer fluid usually remains in the well until the well
is reworked or abandoned. A packer fluid is used to
 Control fluid pressure and corrosion

 Prevent the casing from collapsing
 Prevent the production string or tubing from bursting
 Criterion for selection of packer fluid: It should be:
 Cost effective
 Non corrosive
 Remain pumpable for a long period
 Stable with time and temperature
 Possesses sufficient density to control well pressure
 Capable of keeping solid suspended in it so that they cannot settle on
top of the packer
3.7 Plugs or Pills:

 Plugs or pills are used to treat, solve or control many downhole problems. For
example, plugs seal casing leaks, correct the injection profile in water
injection or disposal wells and stop lost circulation in highly permeable sands.
Plugs can stabilize unconsolidated gravel zones, seal fractures and improve
cement job by sealing thief zones into which low viscosity cement would be
lost. Plugs can also be used to kill underground blowouts.
 Many types of pumpable, soft plugs are available such as neat cement,
thickened oil-base mud, diesel oil bentonite, bentonite-cement, silicate clay

polymers, plastics, acids and various lost circulation plugging and treating
chemicals. Weighing materials and viscosifier are often added to plug to
make them dense and highly viscous. Depending on temperature and
pumping times a retarder or an accelerator may be added to slow or speed
up setting time.
 Sometimes, a time delayed self-complexing plug may also be required. If
necessary, a breaker can be added to provide a predictable plug break
down times, usually 1 to 10 days. To get a predictable break down time with
polymer pills, an enzyme is used as a breaker, which reduces the large
polysaccharide or sugar, molecules to low molecule wt. polymer and simple
sugar. Sometimes viscosifiers are used to support density additives or to
increase cutting carrying capacity of the brine.
3.7.1 Bridging / Weighting Agents:
 High purity, acid-soluble calcium carbonate used both as a bridging and

weighting agent. It is available in three standard particulate sizes: Fine (F),
Medium (M) and Coarse (C). They are used for fluid-loss control in brine-
polymer systems. A proper blend of all three grades helps in excellent fluid
loss control. Coarser particles tend to bridge on the pore throat and the
colloidal and sub-colloidal particles seals inter particulate space. Particles
with a median diameter one-third to one-seventh of the size of the formation
pore throat are best. Wider the range of particle sizes, the more likely that an
impermeable filter cake would formed.
 Calcium Carbonate (sp. gr. 2.7) is widely available and has good
temperature stability, non-toxic, non-corrosive. CaCO3 is least damaging, if
size of particles is suitably chosen and the pill is placed properly. Calcium
carbonate is insoluble in formations fluids and can be completely dissolved
by 15 % HCI. Continual loss of even carbonate particles deep into the
formation is not recommended. It is uncertain that an acid cleanup would
actually be able to contact the particles if penetrate deep into formation.
 Oil soluble resins and sized Sodium chloride salt are also used as bridging
agents. Wells with formation temperatures below 162 deg C (resin softening
point) and producing either aromatic crude or condensate, sized resin
bridging particles should be considered because of the assured self-removal
by dissolution.
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) has more versatility than either calcium carbonate
or resins but its use in low pressured formation is limited by its high saturation
density (1200 kg/m3). Sodium chloride (sp. gr. 2.18) as bridging particle is
truly non- damaging. Sized salt particles have same thermal stability as
calcium carbonate.

 Micronized Cellulose Fibers have good sealing characteristic and effectively
stop fluid loss. Length of these fibers is normally 2-200 micron and diameter
20 micron and is used for seepage and whole fluid loss control. They orient
themselves in pack bundles in low pressure zone and form a seal very quickly
and do not allow-fluid to pass in formation. However, lack of acid solubility
restricts their use, as complete removal of fibers is not ensured. The use of
these fibers is restricted in producing formations because of their general
lack of acid solubility.

4.0 Work over fluid for Sub hydrostatic Wells:
The reservoir pressure is called subhydrostatic when the pressure is not sufficient
to balance a column of water equivalent to the well depth. Preventive
measures to eliminate/reduce the loss of workover fluids, through various
options have been studied to minimize the loss of fluids and resultant formation
damage, activation time and efforts. This includes use of oil base fluids, oil-
water emulsions, thru tubing inflatable bridge plugs, various circulating fluids,
so called pills (linear, cross linked gels and particulate) are used worldwide to
control fluid loss in depleted/sub-hydrostatic wells. Pills are very cost effective
and easy to prepare and apply in the wells. There are two types of fluids:
Circulating fluids and Non circulating fluids (Pills).
Circulating fluid systems:
 Oil based fluid system

 Oil-water emulsion
 Particulate loaded fluid systems
 Viscosified brine
 Foam fluid system
Pill systems:
 Viscosified pills
 Particulate pills
 Micronized cellulose fibers
 Commercially available pills
4.1 Circulating fluid:

Circulating fluid either oil (petroleum or petroleum product or
synthetic/vegetable oil) or oil based emulsion which is difficult to formulate in
the range of required specific gravity (0.14-0.36) that can balance the
formation pressure. Moreover, use of oil and oil-based fluid is limited due to
difficult in handling and disposal of oily sludge after its use apart from risk of fire
and explosion, Use of synthetic & vegetable oils as work over fluid apart from
above limitations is not cost effective. The criteria that govern their use, as work
over fluid is high flash point and/ or low vapor pressure at operating conditions.
4.1.1 Oil based fluid system:
In this system suitable oil medium are petroleum products (diesel), synthetic oils
or some form of vegetable oils. The criteria which govern their use as workover
fluid is high flash point and/or low vapour pressure at operating temperatures.
Diesel is the most suitable fluid in this category but risk of fire, handling and
disposal limit its use.
Apart from easily available diesel (sp. Gr. 0.85), BP has a patent on a system
consisting of a low aromatic refined oil and a pentabromodiphenyl either

dissolved in oil to give varying densities 0.90 to 2.2 gm/cc. The system has been
claimed non-corrosive, thermally stable and non-damaging. Thermal sability
can be increased by addition of antioxidants (secondary aromatic amines and
hindered alkyl phenols).
The fluids have low filtrate losses, oil filtrate have maximum inhibition to clay
and shale hydration and therefore water sensitive formations are not impaired.
Limitations of these systems are handling and disposal of oily sludge after use.
The system is not cost effective in case of vegetable and synthetic oil.
4.1.2 Oil - Water Emulsion:
The oil-water emulsion can be used as work over fluid for sub hydrostatic
formations. External oil phase protects water sensitive formations as water in the
emulsion does not come in contact of grain of formations. Diesel water
emulsion can give the densities in the range of 0.91 to 1.81 gm/cc. In this
range, brine can also be used in place of water. Emulsification is achieved with
help of suitable emulsifying agents. Oil may be crude oil, diesel, mineral oil,
synthetic or vegetable oil.
The stability of emulsion system depends upon the extent of shear energy
applied, size of droplets of internal phase in the bulk phase, ratio of volumes of
internal phase to external phase and type and amount of emulsifier used.
Temperature stability of the system is up to 120 degree C.
It has good solid carrying and holding capacity. Diesel water emulsion is
compatible with formation and thus is least damaging. But temperature
stability of emulsion system at higher formation temperature and pressure
conditions is a major concern. Maximum stability is in the range of 40:60 to
50:50 ratio of oil to brine.
As the viscosity decreases by addition of external phase (oil), the flow rate of
emulsion increases in oil producing high permeable formations and this
contributes to high fluid loss. In low permeable formations emulsions plugs the
tight pores and change the wettability of formation as it contains powerful
surfactants. However, such emulsion provides stability to water sensitive
formations.
4.1.3 Foam fluid:
Foam acts like a pseudo plastic fluid and its stability is hardly affected as long
as it is in the dynamic state. Foam can be used for sand washing, CTU foam
jobs. Use of foam requires special equipment like foam generator, compressors,
well packing assembly, rotating head BOP (for high- pressure operations) spring
floats etc. Typical setup for application of foam technology in the field is shown
in figure-3.2. Portable foam units are available in the market. Air foam has been
used successfully as completion and workover fluid in Texas/ Oklahoma
Panhandle and Western Kansas in USA to deal with low-pressure gas wells.
Serious limitation of foam as workover fluid is the stability of foam in static

condition and initial cost of equipments. Apart from the above limitations,
safety is of prime importance as foam is applied in under balanced condition.

Prior to execution of foam fluid, extensive training of working crew is required.
Air foam has a risk of fire/explosion also. Densities that can be achieved by
various foam/aerated system are given in table-4.1 below:
Sl. No. Description Fluid Density (ppg)

1 Gas 0.01 -0.1
2 Mist 0.1 -0.3
3 Foam 0.3-3.54
3.5 - 6.95 (0.43 to 0.84 sp. gr. ) with back pressure The
4 Gasified liquid 4.0-6.95
5 Liquid 6.95-19
controlled variables are air rate and liquid rate in proper ratio to maintain
stable foam. Back pressure on the annulus at the surface may be added to
maintain of Bottom hole Pressure. The gas rate vs BHP of a foam operation
carried in California field is given in fugure-4.1
A "foam" is a stabilized gas dispersion maintained within a liquid phase, wherein

a plurality of gas bubbles are separated from one another by interracially
stabilized liquid films. The dispersed gas phase constitutes at least 20 per cent of
the total volume of the foam. Conventional oilfield foams consist of a gas
dispersed in a surfactant solution made up of a surfactant and a solvent. The
surfactant acts as a foaming agent to facilitate and stabilize the gas dispersion
within the liquid phase. A "polymer enhanced foam" is a specific type of oilfield
foam comprising a gas dispersed in an aqueous surfactant solution.
The surfactant of the polymer enhanced foam is substantially any water-soluble

foaming agent suitable for oilfield use that is compatible with the specific
polymer. As such, the surfactant can be anionic, cationic, or nonionic. A

preferred surfactant is selected from the group consisting of ethoxylated
alcohols, ethoxylated sulfates, refined sulfonates, petroleum sulfonates, and
alpha olefin sulfonates. Foam generation requires mixing the liquid phase and
the gas either at a high velocity or through a small orifice as can be provided
by any conventional artificial foam generator.
Polymer enhanced foams are prepared using 7,000 ppm PHPA and 2,000 ppm
surfactant in a brine and with different gases. Foam qualities range between 85
and 90 per cent with Nitrogen 85 and 89 per cent foam had no significant
effect on the polymer enhanced foam viscosity performance. The stable foam
region is given in fig-4.2.
Composition to get stable foam is given in table -4.2
Polymer Concentration Per Litre Pump rate

100 lpm 200 lpm 300 lpm
PHPA 0.7% 1.00g
Surfactant 0.2% 0.3g
non-ionic
Air/Nitrogen 85% 850 ml 566 lpm 1133 lpm 1700 lpm
(gas)
Clear water 15% 150 ml 100 lpm 200 lpm 300 lpm
The gas and liquid phase suitable for obtaining 300 psi BHP at 3000 ft, the pump
required is 30 gpm at 1800 psi and compressor 50 scfm at 125 psi. The ideal
pumping for stable foam is 30 gpm.
 Serious limitations of foam as work-over fluid are the stability of foam in static
condition and initial cost of equipments.
 Apart from above limitations, safety is of prime important as foam is applied
in under-balanced conditions.

 Application of foam as work over fluid is not a question of technology but a
question of safety and safety awareness.
 Air foam has a risk of fire/explosion also. These limitations of foam, limit the
use of foam as work over fluid.
 Foam can be used as work over fluid as it does not invade the formation in
under-balanced condition and hence avoid formation damage.
4.1.4 Polyol blended viscosified workover fluid:

The reduction of specific gravity is due to the hydration of the cellulose which
leads to imbibe the water into the polymer structure. The water imbibition leads
to swelling of the cellulose imparting reduction of specific gravity. Polyol is
acting as a temperature stabilizer to prevent the degradation of cellulose
under high temperature high pressure.
Composition of the fluid:
Component Unit Concentration

Potassium Chloride % w/v 3.0
XC-Polymer % w/v 0.2
PAC-R % w/v 0.3
PAC-L % w/v 1.2
Polyol % v/v 3.0
NaOH To maintain pH in the range 9.0-9.5
Potassium Chloride (KCl): KCl is an odour less white crystal, which forms a
neutral solution with water. It prevents clay swelling & shale erosion.
XC-Polymer: White or creamish free flowing powder, no lumps. It provides

viscosity & suspension in fresh water, sea water and also brine based fluids. XC-
polymer increase the viscosity of the fluid at low shear rate, thus increasing the
carrying capacity for solids & ensuring good hole cleaning.
Polyanionic Cellulose Low Viscosity (PAC-LV): Free flowing white or creamish

powder. It is a low molecular weight water soluble polymer derived from
cellulose, tailored for use in dispersed or nondispersed, fresh/sea/saltwater. The
primary function of PAC-LV is to control API filtrations rate while stabilizing the
rheology of the fluid system. It also acts as a protective colloid and improves
the filter cake quality.

Using combination of Polyanionic Cellulose regular and low viscosity: It
enhances properties of fluid. Polyanionic cellulose regular, a longer chain
polymer gives better inhibition and fluid loss control than PAC-LV.
Polyol: A generic name for low molecular weight, water soluble polymers
containing a large number of hydroxyl groups. Specific examples includes
glycols, polyglycols and polyglycerols. It is acting as a temperature stabilizer to
prevent the degradation of cellulose under high temperature and high
pressure.
NaOH: For maintaining pH to improve the hydration of cellulose & also to

reduce corrosion because of entrapment of air.
The water based fluid homogenised by stirring mechanically for 30 minutes,

and then the resultant fluid was used for evaluation of different properties with
time so that aging effect on resultant fluid could be studied. The freshly
prepared fluid was quite stable and did not separate into two phases even
after a lapse of 26 hrs.
Specific Gravity:
Specific gravity of the work over fluid is an important parameter in sub

hydrostatic wells so that damage to the formation could be minimized. The
prepared fluid‘s specific gravity was determined immediately after preparation
and then kept in static condition. The initial sp.gr of the fluid was 0.78,
afterwards slow increase in the gravity was observed with lapse of time. The
increase in specific gravity was rather sharp after 22 hours and the sp.gr.
reached to 0.94 after 26 hrs. However, it is pertinent to note that when this fluid
was subjected to stirring at high speed for 5 minutes, it regained its original
appearance and specific gravity.
Change in specific gravity with lapse of time under static conditions
(Ambient temperature and pressure)
Time Specific Increase in Percent

(hours) Gravity Specific Gravity increase
0 0.78 0.00 0
3 0.81 0.03 3.85
22 0.91 0.13 16.67
26 0.94 0.16 20.51

Change in specific gravity with time in static
condition at room temperature
1 0.94
0.91
0.78 0.81
0.8
0.6
Sp.Gr.
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time in Hrs
Volume:
The volume of the freshly prepared foam fluid was recorded and was kept in
static condition to observe change in its volume at ambient temperature and
pressure. A reduction of volume with time was observed and after 26 hrs the
volume of the fluid was reduced to 18.3%.
Change in volume with lapse of time under static conditions
Time Volume Decrease in Decrease in

(hours) (cc) volume (cc) volume (%)
0 600 0 0
3 590 10 1.7
22 500 100 16.7
26 490 110 18.3
Volume of fluid with lapse of time under static

condition
700
600 600 590

500
Volume (CC)
500 490
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time in Hrs

Rheology:
Rheology of the prepared polyol work over fluid was determined using a six
speed Fann VG meter. Rheological parameters were determined immediately
after preparation and after 26 hrs aging at ambient conditions.
Rheological properties of freshly prepared and aged fluid
Parameter Unit Freshly Aged (after 26

prepared hours)
Apparent Cp 53 62
Viscosity
Plastic Cp 27 35
Viscosity
Yield Point lb/100ft² 52 54
The prepared fluid exhibits excellent rheological properties which imply not
only the good cutting/solid carrying/holding capacity but also good shear
thinning as well.
Rheological properties trend on ageing at

room temperature
70
62
For AV,PV-Cp,YP-lb/100 sq ft
60 54
53 52
50
40 35 Fresh
30 27 Aged
20
10
0
Apparent Plastic Yield Point
Viscosity Viscosity
Rheological properties
Filtration loss:
API filtration loss was determined at 100 psi.
Parameter Unit Freshly prepared After 26 hours ageing

Spurt loss (within first 10 ml 5.0 6.0
secs)

Fluid loss after 7.5 ml 10.0 11.0
minutes
Fluid loss after 30 ml 12.0 15.0
minutes
4.1.5 Hollow glass spheres (HGS) based fluid:
Challenged by sub-hydrostatic pressures, workover

activities is highly susceptible to circulation losses and
poor well performance due to reservoir damage. To
resolve this serious problem a new technology has
developed that is based on light weight ―Hollow Glass
Microspheres‖ in the preparation of low density drilling
and workover fluids. The problem of mud loss control in
the sub-hydrostatic pressured reservoirs is still largely
unresolved. Geological data on the structure of the
low pressure reservoirs and past experience gained in
mud loss management indicate that one solution
could be to reduce the fluid densities to 0.75-0.90
g/cm3. Operators have tried several low density fluids
and mud systems for killing of wells intended for
workover but the fluids have been rejected because Fig-4.1: Floating
of following reasons; Glass bubbles in
carrying fluid
 Emulsions and oil based muds have been found to
be environmentally unfriendly and pose a fire hazard.
 Foam systems proved to be very complicated to deploy and pose
operational challenges such as separation of cuttings from foam, foam
regeneration, and downhole tools acoustic signal attenuation.
 A breakthrough in technology has been the adoption of hollow glass
microspheres, a density reducing agent that can be added to water based
mud to produce fluids with the density of between 0.75-0.95 g/cm3 that are
environment friendly. The 3M Hollow glass spheres offer excellent
characteristics in the preparation of water and oil based drilling mud and
well killing fluids, with fluid densities as low as 0.75 g/cm3.
 Hollow Glass spheres are made of soda lime borosilicate which contains air
inside. These bubbles are sized from 10 to 80 microns. Field tests have shown
that the glass bubbles- a low-density additive can be used as polymer filler in
drilling and work over operations. The risk of using aerated fluids can be
avoided with this new low-density fluid.
 They have high water resistance, temperature resistance and pressure
resistance. The HGS floating in base fluid is shown in above figure.

 Addition of HGS to any fluid reduces its density. The density reduction is
directly proportional to the concentration of these HGS in the fluid, so
increasing HGS concentration decreases fluid weight.
 There are practical limitations as to how much weight reduction can be
accomplished for a given HGS density grade. For the most part, these
limitations are governed by the viscosity of the glass bubble-filled fluids and
vary only slightly for different bases. As a general rule, the upper limit
concentration of HGS is 50% by volume.
A series of experiments to find out low density work over fluid with hollow glass
sphere (density reducer additive) is carried out. Suitable combinations with
HGS stable upto 20 hrs. are given below.
Sl. Composition of fluid with Sp. Gr. Remarks

No water
1 HGS 10% + XC Polymer 0.87  Stable
0.2% + Pre Gelatinized  Phase separation starts
Starch (Low) 1.0% + KCl at 85°C after 20 hrs. in
1.0% +Sodium formate 1.0% oven
2 HGS 20% +XC Polymer 0.81  Stable
0.2% + Pre Gelatinized  Phase separation starts
Starch (Low) 1.0% + KCl at 90°C after 20 hrs. in
1.0% + Sodium formate oven
1.0% +Iso Propyl Alcohol
0.1%
Observations:
 Specific gravity of the workover fluid is an important parameter in sub-

hydrostatic wells, so that damage to the formation could be minimized.
 The initial specific gravity of the fluids was given in the above tables. The
increase in specific gravity was rather sharp after aging at ambient
conditions. However, it is pertinent to note that when these fluids were
subjected to stirring at high speed for 15 minutes, they regained their original
appearance and specific gravity.
 Not only specific gravity play an important role in completion fluid, but also
the fluid should be stable in ambient temperature as well as bottom hole
temperature.
Present state of affair accentuates the need to design light weight

incompressible drilling /work over fluids as an alternate solution to mitigate
severe lost circulation problems in depleted reservoir. However, Literature
reveals that hollow glass microsphere series are engineered as a density

reducing agent to generate drilling fluid having densities less than that base
fluid with following characteristics as indicated.
 Low density range 0.32-0.60 g /cc with varying particle size and grade
 Collapse strength varying from 4000psi to 8000 psi
 Chemically stable and inert with high temperature and pressure resistance
 Non compressible and non-porous with light weight spherical shape
 Lower surface area and substantially greater strength to weight ratio
 Compatible with most of the chemicals, providing stable viscosity and long
shelf life.
 Greater survivability under pressure and temperature conditions.
Therefore, hollow glass microspheres are an effective tool to prepare of low
weight drilling and work over fluids ranging between 6.2 – 7.5 ppg in water
and oil based mud systems to balance the pressures of sub-hydrostatic
reservoirs. As a consequence, low density HGS fluids could provide following
improved performance and benefits;
 Good bore hole stability

 Excellent hole cleaning
 Improved torque reduction
 Decrease non-productive time
 Elimination of differential sticking
 Reduction or elimination of loss circulation
 Reduction in formation damage
 Ability to re-use on more than one well
 Minimal environmental effects
 Shorten time for bringing of wells back to production after workover
Rheological properties for various systems with HGS are very similar with
conventional fluids. Because of their shape and incompressibility, HGS by
themselves are neither good fluid control nor loss circulation agents. Their
influence on filtration loss control or as LCM is minimal as a primary agent.
The drilling muds and killing fluids blended with hollow glass spheres present a
viable alternative to aerated drilling mud at a density range of 0.75-0.95
g/cm3. These fluids are well suited for Asset‘s oil and gas fields geological and
reservoir conditions and display the benefits of a foam system at the desired
density range without its operational challenges. It is evident that there can be
one convincing argument against large scale employment of HGS that is
associated with the high cost of the material, however detailed examination
shows that owing to easy regeneration for repeated use, the cost of

preparation per m3 of fluid system with HGS is quite comparable to the cost of
per m3 of other fluid system due to recyclability of the HGS for repeated use.
Therefore, HGS blend fluid technology appears to be an economically viable

alternative due to recyclability of the HGS for repeated use for completion of
sub-hydrostatic reservoirs and may find its increased use for drilling and
workover of sub hydrostatic and depleted formations in the future.
Field handling of HGS based fluid:
HGS material properties dictate their handling. Understanding of handling

principles for materials with less than 100 microns and with low bulk density is
important while using in field application. Handling of HGS are more
challenging than free flowing coarse granules or pellets. Improperly handling
can create nuisance dusty environment, especially indoors at a fluid plant. At
a rig site they can be unloaded from their boxes or bags either manually, or by
gravity feeding into a hopper, or mechanically, by using a pneumatic
conveying system. Personnel should wear safety goggles before unloading by
either method.
Fig-4.2: Glass bubbles handling and mixing (Mechanical)

system
The procedure for addition/loading of hollow glass spheres into the mud system
is similar to that of weighting materials, the phase of dispersed solids is held in
thixotropic fluids in the state of equilibrium at a particular gel strength value.
Moreover, the field applications have demonstrated that HGS drilling fluid can
be easily and safely mixed under field operating conditions and is compatible

with conventional drilling fluids and rig equipment. Whereas, it can be
circulated through conventional mud motors, bits, and surface equipments
with little detrimental effects on either mud or equipments. Mixing of HGS into
the drilling fluid is a most critical issue to be addressed which may be resolved
either by adding conventionally through hopper into mud pit or transferring
from package to mud pit using diaphragm pump.
Standard surface cleaning equipment is used for removal of cuttings from the
fluids. To ensure acceptable rheological characteristics, the volume content of
the solids phase in suspensions (not depending on material) should not exceed
50%. It is important to mention that HGS have a significant advantage over
materials with densities over 1g/cm3 as they can be float and can be
subsequently recovered for repeated use with a recovery fraction of over 90%.
Different grades of 3M hollow glass spheres are available today enabling the
design of uncompressible, homogeneous and stable fluids of right density for
various downhole conditions. It is evident that material losses during workover
can be managed to a minimum. Each grade of HGS has its unique survival
characteristics against isostatic pressure as shown in Appendix-2. When
maximum operating pressure is known it is easy to determine losses due to
collapse of spheres. It is estimated that the handling losses, such as loading of
spheres, pumping over of mud and regeneration, could be 5-10%.
4.2 Particulate loaded circulating fluids:

Particulate (Calcium carbonate, resins, micronised cellulose fibers etc.) loaded
circulating fluids use the increase of viscosity of fluid by addition of polymer
and temporary plugging of formation pore throats. The effectiveness of the
system is a function of quick formation of a thin cake around the well bore.
Particulate loaded viscosified fluid suffer setback of severe solid settling in well

bore in static state and cannot be easily re-suspended uniformly in the fluid.
Due to this reason use of such type of work over fluids is very limited. Highly
permeable and water sensitive formations are good candidate for such fluids.
Viscosified brines:
Use of viscosified brine does not completely control loss of fluid in the formation
but continuous loss of fluid takes place at reduced rate. Apart from this, proper
viscosification of large quantity of brine is a problem due to quick hydration of
polymers, which results in formation of fish eyes.
4.3 Loss control pill:

Loss control material pill systems are of limited volume and are placed against
the formation but not dispersed throughout the entire operation fluid system. In
this system, following methods are used for controlling the loss.
4.3.1 In the formation matrix:
Fluid loss control can be attained by an increase in friction pressure in the

formation due to the viscosity of the fluid (linear gel) being lost to the formation
matrix. Depending upon the formation type, permeability, overbalance
pressure, bottom hole temperature and the sensitivity of the formation to water
and gelled fluids, this method can be very effective. Typically, a gelled pill of
sufficient viscosity is circulated or squeezed into place. The pill enters the
formation and penetrates the matrix to a sufficient depth to provide the
required pressure drop. Circulation the pill into place generally requires a
smaller volume of fluid and limits the amount of fluid that has to be produced
when the well is brought into production.
In extremely high permeability wells, this method may not be effective since
the fluid viscosity may need to be extremely high to achieve the required
pressure drop. Tests on cores or experience in the field are determining factors
in the suitability of this process. Temperature greatly affects the viscosity of a
gel, and as a result, any tests must be correlated to the expected results at the
formation temperature. Since the recommended gels are generally available
worldwide, the availability is controlled by mixing equipment and personnel
experienced in providing a quality, pill. In addition, when gravel packing is to
follow, a clean, filtered base gel is required. Linear gel systems are not
recommended for wells with high overbalance pressures. As overbalance
increases, so does depth of penetration. Any solids carried in the gel will be
carried into the matrix and may eventually cause skin damage. Anything that
is pumped into or allowed to flow into the formation matrix must be removed to
achieve optimum production. The gel can be allowed to produce back and
may eventually clean up, or the process can be accelerated by the use of a

breaker to reduce the viscosity of the fluid in the formation matrix. The breaker
may be acid, an internal breaker, or an enzyme. The breaker must be able to
penetrate the formation matrix to the depth that the gel penetrated the matrix
and contact the gel residue.
4.3.2 At the formation face:
In order for fluid loss to be controlled at the formation face, a seal or highly
viscos interface must be created to prevent passage of the fluid. This is
accomplished by addition of particulate material to the gelled carrier fluid.
The most common particulate material used are calcium carbonate and sized
salts. The particles are specially sized to bridge on the pore throats of the
formation, and with the addition of other materials such as starches, will stop
fluid flow into the formation matrix. The particles can be sized to pass through
a screen. However, this requires superior fluid conditioning of the mud.
Removal of the fluid loss system involves breaking of the carrier gel and some
amount of dissolution of the solid particles. Breakers would include acid,
enzyme and oxidizers. Generally, it is assumed that the breaker needs to
reduce the viscosity of the gelling agent to the point where the well bore fluids
or simulation fluids can dissolve the solid particulate materials.
4.4 Viscosified (polymer) pills:

Viscosified pills slow down the fluid flow rate
in formation matrix and thus reduce the
fluid loss in the formation. Such viscosifiers
are: guargum, starch, hydroxyethyl cellulose
(HEC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC),
biopolymer (Xanthan gum), etc.
Fig-4.3: Viscosified pill system

4.4.1 Linear gel system:
Several variety of natural, semi synthetic and synthetic long chain polymers
have been used as viscosifying agent to brine. The viscosity increase in all these
cases is a function of hydrated polymer concentration. The most widely used
polymers for this purpose are HEC, Xanthan, CMC and succinoglucan. These
gels are allowed to enter a formation in order to develop resistance to fluid
flow. The gel material though does not stop complete fluid loss, but reduces
the loss to an appreciable level. These gel materials are removed latter either
by internal breaker (a chemical additive that break down the polymer chain)
or by an external wash (acid treatment) after the required time interval. The
internal breaker time is designed depending upon the brine system, bottom
hole temperature, and type of breaker employed for the purpose.

4.4.2 Cross linked gel system:
As contrast to linear gel system, an exponential increase in viscosity and thus a

better resistance to flow near well bore at certain temperature can be
achieved by cross linking the polymer molecule in solution. Cross linked gels are
generally HEC derivatives. Cross linking is established by adjusting the pH and
adding a di or trivalent metal or borate salts. Cross linked gel system forms a
filter cake at the formation face or enters the pore throats of the formation and
stop fluid loss by plugging the throats with cross linked gel. The success of these
gels in controlling fluid loss is marginal because the polymer molecules have a
very high affinity for each other and their attraction for the formation grains is
low. Such polymer/pill may fill the well bore, their ability to form a low
permeable plug is limited and fluid passes between gel plug and wall of the
borehole in the formation. However, overbalance head on the gel system near
wellbore or on the face of pores throats enhance the fluid seal characteristic of
the gel and thus fluid flow ceases. Whether the crosslinked gel will enter the
formation or not is generally dependent on the polymer type and
concentration, the pore throat, the overbalance head and the bottom hole
temperature. The materials are removed in manner similar to linear systems.
Longer break time may be achieved but is a risk as miner chemical variations
may not allow a total breakdown of the gel and hence permanent formation
damage may be caused.
4.5 Non Circulating System

Apart from above-mentioned various circulating fluids, so called pills (linear,
cross linked gels and particulate) are used worldwide to control fluid loss in
depleted/sub-hydrostatic wells. Pills are very cost effective and easy to
prepare and apply in the wells. The various non-circulating fluids are:
 Particulate pills
 Polymer pills
4.5.1 Particulate pill system:

As the polymer gels (linear or cross linked) do
not completely stop the fluid loss in the
formation, temporary plugging of pore throats
by addition of sized solid particles in polymer
gel becomes the choice of preference and
such type of pill is called particulate pill.
Fig-4.4: Loss control

mechanism by Particulate
pill system

 Solids particles used for plugging/blocking formation are called bridging or
blocking agent.
 Blocking agents act as inert particle in the pill and are least damaging if
properly sized.
 Blocking agents with polymer, forms a temporary thin plug like mud cake
and seaIs formation pores.
 Temporary plug or bridge can be removed by washing or dissolved by
chemical treatment.
 Besides restricting the flow of fluid near well bore, polymer in the pill
consolidates bridging particles on pore throats of formation.
 Guar gum, CMC, HEC, Xanthan etc are common polymer used.
 Bridging material are typically sized
 Calcium carbonates
 Salts
 Resins and
 Micronised cellulose fibers.
A typical pill contains –

 Sized bridging material.
 Polymer solution in brine
To have a non-permeable filter cake, the particle size distribution of

bridging material should be wide, with 5 % volume equal to or greater
than one third of the median pore size-of the formation. The system
should be washed out by fluid or a chemical (acid) treatment.
4.5.2 Bridging particle material:

Selection of particle material (carbonate, resins, sodium chloride and
micronised cellulose fibers) is based upon many factors such as economics,
formation pressure, temperature and type of expected production.
Resins:
 In case temperature is well below 162 deg C (resin softening point) and
formation produces either aromatic crude or condensate, oil soluble resin
bridging particles should be considered because of the assured self-removal
by dissolution.
 Resins have sp. gr. of 1.02.
 Loss of oil soluble resins in an oil or condensate producer would not be as
great a concern since such materials will eventually get dissolved.
Sodium chloride:

 NaCl has more versatility than either calcium carbonate or resins but its use
in low pressured formation is limited by its high saturation density (1200
kg/m3).
 Sodium chloride (sp. gr. 2.18) as bridging particle are truly no damaging.
 Sized salt particles have same thermal stability as calcium carbonate.
Calcium carbonate:
Calcium Carbonate (sp. gr. 2.7) is widely available (in brands also) and less
expensive than resins. It has good temperature stability. Fluid system
temperature sensitivity would be limited only by the tolerance of the polymer
approximately 149 deg C to 177 deg. C for pills and circulating systems.
CaCO3 as bridging particle has many advantages:
 It is commercially available in various sizes

 Nontoxic
 Non-corrosive and
 Act as inert particles in the pill.
Salient feature of CaCO3 pill systems are:
 CaCO3 is least damaging if size of particles is suitably chosen and the pill is
placed properly.
 This has proved a very cost effective, easily operative pill system and is
widely used all over the world.
 Calcium carbonate is insoluble in formations fluids and can be completely
dissolved by 15 % HCI.
 It is also available in brands in wide particle size distribution in the market.
 Keeping in view the superior quality of CaCO3 as bridging material, it is
considered to be most suitable fluid loss control agent for application in
sub-hydrostatic wells.
4.5.3 Bridging Particle Size:
Particle size of bridging particles is determined mainly on three principles:

 Particle should have a wide range of sizes.
 Smallest particles should be large enough to be stopped at the surface of
the formation, so that they can be easily removed,
 Particles with a median diameter one-third to one-seventh of the size of the
formation pore throat are sufficient enough to plug the pore channels,
Wider the range of particle sizes, the more likely that an impermeable filter
cake would formed.
 Formation median pore size can be estimated by:
Median pore size (micron), Dpore(micron) = (Permeability in md)1/2
Median Particle size (micron)), DPar = 1/3 of Median pore size.

o In fractured or very high permeability formations larger particle must be
added in the pills to initiate the bridging process.
o Continual loss of even acid soluble carbonate particles deep into the
formation is not recommended. It is uncertain that an acid cleanup would
actually be able to contact the particles if penetrate deep into formation.
4.5.4 Micronised cellulose fibers:
 Micronised cellulose fibers have good sealing characteristic and effectively

to stop fluid loss.
 Length of these fibers is normally 2-200 micron and diameter 20 micron and is
used for seepage and whole fluid loss control.
 Orient themselves in pack bundles in low pressure zone and form a seal very
quickly and do not allow-fluid to pass in formation.
 But lack of acid solubility restricts their use, as complete removal of fibers is
not ensured. The use of these fibers is restricted in producing formations
because of their general lack of acid volubility.
 They are soluble in strong alkaline solution.
4.6 Selection of polymer pill:

Polymers are generally used as viscosifiers in drilling and workover fluids. The
most common polymers are cellulose products and polysaccharide. These
include CMC (Corboxy Methyl Cellulose), HEC (Hydroxy ethyl Cellulose),
guargum, xanthan gum polymers and others. Polymer in particulate pill helps to
consolidate the bridging particles and restricts fluid flow through the cake due
to adsorption of polymer on the surface of bridging particles and thus, the
polymer fills the remaining spaces between solid particles. HEC is the most
common polymer used as viscosifier because;
 HEC is:
 A semi synthetic shear thinning polymer
 Readily hydrate in most of the commercial brines
 Due to nonionic unaffected by the salt composition of brine except Zn.
 Non-damaging if hydrated properly
 Non-toxic and has good thermal stability.
Keeping in view the superior quality of HEC over other polymers, HEC is
considered to be suitable polymer for application in sub-hydrostatic wells for
loss control.
 Hydration of HEC:
 When water-soluble polymers like HEC is added to water, some HEC gets
partially hydrated and becomes semisolid called ― fish eyes‖

 Depending upon the process of addition of polymer powder to brine, fish
eyes of sizes from several microns to several centimeters are formed;
these fish eyes are potential source of formation damage.
 A non-damaging fluid loss control pill may be very damaging to the
formation if not properly processed to remove fish eyes.
 Fish eyes formation is avoided by dispersing the HEC powder prior to
hydration. This is done in two ways:
 Dispersing the HEC powder in liquid phase (alcohols, glycol, hydrocarbons
etc.) in which hydration of HEC does not take place.
 Controlling the pH of brine, hydration of HEC can be slowed down greatly at
low pH and this permits the HEC powder to disperse prior to hydration.
 KCI / NaCL is dissolved in potable filtered water.
 PH of the brine is adjusted to 5.5 -6.0 by adding HCL or Citric acid
 HEC is added to this brine and allowed to mixed for 15 minutes.
 After HEC powder is properly dispersed in brine, the pH of the of brine is
raised to 8.0-8,5 by adding sodium hydroxide at shear rate of 100/sec.
 0.05 % (vol/vol) commercial bactericide is added to gelled brine for
bacterial inhibition.
 HEC Gel Breakers:

For the breaking of HEC gel a number of breakers are used. Such breakers
are:
 Various oxidates
 Acids (HCl), Formic acid
 Sodium perborate + citric acid
 Acetic acid,
 Ammonium per-sulphate
 Cellulose enzyme.
 Most commonly used breaker is HCI
 Mechanical fluid loss control systems:

 Mechanical fluid control systems are essentially down hole equipment,
which are installed in a well for either temporary or permanent blocking of
fluid flow in the formation.
 They are expandable or sliding sleeve type of communication device
installed for future application.
 Elastomeric and metallic components of these devices must be
compatible with formation fluid.
 Such devices are glass disk assembly, frangible flappers, ball- dropper
fluid loss device, tubing latched plug, hydraulic reverse operated flapper,
packer plug, tubing plug, acid soluble plugs etc.
4.6.1 Complications in fluid handling
 Hydrates

 In deepwater operations, hydrates can sometimes form in the choke
and kill lines when a well is shut in on a gas kick and circulated to the
surface
 Hydrates are a mixture of natural gas and water that form a solid
substance.
 This solid looks and behaves very much like ice.
 Under the pressure and temperature encountered in deepwater,
conditions are favorable for the formation of hydrates.
 They can plug choke and kill line and interfere the normal operations of
BOPs.
 Plugging and partial plugging of choke lines as a kick is circulated out
could cause bottomhole pressure to get so high that the formation
breaks down.
 Crew should therefore be alert to the possibility of the hydrate plugging
and be prepared to stop pumping if the pressure rises too high.
 High salinity drilling mud suppresses hydrate formation.
 In any case, in areas in which hydrate formation is likely, planning
should consider the possibility of hydrate formation during well control
operations.
 Crystallization
 Beyond the saturation point, the salt fails to go into solution and either
crystallizes or settles out as a solid.
 Multisalt brines, in which two or more salts are added to water, can be
used where higher densities are needed.
 The formation of crystals in a completion and work over fluid can be a
real hazard.
 When mixing a fluid, many different salts and mineral combinations
may be used to get the desired fluid weight at the most economical
and safest condition. The mixture often contains all of the material
water can hold at a given temperature-the saturation point. No further
weight is gained by adding more material.
 Should more material be added and the temperature held constant,
one of two things happens:
 Either the material falls to the bottom of the tank or crystallization
occurs.
 Crystallization in a completion or workover fluid looks like ice forming
and is sometimes called freezing.
 Should the temperature of the fluid in the tanks be reduced by a
change in weather or other conditions, crystallization can occur,
reducing not only the fluid density, but also its ability to be pumped.
 Variations in temperature and in brine solutions themselves affect the
crystallization point; it is vital, therefore, to get the crystallization point
for a particular solution from the fluid supplier.
 Any decrease in temperature causes solid salts to crystalize and settle
down. (Figure-4.5).

Figure-4.5: Crystallization of various brines with their densities.
 Stability of brines
 The stability of the brines at high salt loadings can be very ―touchy‖
with temperature drops causing salt precipitation.
 Increases in temperature decreases brine density and may leave the
brine under-saturated to salt.
 Additions of gas, alcohol, some surfactants, shear and reduction in
temperature can lead to salt precipitation.
 Salt may affect the way polymers hydrate or disperse.
 Downhole density can be calculated by the formula;
DDH = DS (1 + 0.000252 (TS-TDH))
 What is downhole density (DDH) of a 16.4 lb/gal surface density (Ds)

brine (60 F) when downhole temperature increases to 230 F ?
DDH = (16.4)(1 + 0.000252 (60-230)
DDH = 15.7 lb/gal
 The density of various brines at downhole temperature conditions is

shown in Figure-4.6 to 4.9.

Figure-4.6: Change in density of NaCl and KCl brine with temperature
Figure-4.7: Change in density of CaCl2 brine with temperature

Figure-4.8: Change in density of CaBr2 brine with temperature
Figure-4.9: Change in density of ZnBr2 brine with temperature
4.7 Loss control pills used in oil industry:

Loss of drilling and work over fluid are internationally managed by several types
of Loss Control Pills. Majority of the Pills are patented type used by different
service companies.

Numerous additives and fluid systems have been introduced to the oil industry
for the control of fluid loss to plug the loss zones during workover operations.
Example of these applications are fluid loss control after perforating, after
gravel packing, zone isolation during fracturing operations, water control
treatments and acid stimulation. Products on the market viscosified fluids and
particulates are the most popular. Tests shows that using high concentration of
these gels shows damage to the intervals, but they are protecting the
formation from heavy damage due to loss of large amount of workover fluid.
Laboratory tests shows cross-linked gel system is less damaging than heavy
particulate system. The following pills are used to arrest loss circulation in
moderate and heavy loss cases.
 Clearex Pill ( Imported )

 Polymer pill with Fibers (Indigenous )
 Liquid casing ( Imported )
 X-linked Pill ( Indigenous )
1) Clearex Pill:
Co-polymer of Acrylamide and polyacrylate with carbonates and silica,

Excellent for small and large fractures with 2% dosage in fresh water. The
specialty of this chemical will swells in the formation and pack the fractures.
Clearex pill of 20-60 kg/ m3 in water for medium and heavy fluid losses. This is
removable with application of breaker. Successfully using in North America.
Planned to use in MH Asset by Drilling Services. The product is supplied by XL
fluid systems, USA.
2) Fiber based pill:
Generally loss circulation occurs while drilling / work over operations is a serious
concern in oil field industry. Losses of work over operation increases cost of the
well. The general practice to control the losses starts from diagnosis of the
cause. The common solutions to manage the loss circulation problem include
work over fluid treatment involving decreasing the density, controlling the
viscosity and addition of lost circulation material (LCM), controlling the vugular
formations, highly permeable zones and fractured (natural or induced)
formations.
Depending upon the severity of the problem several types of loss control
material are used. The most common method is to pump fiber, granular, flakes
along or in combination. The LCM effectiveness is influenced by material type,
particle size distribution and optimum concentration determined by lost
circulation scenario (pore size or fracture width). Several fibers polyethylene,

nylon, cellulose etc are used as bridging particles. The cellulose bridges in
between CaCO3 particles can effectively bridge the natural fractures.
3) Ultra Seal -Plus, LCM (Fine , Medium , Coarse):
M&D Industries of Louisiana, Inc. Unlike most fiber products, a blend of different
types of fiber groups. Laboratory and testing experience on the rigs continued
to prove that a blend of fiber perform more effectively. Ultra Seal Plus LCM is a
property blend off fibrous, granular and flake materials designed specifically for
massive loss circulation. Vegetable cellulose fibers are used for this application.
A blend of Ultra seal fine and medium sealing agents. The large particles
array is beneficial in establishing a stronger initial bridge across the thief zone.
By the inclusion of the larger particles, effective control of rigid type fractures,
vogular , unconsolidated formations can be achieved. The fiber used here is
vegetable cellulose fiber.
For total losses Loss Circulation, a 50-100 barrel pill of 40-60 lbs/bbl Ultra seal Plus
should be mixed and spotted against the zone. Several Operators/companies
like, M/S Delta Drilling Company, USA, Chevron Bolivia, and Texaco USA are
successfully using this cellulose fiber
4) Polymer with Fiber and CaCO3:
Fiber is added to CaCO3 for effective bridging. Bridging particle are selected
to block natural fractures, vugus etc. Wide range of PSD of CaCO3 is selected.
Natural cellulose fibers are biodegradable. Stability of 20 days at 115.
Successfully using in petroleum Industry.
Fig-4.10: Fiber with CaCO3 Fig-4.11: CaCO3 in suspension

5) Liquid Casing:
Liquid polymer contains polymer and fiber is an excellent sealing pill used for
controlling severe losses. Large bridging fiber particle 10 -15 ppb is added to
Polymer. This pill system was successfully using in USA and North America. This
pill forms mat like heavy cake at the fracture face. The temperature stability at
400 F. Soaking time for pill is 2 hrs.
Stuck pipe is a costly problem for oil field operators. It is especially frustrating
people on the rig who are keeping drilling fluids within specification, and
keeping the drilling pipe moving. The liquid casing material can be pumped to
release the stuck up. The liquid casing material was used during wash over
fishing operation. Several 25 pounds sacks of liquid casing were mixed in 1000
bbls mud system. The cost effective concentration appears to be around 8
ppb of liquid casing fine, combined with 8 ppb liquid casing coarse. However
in loss circulation zones higher concentration appears to raise in the pressure
gradient where losses occur.
The concentration of liquid casing fine recommended is 15 ppb liquid casing

fine and 15 ppb liquid casing coarse in to a pill using drilling mud circulating
system. Pumped during cementing to control the losses.
6) X-linked Pills:
It is very effective for natural fractures. It is used when linier fluid fails to control
the loses, for severe losses / total losses when linear gel fails
The following are some X-linked pills which are used.
 Xc Polymer with Chromium acetate

 RXHEC with Borax.
 Xc. Polymer with Zirconium
 PHPA with Chromium acetate
a) DDHEC gel:
When a fluid loss control pill was needed that had more body than linear
gels, the alternative was a cross linked gel. Cross linking creates a gel
structure that can fully support solids and provides excellent fluid loss
control. It can successfully used even under high differential pressure if
higher concentration of polymers is used. Further cross linked fluid loss
control pills have limited invasion of the formation face to be fully effective.
The polymers that have been used include guar derivatives,

carboxymethylehydroxyethyle cellulose (CMHEC) and HEC. To form a
crosslink, some form of polyvalent metal ion must be used, such as
aluminium, titanium or zirconium.
Conventional HEC is not readily cross linkable because it‘s lacks suitable
cross linking sites along the polymer backbone. Cross linking has been
achieved by raising the Ph of the polymer to above ten to promote
suitable backbone configurations.
This system is a cross linking polymer treatment for severe losses created by
mixing two products. The main component is a single sack blend of
cellulose fibers and a cross linkable water soluble polymer. The cross linking
activator is a aqueous solution and added to the slurry of the polymer
components. At 5 gals per 10 bbls of slurry is pumped down hole. The cross
linking process commences in the drill string and is complete in 2-4 hrs. The
treatment is non-damaging to the formation. Mixing with acid breaks the
gel, but acidisation is not required as the gel degrades with time. The time
to degradation is dependent upon the temperature of the zone in which
the pill is placed. The degradation time will be approx. 2 weeks.
The most efficient method for mixing the cross link activator and polymer
dispersion phases prior to pumping downhole is by use of low volume
injection pump.
b) RXHEC (SPE-37293):
Replacement cross linkable hydroethylcellulose (RXHEC) gel used for loss

control pill. The first application of RXHEC X-linked gel took place in May
1993. Since then some evidence has revealed additional features that
were not conceived in the initial design. The main features are:-
 Dispersion occurs with no fish -eyes

 Cross linking occurs with most metals, non-toxic metals
 The fluid can be pumped fully cross linked
 Reversible shear degradation of cross linked RX HEC fluids allows good
fluid loss control
 The RXHEC will remain in place during tripping and retrieving operations
 Broken returns of RXHEC are liquid
 It is indefinitely stable up to 1300 C
The cross linking site on RXHEC has a strong affinity with most divalent metal
ions, providing rapid cross link rates. Therefore a cross linker that would wait
until it blended homogenously with the polymer solution. Chelating the

metal ions usually controls the cross linking rate. As in the most metal
reactions, the rate of reaction between cross linking site and metal
depends on the Ph. For Example polymer will only cross link with aluminium
with a Ph of 4-6. Slowly raise the Ph of the polymer solution to control the
cross link rate of the RXHEC consistently resulted in smooth, strong gels. In
operations the X-linked rate rages from 3-30 minutes. The rate increases
with temperature and divalent action content.
The friction pressures associated with pumping cross linked fluids are too
high. Therefore it is necessary to delay the cross link of polymer until the fluid
reaches the formation. RXHEC cross linked quickly.
Operational experience has shown that RXHEC fluid give little resistance
during pumping. In the first field trail in the Gulf of Mexico, placed pill in a
10 ppg CaCl2 brine (120 pound per 1000 gallons polymer loading). The fluid
progressed through the 3 ½‖ work string with only a 400 psi reading on the
pump.

5.0 Completion/Workover fluid for HPHT wells:
HPHT Reservoirs have been defined where the undisturbed bottom hole
temperature at prospective reservoir depth is greater than 149 o C (300o F) and
the formation to be drilled through exceeds reservoir pressure of around 10,000
psi or pressure gradient of 0.8 psi/ft.
In HPHT application, the completion fluids used are weighted brine based on
NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, CaBr2, ZnBr2 or their combinations as per the density
requirements of the final fluid. For effectively suspending the bridging and
weighting agents in the completion fluid, it is viscosified by adding soluble non-
damaging polymer viscosifiers. A defoamer like aluminium stearate or 2-ethyl
hexanol is required to control foaming of the brine due to the presence of
polymer viscosifiers. Listed below are the drawbacks of weighted brines.
Drawbacks of Halide Brines
 Due to invasion into formation, water blocks, emulsion blocks and blocking
of pores due to migration of formation fines may occur. The damage,
however, is not deep due to good bridging property.
 Corrosive and toxic to personnel, though to a less extent than clear brines of
similar density.
 Zinc containing brines are environmentally hazardous
 The temperature limitation of weighted brines is set by thermal stability of the
viscosifier used. Presently, temperature limitation is indicated upto 300o F (150
C).
 Some difficulties may be encountered in the operation of downhole tools.
 When used as a packer fluid, solids will settle on packer, creating, problems
during workover.
 ZnCl2 brines are highly acidic (1-1.5 at 1.92 S.G), reactive and corrosive. Not
possible to raise the pH as precipitation of Zn(OH)2 takes place.
 CaBr2-ZnBr2 brine forms scale of calcium salts in CO2 environment
 CaBr2-ZnBr2 brine is having some tolerance to H2S. A heavy influx of H2S
would, however, precipitate ZnS.
 CaBr2, ZnBr2 are highly expensive.
 It is not safe to discharge ZnBr2 containing brines in sea, river or other surface
waters.
 These halide brines are associated with serious corrosion and SCC causing
failures of tubular in HPHT wells.
 The pH of CaCl2/CaBr2can not be raised beyond 8.0 due to precipitation of
Ca (OH)2 and reduction in the specific gravity of the brines.
 The pH of ZnBr2 brines must be less than 6 to prevent the precipitation of Zn
(OH)2.
During the past decades, completion fluids based on formate salts have been
displacing conventional halide base fluids in HPHT wells. Fluids containing

halides are highly corrosive to steel at elevated temperatures and pose
environmental hazards as well. Corrosion rates associated with formate
solutions are very low, provided the fluid pH remains in alkaline range, which is
obtained by adding carbonate salts. Unlike halides formats are readily
biodegradable. Formates extremely soluble in water and provide solid free
brines upto Sp. Gr. of 2.37 (density 19.7 ppg).
5.1 Formate Brines

• Formate brines are the aqueous solutions of the alkali metal salts of formic
acid. These salts are readily soluble in water, yielding high-density brines with
low crystallization temperatures. The formate anion is the most hydrophilic of
the family of carboxylic acid anions yet it retains significant organic
characteristics when compared with the halides.
• The alkali metal cations (Na+, K+, and Cs+) are all monovalent, giving them
their unique compatibility with biopolymers while at the same time
contributing to their non-damaging behavior in reservoirs.
• Formate brines offers clear advantages over the traditional halide family of
brines in that their use is not just limited to completion and packer fluids, but
includes solids-free drilling fluids, which offer exceptionally good flow
characteristics over the whole density range.
• This means formate brines in general can provide thermally-sensitive solutes,
such as water-soluble polymers, with considerable protection against
oxidative degradation at high temperatures.
• The formate brines cover the entire fluid density range normally required in
drilling and completion.
• Completion fluids based on formate brines (sodium, potassium, and cesium
salts of formic acid) have temperature stability, good hydraulics, shale
stability, tolerance to contaminations, material compatibility, reservoir
compatibility and recycling possibilities.
• Formate brines are powerful anti-oxidant and maintain rheological stability
at very high temperature (more than 180 0 C).
• Formate brines have been in regular use in HPHT applications worldwide for
downhole temperatures as high as 236°C / 457°F and pressures of 14,000 psi.
The densities of the formate brines are shown in Table-5.1
Table-5.1 : Typical densities of Formate Brines

Max. density (ppg) Typical density
Brine
(ppg)
Sodium Formate 10.8 8.5-10.8
Sodium Bromide 12.8 10.0-12.5
Potassium Formate 13.3 10.8-13.1
Calcium Chloride/Calcium 15.1 11.7-15.1
Bromide
Calcium Bromide 15.3 11.4-14.2

Cesium Formate 19.2 13.1-19.2
Zinc Bromide/ Calcium 19.1 14.2-19.1
Bromide/Calcium Chloride
Zinc Bromide / Calcium Bromide 19.2 14.0-19.2
Zinc Bromide 21.0 19.2-21.0
Potassium Formate (1.57 SG 18.30 13.10- 18.3
/Caesium Formate ( 2.20 SG)

6.0 Displacement of mud with brines during completion:
The displacement system is designed to maximize mud and solids cleanout in
one pass through the wellbore. Certain displacement processes or procedures
are common to any type of fluid displacement, be they OBM/SBM or WBM.
The use of clean brine fluid alone does not guarantee success of job. All the
components involved in circulation, including storage tanks, solids removal
equipment, manifolds, pumps, discharge lines, return lines and the wellbore
should also be free from solids.
1) Preparing the Wellbore

Having a well-conditioned drilling/ workover fluid is the single most significant
factor in obtaining effective mud displacement. Thoroughly fluidize the mud
before displacement. To further improve its mobility, the viscosity, YP and
gels of the drilling fluid should be reduced, if possible, during the pre-job
circulation period.
 Displace the completion fluid at the highest displacement rates and if
possible under turbulent flow conditions.
 The pipe movement (rotation or reciprocation) helps break up pockets of
gelled mud and loosens cuttings. This is more important in wells which are
not truly verticals and where string is not positioned concentrically in the
hole. Rotation also distributes the flow path of the displacement fluid across
the entire hole section. Mechanical scratchers or scrapers attached to the
drillstring can further enhance the beneficial effects of pipe movement.
2) Spacers
 The Spacers are the first to be pumped in well ahead of brine. They are
used
 To separate two incompatible fluids
 To remove Mud (WBM/OBM/SBM) and solids from tubular and casing so
that a clean wellbore is obtained for the completion fluid displacement
 To restore tubular to a water-wet condition.
3) Quantity of Spacer Volume

 The amount of time a spacer fluid is in contact with a section of casing
and formation has a direct influence on the amount of mud displaced
 Contact time for most displacement fluids is about 10 min. This means a
500 to 1,000 ft high column of spacer in annulus. However, the minimum
recommended fluid volume and contact time vary somewhat, according
to specific conditions.
4) Viscosity/Density Differences
 The spacer must be more viscous than either of the fluids it separates.

 Higher viscosity also helps to stay in plug or laminar flow at higher pump
rates.
 However, some commingling with the other fluids will occur. Therefore, the
spacer also must provide enough distance between the two fluids.
 Density differences do not affect displacement efficiency as other
factors. A density difference is advantageous when the completion fluid
has a higher density than the drilling fluid.
5) Typical Staged Spacer Systems
a. WBM displacement
 First spacer— viscosified water with surfactant.
 Second spacers — chemical wash.
 Third spacer — viscous brine.
 Circulate completion fluid after the spacers.
 Divert spacers to a separate pit.
 Continue to circulate and filter the completion fluid until the
specifications for turbidity are reached.
b. OBM/SBM displacement
The displacement of OBM/SBM is a challenging task. Designing of proper
spacer is necessary so that water wet condition of casing is restored and
brine can be successfully circulated and filtered.
 First spacer – base oil/synthetic preflush.
 Second spacer – viscosified water spacer with surfactant.
 Third spacer – chemical wash.
 Fourth spacer – viscous brine.
 Circulate completion fluid after the spacers.
 Divert the fluid containing chemical wash to a clean pit for salvage.
 Continue to circulate and filter the completion fluid until the
specifications for turbidity are reached.

Editorial Board
1. Shri. U.S.Prasad, GM (P)
2. Shri. P.N.Meshram, DGM (P)
3. Mrs. Manasmita Swain, EE (P)
Institute of Oil & Gas Production Technology
Oil & Natural Gas Corporation Ltd.
Phase II, ONGC Complex, Panvel, Navi Mumbai-410221 INDIA
Phone: 91 22 2745 1891/2748 6100, Fax: 91 22 2745 1690
Web: www.ongcindia.com

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Completion

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HANDBOOK ON COMPLETION

Institute of Oil and Gas Production Technology

2.0 Common fluid properties 5

3.0 Types of completion & workover fluid 10

4.0 Workover fluid for sub-hydrostatic well 24

5.0 Completion/workover fluid for HPHT wells 53

6.0 Displacement of mud with brines during completion 56

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 0

A completion fluid is a fluid placed against the producing formation while

1.1 Workover and completion fluid characteristics:

A good fluid should:

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 1

1.2 Functions of Completion and work over fluid:

The functions of fluids used in remedial activities such as workover or

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 2

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 3

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 4

Fluid Approx. Approx. Practical

(ppg) Kg/m3) (ppg) Kg/m3 (ppg) Kg/m3

Oil 6.0 719 8.5 1018 8 958

Diesel Oil 7.0 839 7.0 839 7.0 839

Fresh Water 8.2 996 8.3 998 8.33 1000

Sea Water 8.4 1006 8.6 1030 8.5 1018

Brine (NaCl) 8.4 1006 10.0 1198 9.8 1174

Brine ( KCl) 8.3 995 9.8 1174 9.7 1162

Brine (CaCl2) 11.0 1318 11.6 1390 11.5 1378

2.2 Solid Content

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 5

2.3 Rheological properties:

It is the property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to movement of

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 6

: μ is expressed in poise, P where 10P = 1 kg /m/s

Kinematic viscosity is defined as the dynamic viscosity divided by the density of

2.4.2 Absolute Viscosity

A term used interchangeably with viscosity to distinguish it from either

2.4.3 Apparent Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid measured at a given shear rate at a fixed temperature

2.5 Yield point

Yield point is the measurement of resistance to flow caused by the attractive

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 7

If n  1 it is pseudo plastic fluid,

If n = 1 it is Newtonian fluid and

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 8

2.6 Gel Strength

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 9

It has lots of disadvantages :

 Corrosive if H2S or CO2 is present

3.2 Oil Emulsion Fluid:

 Particulate plugging of formation pores due to the presence of solid

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 10

3.3 Water Base Fluids:

1) Single salt Brine

 Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl)

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 11

 Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

 Sodium Formate (NaCOOH)

 Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)

 Potassium Formate (KCOOH)

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 12

 Caesium Formate (CsCOOH)

2) Mixed Salt Brine

 Calcium Chloride/ Calcium Bromide:

 Zinc Bromide/Calcium Bromide:

3.4 Selection Criteria of Brine

To select brine based workover/ completion fluid, following parameters should

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 13

Handbook on completion & workover fluid Page 14