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Pressure
Manometer Basics
October 1, 2001
By:  Rick D'Angelo, Meriam Instrument,  Dave Thomas, Meriam Instrument
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One of the earliest pressure measuring instruments is still in wide use today because of its inherent accuracy and simplicity of operation. It's the
U-tube manometer, which is a U-shaped glass tube partially filled with liquid. This manometer has no moving parts and requires no calibration.
Manometry measurements are functions of gravity and the liquid's density, both physical properties that make the U-tube manometer a NIST
standard for accuracy.

Manometers are both pressure measurement
instruments and calibration standards. They range
from simple U­tubes and wells filled with liquid to
portable digital instruments with a computer
interface.

As shown in Figure 1, with each leg of a U-tube manometer exposed to the atmosphere, the height of liquid in the columns is equal. Using this
point as a reference and connecting each leg to an unknown pressure, the difference in column heights indicates the difference in pressures (see
Figure 2).
 Figure 1. With both legs of a U­tube
manometer open to the atmosphere
or subjected to the same pressure,
the liquid maintains the same level in
each leg, establishing a zero
reference.
Figure 2. With a greater pressure
applied to the left side of a U­tube
manometer, the liquid lowers in the
left leg and rises in the right leg. The
liquid moves until the unit weight of
the liquid, as indicated by h, exactly
balances the pressure.

The fundamental relationship for pressure expressed by a liquid column is:

Δp = P2­P1 = ρgh (1)

where:

Δp = differential pressure
P1 = pressure at the low­pressure connection
P2 = pressure at the high­pressure connection
ρ = density of the indicating fluid (at a specific temperature)
g = acceleration of gravity (at a specific latitude and elevation)
h = difference in column heights
The resulting pressure is the difference between forces exerted per unit of surface area of the liquid columns, with pounds per square inch (psi)
or newtons per square meter (pascals) as the units. The manometer is so often used to measure pressure that the difference in column heights is
also a common unit. This is expressed in inches or centimeters of water or mercury at a specific temperature, which can be changed to standard
units of pressure with a conversion table.

All pressure measurements are differential. The reference can be zero absolute pressure (a total vacuum), atmospheric pressure (the barometric
pressure), or another pressure. With one leg of a manometer open to the atmosphere (see Figure 3A), the measured pressure is that which
exceeds atmospheric pressure, which at sea level is 14.7 psi, 101.3 kPa, or 76 cmHg.
 Figure 3. Gauge pressure is a measurement relative to atmospheric pressure
and it varies with the barometric reading. A gauge pressure measurement is
positive when the unknown pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure (A), and
is negative when the unknown pressure is less than atmospheric pressure (B).

This measurement is called gauge pressure, and the relationship for a positive pressure is expressed by:

absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + positive gauge pressure (2)
For a negative pressure (vacuum) measurement (see Figure 3B), the column heights reverse and the relationship is expressed by:

absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + negative gauge pressure (3)
These pressure relationships are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. A graphical representation of positive and negative gauge pressure shows the
differential aspect of all pressure measurements, where gauge pressure is the difference
between absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure.

A manometer can be designed to directly measure absolute pressure. The manometer in Figure 5 measures
the pressure compared to zero absolute pressure in a sealed leg above a mercury column. The most common
form of this manometer is the conventional mercury barometer used to measure atmospheric pressure. With
just one connection, this configuration can measure pressures above and below atmospheric pressure.

Variations on the U­Tube Manometer

The differential pressure is always the difference in column heights, regardless of the size or shape of the
tubes. As shown in Figure 6A, the legs of both manometers are open to the atmosphere and the indicating
fluids are at the same level. Connecting the same pressure to the left leg of each manometer causes its level
to lower. Because of the variation in volume in the manometer legs, the fluid in each column moves a
different distance. However, the difference between the fluid levels in both manometers is identical (see
Figure 6B).
 Figure 5. In a sealed­tube
manometer, the pressure reference
is a vacuum, or zero absolute
pressure. The most common form of
a sealed­tube manometer is the
conventional mercury barometer
used to measure atmospheric
pressure.

Figure 6. The pressure reading is always the difference between fluid heights, regardless of the
tube sizes. With both manometer legs open to the atmosphere, the fluid levels are the same
(A). With an equal positive pressure applied to one leg of each manometer, the fluid levels
differ, but the distance between the fluid heights is the same.

Carrying this variation in tube sizes further is the well-type (or reservoir) manometer (see Figure 7). As
pressure is applied to the well, the level falls slightly as compared to the level rise in the column. By
compensating the column's scale graduations to correct for the well drop, it is possible to make a direct
reading of differential pressure. There are connection guidelines placed on well-type manometers, compared
to the U-tube style:

Connect pressures higher than atmospheric to the well; connect pressures lower than atmospheric to
the tube.
For differential measurements, connect the higher pressure to the well.
For raised-well manometers, the well connection can be used for gauge and vacuum measurements.

A variation of the well-type manometer is the inclined-tube (or draft gauge) manometer in Figure 8. With an
inclined indicating tube, 1 in. of a vertical rise is stretched over several inches of scale length. The inclined-
tube manometer has better sensitivity and resolution for low pressures.

Figure 7. In a well­type manometer,
the cross­sectional area of one leg
(the well) is much larger than the
other leg. When pressure is applied
to the well, the fluid lowers only
slightly compared to the fluid rise in
the other leg.
 Figure 8. Low pressure and low differentials are better handled with an
inclined­tube manometer, where 1 in. of vertical liquid height can be stretched
to 12 in. of scale length.

Indicating Fluids

Liquid manometers measure differential pressure by balancing the weight of a liquid between two pressures. Light liquids such as water can
measure small pressure differences; mercury or other heavy liquids are used for large pressure differences. For an indicating fluid 3 times
heavier than water, the pressure measurement range is 3 times greater, but the resolution is reduced.

Indicating fluids can be colored water, oil, benzenes, bromides, and pure mercury. When selecting an indicating fluid, check the specifications for
specific gravity, operating temperature range, vapor pressure, and flash point. Corrosive properties, solubility, and toxicity are also
considerations.

Digital Manometers

A liquid manometer has limitations. Glass tubing, indicating fluids, and level mounting requirements are more suited to a laboratory than the
field. Also, it cannot be interfaced with a computer or PLC. Such limitations can be overcome with digital manometers. These microprocessor-
based instruments are available in convenient, portable sizes for ease of use in the field, or in panel or stand-alone mounting styles, with outputs
for controlling a process or transferring measurement data.

Variations from standard conditions of density and gravity must be compensated for manually when making pressure measurements with liquid
manometers. This is easier with digital manometers, because some of the correction factors for liquid manometers can be ignored and others
can be compensated for in software.

With dual ports, swapping sensors is all that is needed to change among differential, gauge and absolute pressure measurements.

Other common features of digital manometers include:

Onboard memory for data logging or storing min./max. readings

Averaging a number of readings to dampen pressure pulses

Higher accuracy digital manometers are used to calibrate pressure transmitters and other pressure instrumentation in the field. Digital
calibrators are faster and simpler as they require no boxes, gas cylinders, regulators, or weights to set up and have no special platforms or critical
leveling requirements. Further comparisons of liquid and digital manometer specifications are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1

Manometer Specifications

  Liquid Manometers Digital Manometers

U­tube Well Inclined General Purpose Calibrating

Range 100 in. 100 in. 20 in. 20­2000 in H2 O, 2000 in H2 O,

20­2000 psig, 2000 psig,

2000 mmHg 2000 mmHg

Accuracy ±½ of minor scale ±½ of minor ±½ of minor scale ±0.025­0.1% F.S. ±0.025­0.1% F.S.

graduation scale graduation
graduation

Wetted Cast iron, stainless Stainless steel, Acrylic, stainless steel, Clean, dry non­corrosive gases; Clean, dry non­corrosive gases;

Parts steel, PVC, glass, glass, Viton aluminum, glass, Viton liquids compatible with stainless steel liquids compatible with stainless steel
or Media Viton
Compatibility

Pressure 250 psig 250­500 psig 100­350 psig 2 × range 2 × range

Rating

Mounting Wall, table Wall, table, Wall, table Portable Portable

flush front,
pipe
Relative Low Low/medium Medium Medium High
Cost

For Further Reading

Massey, B.S. 1989. Mechanics of Fluids, 6th Ed., London: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Meriam Instrument. 1997. Using Manometers to Precisely Measure Pressure, Flow and Level, Cleveland: Meriam Instrument.

Meriam, J.B. 1938. The Manometer and Its Uses. 2nd Ed., Cleveland: Meriam Instrument.

Omega Engineering. 1999. Transactions in Measurement and Control: Force-Related Measurements, 2nd Ed. Stamford, CT: Putnam Publishing
and Omega Press.

Yeager, John, and Hrusch-Tupta, M.A., Eds. 1998. Low Level Measurements. 5th Ed. Cleveland: Keithley Instruments.

SIDEBAR:

Manometer Pressure and Accuracy Glossary
Absolute Pressure. A measurement referenced to zero pressure; equals the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric
pressure. Common units are pounds per square inch (psia), millimeters mercury (mmHga), and inches mercury (in.Hga).
Accuracy. A measure of the closeness of agreement of a reading to that of a standard. For absolute accuracy, compare to a
primary standard (one recognized by NIST). Accuracies are usually specified as a plus or minus percent of full scale.
Calibration accuracies are often given as plus or minus percent of reading with plus or minus counts.

Ambient Pressure. The pressure of the medium surrounding a device. It varies from 29.92 in.Hg at sea level to a few inches
at high altitudes.

Atmospheric Pressure. The pressure of the atmosphere on a unit surface. Also called barometric pressure. At sea level it is
29.92 in.Hg absolute.
Count. The smallest increment of an A/D conversion that is displayed.

Differential Pressure. The difference between two measurement points. Common units are inches of water (in.H2O), pounds
per square inch (psi), and millibars (mbar).

Display Resolution. The maximum number of digits on a digital display. For example, a display resolution of 4½ digits reads
a maximum of 19,999 counts; and a display resolution of 5 significant digits reads a maximum of 99,999 counts.

Gauge Pressure. A measurement referenced to atmospheric pressure. It varies with the barometric reading. Also used to
specify the maximum pressure rating of manometers. Common units include pounds per square inch (psig).

Range. The region between the lower and upper limits of measurements.

Resolution. The smallest portion of a measurement that can be detected.

Sensitivity. The smallest change in measurement that can be detected.

Uncertainty. An estimate of the possible error in a measurement. This is the opposite of accuracy.

Vacuum. Any pressure below atmospheric pressure. When referenced to the atmosphere, it is called a vacuum (or negative
gauge) measurement. When referenced to zero pressure, it is an absolute pressure measurement.

Zero Absolute Pressure. The complete absence of any gas; a perfect vacuum.

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