3.

Causes of Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment is, above all, a manifestation of power relations � women are much
more likely to be victims of sexual harassment precisely because they more often than men
lack power, are in more vulnerable and insecure positions, lack self confidence, or have
been socialized to suffer in silence.� In order to understand why women endure the vast
majority of sexual harassment, it is important to look at some of the underlying causes of
this phenomenon.

Violence and Male Self-Perception

The relationship between the sexes in many countries around the world includes a
considerable amount of violence against women.� Data about the United States, for
example, indicate that one out of every ten women are raped or sexually assaulted during
their lives, while more than half of all women living with men have experienced a battering
or similar incident of domestic violence.

Violence by men against women exists in the workplace, as it does in other settings.�
Some scholars, such as Susan Faludi, the author of Backlash: The Undeclared War Against
American Women, suggest that male hostility toward women in the workplace is closely
connected to male attitudes about the �proper� role of a man in society.� Surveys on
men�s perception of masculinity, carried out in the U.S., for example, indicate that the
leading definition of masculinity is being �a good provider for his family.�� Ms. Faludi
concludes that some men perceive the �feminist drive for economic equality� as a threat
to their traditional role.� Thus, sexual harassment is a form of violence perceived as self-
protection.

The problem of sexual harassment relates to the roles which are attributed to men and
women in social and economic life, which, in turn, directly or indirectly, affects women�s
positions in the labor market.

The Economics of Women�s Work

Focusing on the economics of men's work and women's work exposes sexual harassment as
a way for the men who harass women to express their resentment and try to reassert control
when they view women as their economic competitors

Despite impediments women face in obtaining employment, there has been a massive
influx of women into the labor force in the 1960s and 1970s, not only in the U.S., but on a
global scale.� Women's entry into the workforce has been prompted by necessity, since
many families cannot make ends meet if the wife and husband do not both work full-
time.�

Furthermore, the number of single-parent families headed by women in growing.� There

are a large number of families in which a woman is the sole means of support.� Data from
the U.S. indicate that between 1980 and 1990, the number of female-headed families
increased by 27%.� By 1997, two out of every five working women were the sole head of
their households, and within that group, more than one-quarter had dependent children.�
(Source: The American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organization, [AFL-
CIO] Working Women's Department).

This new and sudden influx of women into the labor force brought about two simultaneous,
but seemingly opposite reactions to women at work.� On one hand, some men resented
female employees and perceived them as a threat in traditionally male dominated work
environments.� In these cases the women were subject to overt discrimination, that is,
they received lesser-valued job assignments, lack of promotions, lower pay, and sexual
harassment to cause embarrassment and humiliation.�

The second reaction was to exploit the presence of women and make sexual favors and
submission to sexual behaviors conditions of employment, that is to keep from being fired,
demoted, or otherwise adversely affected at work.� Both are forms of sexual harassment

Discrimination as a Form Of Workplace Control

Catherine MacKinnon, author of Sexual Harassment of Working Women, was the first legal
scholar to draw attention to the connection between sex discrimination and sexual
harassment:

... [W]omen tend to be in low-ranking positions, dependant upon the

approval and goodwill of male [superiors] for hiring, retention and
advancement. Being at the mercy of male superiors adds direct economic
clout to male secual demands.... It also deprives women of material
security and independence which could help make resistance to
unreasonable job pressures practical ...

... [S]exual harassment of women can occur largely because women occupy
inferior job positions and job roles; at the same time, sexual harassment
works to keep women in such positions.

If sex discrimination forces women into lower-paying jobs, sexual harassment helps keep
them there.� This may not be the intention of the harasser in every instance, but it is often
the effect.

Seen in this context, male workers who harass a woman on the job are doing more than
annoying her.� They are reminding her of her vulnerability, creating tensions that make
her job more difficult and making her hesitant to seek higher paying jobs where she may
perceive the tension as even greater.� In short, sexual harassment creates a climate of
intimidation and repression.� A woman who is the target of sexual harassment often goes
through the same process of victimization as one who has suffered rape, battering or other
gender-related crimes- frequently blaming herself and doubting her own self-worth.

Women employed in fields that are traditionally considered � woman's work�, such as
waitresses and secretaries, are often given menial, degrading tasks.� They are often called
demeaning names, and they are led to believe that a certain amount of male domination and
sexism is normal.� All of this reinforces the idea that women workers are of little value in
the workplace.� Women who try to break into traditionally all-male work, such as
construction jobs, medicine or investment banking, often suffer even more intense
harassment clearly aimed at forcing them to leave.

Thus sexual harassment often accomplishes informally what laws against sex-based
discrimination theoretically prohibit: gender-based requirements for a job.� A woman
subjected to sexual harassment endures pressure, degradation or hostility that her male co-
workers don't have to endure- making it just that much harder to compete for the job and
for advancement.

Excerpted from: Sexual Harassment On The Job: What It Is & How To Stop It (4th Ed.), by
William Petrocelli, Barbara Kate Repa.

Effects of Sexual Harassment

last updated 9 May 2007

As the Commission of the European Union states, "sexual harassment pollutes the working
environment and can have a devastating effect upon the health, confidence, morale and
performance of those affected by it. The anxiety and stress produced by sexual harassment
commonly leads to those subjected to it taking time off work due to sickness, being less
efficient at work, or leaving their job to seek work elsewhere. Employees often suffer the
adverse consequences of the harassment itself and short- and long-term damage to their
employment prospects if they are forced to change jobs. Sexual harassment may also have a
damaging impact on employees not themselves the object of unwanted behaviour but who
are witness to it or have a knowledge of the unwanted behavior."

"There are also adverse consequences arising from sexual harassment for employers. It has
a direct impact on the profitability of the enterprise where staff take sick leave or resign
their posts because of sexual harassment, and on the economic efficiency of the enterprise
where employees' productivity is reduced by having to work in a climate in which
individuals' integrity is not respected."

"In general terms, sexual harassment is an obstacle to the proper integration of women into
the labour market."

From European Union Commission Recommendation of 27 November 1991 on the

protection of the dignity of women and men at work, 1992 O.J. (L49) 1.

Health Effects

In a summary of two studies of sexual harassment completed in 1998 covering 16 European

countries, the EU Commission reported that almost all people suffering sexual harassment
reported negative consequences both in their private lives and relating to their job. As
regards the former, psychosomatic symptoms, loss of self-esteem, and interference with
private life are the most commonly reported consequences. As regards the latter, it appears
that harassed employees experience a negative impact on their career more often than the
harassers. Adapted from Sexual harassment in the workplace in the European Union,
European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Industrial Relations and
Social Affairs (1998) (PDF, 243 pages).

American scholars have come to similar conclusions. They maintain that "[s]exual
harassment often has a serious and negative impact on women's physical and emotional
health, and the more severe the harassment, the more severe the reaction. The reactions
frequently reported by women include anxiety, depression, sleep disturbance, weight loss
or gain, loss of appetite, and headaches. Researchers have also found that there is a link
between sexual harassment and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder." From National Women's
Law Center (citing Barbara A. Gutek and Mary P. Koss, Changed Women and Changed
Organizations: Consequences of and Coping with Sexual Harassment, Journal of
Vocational Behavior, Vol. 42, 28, 33 (1993); Louise F. Fitzgerald, Sexual Harassment:
Violence Against Women in the Workplace, American Psychologist, Vol. 48, 1070, 1072
(1993)). For more information on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder see Health Consequences
of Sexual Assault.

Prominent U.S. psychologist Louise Fitzgerald, PhD, has studied sexual harassment
extensively in private U.S. companies using the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (SEQ)
she developed. The SEQ "measures harassment in what Fitzgerald has defined as the
behavioral categories of gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention and sexual
coercion" expressed through "crude words, acts and gestures conveying hostile, misogynist
attitudes." Unwanted sexual attention is analogous to the legal concept of "hostile work
environment harassment" and sexual coercion is analogous to the legal concept of "quid pro
quo sexual harassment". "The SEQ gauges the psychological anguish harassment victims
experience, whether, for example, the harassment made them feel incompetent. It also
measures outcomes such as anxiety, depression, job satisfaction and work
withdrawal." Using the SEQ, Fitzgerald has demonstrated that sexual harassment leads to
depression, anxiety and stress-related physical problems, especially when the harassment is
severe and frequent. No job benefit need be lost for harassment to have a psychological
effect on its target. From Bridget Murray, Psychology's voice in sexual harassment law,
American Psychological Association (August 1998)(referencing Fitzgerald, L.F., Drasgow,
F., Hulin, C.L., Gelfand, M.J. & Magley, V.J., Antecedents and consequences of sexual
harassment in organizations: A test of an integrated model, Journal of Applied Psychology,
Vol. 82, 578-589 (1997); Fitzgerald, L.F., Swann, S. & Magley, V.J., But Was It Really
Harassment? Legal, Behavioral and Psychological Definitions of the Workplace
Victimization of Women, in W. O'Donohue (Ed.), Sexual Harassment: Theory, Research
and Treatment (1997); and Schneider, K.T., Swann, S. & Fitzgerald, L.F., Job-related and
psychological effects of sexual harassment in the workplace: empirical evidence from two
organizations, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 82, 401-415 (1997)).

See also Chelsea R. Willness, et al., Journal of Personnel Psychology, A Meta-Analysis of

The Antecedents and Consequences of Workplace Sexual Harassment (2007) (“[Sexual
Harassment] experiences are associated with negative outcomes such as decreased job
satisfaction, lower organizational commitment, withdrawing from work, ill physical and
mental health, and even symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder . . . . Sexual harassment
(SH) has been identified as one of the most damaging barriers to career success and
satisfaction for women.”)
The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions has
noted that: “Those affected by violence or harassment in the workplace tend to report
higher levels of work-related ill-health.” European Foundation for the Improvement of
Living and Working Conditions, Fourth European Working Conditions Survey (2007). For
example, the Foundation discovered that the proportion of workers reporting symptoms
such as sleeping problems, anxiety and irritability is nearly four times greater among those
who have experienced workplace harassment than among those who have not. Fourth
European Working Conditions Survey at 40.

Financial Effects

The financial effects of sexual harassment are potentially severe, especially when the
employer does not have adequate policies and complaint procedures in place. Financial
harms to victims of sexual harassment include loss of wages because of taking sick leave or
leave without pay from work or as a result of the termination or transfer of employment.
For example, the U.S. Government estimated that federal employees lost $4.4 million in
wages from 1992-1994 because of sexual harassment. From U.S. Merit Systems Protection
Board, Sexual Harassment in the Federal Workforce: Trends, Progress and Continuing
Challenges, 13 (1995). Victims may face more intangible financial or career losses such as
a loss of job references or recommendations, or being ostracized from professional or
academic circles. From Sexual Harassment Support, Effects of Sexual Harassment (2006).

According to the National Council for Research on Women, women in the United States
are 9 times more likely than men to quit their jobs, 5 times more likely to transfer, and 3
times more likely to lose jobs because of harassment. From 911 for Women, What to Do if
You or Someone You Know is Sexually Harassed, Feminist Majority Foundation (citing
The Webb Report (June 1994)).

Violence, including instances of sexual harassment, also "affects third parties, with
witnesses and observers frequently leaving the organization in response to their
experiences." From European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working
Conditions, Preventing Violence and Harassment in the Workplace (2003) (PDF, 109
pages).

Global Costs of Sexual Harassment

The costs of sexual harassment suffered by employers and consequently the global
economy are high. These costs result from absenteeism, reduced job satisfaction and
productivity, premature ill health and retirement, higher rates of staff turnover and
insurance costs, legal defense and liability for sexual harassment claims. From European
Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Preventing Violence
and Harassment in the Workplace (2003) (PDF, 109 pages). It is generally believed that
formal sexual harassment policies against sexual harassment in the workplace is one way to
prevent lawsuits and drops in productivity and efficiency. See the Employer
Responsibilities Section for more information about such policies.

In Europe, it has been noted that workers who are exposed to “psychosocial risks” like
sexual harassment are significantly more likely to report they have been absent from work
due to work-related ill health. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and
Working Conditions, Fourth European Working Conditions Survey (2007). These workers
also “tend to have longer durations of work absence and are over-represented in that
category of workers who took 60 days off in the previous 12 months due to work-related ill
health.” Fourth European Working Conditions Survey at 40.

In the United States, it is estimated that "[i]gnoring problems of sexual harassment can cost
the average company up to $6.7 million a year in low productivity, low morale, and
employee turnover and absenteeism, not including litigation or other legal costs." From 911
for Women, What to Do if You or Someone You Know is Sexually Harassed, Feminist
Majority Foundation (citing "Sexual Harassment in the Fortune 500," Working Woman,
Dec. 19, 1988). The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) indicates that
$48.8 million in monetary benefits were provided to filers of sexual harassment claims in
2006; this amount does not include monetary benefits obtained through litigation. From
Sexual Harassment Charges EEOC & FEPAs Combined: FY 1997-FY 2006. In addition,
the federal government reported a loss of $327 million from 1992-1994 due to sexual
harassment. From U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board, Sexual Harassment in the Federal
Workforce: Trends, Progress and Continuing Challenges, 13 (1995).

Why Is Sexual Harassment is Still

Happening at the Workplace?
November 24th, 2017 Personal, Syndicated, Values

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Personal

By ANNE LITWIN

“I am worried about my new boss,” reported my client, Julie — a bright young woman in
her 30s. “I had to leave my last job because my boss demanded sexual favours from me in
order to keep my job. I had no one to turn to for help because he is so powerful and
respected in the small world of our profession.

“Reporting him would have been career suicide, so I just quit. Now I am worried that my
new boss is starting to show signs of the same expectations. I need this job and I don’t
know what to do! Can you help me?”

I BELIEVE that sexual harassment continues to be a fact of life for many women because
of these factors:

 Power, unchecked and unchallenged

 Career damage for women who come forward
 Employment contracts that require sexual harassment claims to go to arbitration as a
condition of employment
 Isolation of women who are forced to sign nondisclosure agreements when they
receive settlements during arbitration of their claim
  The silence of men and of people in key functions in organisations, such as the HR
and legal practitioners

Sexual harassment happens, for the most part, because it is a power game. Julie’s case is a
clear example of an older male boss using his power over a younger female employee to
demand sexual favours that she may feel powerless to refuse.

Yes, I have seen women with power demand sexual favours from less powerful men, and I
have also seen same-sex sexual harassment, but the latter two types are much rarer.

Nonetheless, the key to the dynamic is that one person has real power to promote, demote,
or fire the lower-power person — to retaliate — if the employee refuses the demand for
sexual favours.

Fear of retaliation is what makes many women leave good jobs and even walk away from a
profession they may have spent years training for.

According to Noam Scheiber and Sydney Ember of the New York Times, studies indicate
that “the great majority of sexual harassment incidents at work still go unreported” because
of fear of retaliation.
Carol Costello of CNN, who experienced sexual harassment earlier in her career but did not
report it, agrees that women who come forward verbally or file a lawsuit still face
consequences.

In fact, Scheiber and Ember explain that many plaintiffs’ lawyers argue that the risks to
women of coming forward have increased over time as the Internet allows a label of
“troublemaker” to follow a woman throughout her life.

Jen Agg, writing for the New York Times, describes this challenge for women building
careers as chefs.

Relatively few top chefs are women, and women know that if they complain about the
rampant sexual harassment in the testosterone-fueled environments of most restaurant
kitchens, “you get a reputation for not being a ‘team player’ and you will not advance.”
Women know they have to stay quiet or leave the industry.

Isolation also keeps sexual harassment alive and well. When women go to HR and
complain about a high-level boss, they are sometimes offered a settlement to leave and
keep quiet — an option that may seem preferable to being fired or demoted — by signing a
nondisclosure agreement in exchange for a payment.

In this case, no one talks, so each woman thinks that she alone has been subjected to the
abuse, and the perpetrator can continue abusing other women for years without
consequences.

Furthermore, those who know what is going on may collude to protect the powerful man
and women really don’t have anyone they can talk to who will help them.

What can be done? We must eliminate nondisclosure agreements and employment

contracts with arbitration requirements so that powerful perpetrators can be held
accountable, and we need women and men at all levels to break their silence when they
know that sexual harassment is going on.

It’s time for this to stop. Julie should never have to quit her job or be afraid of her boss
again, and neither should anyone else.

Anne Litwin is an organisational consultant and keynote speaker on workplace issues. She
is the author of New Rules for Women. To contact Anne, email editor@leaderonomics.com.

Originally appeared at www.annelitwin.com/blog/

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