Nervous system – Summary Notes

 The network of organs and tissues that controls and coordinates all activities of the body with
the help of nerves is called the nervous system.
 The nervous system provides the fastest means of communication within the body. It produces
suitable responses to the stimuli made at once.
 The nervous system controls activities, functioning of our internal organs, movements,
perceptions, thoughts and emotions.
 The nervous system also receives information of changes in the interior of the body and
coordinates the activities of visceral organs accordingly, thereby helping to maintain the
constancy of the internal environment in the body.
 It enables us to think, remember and reason out.
 Neuron is structural and functional unit of nervous system.
 A neuron consists of a cell body (perikaryon or cyton), a single axon, and one or more
dendrites.
 Dendrites are the branched cytoplasmic projections of the cell body. One of the dendrites
extend to form neuron.
 Axon is surrounded by a white insulating sheath called neurolemma. Axons have swollen and
like bulbs which store chemicals called neurotransmitters.
 The axon and the dendrites are collectively called nerve fibres. The cell bodies are clustered in
a clump called a ganglion. Myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier and neurolemma are associated
with axon.
 The point of contact between the terminal branches of axon of a neuron with the dendrites of
another neuron separated by a fine gap is called synapse.

 Types of Neurons
 There are three kinds of neurons – sensory neurons, motor neurons and association neurons.
 Functions of Neurons
 Sensory neurons: Convey impulse from receptor (sense organ) to the main nervous system
(brain or spinal cord).
 Motor neurons: Carry impulse from the main nervous system to the effector (muscle or
gland).
 Association neurons: Interconnect the sensory and motor neurons.

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 The nervous system functions by means of electrochemical signals called impulses, which are
produced and transmitted by neurons or nerve cells.
 A nerve is a long, slender, thread-like structure which arises from the brain and the spinal cord.
It is formed of a bundle of nerve fibres (axons) enclosed in a tubular sheath. It transmits
impulses from one part of the body to the other.

 Kinds of Nerves
 There are three kinds of nerves – sensory nerves, motor nerves and mixed nerves.
 Functions of Nerves
 Sensory nerves: Contains sensory fibres bringing impulses from receptors to brain or
spinal cord.
 Motor nerves: Contains motor fibres carrying impulses to effector organs from brain or
spinal cord.
 Mixed nerves: Carry both sensory and motor fibres.
 In human beings, the nervous system consists of two following divisions.

 Central Nervous System

 The parts of the nervous system which are present along the median longitudinal axis
constitute the CNS. As mentioned above, the brain and the spinal cord are two main parts
of the central nervous system. They are made up of two types of nerve tissue—gray
matter and white matter.
 Brain and spinal cord is protected by three successive layers of fibrous coverings called
meninges. They are pia mater, arachanoid mater and dura mater.
 A fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is present in between the layers of meninges and acts
as shock absorbing medium, thus protecting the brain against jerks.
 The brain: The human brain has three distinct regions— forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.

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 Forebrain consists of olfactory lobes, cerebrum and diencephalon. Olfactory lobes are a
pair of poorly developed bodies which are visible from the ventral surface. They are hidden
beneath the cerebrum. Olfactory lobes are concerned with the sense of smell.
 The human brain consists of three parts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the medulla
oblongata.
 Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is divided into left and right
hemispheres (cerebral hemispheres) connected to each other by the corpus callosum (a
sheet of fibres).
 The cerebral hemispheres are covered by a thin layer of gray matter known as cerebral
cortex.
 The cortex in each hemisphere of the cerebrum is folded to form convolutions. The folds
are called gyri and the grooves are called sulci.
 The highly developed cortex (gray matter) helps us to memorise, think, plan, reason out,
etc.

 Folds divide the cortex into four lobes—occipital, temporal, parietal and frontal.
 The occipital lobe receives and processes visual information (seeing).
 The temporal lobe receives auditory signals (hearing), processing language and the
meaning of words.
 The parietal lobe is associated with the sensory cortex and processes information about
touch, taste, pressure, pain and heat and cold.
 The frontal lobe is associated with integration of muscle activity and speech and thought
processes.
 A group of unpaired structures located deep within the cerebrum is called is diencephalon.
 The thalamus and the hypothalamus are the parts of diencephalon. The thalamus acts as a
switching centre for nerve messages. The hypothalamus is a major homeostatic centre
having both nervous and endocrine functions.
 The midbrain occupies only a small region of the brain. The midbrain is a small thick-
walled area present below the cerebrum. It is concerned with maintaining the balance and
posture of the body.

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  The main structures of the hindbrain are medulla oblongata, pons and cerebellum. Pons
and medulla oblongata are collectively called the brain stem.
 Medulla oblongata: The medulla oblongata looks like a swollen tip of the spinal cord and
roughly triangular in shape. It is involved with the regulation of heartbeat, breathing,
vasoconstriction (blood pressure) and reflex centres for vomiting, coughing, sneezing,
swallowing and hiccupping. Damage to the medulla oblongata causes instant death.
 Pons is the cross band of fibres which connects cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla
oblongata. It carries impulses from one hemisphere of the cerebellum to the other and
coordinates muscular movement of the body.
 Spinal cord: The spinal cord extends from the base of the brain (the medulla oblongata
specifically) and ends at the first lumbar vertebra. It is enclosed within the stem, i.e.,
medulla oblongata, vertebral column or backbone.

 Functions of spinal cord

 It controls reflexes below the neck region.
 It conducts sensory impulses from the skin and muscles to the brain.
 It conducts motor responses from the brain to the muscles of the trunk and forelimbs and
hind limbs.
 Each vertebra has an opening on its right and left side to allow the spinal nerve to pass
through. These extend into the body forming the peripheral nervous system. In the human
body, there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

 Peripheral Nervous System

 Each spinal nerve consists of a dorsal root and a ventral root.
 There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. They arise from the brain and serve primarily to carry
impulses to and away from the structures in the head and neck.
 A cranial nerve consist of sensory fibres, motor fibres, or a mixture of sensory or motor
fibres.

 Autonomic Nervous System

 The autonomic nervous system includes a chain of ganglia which lie close to the spinal
cord and are associated with their own neurons.
 Ganglia are collections of nerve cell bodies.
 As explained, there are two divisions of the autonomic nervous system: the sympathetic
nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.
 Nerve fibres from both systems extend to each internal organ and for most of the parts, the
two systems act opposite to each other. For example, stimulation of the sympathetic
nervous system causes the pupils of the eyes to dilate and stimulation of the
parasympathetic nervous system causes them to contract. Sympathetic stimulation speeds
up the heartbeat and parasympathetic stimulation slows it down.

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 Stimulus is the sudden change in the external or internal environment of an organism which
causes change in the activities of the organism.
 Reflex action refers to a rapid, automatic unlearned response to a stimulus controlled by the
spinal cord without the involvement of the brain.
 The shortest path or the route through which the impulses travel from the receptor organ via
the central nervous system to the effector is called a reflex arc.
 If the controlling centre of the reflex arc is located in the brain, it is known as cerebral reflex.
If it is located in the spinal cord, it is known as spinal reflex.
 A simple reflex arc consists of only one sensory neuron and one motor neuron.

 Many of the reflexes are innate and are called natural or unconditioned reflexes. These
reflexes are inborn and require no previous experience. For example, closing of eyes quickly
due to a strong beam of light, knee-jerk, etc.
 Previous experiences establish acquired or conditioned reflexes. They are developed by
training, experience or learning.
 Response is the change in the activity of an organism due to the stimulus.
 Receptors are the nerve cells which on getting stimulus generate wave of impulse towards the
central nervous system.
 Effectors are the muscles or glands which on receiving the impulse becomes active.
 Synapse is the point of contact between the dendrites of one neuron with the terminal branches
of another neuron.

 Sense Organs
 The sense organs are the special structures which enable us to receive the stimulus and
transmit it to the central nervous system.
 There are five senses in our body viz, touch, taste, smell, vision and hearing.
 Depending upon the type of stimulus received, the sense organs or receptors are of five
types:
 Chemoreceptors (nose and mouth)
 Thermoreceptors (skin)
 Techanoreceptors (skin and ears)
 Photoreceptors (eyes)
 Nocireceptors (skin)

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 The organs of smell are called the olfactory receptors. These are located in the upper part of
the nasal chamber.
 The Eye: Each of the human eye is set within a socket in the skull called the orbit. The
eye is held in the socket by three pairs of muscles which control the movements of the eye
and coordinate the action of one eye with the other. Over the sockets are the eyebrows.
 The exposed part of each eyeball is protected by the eyelashes.
 Aqueous humour of the eye is kept moist by tears produced by the lacrimal glands.
 The thick wall of the eyeball is composed of three layers—the outer, the middle and the
inner known as the sclera, the choroid and the retina respectively.
 The inner, larger cavity of the eyeball behind the lens—the vitreous chamber is filled with
the vitreous humour, a transparent soft jelly. The outer, smaller cavity in front of the
lens—the anterior cavity is filled with the aqueous humour, a thin watery fluid.

 The sclera is the outermost layer or the white portion of the eye. It is composed of dense
connective tissue.
 At the front of the eyeball, the sclera is transparent and bulges out. It is known as the
cornea. The light enters into the eye through the cornea.
 The cornea is covered by a thin, delicate, transparent membrane called the conjunctiva. It is
rich with blood supply and made of a single layer of cells.
 Choroid is the middle layer of the eyeball. It is a thin layer of tissue that contains many blood
vessels and a dense black pigment. At the front of the eye, the choroid forms a curtain through
which light cannot penetrate. This curtain is called iris.
 In the centre of the iris, there is an opening round window called the pupil. The size of the
pupil is regulated by circular and radial muscles of the iris.
 Circular muscles work to narrow the aperture while the radial muscles work to dilate the
aperture (pupil).
 The lens is suspended behind the pupil by suspensory ligament.
 At the junction of the choroid and the iris is the ciliary body.
 The retina is the innermost layer of the eyeball. It does not extend to the front but covers three
fourths of the posterior part of the eyeball. It is sensitive to light.

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 The retina consists of several kinds of nerve cells arranged in layers. The outer layer is fused
with the choroid, while the inner photosensitive layer consists of two kinds of cells. These cells
contain light sensitive pigments. These cells are rods and cones depending on their shapes.
 The depression or fovea centralis in the retina situated on the principal axis of the lens contains
only cones. It is also known as yellow spot or macula — the point of the sharpest vision.
 The inner surface of the retina is covered with nerve fibres. The sensory fibres from the retina
meet at the back of the eyeball at a place called the blind spot. At the blind spot, the nerve
fibres join together to form the optic nerve.
 Entry of light rays: In bright light, the pupil constricts to prevent overstimulation of the
retina. In dim light, the pupil dilates, letting in more light.
 Accommodation is the ability of the eyes to adjust themselves to see the objects lying at
different distances. The accommodation is brought about by changing the focal length of
the elastic lens.
 Binocular vision is the ability of both the eyes to focus on the same object. The images are
formed in both the retina at the same time to perceive the third dimension such as thickness.
 Myopia or short-sightedness is the condition in which the eyes can see nearby objects
better than the distant objects.
 Hypermetropia or long-sightedness is the condition of eye is the condition of eye in which
the eyes can see distant objects better than the nearby objects.
 Astigmatism is the condition in which blurred images are produced due to the irregularities
in the curvature of cornea.
 Cataract is a condition in which the lens turns opaque due to disposition of scales on it.
 Presbyopia is a condition in which the lens loses its flexibility and the individual is unable
to focus on the nearby object.
 Night blindness is a condition in which a person feels difficulty in seeing in dim light due
to non-formation of the pigment called visual purple or rhodopsin by the rod cells of
retina.
 Colour blindness is a condition in which a person cannot discriminate between certain
colours such as red and green. This is a genetic defect.
 Squint is a condition in which both the eyes converge or diverge and cause double vision
or diplopia.
 The Ear: The ear is a sensory organ for perception of sound waves or hearing. It also
serves as the organ of equilibrium or balance and orientation or sense of the body.

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 The human ear consists of three parts: the external ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.
 The external ear is made up of auricle or pinna and external auditory canal and
eardrum.
 The external auditory canal (external auditory meatus) is a tubular passage for sound
vibrations to pass through it from the auricle to a thin membrane called the eardrum or the
tympanic membrane.
 The middle ear is an air-filled cavity called tympanic cavity. It remains separated from the
external ear by the tympanum. The tympanic cavity contains three very small bones called
ear ossicles. They are known as malleus or hammer; incus or anvil; and stapes or
stirrup.
 A narrow tube called the eustachian tube connects the middle ear to the pharynx. The
eustachian tube protects the eardrum from damage due to loud noise, etc. by maintaining
an equal air pressure on either side of the eardrum.
 The inner ear has many delicate, interconnected structures and is sometimes called the
labyrinth. A labyrinth is a group of passageways with a complicated arrangement.
 The vestibule forms the central part of the inner ear. Its bony walls connect the semicircular
canals to the cochlea. Two sacs lie within the vestibule. These sacs are called the utriculus
and the sacculus.
 The semicircular canals are behind the vestibule. They consist of three canals set at right
angles to one another.
 The semicircular canals and the utriculus and sacculus make up the ear's organs of balance.
They are sometimes called the vestibular organs or the labyrinthine organs.
 The cochlea is in front of the vestibule. It resembles a snail's shell and forms a spiral that
coils 212 times around its tip.
 The basilar membrane has sensory hair cells which make up the organ of Corti. The organ
of Corti is the actual organ of hearing. A membrane called the tectorial membrane lies
above the hair cells.

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 The nerve of the inner ear is known as the auditory nerve. It has two branches: the
cochlear nerve and the vestibular nerve.

Parts of human ear and their functions

Location Parts Functions
External Pinna, auditory canal, Collects sound waves from various
Ear eardrum directions and gives an unidirectional,
transmit to the middle ear.
Middle Ear ossicles (malleus, Acts like a lever and to further amplify
Ear incus and stapes) the sound waves received from the
eardrum
Inner Ear Cochlea(organ of Corti), Recieves sound vibrations, sets an
semicircular, canal, impulse, helps in hearing. Balance of
utriculus and sacculus body (dynamic and static)

PATH OF SOUND WAVE THROUGH THE HUMAN EAR

Sound wave → External ear (pinna) → Auditory canal → Eardrum → Ear ossicles (hammer,
anvil, stirrup) → Oval window → Cochlea (organ of Corti) → Auditory nerve → Brain.

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