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Introduction to
Quantitative Research
Contents
4
KURSUS PERSEDIAAN IJAZAH DOKTOR FALSAFAH
INSTITUT TADBIRAN AWAM NEGARA (INTAN)
5
Research Design
9
Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches
Qualitative Quantitative
(Usually) Non-probability based Typically a probability-based
sample sample
Non-generalizable Generalizable
Answers Why? How? Answers How many? When?
Where?
Formative, earlier phases Tests hypotheses, latter
phases
Data are “rich” and time- Data are more efficient, but
consuming to analyze may miss contextual detail
Design emerge as study unfolds Design decided in advance
Researcher IS the instrument Various tools, instruments
10
employed
What is quantitative
research?
Burns & Grove (1987)
“... a formal, objective, systematic process
in which numerical data are utilized to
obtain information about the world" and
"a research method which is used to
describe and test relationships and to
examine cause-and-effect
relationships".
11
Quantitative Research
12
Elements of quantitative
research
Gathering numerical data objectively
13
Quantitative Research Designs
1. Exploratory -- It is a good starting point to get
familiarized with some insights and ideas (e.g. identify
the dependent and independent variables).
87% 6%
2%
5%
15
Descriptive analysis...
Forced migration due to natural disasters
80
70
Number of migrants
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1988 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Climatic hazrds introduce forced migration
1%
3% 4% River erosion
23% Cyclone (SIDR)
Cyclone (Aila)
34%
Flood
Soil salinity
Both Aila and Soil Salinity
Both Sidr and Salinity
2%
32% Water logging16
1%
Descriptive analysis...
Reason of migration
40
30
20
10
0
100 Km 80 Km 60 Km 40 Km 20 Km
Migrants 17
Hypothesis
Hypothesis = an idea that will be tested through
systematic investigation
18
Hypothesis
H0 = Null hypothesis
No significant difference
No significant relationship / effect
Ha = Alternative hypothesis
Significant difference exists
There is significant relationship / effect
19
Correlational Research
20
Characteristics of Correlational
Research
21
Correlation and Significance
Is there a These relationships
relationship between may show any
two variables/data? tendency for the
What is the direction variables to vary
of the relationship? consistently.
What is the Pearson’s product
magnitude? moment coefficient
correlation: -1.0 to
+1.0
22
23
X ----- Y
Optimism
Moderating variable
24
KURSUS PERSEDIAAN IJAZAH DOKTOR FALSAFAH
INSTITUT TADBIRAN AWAM NEGARA (INTAN)
2. Measurement in
Quantitative Research
25
Measurement Fundamentals
What is a concept?
“A mental construct that represents phenomena in the
real world”. (Pollock 2005:7)
26
Pollock’s
model CONCEPT
CONCEPTUAL
DEFINITION
OPERATIONAL
DEFINITION
VARIABLE
(A STATE THAT TAKES
DIFFERENT ATTRIBUTES
O VALUES)
27
A variable should be:
Exhaustive -- Should include all possible
answerable responses. (Schooling: No
Schooling, Elementary, Middle, HS,
College)
Mutually exclusive -- No respondent
should be able to have two attributes
simultaneously (e.g. Female Male ).
28
Some Definitions
VARIABLE DEVELOPMENT
29
How do we construct
quantitative variables?
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
31
Nominal Measurement
Nominal: These variables consist of categories that
are non-ordered. Examples: gender, race, religion,
food group, or place of residence.
32
Ordinal Measurement
Ordinal: When the numbers are used to order a list of
things.
These variables are also categorical, but we can say that
some categories are higher than others. However, we
cannot measure the distance between categories, only
which is higher or lower.
Hence, we cannot say that someone is twice as educated
as someone else.
Can also be used as a dependent variable.
33
Ordinal Measurement
Distances between attributes do not have any meaning, for
example, code Educational Attainment as
0=less than High School
1=High School
2=Bachelor degree
3=Master degree
4=Doctoral degree
Is the distance from 0 to 1 the same as 3 to 4?
34
Interval Measurement
Interval: Variables of this type are called
scalar or index variables in the sense they
provide a scale or index that allows us to
measure between levels.
We can, not only measure which is higher or
lower, but how much so.
Distance is measured between points on a
scale with even units.
Good example is temperature based on
Fahrenheit or Celsius.
35
Interval Measurement
When distance between attributes has
meaning, for example, temperature (in
Fahrenheit) -- distance from 30-40 is same as
distance from 70-80.
Note that ratios don’t make any sense -- 80
degrees is not twice as hot as 40 degrees
(although the attribute values are).
36
Ratio Measurement
Ratio: Similar to interval level
variables in that it can measure the
distance between two points, but
can do so in absolute terms.
37
Measurement Hierarchy
RATIO STRONGEST
INTERVAL
ORDINAL
NOMINAL
WEAKEST
38
KURSUS PERSEDIAAN IJAZAH DOKTOR FALSAFAH
INSTITUT TADBIRAN AWAM NEGARA (INTAN)
3. Sampling
39
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Terms
41
What do we sample?
People (e.g. subjects)
42
Types of Probability Sampling
Probability sampling can be done only if we have
sampling frame (list of names, addresses, and
contacts of those in population list).
43
Types of Non-probability sampling
Convenience – first person to walk through the
door
44
Sample Size Calculations
45
Sample Size
• For survey research
200 individuals Census Sampling
46
SAMPLE SIZE TABLE (KREJCIE DAN MORGAN, 1970)
4. Survey
48
49
Why do a survey?
50
Types of data collected
Attitudes
Opinions
Beliefs
Behavior
Attributes (demographic characteristics)
Preferences
51
Survey - Steps
1. Define the problem/ survey topic
2. Use previous studies & expert advice
Mail
3. Define research questions/ objectives
4. Define study population and sample
size Web-based
5. Develop a preliminary questionnaire
Question-
6. Pretest the questionnaire (similar naires Group
subjects)
7. Cover letter (Introducing the study, E-mail
deadline for return, guarantees for data
anonymity) Interview
Causal explanation
Measure associations i.e. knowledge and support.
The data from surveys can provide a causal explanation to
phenomena such as why there are more supports among
educated public for regionalism initiative.
Evaluation
Efficacy of a program
Prediction
Predict future events
53
Survey - Advantages
Broad coverage (local, national, international)
Frank and anonymous answers
Economical for large population
Less Time consuming
Quantitative data (easy to analyze)
Filling at a convenient time
Easy to respond (fixed responses)
Good for sensitive & ego-related Qs.
Original hard-to-obtain data
54
Survey - Disadvantages
No clarification for ambiguous questions
Inadequate motivation to respond
Poorly worded or direct questions
Unattractive style and format
Low response rate
Inaccurate responses – no verification
Limited fixed responses
Cannot uncover causes or relationships for attitudes,
beliefs, actions
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