Tech Tips

M easuring Soil Resistivity

Part I

I
n recent articles, we discussed some actual situations where inad-
equate grounds were causing critically poor function in commercial
electrical systems. References were made to “soil resistivity” as a
significant determinant in the performance of a grounding electrode. by Jeff Jowett
Megger
This article will examine soil resistivity: its nature, what it means, and
how it is measured.
Two similar terms have distinct meanings and must not be confused
or transposed: resistance and resistivity. The former, as it applies to
grounding, indicates a relationship between a grounding electrode and
its environment in the soil. Resistivity, on the other hand, is a natural
property of soil itself, largely independent of human activity. It can be Pure water has an almost infinite
deliberately influenced such as by the introduction of chemicals, as will resistivity and is, in fact, utilized as
be discussed. an insulator in specialized adapta-
tions. As has been cited in previ-
What Is Resitivity? ous articles, this property of water
The property of resistivity can be defined for any material and is done frequently leads to confusion and
so by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), which frustration in practical grounding
publishes standards for testing and measurement. As applied to soil, when wet soil turns out to provide
resistivity is an indication of a given soil’s ability to carry electric current. a very poor ground in the face of
The flow of electricity in the soil is largely electrolytic, determined by the optimistic expectations to the
transport of ions dissolved in moisture (Table 1). contrary. This phenomenon oc-
curs in soils having poor retentive
capabilities because of molecular
Table 1 — Effect of Moisture Content on Soil Resistivity structure, so that saturation leaches
Moisture Content Resistivity, Ohm-Cm away the necessary ions. Dissolved
salts from a large number of fa-
% by Weight Top Soil Sandy Loam
miliar prevalent compounds like
0.0% 1,000 x 106 1,000 x 106 sodium chloride, copper sulfate,
2.5% 250,000 150,000 and sodium carbonate provide
5.0% 165,000 43,000 the necessary charge to carry cur-
10.0% 53,000 22,000 rent (Table 2).
15.0% 21,000 13,000
20.0% 12,000 10,000
30.0% 10,000 8,000

Summer 2004 1
 Is soil, then, a “good” conductor,
insulator, or what? To gain a more
comprehensive understanding of
this issue, it is helpful to make a
comparison to other materials.
A pure substance, for example
copper, has a resistivity of a fixed
value. ASTM standards provide a
universally accepted way of mea-
suring it, and this value is com-
monly included in the description
of the material. Indeed, the degree
of deviation is an inverse indica-
tion of purity.
By contrast, soil resistivity num-
bers vary with such enormity that
resistivity measurements might
appear to the neophyte to be use-
less (Table 3).
Testing Soil Resistivity
Because of this enormous
range of values, local soils can
vary equally widely in their abil-
ity to provide a ground. It is in the
determination of where a given
site falls on this spectrum that the
measurement of soil resistivity
finds its practical use. To measure
it, the standard method that enjoys
overwhelming acceptance is the
Wenner method. This is named
for Dr. Frank Wenner of the U.S.
Bureau of Standards, now known
as the National Institute of Stan-
dards and Technology (NIST), who
developed it in 1915. The Wenner
formula is:
ρ = 2πAR
where ρ is average soil resistivity
to a depth equal to A, normally
expressed in ohm-centimeters, A
is probe spacing, again normally
in centimeters, and R is the test
instrument’s reading.
It is fairly simple to make this
reading. The basic requirement
is to have a four-terminal tester.
Some simpler models have a com-
mon terminal in place of one pair
of separate voltage and current
terminals. This configuration is
adequate for testing resistance of
installed grounds, but to perform
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Table 2 — Effect of Salt Content on Soil Resistivity
For Sandy Loam, 15.2% Moisture
Salt Content Resistivity, Ohm-Cm
No Salt Added 10,700
1.0% Salt Added 460
20.0% Salt Added 100
Table 3 — Effect of Soil Types on Soil Resistivity
Types of Soil Resistivity, Ohm-Cm
Sand Stones 2,000 — 200,000
Granites, Gneisses, Basalts, etc. 100,000
Decomposed Granites, Gneisses, etc. 5,000 — 50,000
Schists, Slates, etc. 1,000 — 10,000
Zincblende, Hematite 1,000 — 1,000,000
Chalcopyrite, Bornite, Pyrite, Galena,
0.0001 - 1
Magnetite, etc.
the Wenner method (and various derivatives) the full four terminals are
a must. These are connected by leads to four metal probes driven into
the soil with equal spacing. This horizontal spacing on the surface is
determined by and is equal to the depth to which the soil is to be mea-
sured. Probes are driven to one twentieth (1/20) of the horizontal spacing
(Figure 1). The tester is energized, the reading taken, and the calculation
performed. This will yield average soil resistivity to a depth equal to the
spacing at the midpoint of the four test probes. For obvious reasons, the
method is also frequently referred to as the “four-point” method.
The industry standard unit of measurement is the ohm-centimeter,
but other units of length may be substituted for special situations and
will work just as well. The ohm-centimeter is the unit that most often
appears in tables of resistivities and is typically used for calculations of
grid design. Resistivity so calculated is also sometimes termed “apparent
resistivity,” since the ideal model is based on soil homogeneity which is
typically not the prevailing condition in the field.
Line Traverse
This data then has numerous valuable functions. These include, but
are not limited to, location, design, cathodic protection, and vertical
prospecting. A section of ground can be tested at regular spacing to cre-
ate a contour map of resistivities across the entire area. This procedure is
called line traverse and is commonly used to locate the optimal site for a
ground installation. Obviously, low resistivity equals high conductivity, so
this method will indicate the best spot to install a new ground electrode.
Line traverse can be performed relatively quickly and efficiently and is,
therefore, superior to the arbitrary practice of driving individual rods
and testing them for resistance.

Figure 1 — Measuring Soil Resistivity
To perform line traverse, the desired depth of mea-
surement is first decided. This is commonly based on
the length of rods to be used in constructing the grid.
Five probes are then driven, each one separated from
the next by this distance. The first four are connected
to the tester as described, and a measurement is taken.
If the probes are designated a, b, c, d and e and the
Wenner calculation is performed, the resultant mea-
surement will be the average resistivity to a depth
equal to the probe separation at a point midway be-
tween b and c. The connections are then made from b
to e with the second measurement indicating resistiv-
ity at a point midway between c and d. The test rig is
moved in a line across one end of the property, and
all readings are taken accordingly. When the first line
is complete, a second is established next to the first at
a distance equal to the probe spacing. By continuing
this process, the entire property is crisscrossed to cre-
ate a plot of equally spaced measurements. Readings
of a similar value can be connected to create a contour
map, and the best site for ground installation thus can
be selected.
Summer 2004
Using Resistivity to Design Installations
Once the site has been chosen, or if only one loca-
tion is possible, resistivity data is then invaluable in
designing the installation. Much of grounding is ac-
complished by the drive and test method, where a
rod is driven, then tested. If it does not meet adequate
specifications, a second is added, either by coupling
and driving deeper or by paralleling separate rods. The
augmented system is tested, and if still not satisfactory,
a third rod is added. This process is continued until
the grounding electrode achieves an acceptably low
resistance. Such a procedure is commonly employed
but can quickly run afoul of the Law of Diminishing
Returns where more and more work is necessary to
achieve smaller and smaller gains.
By performing a resistivity survey first, then us-
ing the data in a software program for grid design,
the whole system can be planned out ahead of time.
Software programs are readily available on the market,
often at little or no charge, from the manufacturers of
grounding equipment and supplies. Various param-
eters are entered including the local resistivity, and the
grid or system is calculated and displayed. Range and
resolution of the tester are important considerations
if this capability is to be utilized.
For performing resistance tests of installed ground-
ing electrodes, high range and resolution are not criti-
cal. If the tester is limited to something like 2,000 ohms,
and the test ground can not even meet that, there is
no sense in further testing...start digging! Similarly,
resolution beyond a tenth of an ohm may be shav-
ing the measurement too fine. One does not want to
meet specifications by a mere hundredth of an ohm!
However, when testing resistivity, added range and
resolution are quite useful. High numbers, in tens of
thousands, are common, and added decimals give the
readings a firmer basis to work through the compli-
cated math of system design.
Soil resistivity data is also useful in such applica-
tions as pipeline installation but for the opposite rea-
son. Here, high resistivity is “good.” Low resistivity
equals high conductivity which in turn promotes the
electrolytic action of the soil that corrodes pipelines.
Surveys have clearly established a direct correlation
between low resistivity and pitting of pipeline metal.
To combat this, resistivity surveys are performed
along the proposed route, and cathodic protection is
installed in accordance with the results.
3
Vertical Prospecting
A fourth vital application is in vertical prospecting.
Instead of traversing an area to plot surface resistivi-
ties, the test assembly is kept in the same spot, but
the probe spacing is varied. This procedure creates a
vertical profile of changing resistivity with depth. It
can be used to locate water table and bedrock. It can re-
veal potential nuisances like boulders or other buried
objects that may interfere with excavation. Geological
applications make use of resistivity changes to locate
ores. The method is even used in archaeological re-
search to discover buried artifacts...even treasure! We
will examine some of these specialized applications
in greater detail and discuss the attendant variations
of the Wenner method in a future article.

References
1. Wenner, F., “A Method of Measuring Earth Resistiv-
ity,” Report No. 258, Bulletin of Bureau of Standards,
Vol. 12, No. 3, October 11, 1915.

Jeffrey R. Jowett is Senior Applications Engineer for Megger

in Valley Forge, PA, serving the manufacturing lines of Biddle®,
Megger®, and Multi-Amp® for electrical test and measurement
instrumentation. He holds a BS in Biology and Chemistry from Ur-
sinus College. He was employed for 22 years with James G. Biddle
Co. which became Biddle Instruments and is now Megger.

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